UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPTUAL

MODELING
Introduction to File and Database systems - Database system structure – Data Models –
Introduction to Network and Hierarchical Models – ER model – Relational Model –
Relational Algebra and Calculus.

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Introduction to File and Database systems

● File system is basically a way of arranging the files in a storage medium like
hard disk. File system organizes the files and helps in retrieval of files when
they are required. File systems consists of different files which are grouped
into directories. The directories further contain other folders and files. File
system performs basic operations like management, file naming, giving
access rules etc.

● Example: NTFS(New Technology File System), EXT(Extended File System).

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● Database Management System is basically a software that manages the

collection of related data. It is used for storing data and retrieving the data
effectively when it is needed. It also provides proper security measures for
protecting the data from unauthorized access. In Database Management
System the data can be fetched by SQL queries and relational algebra. It also
provides mechanisms for data recovery and data backup.
● Example: Oracle, MySQL, MS SQL server.

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S.NO. File System DBMS

File system is a software that manages and organizes

1. the files in a storage medium within a computer. DBMS is a software for managing the database.

2. Redundant data can be present in a file system. In DBMS there is no redundant data.

It doesn’t provide backup and recovery of data if it is

3. lost. It provides backup and recovery of data even if it is lost.

4. There is no efficient query processing in file system. Efficient query processing is there in DBMS.

There is more data consistency because of the process

5. There is less data consistency in file system. of normalization.

It has more complexity in handling as compared to file

6. It is less complex as compared to DBMS. system.

File systems provide less security in comparison to DBMS has more security mechanisms as compared to
7. DBMS. file system.

It is less expensive than DBMS.

Example: FAT , NTFS, HFS, HPFS, APFS,
8. UFS, Veritas File System, VMFS, ZFS It has a comparatively higher cost than a file system.
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● Data: Facts, figures, statistics etc. having no particular meaning (e.g. 1, ABC,
19 etc).

● Record: Collection of related data items, e.g. in the above example the three
data items had no meaning. But if we organize them in the following way,
then they collectively represent meaningful information.

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Question 1:

● Difference between data and information?

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● Table or Relation: Collection of related records.

● The columns of this relation are called Fields, Attributes or Domains. The
rows are called Tuples or Records.

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● Database: Collection of related relations. Consider the following collection of

tables:
Database systems are
designed to manage large
bodies of information.

● We now have a collection of 4 tables. They can be called a “related collection” because we can clearly find out that there
are some common attributes existing in a selected pair of tables. Because of these common attributes we may combine
the data of two or more tables together to find out the complete details of a student. Questions like “Which hostel does the
youngest student live in?” can be answered now, although Age and Hostel attributes are in different tables.

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Applications of Database Systems

1. Banking - For customer information, accounts, loans, and banking
transactions, Credit card transactions
2. Airlines - For reservations and schedule information. Airlines were among
the first to use databases in a geographically distributed manner.
3. Universities - For student information, course registrations, and grades
4. Manufacturing and selling - For management of the supply chain and for
tracking production of items in factories,inventories of items inwarehouses
and stores, and orders for items.
5. Human resources - For information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes,
and benefits, and for generation of paychecks.
6. Telecommunication: For keeping records of calls made, generating monthly
bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards, and storing information
about the communication networks.
7. Sales: For customer, product, and purchase information.

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Disadvantages of File Systems

● Data redundancy and inconsistency: data is stored in multiple file formats
resulting in duplication of information in different files
● Difficulty in accessing data: Need to write a new program to carry out each
new task
● Data isolation: Multiple files and formats
● Integrity problems: Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become
“buried” in program code rather than being stated explicitly. Hard to add new
constraints or change existing ones.
● Atomicity of updates: Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state
with partial updates carried out. Example: Transfer of funds from one account
to another should either complete or not happen at all
● Concurrent access by multiple users: Uncontrolled concurrent accesses
can lead to inconsistencies. Ex: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and
updating it by withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
● Security problems: Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data.
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Question 2:

● Whether file system can be completely

replaced with a database system?

● Find the answer

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Advantages of Database Systems

● Controlling of Redundancy: by having a centralized database and centralized
control of data by the DBA the unnecessary duplication of data is avoided.
● Improved Data Sharing :
● Data Integrity : Integrity means that the data in the database is accurate. Centralized
control of the data helps in permitting the administrator to define integrity constraints
to the data in the database.
● Security : The DBA can define authorization checks to be carried out whenever
access to sensitive data is attempted.
● Data Consistency : By eliminating data redundancy, we greatly reduce the
opportunities for inconsistency.
● Efficient Data Access
● Enforcements of Standards
● Data Independence
● Reduced Application Development and Maintenance Time

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Disadvantages of DBMS

● It is bit complex. Since it supports multiple functionality to give the user the
best, the underlying software has become complex. The designers and
developers should have thorough knowledge about the software to get the
most out of it.
● Because of its complexity and functionality, it uses large amount of memory. It
also needs large memory to run efficiently.
● DBMS system works on the centralized system, i.e.; all the users from all over
the world access this database. Hence any failure of the DBMS, will impact all
the users.
● DBMS is generalized software, i.e.; it is written work on the entire systems
rather specific one. Hence some of the application will run slow.

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Types of Databases

● Centralized databases
○ One to a few cores, shared memory
● Client-server
○ One server machine executes work on behalf of multiple client machines.
● Parallel databases
○ Many core shared memory
○ Shared disk
○ Shared nothing
● Distributed databases
○ Geographical distribution, Schema/data heterogeneity
●

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DBMS

● A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of

interrelated data and a set of programs to access those data.

● The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve

database information that is both convenient and efficient.

● Management of data involves both defining structures for storage

of information and providing mechanisms for the manipulation of
information.

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Database System Structure

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Database system structure

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Database Engine

● A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system.
● The functional components of a database system can be divided into
○ The storage manager,
○ The query processor component,
○ The transaction management component.
○

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● Query Processor : It interprets the requests (queries) received from end user via an
application program into instructions. It also executes the user request which is received from
the DML compiler. Query Processor contains the following components:

1. DML Compiler – which translates DML statements in a query language into an evaluation
plan consisting of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine understands. A
query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation plans that all
give the same result. The DML compiler also performs query optimization, that is, it picks
the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the alternatives.
2. DDL Interpreter – which interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the data
dictionary.
3. Query evaluation engine, which executes low-level instructions generated by the DML
compiler.

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Question 3:

● Differentiate Interpreter and compiler

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Storage Manager

● Storage Manager is a program that provides an interface between the data stored in the
database and the queries received. It is also known as Database Control System. It maintains
the consistency and integrity of the database by applying the constraints and executes
the DCL statements. It is responsible for updating, storing, deleting, and retrieving data in the
database. It contains the following components –

1. Authorization and integrity manager, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraints
and checks the authority of users to access data.
2. Transaction manager, which ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct)
state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions proceed without
conflicting.
3. File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data structures
used to represent information stored on disk.
4. Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main memory,
and deciding what data to cache in main memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the
database system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes that are much larger than
the size of main memory.
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● The storage manager implements several data structures as part of

the physical system implementation:

1. Data files, which store the database itself.

2. Data dictionary, which stores metadata about the structure of the
database, in particular the schema of the database.
3. Indices, which provide fast access to data items that hold particular
values.

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Database users
● Naive users
○ are unsophisticated users who interact with the system by invoking one of the application programs
that have been written previously.

● Application programmers
○ are computer professionals who write application programs

● Sophisticated users
○ interact with the system without writing programs.
○ they form their requests in a database query language and submit each query to a query processor,
whose function is to break down DML statements into instructions that the storage manager
understands. Analysts who submit queries to explore data in the database fall in this category.

● Database Administrators
○ A person who has central control over the system is called a database administrator (DBA).

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Responsibilities of Database Administrator

● Functions of a DBA include:

● Schema definition
● Storage structure and access-method definition
● Schema and physical-organization modification
● Granting of authorization for data access
● Routine maintenance
● Periodically backing up the database
● Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal operations, and
upgrading disk space as required
● Monitoring jobs running on the database
●

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Question 4:

● Expand DBA

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Database applications
● Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts
● Two-tier architecture -- the application resides at the client machine, where
it invokes database system functionality at the server machine

● Three-tier architecture -- the client machine acts as a front end and does not
contain any direct database calls.
○ The client end communicates with an application server, usually through a forms
interface.
○ The application server in turn communicates with a database system to access data.
●
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View of Data

● Data Abstraction - A major purpose of a database system is to provide users

with an abstract view of the data. That is, the system hides certain details of
how the data are stored and maintained. Since many database-systems
users are not computer trained, developers hide the complexity from users
through several levels of abstraction, to simplify users’ interactions with the
system.
● Levels of Abstraction:
○ Physical level
○ Logical level
○ View level

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● Physical level - The lowest level of abstraction describes how the data are
actually stored. The physical level describes complex low-level data
structures in detail.
● Logical level - The next-higher level of abstraction describes what data are
stored in the database, and what relationships exist among those data. The
logical level thus describes the entire database in terms of a small number of
relatively simple structures. Database administrators use the logical level of
abstraction.
● View level - The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire
database. The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with
the system. The system may provide many views for the same database.

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● Consider the following record declared in Pascal-like language:

● Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored (block of consecutive
storage locations –e.g.: words or bytes). The language compiler hides this level of detail from
programmers.
● Logical level: describes the record stored in database by a type definition, and the
relationships among the record types. Programmers using a programming language work at
this level of abstraction. Similarly, database administrators usually work at this level.
● View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information
(such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes. The views also provide a security
mechanism to prevent users from accessing certain parts of the database.

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Transaction Management

● A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical

function in a database application.
● All transactions must obey ACID properties. ACID is an acronym for
atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability.
● transaction-management component - Ensures the atomicity and durability
properties of the database system
● failure recovery
● concurrency-control manager to control the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

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Data Models

● A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data

relationships, data semantics, and consistency constraints.
● Data model is a logical structure of database.
1. Hierarchical data model
2. Network data model
3. Relational model
4. Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
5. Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
6. Semi-structured data model (XML)
●

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Hierarchical Data Model

● A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data are

organized into a tree-like structure. The data are stored as records which are
connected to one another through links.

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Network Data Model

● The network model is a flexible way of representing entities and their

relationships. This model forms a graph in which entities are nodes and
relationship types are the connecting edges.
●

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ER model
● is a high-level data model.
● It is based on a perception of a real world that consists of a collection
of basic objects, called entities, and of relationships among these
objects.
● The E-R data model employs three basic notions:
○ entity sets,
○ relationship sets, and
○ attributes.
● Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
● A relationship is an association among several entities.
● The set of all entities of the same type and the set of all relationships
of the same type are termed an entity set and relationship set,
respectively.
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E-R Diagram

● The overall logical structure (schema) of a database can be expressed graphically by an E-R
diagram, which is built up from the following components:
○ Rectangles, which represent entity sets
○ Ellipses, which represent attributes
○ Diamonds, which represent relationships among entity sets
○ Lines, which link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationships
○ Double ellipses, which represent multivalued attributes
○ Dashed ellipses, which denote derived attributes
○ Double lines, which indicate total participation of an entity in a relationship set
○ Double rectangles, which represent weak entity sets

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Entity Set
● An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is distinguishable from all other
objects.
● E.g.: each person in an enterprise is an entity.
● An entity is represented by a set of attributes. Attributes are descriptive properties
possessed by each member of an entity set.

● Each entity has a value for each of its attributes.

● E.g.: customer entity may have the value 321-12-3123 for customer-id, Jones for
customername, Main for customer-street, and Harrison for customer-city.
● An entity may be concrete, such as a person or a book, or it may be abstract, such as
a loan, or a holiday, or a concept.

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● An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share the same
properties, or attributes. The set of all persons who are customers at a given
bank, for example, can be defined as the entity set customer.

● A database thus includes a collection of entity sets, each of which contains

any number of entities of the same type.

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Attributes
● Simple and composite attributes
○ Simple attributes are not divided into subparts.
○ Composite attributes can be divided into subparts. E.g.: name attribute: first-name, middle-initial,
and last-name.

● Single-valued and multivalued attributes

○ Single-valued attribute have a single value for a particular entity. E.g.: loan number
○ multivalued attributes have a set of values for a particular entity. E.g.: phone number
● Derived attribute
○ The value for this type of attribute can be derived from the values of other related attributes or
entities. E.g.: age is a derived attribute,
○ date-of-birth may be referred to as a base attribute, or a stored attribute.

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a multivalued attribute phone-number, depicted by a

double ellipse, and a derived attribute age, depicted by
a dashed ellipse.

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Relationship set
Most of the relationship sets in
● A relationship is an association among several entities. a database system are binary.
● A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.
● Represented by a diamond shape
The association between entity sets
is referred to as participation; that is,
the entity sets E1, E2, . . .,En
participate in relationship set R. A
relationship instance in an E-R
schema represents an association
between the named entities in the
real-world enterprise that is being
modeled.

● The function that an entity plays in a relationship is called that entity’s role.
● The same entity set participates in a relationship set more than once, in different roles. E.g.: Employee has
2 roles: worker, manager. Relationship: works-for
● A relationship may also have descriptive attributes.
● There can be more than one relationship set involving the same entity sets. E.g.: customer and loan entity
sets participate in the relationship set borrower. The customer and loan entity sets may participate in
another relationship set, guarantor.

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Descriptive Attributes

● The attribute(s) used for describing the relationship is called descriptive

attributes, also referred as relationship attributes. They are actually used for
storing information about the relationship.

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Cardinality

● Cardinality defines the possible number of occurrences in one entity

which is associated with the number of occurrences in another.
● Mapping cardinalities are most useful in describing binary relationship sets
● For a binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the mapping
cardinality must be one of the following:
○ One to one. An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B, and an entity in B is
associated with at most one entity in A.
○ One to many. An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in
B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with at most one entity in A.
○ Many to one. An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in B. An entity in B,
however, can be associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.
○ Many to many. An entity in A is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in
B, and an entity in B is associated with any number (zero or more) of entities in A.

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Mapping cardinalities

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Example:
One-to-many:
A loan is associated
Many-to-one:
with atmost one
A loan is associated with
customer through a
several customers
borrower, and a
(including zero) through
customer is associated
a borrower, and a
with several loans
customer is associated
through a borrower.
with atmost one loan
(including zero)
through a borrower.

One-to-one:
Many-to-Many:
A loan is associated with
A customer is
several customers
associated with several
(including zero) through a
loans through a
borrower, and a customer
borrower. A loan is
is associated with several
associated with several
loans through a borrower.
customers through a
(including zero)
borrower

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Alternate Notations for Cardinality Limits

● There are different notations for cardinality limits

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Alternate Notations for Cardinality Limits

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Participation of Entity set in a relationship set

● Total Participation
○ Double lines are used to indicate that the participation of an entity set in a relationship set is total;
○ Here, each entity in the entity set participates in at least one relationship in that relationship set.
○ E.g. Participation of loan in borrower is total. Each loan must have at least one associated customer.
● Partial Participation
○ Single line is used to indicate that the participation of an entity set in a relationship set is partial
○ Here, only some entities participate in relationships
○ E.g.: Participation of a customer in borrower is partial.

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Role

● Roles are indicated by labeling the lines that connect diamonds to rectangles.

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Keys

● The values of the attribute values of an entity must be such that they can
uniquely identify the entity.
● A key allows us to identify a set of attributes that suffice to distinguish entities
from each other. Keys also help uniquely identify relationships, and thus
distinguish relationships from each other
○ A super key is a set of one or more attributes that, taken collectively, allow us to identify
uniquely an entity in the entity set. Eg.: customer-id attribute of customer entity set. Its
attributes can have null values
○ candidate keys – is a minimal superkey of an entity set. i.e., it is a superkey with no
redundant attributes. Its attributes can have null values
○ primary key – only one candidate key is selected as the primary key. Its attributes
cannot have null values All Candidate keys
are super keys. All
○ Partial key – depends on primary key super keys cannot be
candidate keys.

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E-R diagram with a ternary relationship.

● The three entity sets employee, job, and branch, related through the
relationship set works-on.

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weak entity set

● An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key. Such an entity
set is termed a weak entity set.
● An entity set that has a primary key is termed a strong entity set.
● a doubly outlined box indicates a weak entity set, and a doubly outlined diamond
indicates the corresponding identifying relationship.

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Extended E-R Features

● Specialization
● Generalization
● Aggregation

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Specialization
● The process of designating subgroupings within an entity set is called specialization
● specialization is depicted by a triangle component labeled ISA
● The label ISA stands for “is a” and represents, for example, that a customer “is a”
person.
● The ISA relationship may also be referred to as a superclass-subclass relationship.
● Higher- and lower-level entity sets are depicted as regular entity sets—that is, as
rectangles containing the name of the entity set.

Generalization
● which is a containment relationship that exists between a higher-level entity set and
one or more lower-level entity sets.
● E.g.: person is the higher-level entity set and customer and employee are lower-level
entity sets.
● Higher- and lower-level entity sets also may be designated by the terms superclass
● and subclass, respectively.
● The person entity set is the superclass of the customer and employee subclasses.
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E R Diagram for Specialization and Generalization

In a hierarchy, if an given entity set

is involved in only one ISA
relationship then the entity set has
single inheritance.

If an entity set is involved in more

than one ISA relationship, then the
entity set has multiple inheritance,
and the resulting structure is said to
be a lattice.

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Constraints on Generalization
● Condition-defined
○ Here, all the lower-level entities are evaluated on the basis of the same attribute (e.g.:
account-type), this type of generalization is said to be attribute-defined.
● User-defined
● Here, the database user assigns low-level entities to a given entity set
● Disjoint
○ If an entity may belong to only one lower-level entity set within a single generalization.
● Overlapping.
● If an entity may belong to more than one lower-level entity set within a single
generalization.
● completeness constraint
○ Total generalization or specialization. Each higher-level entity must belong to a lower-
level entity set.
○ Partial generalization or specialization. Some higher-level entities may not belong to
any lower-level entity set.

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Aggregation
● Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are treated as higher level entities.
E.g.: the relationship set works-on (relating the entity sets employee, branch, and job) is a
higher-level entity set called works-on. Such an entity set is treated in the same manner as is
any other entity set.
● We can then create a binary relationship manages between works-on and manager to
represent who manages what tasks.

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Relational Model
● The relational model is a lower-level model.
● It uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships among those data.
Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique name.
● The relational model is an example of a record-based model.
● Its conceptual simplicity has led to its widespread adoption; today a vast majority of database
products are based on the relational model.
● Designers often formulate database schema design by first modeling data at a high level,
using the E-R model, and then translating it into the relational model.

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E-R diagram for the banking enterprise

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Database Schema

● Account-schema = (account-number, branch-name, balance)

● Branch-schema = (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
● Customer-schema = (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)
● Depositor -schema = (customer-name, account-number)
● Loan-schema = (loan-number, branch-name, amount)
● Borrower-schema = (customer-name, loan-number)

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Schema diagram for the banking enterprise

● A database schema, along with primary key and foreign key dependencies, can be depicted pictorially by
schema diagrams.
● Each relation appears as a box, with the attributes listed inside it and the relation name above it. If there are
primary key attributes, a horizontal line crosses the box, with the primary key attributes listed above the
line.
● Foreign key dependencies appear as arrows from the foreign key attributes of the referencing relation to
the primary key of the referenced relation.
● Do not confuse a schema diagram with an E-R diagram. In particular, E-R diagrams do not show foreign
key attributes explicitly, whereas schema diagrams show them explicity.

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Object-oriented data model

● The object-oriented data model, for example, extends the representation of

entities by adding notions of encapsulation, methods (functions), and object
identity.

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Object-relational data model

● The object-relational data model combines features of the object-oriented

data model and the relational data model.

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History of Database Systems

1950s and early Magnetic tapes were developed for data storage. Processing of data consisted of
1960s: reading data from one or more tapes and writing data to a new tape.
Data could also be input from punched card decks, and output to printers. Data
are accessed in sequential order
Late 1960s and 1970s: Widespread use of hard disks in the late 1960s. hard disks allowed direct access
to data.
A landmark paper by Codd [1970] defined the relational model, and nonprocedural
ways of querying data in the relational model, and relational databases were born.
1980s The fully functional System R prototype led to IBM’s first relational database
product, SQL/DS.
The 1980s also saw much research on parallel and distributed databases, as well
as initial work on object-oriented databases.
Early 1990s: The SQL language was designed primarily for decision support
applications, which are query intensive, and transaction processing applications,
which are update intensive.
Late 1990s: Database system were deployed to support very high transaction processing
rates, as well as very high reliability and 24×7 availability (availability 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week, meaning no downtime for scheduled maintenance activities

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Relational Algebra and Calculus

● The relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of
operations that take one or two relations as input and produce a new relation as their
result.
● The relational algebra forms the basis of the widely used SQL query language.
● The operations in relational algebra can be divided into i) Basic operations ii)
Additional operations that can be expressed in terms of the basic operations, iii)
Extended operations, some of which add further expressive power to relational
algebra
● The basic operations in the relational algebra are select, project, union, set
difference, Cartesian product, and rename.
● The select, project, and rename operations are called unary operations, because
they operate on one relation.
● The union, set difference and Cartesian product operations operate on pairs of
relations and are, therefore, called binary operations.
● Additional Operations —namely, set intersection, natural join, division, and
assignment.

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1. The Select Operation

● The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

● The lowercase Greek letter sigma (σ) is used to denote selection.
● The predicate appears as a subscript to σ.
● The argument relation is in parentheses after the σ.

● Example: to select those tuples of the loan relation where the branch is
“Perryridge”

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● To select all tuples in which the amount lent is more than $1200
To combine several predicates
into a larger predicate; the
connectives and (∧), or (∨), and
not (￢) can be used.

● Example: to find those tuples pertaining to loans of more than $1200 made by
the Perryridge branch

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2. The Project Operation

● The project operation is a unary operation that returns its argument relation,
with certain attributes left out.
● Since a relation is a set, any duplicate rows are eliminated.
● Projection is denoted by the uppercase Greek letter pi (Π).
● The attributes appear as a subscript to Π. The argument relation follows in
parentheses.

● Example: to list all loan numbers and the amount of the loan

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Composing relational-algebra operations into relational-algebra expressions

● Example: Find those customers who live in Harrison

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3. The Union Operation

● Example: Find the names of all bank customers who have either an account
or a loan or both.
● First: find the names of all customers with a loan in the bank:

● Second: find the names of all customers with an account in the bank

● Third: join these projection operations:

Notice that there are 10 tuples in the result, even though there
are seven distinct borrowers and six depositors. This apparent
discrepancy occurs because Smith, Jones, and Hayes are
borrowers as well as depositors. Since relations are sets,
duplicate values are eliminated.

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● For a union operation r ∪ s to be valid, we require that two conditions hold:

1. The relations r and s must be of the same arity. That is, they must have the
same number of attributes.
2. The domains of the ith attribute of r and the ith attribute of s must be the
same, for all i.

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4. The Set Difference Operation

● The set-difference operation, denoted by −, allows to find tuples that are in

one relation but are not in another.
● The expression r − s produces a relation containing those tuples in r but not
in s.
● Example: To find all customers of the bank who have an account but not a
loan

For a set difference operation r − s to be

valid, 2 conditions must hold:
i) the relations r and s be of the same
arity,
ii) the domains of the ith attribute of r and
the ith attribute of s be the same.

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5. The Cartesian-Product Operation

● The Cartesian-product operation, denoted by a cross (×),
allows to combine information from any two relations.
● We write the Cartesian product of relations r1 and r2 as r1 ×
r2.
● Cartesian product takes all possible pairings of one tuple
from borrower with one tuple of loan.

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● Example: to find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.

Intermediate Result

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6. The Rename Operation

● The rename operator, denoted by the lowercase Greek letter rho (ρ)
● Given a relational-algebra expression E, the expression returns the result of
expression E under the name x.

● Assume that a relational algebra expression E has arity n. Then, the

expression returns the result of expression E under the name x, and with the
attributes renamed to A1,A2, . . .,An.

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● Example: Find the largest account balance in the bank

● Step 1: compute a temporary relation consisting of those balances that are
not the largest

● Step 2: take the set difference between the relation Πbalance (account) and
the temporary relation just computed, to obtain the result.

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Additional Relational Algebra Operations

● The Set-Intersection Operation

● The Natural-Join Operation
● The Division Operation
● The Assignment Operation

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The Set-Intersection Operation

● Set intersection operation is denoted by ∩

● Example: find all customers who have both a loan and an account

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The Natural-Join Operation

● The natural join is a binary operation that allows us to combine certain

selections and a Cartesian product into one operation. It is denoted by the
“join” symbol ⋈.

● Example: Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the bank, along
with the loan number and the loan amount.

The natural-join operation forms a Cartesian product of its

two arguments, performs a selection forcing equality on
those attributes that appear in both relation schemas, and
finally removes duplicate attributes.

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● Example: Find the names of all branches with customers who have an
account in the bank and who live in Harrison

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The Division Operation

● The division operation, denoted by ÷, is suited to queries that include the

phrase “for all.”
● Example: find all customers who have an account at all the branches located
in Brooklyn.

● First obtain all branches in Brooklyn

● Second, find all (customer-name, branch-name) pairs for which the customer
has an account at a branch
● Third, perform division

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The Assignment Operation

● The assignment operation, denoted by ←, works like assignment in a

programming language.

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Extended Relational-Algebra Operations

● Generalized Projection
● Aggregate Functions
● Outer Join
● Null Values∗∗

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Generalized Projection

● The generalized-projection operation extends the projection operation by

allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the projection list. The
generalized projection operation has the form

● where E is any relational-algebra expression, and each of F1, F2, . . . , Fn is

an arithmetic expression involving constants and attributes in the schema of
E.

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● Example: Consider the credit-info relation. find how much more each person
can spend

● Result

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Aggregate Functions

● Aggregate functions take a collection of values and return a single value as

a result.
● Consider the pt-works relation

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● Example: find out the total sum of salaries of all the part-time employees in
the bank

● The symbol G is the letter G in calligraphic font; read it as “calligraphic G.”

The relational-algebra operation G signifies that aggregation is to be applied,
and its subscript specifies the aggregate operation to be applied.

● Example: Find the number of branches appearing in the pt-works relation

● Answer is 3. Distinct is used to eliminate duplicates

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● Example: find the total salary sum of all part-time employees at each branch
of the bank separately First, partition the relation pt-
works into groups based on
the branch, and then apply
the aggregate function on
each group.

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● Example: find the maximum salary for part-time employees at each branch

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Outer Join

● The outer-join operation is an extension of the join operation to deal with

missing information.
● Consider the 2 relations:

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● Example: to generate a single relation with all the information (street, city,
branch name, and salary) about full-time employees, natural join is applied.

● We can use the outer-join operation to avoid this loss of information. There
are actually three forms of the operation: left outer join, denoted ⟕; right
outer join, denoted ⟖ ; and full outer join, denoted ⟗ .
●

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● Left outer join

● Right Outer Join

● Full outer Join

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Null Values∗∗
● the special value null indicates “value unknown or nonexistent,” and any arithmetic operations
(such as +,−, ∗, /) involving null values must return a null result.
● Any comparisons (such as <,<=,>,>=, =) involving a null value evaluate to special value
unknown; we cannot say for sure whether the result of the comparison is true or false, so we
say that the result is the new truth value unknown.

● Three Boolean operations are defined to deal with the truth value unknown.
1. and: (true and unknown) = unknown;
(false and unknown) = false;
(unknown and unknown) = unknown.
2. or: (true or unknown) = true;
(false or unknown) = unknown;
(unknown or unknown) = unknown.
3. not: (not unknown) = unknown.

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Relational Calculus

● Tuple Relational Calculus

● Domain Relational Calculus

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Tuple Relational Calculus

● Tuple Relational Calculus - is a nonprocedural query language. It

describes the desired information without giving a specific procedure for
obtaining that information. where P is a formula.
Several tuple variables
● A query in the tuple relational calculus is expressed as may appear in a formula.

A tuple variable is said to

be a free variable unless
it is quantified by a ∃ or ∀.

● There exist construct – denoted by ‘∃’ there exists a tuple t in relation r such
that predicate Q(t) is true

● For all construct - denoted by ’∀’ means “Q is true for all tuples t in relation r.”

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● Example: Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200” Tuple variable t is defined on
only the loan-number attribute,
since that is the only attribute
having a condition specified for t.
Thus, the result is a relation on
(loannumber).

● Explanation: The set of all tuples t such that there exists a tuple s in relation
loan for which the values of t and s for the loan-number attribute are equal, and
the value of s for the amount attribute is greater than $1200.

● Example: Find the names of all customers who have a loan from the Perryridge
branch t is a free variable.
Tuple variable s and u
is said to be a bound
variable.

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● Example: Find all customers who have an account at the bank but do not
have a loan from the bank

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● Example: Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn

● Explanation: The set of all customers (that is, (customername) tuples t) such
that, for all tuples u in the branch relation, if the value of u on attribute branch-
city is Brooklyn, then the customer has an account at the branch whose name
appears in the branch-name attribute of u.

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● A tuple-relational-calculus formula is built up out of atoms. An atom has one of the following forms:
1. s ∈ r, where s is a tuple variable and r is a relation (we do not allow use of the∉ operator)
2. s[x] Θ u[y], where s and u are tuple variables, x is an attribute on which s is defined, y is an attribute on which u is
defined, and Θ is a comparison operator (<, ≤, =, =, >, ≥); we require that attributes x and y have domains whose
members can be compared by Θ
3. s[x] Θ c, where s is a tuple variable, x is an attribute on which s is defined, Θ is a comparison operator, and c is a
constant in the domain of attribute x
● We build up formulae from atoms by using the following rules:
1. An atom is a formula.
2. If P1 is a formula, then so are ￢P1 and (P1).
3. If P1 and P2 are formulae, then so are P1 ∨ P2, P1 ∧ P2, and P1 ⇒ P2.
4. If P1(s) is a formula containing a free tuple variable s, and r is a relation, then ∃ s ∈ r (P1(s)) and ∀ s ∈ r (P1(s)) are
also formulae.
● As we could for the relational algebra, we can write equivalent expressions that are not identical in appearance. In the tuple
relational calculus, these equivalences include the following three rules:
1. P1 ∧ P2 is equivalent to ￢ (￢(P1) ∨ ￢(P2)).
2. ∀ t ∈ r (P1(t)) is equivalent to ￢ ∃ t ∈ r (￢P1(t)).
3. P1 ⇒ P2 is equivalent to ￢(P1) ∨ P2.

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Domain Relational Calculus∗∗

● uses domain variables that take on values from an attribute’s domain, rather
than values for an entire tuple.
● Domain relational calculus serves as the theoretical basis of the widely used
QBE language.
● An expression in the domain relational calculus is of the form:

● where x1, x2, . . . , xn represent domain variables. P represents a formula

composed of atoms, as was the case in the tuple relational calculus.

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● An atom in the domain relational calculus has one of the following forms:
1. < x1, x2, . . . , xn > ∈ r, where r is a relation on n attributes and x1, x2, . . . , xn are
domain variables or domain constants.
2. x Θ y, where x and y are domain variables and Θ is a comparison operator (<, ≤, =, =,
>, ≥). We require that attributes x and y have domains that can be compared by Θ.
3. x Θ c, where x is a domain variable, Θ is a comparison operator, and c is a constant in
the domain of the attribute for which x is a domain variable.
● We build up formulae from atoms by using the following rules:
1. An atom is a formula.
2. If P1 is a formula, then so are ￢P1 and (P1).
3. If P1 and P2 are formulae, then so are P1 ∨ P2, P1 ∧ P2, and P1 ⇒ P2.
4. If P1(x) is a formula in x, where x is a domain variable, then ∃ x (P1(x)) and ∀ x (P1(x))
are also formulae.
● As a notational shorthand, we write ∃ a, b, c (P(a, b, c)) for ∃ a (∃ b (∃ c (P(a, b, c))))

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● Example: Find the loan number, branch name, and amount for loans of over
$1200:

● Example: Find all loan numbers for loans with an amount greater than $1200:

● Example: Find the names of all customers who have a loan from the
Perryridge branch and find the loan amount:

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Thank you

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