LESSON 15 - VECTORS

Vectors and Direction

A study of motion will involve the introduction of a variety of quantities that are used to describe
the physical world. Examples of such quantities include distance, displacement, speed, velocity,
acceleration, force, mass, momentum, energy, work, power, etc. All these quantities can by divided
into two categories - vectors and scalars. A vector quantity is a quantity that is fully described by
both magnitude and direction. On the other hand, a scalar quantity is a quantity that is fully
described by its magnitude. The emphasis of this unit is to understand some fundamentals about
vectors and to apply the fundamentals in order to understand motion and forces that occur in two
dimensions.

Examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity,

acceleration, and force. Each of these quantities are unique in that
a full description of the quantity demands that both a magnitude
and a direction are listed. For example, suppose your teacher tells
you "A bag of gold is located outside the classroom. To find it,
displace yourself 20 meters." This statement may provide yourself
enough information to pique your interest; yet, there is not
enough information included in the statement to find the bag of
gold. The displacement required to find the bag of gold has not
been fully described. On the other hand, suppose your teacher tells you "A bag of gold is located
outside the classroom. To find it, displace yourself from the center of the classroom door 20 meters
in a direction 30 degrees to the west of north." This statement now provides a complete description
of the displacement vector - it lists both magnitude (20 meters) and direction (30 degrees to the
west of north) relative to a reference or starting position (the center of the classroom door). Vector
quantities are not fully described unless both magnitude and direction are listed.

Vector quantities are often represented by scaled vector diagrams. Vector diagrams depict a vector
by use of an arrow drawn to scale in a specific direction. Vector diagrams were introduced and used
in earlier units to depict the forces acting upon an object. Such
diagrams are commonly called as free-body diagrams. An example
of a scaled vector diagram is shown in the diagram at the right. The
vector diagram depicts a displacement vector. Observe that there
are several characteristics of this diagram that make it an
appropriately drawn vector diagram.

 a scale is clearly listed

 a vector arrow (with arrowhead) is drawn in a
specified direction. The vector arrow has a head and a tail.
 the magnitude and direction of the vector is clearly
labeled. In this case, the diagram shows the magnitude is
20 m and the direction is (30 degrees West of North).

 
Conventions for Describing Directions of Vectors
Vectors can be directed due East, due West, due South, and due North. But
some vectors are directed northeast (at a 45 degree angle); and some vectors
are even directed northeast, yet more north than east. Thus, there is a clear
need for some form of a convention for identifying the direction of a vector that
is not due East, due West, due South, or due North. There are a variety of
conventions for describing the direction of any vector. The two conventions
that will be discussed and used in this unit are described below:

a. The direction of a vector is often expressed as an angle of

rotation of the vector about its "tail" from east, west, north, or south.
For example, a vector can be said to have a direction of 40 degrees
North of West (meaning a vector pointing West has been rotated 40
degrees towards the northerly direction) of 65 degrees East of South (meaning a vector
pointing South has been rotated 65 degrees towards the easterly direction).
b. The direction of a vector is often expressed as a counterclockwise angle of
rotation of the vector about its "tail" from due East. Using this convention, a vector with
a direction of 30 degrees is a vector that has been rotated 30 degrees in a
counterclockwise direction relative to due east. A vector with a direction of 160 degrees
is a vector that has been rotated 160 degrees in a counterclockwise direction relative to
due east. A vector with a direction of 270 degrees is a vector that has been rotated 270
degrees in a counterclockwise direction relative to due east. This is one of the most
common conventions for the direction of a vector and will be utilized throughout this
unit.
 

Two illustrations of the second convention (discussed above) for identifying the direction of a vector
are shown below.

Observe in the first example that the vector is said to have a direction of 40 degrees. You can think
of this direction as follows: suppose a vector pointing East had its tail pinned down and then the
vector was rotated an angle of 40 degrees in the counterclockwise direction. Observe in the second
example that the vector is said to have a direction of 240 degrees. This means that the tail of the
vector was pinned down and the vector was rotated an angle of 240 degrees in the
counterclockwise direction beginning from due east. A rotation of 240 degrees is equivalent to
rotating the vector through two quadrants (180 degrees) and then an additional 60 degrees into the
third quadrant.
Representing the Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector in a scaled vector diagram is depicted by the length of the arrow. The
arrow is drawn a precise length in accordance with a chosen scale. For example, the diagram at the
right shows a vector with a magnitude of 20 miles. Since the scale used for constructing the
diagram is 1 cm = 5 miles, the vector arrow is drawn with a length of 4 cm. That is, 4 cm x (5
miles/1 cm) = 20 miles.

Using the same scale (1 cm = 5 miles), a displacement vector that is 15 miles will be represented
by a vector arrow that is 3 cm in length. Similarly, a 25-mile displacement vector is represented by
a 5-cm long vector arrow. And finally, an 18-mile displacement vector is represented by a 3.6-cm
long arrow. See the examples shown below.

In conclusion, vectors can be represented by use of a scaled vector diagram. On such a diagram, a
vector arrow is drawn to represent the vector. The arrow has an obvious tail and arrowhead. The
magnitude of a vector is represented by the length of the arrow. A scale is indicated (such as, 1 cm
= 5 miles) and the arrow is drawn the proper length according to the chosen scale. The arrow
points in the precise direction. Directions are described by the use of some convention. The most
common convention is that the direction of a vector is the counterclockwise angle of rotation which
that vector makes with respect to due East.
Vector Addition
A variety of mathematical operations can be performed with and upon vectors. One such operation
is the addition of vectors. Two vectors can be added together to determine the result (or resultant).

Sample applications are shown in the diagram below.

In this unit, the task of summing vectors will be extended to more complicated cases in which the
vectors are directed in directions other than purely vertical and horizontal directions. For example, a
vector directed up and to the right will be added to a vector directed up and to the left. The vector
sum will be determined for the more complicated cases shown in the diagrams below.

The Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for determining the result of adding two (and only
two) vectors that make a right angle to each other. The method is not applicable for adding more
than two vectors or for adding vectors that are not at 90-degrees to each other. The Pythagorean
theorem is a mathematical equation that relates the length of the sides of a right triangle to the
length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

To see how the method works, consider the following problem:

Eric leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km, north and then hikes 11 km east. Determine Eric's
resulting displacement.
This problem asks to determine the result of adding two displacement vectors that are at right
angles to each other. The result (or resultant) of walking 11 km north and 11 km east is a vector
directed northeast as shown in the diagram to the right. Since the northward displacement and the
eastward displacement are at right angles to each other, the Pythagorean theorem can be used to
determine the resultant (i.e., the hypotenuse of the right triangle).
The result of adding 11 km, north plus 11 km, east is a vector with a magnitude of 15.6 km.

Using Trigonometry to Determine a Vector's Direction

The direction of a resultant vector can often be determined by use of trigonometric functions. Most
students recall the meaning of the useful mnemonic SOH CAH TOA from their course in
trigonometry. SOH CAH TOA is a mnemonic that helps one remember the meaning of the three
common trigonometric functions - sine, cosine, and tangent functions. These three functions relate
an acute angle in a right triangle to the ratio of the lengths of two of the sides of the right triangle.
The sine function relates the measure of an acute angle to the ratio of the length of the side
opposite the angle to the length of the hypotenuse. The cosine function relates the measure of an
acute angle to the ratio of the length of the side adjacent the angle to the length of the hypotenuse.
The tangent function relates the measure of an angle to the ratio of the length of the side
opposite the angle to the length of the side adjacent to the angle. The three equations below
summarize these three functions in equation form.

These three trigonometric functions can be applied to the hiker problem in order to determine the
direction of the hiker's overall displacement. The process begins by the selection of one of the two
angles (other than the right angle) of the triangle. Once the angle is selected, any of the three
functions can be used to find the measure of the angle. Write the function and proceed with the
proper algebraic steps to solve for the measure of the angle. The work is shown below.
Once the measure of the angle is determined, the direction of the vector can be found. In this case
the vector makes an angle of 45 degrees with due East. Thus, the direction of this vector is written
as 45 degrees.

The measure of an angle as determined through use of SOH CAH TOA is not always the direction of
the vector. The following vector addition diagram is an example of such a situation. Observe that
the angle within the triangle is determined to be 26.6 degrees using SOH CAH TOA. This angle is
the southward angle of rotation that the vector R makes with respect to West. Yet the direction of
the vector as expressed with the CCW (counterclockwise from East) convention is 206.6 degrees.
Use of Scaled Vector Diagrams to Determine a Resultant
The magnitude and direction of the sum of two or more vectors can also be determined by use of an
accurately drawn scaled vector diagram. Using a scaled diagram, the head-to-tail method is
employed to determine the vector sum or resultant. A common Physics lab involves a vector walk.
Either using centimeter-sized displacements upon a map or meter-sized displacements in a large
open area, a student makes several consecutive displacements beginning from a designated starting
position. Suppose that you were given a map of your local area and a set of 18 directions to follow.
Starting at home base, these 18 displacement vectors could be added together in consecutive
fashion to determine the result of adding the set of 18 directions. Perhaps the first vector is
measured 5 cm, East. Where this measurement ended, the next measurement would begin. The
process would be repeated for all 18 directions. Each time one measurement ended, the next
measurement would begin. In essence, you would be using the head-to-tail method of vector
addition.

The head-to-tail method involves drawing a vector to scale on a sheet of paper beginning at a
designated starting position. Where the head of this first vector ends, the tail of the second vector
begins (thus, head-to-tail method). The process is repeated for all vectors that are being added.
Once all the vectors have been added head-to-tail, the resultant is then drawn from the tail of the
first vector to the head of the last vector; i.e., from start to finish. Once the resultant is drawn, its
length can be measured and converted to real units using the given scale. The direction of the
resultant can be determined by using a protractor and measuring its counterclockwise angle of
rotation from due East.

A step-by-step method for applying the head-to-tail method to determine the sum of two or more
vectors is given below.

a. Choose a scale and indicate it on a sheet of paper. The best choice of scale is
one that will result in a diagram that is as large as possible, yet fits on the sheet of
paper.
b. Pick a starting location and draw the first vector to scale in the indicated
direction. Label the magnitude and direction of the scale on the diagram (e.g., SCALE: 1
cm = 20 m).
c. Starting from where the head of the first vector ends, draw the second vector to
scale in the indicated direction. Label the magnitude and direction of this vector on the
diagram.
d. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for all vectors that are to be added
e. Draw the resultant from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
Label this vector as Resultant or simply R.
f. Using a ruler, measure the length of the resultant and determine its magnitude
by converting to real units using the scale (4.4 cm x 20 m/1 cm = 88 m).
 g. Measure the direction of the resultant using the counterclockwise convention
discussed earlier in this lesson.
 

An example of the use of the head-to-tail method is illustrated below. The problem involves the
addition of three vectors:

20 m, 45 deg. + 25 m, 300 deg. + 15 m, 210 deg.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m

The head-to-tail method is employed as described above and the resultant is determined (drawn in
red). Its magnitude and direction is labeled on the diagram.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m

Interestingly enough, the order in which three vectors are added has no affect upon either the
magnitude or the direction of the resultant. The resultant will still have the same magnitude and
direction. For example, consider the addition of the same three vectors in a different order.

15 m, 210 deg. + 25 m, 300 deg. + 20 m, 45 deg.

 SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m

 
When added together in this different order, these same three vectors still produce a resultant with
the same magnitude and direction as before (20. m, 312 degrees). The order in which vectors are
added using the head-to-tail method is insignificant.

SCALE: 1 cm = 5 m
Resultants
The resultant is the vector sum of two or more vectors. It is the result of adding two or more
vectors together. If displacement vectors A, B, and C are added together, the result will be vector
R. As shown in the diagram, vector R can be determined by the use of an accurately drawn, scaled,
vector addition diagram.

To say that vector R is the resultant displacement of displacement vectors

A, B, and C is to say that a person who walked with displacements A, then
B, and then C would be displaced by the same amount as a person who
walked with displacement R. Displacement vector R gives the same result
as displacement vectors A + B + C. That is why it can be said that

A+B+C=R
 
The above discussion pertains to the result of adding displacement vectors. When displacement
vectors are added, the result is a resultant displacement. But any two vectors can be added as long
as they are the same vector quantity. If two or more velocity vectors are added, then the result is a
resultant velocity. If two or more force vectors are added, then the result is a resultant force. If two
or more momentum vectors are added, then the result is ...

In all such cases, the resultant vector (whether a displacement vector, force vector, velocity vector,
etc.) is the result of adding the individual vectors. It is the same thing as adding A + B + C + ... .
"To do A + B + C is the same as to do R." As an example, consider a football player
who gets hit simultaneously by three players on the opposing team (players A, B,
and C). The football player experiences three different applied forces. Each applied
force contributes to a total or resulting force. If the three forces are added together
using methods of vector addition , then the resultant vector R can be determined.
In this case, to experience the three forces A, B and C is the same as experiencing
force R. To be hit by players A, B, and C would result in the same force as being hit
by one player applying force R. "To do A + B + C is the same as to do R." Vector R
is the same result as vectors A + B + C!!