DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOOGY, LAHORE

(NAROWAL CAMPUS)

Course Name: CE-401 Structural Engineering

Classes: B.Sc. Civil Engineering (2018 Session)

Course Instructor: Engr. Muhammad Usman

Lecture Dated: November 2021

LECTURE-4 (Outlines)
1. Introduction to Bridges,
2. Brief History of Bridges,
3. Basic Terms and Classification of Bridges

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1. Introduction to Bridges
1.1 GENERAL
Bridges are important to everyone. But they are not seen or understood in the same way by
everyone, which is what makes their study so fascinating. A single bridge over a small river
will be viewed differently because the eyes each one sees it with are unique to that individual.
Someone traveling over the bridge everyday while going to work may only realize a bridge is
there because the roadway now has a railing on either side. Others may remember a time before
the bridge was built and how far they had to travel to visit friends and to get the children to
school. Civic leaders see the bridge as a link between neighborhoods and a way to provide fire
and police protection and access to hospitals.
In the business community, the bridge is seen as opening up new markets and expanding
commerce. An artist will consider the bridge and its setting as a possible subject for a future
painting. A theologian may see the bridge as symbolic of making a connection with God. While
a boater on the river, looking up when passing underneath the bridge, will have a completely
different perspective. Everyone is looking at the same bridge, but it produces different
emotions and visual images in each.
1.2 BRIDGE
“A structure that span an opening or gap, 6 m or larger, such as: a water way (River, canal
etc.), a valley, another roadway or railway lines is called a bridge. Further the term bridge is
used for the structures built to continue traffic load, pedestrian traffic or utility lines across a
gap in a roadway.”
• Bridges, in social terms connect communities, nations and races etc.
• They are a symbol of friendship and peace. In structural terms, bridges are fascinating
structures, and are a source of challenge to engineers and builders.
• Bridges have always been an important part of our environment. They have been major
subjects of literature and art, both ancient and modern.
1.3 IMPORTANCE OF A BRIDGE IN A TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
A bridge is a key element in a transportation system for three reasons.
• It likely controls the capacity of the system.
• It is the highest cost per mile of the system.
• If the bridge fails, the system fails.
If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the number of lanes required to handle the traffic
volume, the bridge will be a constriction to the flow of traffic. If the strength of a bridge is
deficient and unable to carry heavy trucks, load limits will be posted and truck traffic will be
rerouted. The bridge controls both the volume and weight of the traffic carried by the system.

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Bridges are expensive. The typical cost per mile of a bridge is many times that of the approach
roads to the bridge. This is a major investment and must be carefully planned for best use of
the limited funds available for a transportation system. When a bridge is removed from service
and not replaced, the transportation system may be restricted in its function. Traffic may be
detoured over routes not designed to handle the increase in volume. Users of the system
experience increased travel times and fuel expenses. Normalcy does not return until the bridge
is repaired or replaced. Because a bridge is a key element in a transportation system, balance
must be achieved between handling future traffic volume and loads and the cost of a heavier
and wider bridge structure. Strength is always a foremost consideration but so should measures
to prevent deterioration. The designer of new bridges has control over these parameters and
must make wise decisions so that capacity and cost are in balance, and safety is not
compromised.
1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BUILDING AND BRIDGE
There are many structural differences between a building and a bridge, some of these are:
• Bridges are designed for heavy and concentrated moving loads whereas buildings are
usually designed for static distributed loads.
• The impact of moving loads is quite considerable as compared with residential and
official buildings.
• Fatigue may become a problem and hence may reduce the strength due to large number
of loading cycles.
• Greater part of the structure is exposed to atmosphere.
• The controlling design specifications for bridges are provided by organizations different
from those dealing with the building design. For example, AASHTO Specification may
be employed for bridges in place of AISC Specification for steel buildings.
2. BRIEF HISTORY
People have always been interested in transporting themselves and their goods from one place
to another. So the rivers, mountains and valley are considered as a basic problem facing the
people in their transportation and movement from one place to another. So in the beginning
they thought to pass that obstruction and move away. First they used a rope or swimming and
finally they reached to use a bridge that was mode of simple materials like rock, stone, timber
and other materials was available at that time.
The history of development of bridge construction is closely linked with the history of human
civilization. The first bridges were simple beam span of stone slabs or tree trunks, and for
longer spans, single strands of bamboo or vine were stretched across the chasm or oops or
baskets containing the traveler were pulled across the stretched rope.
The bridges in which timber cantilever beam extended out from piers on both sides of the
stream where built in china. In 4000 B.C. arch structures have been found in Egypt. From the

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9th century B.C. early Romans used the stone arch in bridges. In early history in Iraq, Babylon's
constructed a bridge near Ashtar across the Euphrates; the span of this bridge was about 130
meters. One of the ancient arches bridges in Iraq about 400 B.C. that had been discovered in
Ur, in the south of Iraq. [4]

Figure 1.1 Petrified Loged Bridge Arizona (Edwards 1959)

Figure 1.2 Single Cable Suspension Bridge

The University of Lahore, Pakistan

A. M. Zafar Khan
Figure 1.3 Ancient Basket or Transporter Bridge

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3. BASIC TERMS AND CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES
3.1 BASIC TERMS

Figure 2.1 Components of Bridge

3.1.1 Super Structure

This is a portion of the bridge above bridge bearings in an ordinary reinforced concrete
bridge; this includes the beams, slabs, wearing surface, expansion joints and guard rails.[6]
3.1.1.1 Approach Road
A road was constructed at two ends of the bridge for smooth flow of traffic between the
bridge and road to protect the bridge structure from accidental damages.
2.1.1.2 Bridge Deck
The bridge floor that supports vehicular traffic including slab, beams, guard rails and
wearing surface is called bridge deck.
3.1.1.3 Girders
Girders directly support the bridge. Their orientation is parallel to traffic flow. If transverse
floor beams are provided the stringers rest on them.
3.1.1.4 Wearing Surface
A wearing surface is a layer of concrete or asphalt material provided over decks. This is used
to protect the structural integrity of the deck from wear and tear caused by traffic.
3.1.1.5 Diaphragm
A short beam used between adjacent parallel stringers to provide them lateral stability and
distributed loads among them.
3.1.1.6 Railing
A side barrier or protection consisting of a rail supported on posts to protect falling down out
of control vehicles or pedestrians into the gap.
3.1.2 Sub Structure
This includes the bridge bearings and all the components below the bearings and it use to

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support the super structure. Sub structure includes piers, abutments, piles, pile caps and
caissons.
3.1.2.1 Abutment
This is the bridge support provided at the end of the bridge where the opening
starts, the abutment simultaneously acts as a retaining wall to retain material at the
end of the cap.

Figure 2.2 Abutment & Wing Wall

3.1.2.2 Wing Wall

A wing wall is a side wall to the abutment back wall or stem designed to assist in confining
earth behind the abutment.

Figure 2.3 Bridge Components

3.1.2.3 Bearings
Bearing is a structural device positioned between bridge superstructure and substructure
which transmit the vertical and horizontal loads of the superstructure to the substructure,
and accommodate movements between the superstructure and the substructure.

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 M. Omer Fazil (BSCE 01113185)

Figure 2.4 Elastomeric Bearing Pad

3.1.2.4 Piers
Intermediate supports provided to bridges between the abutments are called piers. These may
consist of one or more columns supporting a continuous bridge or two simple spans of a multi
span bridge.

3.1.2.5 Caisson
This type of bridge foundation consist of a hallow shell that is sunk into position to carry the
foundation on to a considerable depth in order to reach a suitable bearing stratum.
3.1.2.6 Piles
These are columns that transfer superstructure load to a greater soil depth, through skin friction
or through the end bearing on firm stratum.

3.1.2.7 Pile Cap

This is a rigid flexural member provided above the ground to connect a group of piles together.
Its functions are to make the pile stable, reduces their effective lengths and to distribute the
applied loads more uniformly.
2.1.2.8 Transom
This is a transverse beam provided over the piers to supports longitudinal girder from one or
from both sides. The girders may rest on this transom beam at a location different from the
piers underneath.

Figure 2.5 Super Structure &

Sub Structure Components

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3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES
Bridges have been classified on different basis as described below
3.2.1 According To Structural Form
1. Slab bridge
2. Beam bridge
3. Truss bridge
4. Arch bridge
5. Cable stayed
6. Suspension bridge
7. Pre-stressed girder bridge
8. Box girder bridge
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
3.2.1.1 Slab Bridge
This the simplest type of bridge where the deck slab serves a main load-carrying member. The
slab is supported on the embankment. It is used for smaller spans or culverts.

M. Omer Fazil (BSCE 01113185)

Figure 2.6 Slab Bridge

3.2.1.2 Beam Bridge
A beam or "girder" bridge is the simplest and most inexpensive kind of bridge .In its most basic
form, a beam bridge consists of a horizontal beam that is supported at each end by piers. The
weight of the beam pushes straight down on the piers.
The beam itself must be strong so that it doesn't bend under its own weight and the added
weight of crossing traffic. When a load pushes down on the beam, the beam's top edge is pushed
together (compression) while the bottom edge is stretched (tension). Pre-stressed concrete is
an ideal material for beam bridge construction; the concrete withstands the forces of
compression well and the steel rods imbedded within resist the forces of tension. Pre-stressed

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concrete also tends to be one of the least expensive materials in construction. But even the best
materials can't compensate for the beam bridge's biggest limitation: its length.

The University of Lahore, Pakistan

Figure 2.7 Beam Bridge

3.2.1.3 Truss Bridge

The truss is a simple skeletal structure, the individual members of a simple truss are only
subject to tension and compression forces and not bending forces. Trusses are comprised
of many small beams that together can support a large amount of weight and span great
distances. In most cases the design, fabrication, and erection of trusses is relatively simple.
However, once assembled trusses take up a greater amount of space and, in more complex
structures, can serve as a distraction to drivers.

Figure 2.8 JiujiangYangize River Bridge, China

3.2.1.4 Arch Bridge

Arch bridges are one of the oldest types of bridges and have great natural strength. Instead of
pushing straight down, the weight of an arch bridge is carried outward along the curve of the
arch to the supports at each end. These supports, called the abutments, carry the load and keep
the ends of the bridge from spreading out. When supporting its own weight and the weight of
crossing traffic, every part of the arch is under compression. For this reason, arch bridges must
be made of materials that are strong under compression. (More typically, modern arch bridges
span between 200-800 feet.)

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 Figure 2.9 New River Gorge Bridge,
3.2.1.5 Cable-Stayed BridgeUSA
Cable-stayed bridges may look similar to suspensions bridges both have roadways that
hang from cables and both have towers. But the two bridges support the load of the roadway
in very different ways. The difference lies in how the cables are connected to the towers. In
suspension bridges, the cables ride freely across the towers, transmitting the load to the
anchorages at either end. In cable-stayed bridges, the cables are attached to the towers, which
alone bear the load. The cables can be attached to the roadway in a variety of ways. In a radial
pattern, cables extend from several points on the road to a single point at the top of the tower.
In a parallel pattern, cables are attached at different heights along the tower, running parallel
to one other. For medium length spans (those between 500 and 2,800 feet), cable-stayed are
fast becoming the bridge of choice. Compared to suspension bridges, cable-stayed require less
cable, can be constructed out of identical pre-cast concrete sections, and are faster to build. The
result is a cost-effective bridge that is undeniably beautiful.

Figure 2.10 Sunshine Skyway Bridge

3.2.1.6 Suspension Bridge
Aesthetic, light and strong, suspension bridges can span distances from 2,000 to 7,000 feet --
far longer than any other kind of bridge. They also tend to be the most expensive to build. True
to its name, a suspension bridge suspends the roadway from huge main cables, which extend
from one end of the bridge to the other. These cables rest on top of high towers and are secured
at each end by anchorages. The towers enable the main cables to be draped over long distances.
Most of the weight of the bridge is carried by the cables to the anchorages, which are
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imbedded in either solid rock or massive concrete blocks. Inside the anchorages, the cables are
spread over a large area to evenly distribute the load and to prevent the cables from breaking
free.

Figure 2.11 The SI DU River Bridge China

3.2.1.7 Pre-stressed Girder Bridge

Pre-stressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can
be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span. Pre-stressing tendons are used
to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that balances the tensile stress
that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience due to a bending load.
Traditional reinforced concrete is based on the use of steel reinforcement bars, inside poured
concrete. Pre-stressing can be in two ways: pretensioned concrete, and bonded or un-bonded
post-tensioned concrete.

Figure 2.12 Kama Bridge Russia

3.2.1.8 Box Girder Bridge
A box girder bridge is a bridge in which the main beams comprise girders in the shape of
a hollow box. The box girder normally comprises either pre-stressed concrete, structural
steel, or a composite of steel and reinforced concrete. The box is typically rectangular or
trapezoidal in cross-section. Box girder bridges are commonly used for highway flyovers and
for modern elevated structures of light rail transport. Although normally the box girder bridge
is a form of Beam Bridge, box girders may also be used on cable-stayed bridges and other
forms.
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 Figure 2.13 Oackland BoxGirder Brigde
3.2.2 According To Material of Construction
• Timber bridge
• Concrete bridge
• Stone bridge
• R.C.C bridge
• Steel bridge
• P.C.C bridge
• Composite bridge
• Aluminum bridge
• Plastic bridge
• Pre-stressed concrete bridge Masonry bridge
3.2.3 According To Fabrication
• Precast (R.C / P.C)
• Cast-in-place (R.C / P.C)
• Pre-tensioned (PC)
• Post-tensioned (PC)
• Prefabricated (Steel)
Rivet (Steel) Bolted (Steel/Timber) Welded (Steel)
2.2.4 According To Traffic
• Highway bridge (Trucks, Cars)
• Pedestrian bridge (Pedestrians, Bicycles)
• Railway bridge (Trains)
• Transit guide way (City Trains, Monorail)
• Other types (Pipelines, Utilities, Industrial, Aqueduct, Airport Structure)

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 Figure 2.14 Highway Bridge

Figure 2.15 Pedestrian Bridge

Figure 2.16 Railway Bridge

Figure 2.17 Transit guideway Bridge

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3.2.5 According to Inter-Span Relationship
1. Simply supported 2. Cantilever 3. Continuous
bridge bridge bridge

3.2.6 According To the Position of the Bridge Floor

1. Deck bridge
2. Through bridge
3. Half through bridge

Figure 2.18 Deck Bridge

Figure 2.19 Half Through Bridge

Figure 2.20 Through Bridge

3.2.7 According To Span of Bridge
• Culvert bridge (less than 6 m)
• Small span bridge (less than 6 m-30 m)
• Medium span bridge (30-100 m)
• Long span bridge (more than 100 m)

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 Figure 2.21 Span of Bridge
3.2.8 Moveable Bridges
1. Bascule bridge
2. Lift bridge
3. Swing bridge

Figure 2.22 Bascule Bridges

Figure 2.23 Swing bridge

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