CHOLAS

Introduction

The Cholas who ruled from the ninth century to thirteenth century CE (850 – 1279 CE)

played a very important part in the political and cultural history of South India. The core

region of their control- Cholamandalam - was the area around Tanjore upto East Coast, the

Coromandal of later times. The Chola period of south Indian history with its impressive

corpus of inscriptions has been widely discussed in recent years. There have been diverse

theories and many new interpretations drew less on political authority and more on

institutions established at this time, together with the articulations of cultural forms. The

standards established in society, religion and fine arts during this period were regarded as

classical and came to dominate the patterns of the living in the south and also influenced and

modified at certain levels in the patterns existing elsewhere in Peninsula. There was also an

active intervention in south-east Asia to a greater degree than before, in the commerce and in

its cultural forms.

Early Cholas

The Cholas, as rulers, are known to have existed from remote antiquity. They are mentioned,

for the first time in II and XIII Rock Edicts of Ashoka along with the Pandyas and Cheras.

According to this inscription the Cholas were a friendly power in the south beyond the pale of

Mauryan Suzerainty. The Sangam literature also furnishes much on Chola chiefdoms.

Karikala Chola was the greatest early Chola king. He is credited with the foundation of the

city of Puhar at the mouth of river Cauvery and with the construction of an embankment

along that river. He also showed much interest in the land reclamation and in improving the

irrigational facilities. Though Chola kings are known from the Mauryan period, their post-Sangam

history is unclear, as is their connection with the Cholas of early medieval times.

Imperial Cholas

The founder and first king of the Imperial Chola dynasty of Tanjore was Vijayalaya (850 -

871 CE). He established his power in the area around Uraiyur, captured Tanjore from the
Muttaraiyar chieftains, an ally of the Pandyas and extended his kingdom along the lower

Kaveri. Vijayalaya accepted the over lordship of Pallavas and began his rule around 850 CE.

Vijayalaya is credited with founding of the temple of Nishumbhasudini.

Aditya I (871-907)

The successor of Vijayalaya, achieved significant military successes and expanded the Chola

kingdom. He defeated the last Pallava overlord Aparajita in 893 CE. This victory gave him

control over Tondamandalam. Thereafter, he went on to conquer Kongudesa (Corresponding

to Coimbatore and Salem) from the Pandyas. He also claims to have captured Talakad,

capital of the Western Gangas. Aditya I entered into matrimonial alliance with the Pallavas

by marrying Pallava princess.

Parantaka I (907 - 953 CE)

The first important ruler of the Chola dynasty, Parantaka I, came to power and ruled almost

half a century. He was considered the real founder of the Chola empire in south India. He

secured the northern frontier of the kingdom by campaigning against the Pandyas and

capturing their capital Madurai after which he assumed the title of ‘Maduraikonda’

(Conqueror of Madurai). Rajasimha, the Pandyan ruler who faced defeat at the hands of

Parantaka, left his kingdom and took shelter in the court of the Ceylonese king. He defeated

the combined forces of the Pandyas and the king of Srilanka in the battle of Vellur, and the

Pandyan territories fell into Chola hands. During the closing years of Parantaka I, the

Rashtrakuta king Krishna III defeated Parantaka in the famous battle of Takkolam near

Arkonam in 949 CE and succeeded in occupying the large part of the northern half of the

Chola empire.

Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the Vimana of the famous

Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two famous Uttarameruru

inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village administration under the Cholas belong

to his reign. After the death of Parantaka 953 CE the history of Cholas for the next three

decades in which a succession of weak kings brought about a decline in the power of the

Cholas.

The Chola power was firmly established with the accession of Rajaraja I and his son and
successor Rajendra I, which allowed about half a century for the Chola kingdom to

beconsolidated and stabilized.

Rajaraja I (985 CE – 1014 CE)

The Chola power reached its peak during the reign of Arumolivarman, who assumed the title

Rajaraja I on his accession to thrown. It was he who laid the foundation of a mighty empire

and also provided an excellent administrative set up to it. He was the son of Parantaka II.

His military campaigns and the regions occupied and annexed into his empire are recorded.

Chola Kingship

The Cholas traced their origin to Surgavamsha. Mythical traditions are mentioned in the

inscriptions especially in the prashastis containing the genealogies (Tiravalangad Copper

Plates, the Larger Leiden Plates and the Anbil Plates, Kanya Kumari inscription of Vira Rajendra

etc.) and these are interspersed with information about historical personages. It appears that

these served the purpose of legitimization of the rule of the Cholas. The prashastis of the

Cholas were based on the Itihaasa Purana tradition. The dominance of the Sanskritic and the

Brahmanical traditions is well attested. The Cholas also ascribe to the legacy of the Sangam

period. The genealogies of the Cholas attribute eminent and prestigious lineage to the king to

legitimize his position as king. The period from the eighth gear of Rajaraja onwards is marked

by absence of genealogical record in the Tamil Meyhirtis. These compositions narrate the

military exploits of the kings, are inscribed on stone and address the Tamil landed magnates.

The Cholas ascribe Kshatriga origin to themselves as is attested by the title Kshatrigasikhamani

of the king Rajaraja. The Varman suffix (Sanskritie) added to the names of the kings was also a

part of the process of claiming kshatriya status e. g. Adityavarman (871-906 CE) and Parantaka

Varman (707-755 CE). The practice of assuming names during coronation also existed under

the Cholas e. g. Prakesarinarman, Rajahesarimarman and Armuolivarman (Tamil name with a

Sanskrit suffix). The charters of the Cholas consist of the prashastis and genealogies in Sanskrit

and the details regarding the grant in Tamil Hiranyagarbha and Tulabhara ceremunies were

conducted by the Chula kings. The anointment ceremony was also a means to claim kshatriya

position. A grant of Vira Chula paints out that the king was advised by a brahmana moral

preacher (dharmopadeshta) that bestowment of land to brahmanas would lead his forefathers to
heaven. However, actual motive for making the grants was redistribution of resources in the form of

land, gold, cattle ete. The gifts were bestowed for meritorious service provided by the

brahmanas and also to seek legitimacy from them in political sphere. We have proper records of

land-grants but the grants of gold, cattle etc. were merely stated in prashastis. Through the

land-grants the hings tried to convert unsettled areas into agrarian settlements. These grants

did not simply serve a charitable purpose. Rajaraja is regarded as Ulakalanda Perumel (the

great one who measured the earth like Trivikrama) and as Shiva who established control over

the land of Bhargava Rama.

Kings official and chiefs

A number of officers were responsible for the administration in the Chola kingdom. Although

there is no clear evidence of a council of ministers but Uddan-kottam seems to have served this

purpose. Upward and downward mobility is noticed in the administrative hierarchy. According to

conventional historiography Perundanan and Sirutaram were higher and lower category officials

respectively. Senapatis (commander f troops) had the middle position referred to as

Sirudanattup Perundaram. Ngapattar (judges) were of both category. Recently. historians have

pointed out that these divisions are not conclusively borne out by evidence. Officials were paid

by allotting land rights. Tax on land was levied in cash and kind both. Officials were referred to

as holders ludaiyan kilan) of lands. They could further sub-assign land or even sell it.

Communal ownership was prevalent and customary rights of villagers were recognised. The

lowest unit of administration was the village. They combined to form a nadu. A valanadu

comprised of a fewr nadus. Tanigur was a separate village or settlement site. Above valanadu

there was mandalam which was equivalent provinca. Karumigal and Panimpkkal meant of ficers

and servants. Anbil plates refer to a brahmana Manga Sachiva. He was granted land by the

king. The king conveyed his orders orally (triuvaykhelvi) especially with regard to gift to temples.

The directive was coueged through a letter (ari-mukham) issued by Anatti (executive officer)

appointed by the king. The local bodies were apprised and when the process was completed a

record was prepared in the presence of the local magnates called Nattukhon , Naduhiluvan ,

lirudaiyau. KINGS, OFFICIALS AND CHIEFS A number of officers were responsible for the

administration in the Chola kingdom. Although there is no clear evidence of a council of

ministers but Uddan-kottam seems to have served this purpose. Upward and downward mobility
is noticed in the administrative hierarchy. According to conventional historiography Perundanan

and Sirutaram were higher and lower category officials respectively. Senapatis (commander of

troops) had the middle position referred to as Sirudanattup Perundaram. Ngagattar (judges)

were of both category. Recently , historians have pointed out that these divisions are not

conclusively borne out by evidence. Officials were paid by allotting land rights. Tax on land was

levied in cash and kind both. Officials were referred to as holders (udaiyan , kilan) of lands. They

could further sub-assign land even sell it. Gommunal ownership was prevalent and customary

rights of villagers were recognised. The lowest unit of administration was the village. They

combined to form a nadu. A valanadu comprised of a few nadus. Taniyur was a separate

village or settlement site. Above valanadu there was mandalam which was equivalent to a

province. Karumigal and Panimpkkal meant officers and servants. Anbil plates refer to a

brahmana Manya Sachiva. He was granted land by the king. The king conveyed his orders

orally (triuvaykkelvi) especially with regard to gift to temples. The directive was conveyed

through a letter (sri-mukham) issued by Anatti (executive officer) appointed by the king. The

local bodies were apprised and when the process was completed a record was prepared in the

presence of the local magnates called Nattukkon , Nadukilavan , Urudalgan.

CHALUKYAS OF KALYAN

The Chalukyas of Kalyana are also known as the Later Chalukyas owing to the fact that they

came after the Chalukyas of Badami. They are also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas, though Kalyan

became their capital only around the middle of the eleventh century. They trace their descent from

Badami Chalukyas. However , the evidence is rather tenuous. The fortunes of the family were

established by Taila Il who seems have been a subordinate of the Rashtrakatas Taila II , who clanned

to be the direct descendent of the Chalukyas of Badami, was governing the area of Melpati in 957

CE. It is found that later in 965 CE , the Rashtrakuta monarch Krishna III conferred Iardavadi 1000 on

Tailaparasa (Taila II). The inscription from Muttagi, in Bijapur district, of 965 CE, describes him an

Samadhigata-Panchamahashabda, Mahasamantadhipati , Ahoamalla Satyasraya Kulatikala.

From this, it is obvious that this time he had risen to a high and influential status. Tardavadi

referred to in the epigraph is modern Tardenadi in Bijapur district. Various inscriptions of the

Chalukyas of Kalgan as also an account found in the Kannada literary work Gadayuddha of poet

Ranna trace the descent of Taila ll from Bhima I who was the brother of Keertivarma II. The last
ruler of the Chalukyas of Badami. Taila Il is mentioned as the eighth in the line from Bhima 1.

Vikramaditya, who was the father of Taila l had married Bontadevi , who was a Kalachuri princess

of Tripuri.