UNIT IV-

SPATIAL DATA INPUT AND EDITING

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 INTRODUCTION
spatial database management system (SDBMS) is an extension, of a
conventional database management system (DBMS).

Basic data types such as integers and/or real numbers are extended into spatial data

types such as points, polylines and polygons in spatial data

structures. Operations constitute capabilities that manipulate the data structures, and as
such when sequenced into operational workflows in specific ways generate information
from data; one might say that new relationships constitute the information from
data. Different data model designs result in different combinations of structures,
operations, and rules, which combine into various SDBMS products.

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Spatial database management systems, both software and hardware sub-
components, organize data for enumerating and querying databases, conducting
spatial analysis, and creating map visualizations within an integrated manner for
managing large data stores

Database management is a subset of a larger category of technology called data

management technology.

Data are managed using two types of computer-based files, physical files and
logical files.

A physical file is a collection of records managed by the operating system software

as stored on disk; a data file being different than a database file.

A logical file is a collection of records managed by application software, most

fundamentally database management system software. Many logical files can be
combined into a physical file.
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 DATA STORAGE IN GIS
The different types of information required for a GIS require storage which
allows the information to be updated and queried for analysis by the user.
There are two types of information to be stored; spatial data and attribute
data. Spatial data: Spatial data is usually stored as themes, layers, or
coverage's.
DATA STORAGE, RETRIEVAL, AND MANAGEMENT:

The different types of information required for a GIS require storage which
allows the information to be updated and queried for analysis by the user.
There are two types of information to be stored; spatial data and attribute
data.
Spatial data: Spatial data is usually stored as themes, layers, or coverage. The
georeferenced spatial data is displayed in a GIS in its proper place in relation to other
spatial data because of the georeference information attached to the data. An example
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could be the latitude and longitude in decimal
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The latitude and longitude of this school is embedded in the file so it will be
displayed in a GIS in its proper location in relation to other features in the city.
Themes can be anything that are currently located on a traditional paper map, such as
roads, rivers, cities, wells, forest boundaries, school district boundaries, etc., and they
are all georeferenced.

Attribute data: Attribute data is the information about an object or feature. An

example could be our school. Its name, location, what district, how many children
attend each year, etc.

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Data manipulation and analysis: A good system and/or software package allows the
user to define and execute spatial and attribute procedures. This is commonly thought of as
the heart of the GIS. Overlaying, buffering, modeling, and analysis are some of the
methods used in building a coverage or project. It also takes the users knowledge to
recognize what is seen in the resulting map and data.

OVERLAYING

Overlay is a GIS operation that superimposes

multiple data sets (representing different
themes) together for the purpose of
identifying relationships between them.. An
overlay creates a composite map by combining
the geometry and attributes of the input data
sets.

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 In GIS, a buffer is a zone that is drawn around
Buffering any point, line, or polygon that encompasses
all of the area within a specified distance of
the feature. This zone is drawn by a GIS in the
form of a new polygon. ... Buffers may be used
for both raster and vector data model
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problems.
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 A digital elevation model (DEM)

is a digital representation of

ground surface topography or

terrain. It is also widely known

as a digital terrain model (DTM).

While the term can be used for

any representation of terrain as

GIS data, it is generally

restricted to the use of a raster

grid of elevation values.

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Data output: Usually this is a map or graphic, which the user has generated after
analyzing the data. Tabular data and reports can be generated as well to help explain the
details seen in the map or graphic.

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 STORAGE MEDIA
Digital data is stored on a variety of physical media, depending on
how quickly the data needs to be accessed, how much data needs
to be stored, and whether the data needs to continue to exist
when the digital device is turned off or rebooted.

Random access memory (RAM)

Magnetic hard disks
Flash memory
Magnetic floppy disks
Magnetic tape

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Storage Formats
Geospatial data can be stored in a number of different types of digital files on the
physical media described above. The following are file types you will commonly
encounter when performing basic GIS

Graphical Maps

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CSV
Geospatial data can be stored in simple table formats like comma-separate variable
(CSV) files as columns of latitude and longitude associated on each row with specific
attributes at those latitudes and longitudes. However, this is largely limited to points, rather
than areas.

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 Shape files
The shape file is actually a collection of at least three (and usually
more) separate files that store the location data, the characteristics
associated with those locations, and other information about the
data. Some common files associated with a shape file include (listed
by the file extension):

.shp: Contains the feature geometry (points, lines, polygons)

.shx: An index file that indicates where specific features are in the
.shp file
.dbf: A dBase IV database file of attributes associated with each of the
shapes in the .shp file
.prj: The coordinate system and projection used by the feature
geometry (optional)
.cpg: The character encoding used by the attributes (optional)
.qpj: The coordinate system and projection in a format used by QGIS
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Shpefile created
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AutoCAD
You occasionally may see geospatial data stored in the files used
by the engineering drafting program AutoCAD. However,
AutoCAD is a general use drafting program for objects of all sizes
and the proprietary file format often does not contain adequate
coordinate or attribute information to allow data to be
transferred directly into GIS software.

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A database model shows the logical structure of a database, including the
relationships and constraints that determine how data can be stored and
accessed. Individual database models are designed based on the rules and
concepts of whichever broader data model the designers adopt.

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 DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Management of GIS data consists of storing a variety of data categorized under two types,
entity (spatial data) and attribute (aspatial) data in a way that permits us to retrieve or
display any combinations of these data after analysis and manipulation.

In order to perform these operations, the computer is able to store, locate, retrieve, analyze
and manipulate the raw data derived from a number of sources by using representational file
structures. In other words, each graphical identity must be stored explicitly, along with its
attributes, so that, we can retrieve and select the correct combinations of entities and
attributes in a reasonable time. GIS database comprise spatial or entity or graphical database,
nonspatial or attribute database, and a linkage mechanism for their topology, to show the
relationship between the spatial data and attribute data for further analysis.

An entity (either a point, or a line, or an area) has both spatial and attribute data to describe
it. Spatial data can be known as "where
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For example, a point entity, the Charminar, a monument in
Hyderabad, has the reference in terms of a latitude and
longitude, and to accompany this there would be an attribute
data about the nature of Remote Sensing and GIS the real world -
feature that the point represents. More clearly, in this example,
Entity type is the point Spatial data are longitude and latitude
Attribute data is the monument, Charminar. Nonspatial
(attribute) data can be stored in any conventional databases,
whereas spatial data, which is the dominant data in GIS, should
have the database' which is capable of handling spatial data.

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 Data Base Management Systems
DBMS as a computer program to control the storage, retrieval and modification of

data (in a database). Stern and Stern (1993) consider that a DBMS will allow users

to join, manipulate or otherwise access the data in any number of database files. A

DBMS must allow the definition of data and their attributes and relationships, as

well as providing security, and an interface between the end users and their

applications and the data themselves.

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 THE FUNCTIONS OF A DBMS CAN BE
(i) File handling and file management (for creating, modifying,

or deleting the database structure),

(ii) adding, updating, and deleting records,

(iii) the extraction of information from data,

(iv) maintenance of data security and integrity, and

(v) application building.

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A database management system is the software that permits the
users to work efficiently with the data. The essential functions of the
system must provide the means to define the contents of a
database, insert new data, delete old data, ask about the database
contents, and modify the contents of the database, updating of
data, minimization of redundancy, and physical data
independence, security and integrity.

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 Components of DBMS
Tile interaction with database systems is to perform the following broad types of tasks :

(a) Data definition

(b) Storage definition
(c) Database administration, and
(d) Data manipulation

The first three tasks are most likely to be performed by the database professional,
while the fourth will be required by a variety of user types possessing a range of skills
and experience as well as variable needs or requirements in terms of frequency and
flexibility of access

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To retrieve the required data from the database, mapping must be made

between the high-level objects in the query language statement and the

physical location of the data on the storage device. These mappings are

made using the system- catalogue. Access to DBMS data is handled by the

stored data manager, which is called the operating system for control of

physical access to storage devices. The DBMS has a query complier which

may call the query optimizer to optimize the code, so that the performance

on the retrieval is improved. The logical item of interaction with a database

is the transaction, which broadly means to create, modify and delete.

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 ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP-ATTRIBUTE MODEL
A entity may be any object, class, person or place.
The primary components of an object-based model are its objects or entities. The
entity-relationship attribute (ERA) model and the object-oriented models are the
two main object-based modeling approaches.

An entity is a semantic data modeling construct and is something that has an

independent and uniquely identifiable existence in the application domain.

Entities are describable by means of their attributes (for example, the name,
boundary, and population of a district). Entities have explicit relationships with other
entities. Entities are grouped into entity types, where entities of the same type have
the same attribute and relationship structure. An ERA diagram representing the
structure of these data in the example database. Entity types are represented by
rectangles with offshoot attributes and connecting edges showing relationships.
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 GIS DATA MODELS
The construction of models of spatial form can be taken as a series of stages of
data abstraction. By applying this abstraction process the GIS designer moves from
the position of observing the geographical complexities of the real world to one of
simulating them in the computer.

This process involves,

i) Identifying the spatial features from the real world that are of interest in the
context of an application. (ii) Representing the conceptual model by an
appropriate spatial data model. This involves choosing between one of the two
approaches: raster or vector. (iii) Selecting an appropriate spatial data structure
to store the model within the computer. The spatial data structure is the physical
way in which entities are coded for the purpose of storage and manipulation.

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i) GIS data model at each stage in the model-building process, we move
further away from the physical representation of a feature in reality and
closer to its abstract representation in the computer. The definition of
entities and graphical representation of the surface features in the computers
are considered along with the different spatial data models and structures
available. The modeling of more complex features and the difficulties of
including the third and fourth dimensions in a GIS model are also presented.

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 Raster Data Representation

In raster representation , the terrain is divided into a number of parcels or quantized the
space into units. A parcel or a unit is called a grid cell. Raster data structures do not
provide precise locational information because geographic space is now divided into
discrete grids, as much as we divide a checkerboard into uniform squares. Instead of
representing points with their absolute locations, they are represented as a single grid
cell.

In grid-based or raster GIS, there are two general ways of including attribute data for
each entity. The simplest is to assign a single number representing an attribute like a
class of land cover, for each grid cell location. By positioning these numbers, we,
ultimately, are allowing the position of the attribute value to act as the default location
for the entity. For example, if we assign a code number of 10 to represent water, then
list this as the first number in the X or column direction, and the first in the Y or row
direction, by default the upper left grid cell is the location of a portion of the earth
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Vector Data Representation

The second method of representing geographic space, called vector, allows us to give

specific spatial locations explicitly. In this method it is assumed that geographic space is

continuous , rather than being quantized as small discrete grids. This perspective is

acquired by associating points as a single set of coordinates (X and Y) in coordinate system

,lines as connected sequences of coordinate pairs of points, and areas as sequences of

interconnected lines whose first and last coordinate points are the same

Anything that has a single (X, Y) coordinate pair not physically connected to any other

coordinate pair is a point (zero-dimensional) entity.

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A vector spatial data model uses two-dimensional Cartesian (x, y) coordinate system to

store the shape of a spatial entity. In the vector world the point is the basic building

block from which all spatial entities are constructed. The simplest spatial entity,

the point, is represented by a single (x, y) coordinate pair. Line and area entities

are constructed by connecting a series of points into chains and polygons.

The more complex the shape of a line or area feature, the greater the number of

points required to represent it. Selecting the appropriate number of points to

construct an entity is one of the major problems in vector based GIS data

representation.

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The representation of the vector data is much more representative and generally, we

combine the entity data with associated attribute data kept in a separate file through a

database management system, and then link them together

In vector data structures, a line consists of two or more coordinate pairs, again storing

the attributes for that line in a separate file. This is explained in the next section under

vector models. For straight lines, two coordinate pairs are enough to show location

and orientation in space. More complex lines will require a number of line segments,

each beginning and ending with a coordinate pair.

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GIS DATA MODELS AND DATA STRUCTURE

RASTER DATA MODEL

VECTOR DATA MODEL

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Raster GIS Models
The simplest approach of structuring spatial data is to use grid cells to represent
quantized portions of the earth which is called GRID based GIS or raster GIS. In the
raster GIS, a range of different methods are used to encode a spatial entity for
storage and representation in the computer.

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method of coding raster data. The cells in each line of the image are mirrored by
an equivalent row of numbers in the structure. The line of the file structure
indicates the number of rows, the number of columns and the maximum cell
value in the image.

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Types of Raster GIS Models
The grid based GIS spatial data can be stored, manipulated, analyzed, and
referenced basically in anyone of the three methods/models. These three models
(Burrough, 1983) are: GRID/LUNAR/MAGI model, IMGRID model and MAP
model. All of these models use the grid cell values, their attributes, coverage and
corresponding legends. These models are developed depending upon the
requirements from time to time. Based on the applications of interest, availability
of software's and other related information, anyone of the above models can be
selected for the execution of a particular GIS project. There are a number of ways
of forcing a computer to store and reference the individual grid cell values, their
attributes, coverage names and legends.

GRID Model
The first and foremost model for the representation of raster data is the GIRD
model. The method of storing, manipulating, and analyzing the grid based data
was first conceptualized by an attempt to develop GRID model.
In this method, each grid cell is referenced and addressed individually and is
associated with identically positioned grid cells in all other coverages, rather like a
vertical column of grid cells, each dealing with a separate theme. Comparisons
between coverage are therefore performed on a single column at a time.
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ex. For example, to compare soil attributes in one coverage with vegetation attributes
in a second coverage, land use/land cover attributes in a third coverage, each X and Y
location must be examined individually So a soil grid cell at location must be examined
individually.

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IMGRID Model With a slight modification of the checkerboard analog, the second basic
raster data model, that is the IMGRID data model, This model is also used in the early GIS
system Instead, we can use the number 1 (red squares) to represent water and 0 (black
squares) to indicate the absence of water. How can we represent a thematic map of land
use that contains, say four categories, namely, recreation, agriculture, industry, and
residences? Each of these four attributes would have to be separated out as an
individual layer. One layer would stand for agriculture only, with 1 's and O's representing
the presence or absence of this activity for each grid cell

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 MAP Model
The third raster GIS model Map Analysis Package (MAP) model developed by formally
integrates the advantages of the above two raster data structure methods. n this data
model each thematic coverage is recorded and accessed separately by map name or
title. This is accomplished by recording each variable, or mapping unit, of the coverage's
theme as a separate number code or label, which can be accessed individually when the
coverage is retrieved.

VECTOR GIS MODELS

Vector data structures allow the representation of geographic space in an intuitive way
reminiscent of the familiar analog map. The geographic space can be represented by the
spatial location of items or attributes which are stored in another file for later access.
shows how the different entity, namely, points, lines, and areas can be defined by
coordinate geometry.

Like the raster spatial data model, there are many potential vector data models that can
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be used to store the geometric representation
MRITof entities in the computer.
 A point is the simplest spatial entity that can be represented in the vector
world with topology. A point requires to be topologically correct with respect
to a geographical reference system which locates it with respect to other
spatial entities. To have topology a line entity must consist of an ordered set
of points a locus of number points, (known as an arc, segment, or chain)
with a defined start and end points (nodes). The simplest vector data
structure that can be used to reproduce a geographical image in the
computer is a file containing (x, y) coordinate pairs that represent the
location of individual point features.

Such a vector data structure for a car park near Hussain Sagar lake in
Hyderabad. Now, how a closed ring of coordinate pairs defines the
boundary of the polygon, is clear. The limitations of simple vector data
structures start emerging when more complex spatial entities are
considered.
There are two types of data model in GIS
Spaghetti Model

Topological Models
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Spaghetti Model
The simplest vector data structure that can be used to reproduce a geographical image
in the computer is a file containing (x, y) coordinate pairs that represent the location of
individual point features.

Each graphic object can be represented with a piece of spaghetti. Each piece of
spaghetti acts as a single entity. The shortest spaghetti can be represented as a point,
collection of a number of point spaghettis for a line entity and collections of line
segments that come together at the beginning and ending of surrounding areas form an
area entity. Each entity is a single, logical record in the computer, coded as variable
length strings of (x, y) coordinate pairs.

Let us assume that two polygons lie adjacent to each other in a thematic coverage. These
two adjacent polygons must hake separate pieces of spaghetti for adjacent sides. That is,
no two adjacent polygons share the same string of spaghetti.

Each side of polygon is uniquely defined by its own set of lines and coordinate pairs. In
this model of representing vector data, all the spaghettis are recorded separately for
polygons. But in the .computer they should have the same coordinates.

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 Topological Models
In order to use the data manipulation and analysis subsystem more efficiently and obtain
the desired results, to allow advanced analytical techniques on GIS data and its
systematic study in any project area, much explicit spatial information is to be created.
The topological data model incorporates solutions to some of the frequently used
operations in advanced GIS analytical techniques.

This is done by explicitly recording adjacency information into the basic logical entity in
topological data structures, beginning and ending when it contacts or intersects another
line, or when there is a change in the direction of the line.

Each line then has two sets of numbers: a pair of coordinates. and an associated node
number. The node is the intersection of two or more lines, and its number is used to refer
to any line to which it is connected. In addition, each line segment, called a link, has its
own identification number that is used as a pointer to indicate the set of nodes that
represent its beginning and ending polygon. These links also have identification codes that
relate polygon numbers to see which two polygons are adjacent to each other along its
length. In fact, the left and right polygon are also stored explicitly, so that even this tedious
step is eliminated.

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This design feature allows the computer to know the actual relationships among all
its graphical parts to identify the spatial relationships contained in an analog map
document.

The topological models available in GIS ensure (a) that no node or line segment is
duplicated, (b) that line segments and nodes can be referenced to more than one
polygon, and (c) that all polygons can be adequately represented.

To understand the topological vector data structure, let us consider a network with 8
nodes encoded as n1 to n8. The links

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To understand the topological vector data structure, let us consider a network with
8 nodes encoded as n1 to n8. The links joining all these nodes are encoded as 11 to
114 and the polygons created by all these line segments links are coded as A 1 to A8.
The creation of this structure for complex area features is carried out in a series of
stages. Burrough (1986) identifies these stages as identifying a boundary network of
arcs (the envelope polygon), checking polygons for closure, and linking arcs into
polygons. The area of polygons can then be calculated and unique identification
numbers attached. This identifier would allow nonspatial information to be linked to
a specific polygon.

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ATTRIBUTE DATA
Attribute Data in GIS

Data in GIS are stored as features AND tabular info

•Tabular information can be associated with
features OR
•Tabular data may NOT be associated with any
specific feature

“Tabular” means stored in a table with rows and columns

•Rows are called “RECORDS” in GIS
•Columns are called “ATTRIBUTE FIELDS” or “FIELDS”

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GEODATABASE
A geodatabase is a database designed to store, query, and
manipulate geographic information and spatial data. It is also
known as a spatial database. ... Within a geographic
information system (GIS) a spatial database is one component
that can be used to store and manipulate data

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Geospatial metadata (also geographic metadata) is a type
of metadata applicable to geographic data and information. Such objects may
be stored in a geographic information system (GIS) or may simply be
documents, data-sets, images or other objects, services, or related items that
exist in some other native environment but whose features may be appropriate
to describe in a (geographic) metadata catalog (may also be known as a data
directory or data inventory).

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