Fuels and energy

1. The diagram shows a simple engine. Fuel is

burnt to produce heat which raises the
temperature of the gas in the cylinder; the gas
expands pushing up the piston.

(a) Explain why heat must be lost before the piston can come back down?

(b) What energy changes take place in this engine?

(c) Draw an energy flow diagram for the engine.

(d) Why can’t all the energy from the fuel be converted to useful work?

2. A car of mass 1000kg accelerates to 10ms-1

(a) Calculate the gain in KE of the car.

(b) If the engine is 50% efficient how much energy was put into the engine?

© Chris Hamper, InThinking

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1
© Chris Hamper, InThinking
www.physics-inthinking.co.uk 2

2
Fusion Energy
1. Using the BE curve estimate how much energy would be released if two 2H nuclei joined to
form a 4He nucleus.

2. Explain why nuclear fusion takes place in the core of the sun but not in the outer layers.

3. The diagram shows part of the proton-proton chain that takes place on the sun. Identify the
particles A, B and C.

© Chris Hamper, InThinking

www.physics-inthinking.co.uk 1

3
Generation of electricity
1. The diagram shows an electron in a wire moving through a magnetic field.
(a) Draw the direction of the force experienced by the electron

(b) Explain why a Pd will be induced between the ends of the

conductor.

2. The diagram shows a coil rotating in a magnetic field.

(a) Draw arrows to show the direction of the induced current.

(b) What is the purpose of the rings attached to the coil?

3. The diagram shows a gas fired power plant.

(a) What is the function of the gas turbine?

(b) What is the function of the condenser?

(c) Why is a gas is fired power station more efficient

than a coal fired one?

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4
Global warming
1. The graphs below show the Earth’s temperature and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
over the past 400 thousand years.
(a) How is it possible to measure the
CO2 in the atmosphere 4000 years
ago?

(b) Explain how this data supports the

theory that the temperature of the
Earth is related to CO2
concentration.

2. The graphs show the annual consumption of oil from 1965 -2009 (statistical review of world
energy 2010) and the atmospheric CO2 concentration
from 1960 – 2009 measured in Hawaii (Wikipedia).
Outline how this supports the theory that global warming
is related to man’s activity.

© Chris Hamper, InThinking

www.physics-inthinking.co.uk 1

5
The greenhouse effect (2)
1. The diagram shows the flow of energy when radiation passes from the Sun into the
atmosphere. The units are in Wm-2

(a) How much energy is reflected by the atmosphere?

(b) Calculate the albedo of the Earth.

(c) How much energy is absorbed by the atmosphere?

(d) How much radiation is re radiated to the earth from the atmosphere?

(e) Explain why increasing the greenhouse gases would lead to global warming.

2. State 3 consequences of global warming.

Formulae
Albedo = reflected/incident

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6
Nuclear Energy
1. Explain the meaning of the following terms related to the nuclear reactor.
(a) Critical mass

(b) Moderation

(c) Control rod

2. On the axis provided fill out the region occupied by all known nuclides and use it to explain
why fission products are unstable.

© Chris Hamper, InThinking

www.physics-inthinking.co.uk 1

7
8 Energy production

8.1 Energy sources

Name: ………………………………. Date: ……………………………….

Efficiency 1

1 A fossil-fuel power station has an efficiency of 28.0%. If it produces 1650 MW of useful energy, how much
energy needs to be supplied by the fossil-fuel per second?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
2 If 1.16 × 106 kg of fuel are supplied every two hours to the generator in the same power station as in question 1,
what is the specific energy of the fuel?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
3 The following Sankey diagram shows the energy conversions taking place in a coal-fired power station.

Given that energy leaves the system due to friction in the generator, release of hot gases from burning coal, and
radiation and convection from the boiler, which process do each of the arrows A, B and C refer to? If the total
energy available from the coal source is 5000.0 MJ s−1, find, using measurement, the amount of degraded energy
shown at A, B and C.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................

1
8
8.1 Energy sources
L:\OUP\OUP_ 1507_IB_Sci\Conte nt\ 09 A rtwork\ 150914 art works

4 What is the output energy of the power station in question 3?

...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
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5 Wind with an average speed of 16 m s−1 approaches a wind turbine with blades that are 24 m in length; the
maximum theoretical power generated by the turbine is 1.8 MW. What will be the maximum theoretical power
generated if the wind speed drops to 12 m s−1 and the blade arms are reduced to 16 m? Assume that the
efficiency of the turbine and the density of air remain constant, and that all of the kinetic energy of the wind
can be utilized.
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
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2
9
8 Energy production

8.1 Energy sources

Name: ………………………………. Date: ……………………………….

Efficiency 2

For this worksheet use g = 9.8 m s−2.

1 A pumped storage system using water has an output of 1.18 MW. If the water falls a total vertical distance of
275 m at a rate of 564 kg s−1, determine the overall efficiency of the system.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
2 A rectangular solar heating panel from a particular company is 1.2 m by 0.88 m and has an efficiency rating of
19%. Assuming that the average solar intensity at the roof of a particular house is 650 W m−2 and that a
minimum output of 3800 W is required for heating, how many panels are required?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
3 A rectangular water storage tank has dimensions 45 m × 65 m × 75 m. If the water falls 280 m vertically
through a turbine and has a density of 1.0 × 103 kg m−3, calculate the power generated by the system in
6.2 hours.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
4 The energy released in a nuclear reactor using uranium-235 is 180 MeV. The energy released by one atom of
carbon-12 during combustion is 4 eV. Calculate the ratio of energy density of uranium-235 to carbon-12. Take
the density of uranium-235 to be 1.9 × 104 kg m−3 and that of carbon-12 to be 1.0 × 103 kg m−3.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
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5 The speed of the wind entering a wind turbine having 14 m long blades is 18 m s−1. If the density of air is 1.2
kg m−3 and the efficiency is 57%, calculate the power output of the wind turbine.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................

1
10
8 Energy production

8.1 Energy sources

1 A wind farm generator produces 10.0 kW. The wind speed increases and its output increases to 90.0 kW.
Assuming the efficiency remained the same, by what factor did the wind speed increase?
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................

2 The intensity of incident solar radiation on a photovoltaic cell is 302 W m−2. If the area of the cell is 2.38 cm2
and its efficiency is 17.6%, calculate the power output.
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................

2
11
8 Energy production

8.2 Thermal energy transfer

Name: ………………………………. Date: ……………………………….

Black-body radiation

For this worksheet use σ = 5.7 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4.

1 A star with a radius of 9.1 × 108 m radiates 8.3 × 1030 J of energy in one hour. What is its surface temperature?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
2 A rectangular prism with dimensions 3.5 cm × 2.8 cm × 8.4 cm is considered a black body. It has a temperature
of 850 K. If it loses power at a rate of 350 J s−1, determine the temperature of the surrounding environment.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
3 A black body emits electromagnetic radiation having a wavelength of 505 nm. What is its surface temperature in
degrees Celsius?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
4 A planet in a particular solar system has a solar constant of 956 W m−2. If the star it orbits emits energy at a rate
of 4.22 × 1026 J s−1, how far is this planet from its star?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
5 A planet similar to Earth in size has a temperature of 30.0 °C and an emissivity of 0.703. It is heated by a star
similar to our Sun where I = 1360 Wm−2.
Radius of Earth = 6.37 × 106
6 Albedo of planet = 0.30
a What is the theoretical temperature (in Kelvin) of the planet if it is considered to be a perfect black body?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
b If the radius of this planet is 6.82 × 106 m, calculate the power of the sunlight received.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................

1
12
8 Energy production

8.2 Thermal energy transfer

c What is the albedo of this planet?

...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................

2
13
8 Energy production

8.2 Thermal energy transfer

Name: ………………………………. Date: ……………………………….

Solar constants and albedo

For this worksheet use σ = 5.7 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4.

1 A star supplies heat to a planet. The power radiated per unit area by the star is 1.0 × 105 times greater than that
radiated per unit area by the planet. How many times greater is the temperature at the surface of the star
compared with that at the surface of the planet?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
2 Two planets, A and B, orbit the same star. If the ratio of power radiated per unit area of planet A to B is 1:81,
what is the ratio of the surface temperature of A to B? Assume that both planets have the same emissivity and
the same orbital radius.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
3 The solar constant of planet X is 1670 W m−2. If the average albedo of this planet is 0.345, determine the
amount of the average reflected intensity from the surface.
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
4 A star radiates energy at a rate of 3.64 × 1026 W. A planet orbits this star with an orbital radius of 2.39 × 1012 m.
a What is the intensity of the incident radiation on the planet?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................................................
b If the average albedo of the planet is 0.388, what is the predicted temperature of the planet?
..................................................................................................................................................................................
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..................................................................................................................................................................................

1
14
8 Energy production

8.2 Thermal energy transfer

5 The average solar intensity incident at the surface of planet Y is 294 W m−2. Determine the temperature of the
planet based on this information. Ignore any potential greenhouse effect.
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................

6 Data related to the greenhouse effect reveals that there is a sharp reduction in the percentage transmittance of
electromagnetic radiation as it passes through water vapour in the atmosphere. This occurs at a frequency of
6.48 × 1013 Hz.
a Given that the speed of light is 3.0 × 108 m s−1, determine the wavelength of this radiation.
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
b Account for the sharp reduction in transmittance at this frequency.
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................................

2
15
8 E NE RG Y P RODU CTION

Questions
1 (IB) b) The flow rate of water in the pipe is
400 m3 s–1. Calculate the power delivered
a) A reactor produces 24 MW of power. The
by the falling water.
efficiency of the reactor is 32%. In the
fission of one uranium-235 nucleus
3.2 × 10–11 J of energy is released. 3 (IB)
Determine the mass of uranium-235 that The energy losses in a pumped storage power
undergoes fission in one year in this reactor. station are shown in the following table.
b) During its normal operation, the following
Source of energy loss Percentage loss of energy
set of reactions takes place in the reactor.
friction and turbulence of
1
n+ 238
U→ 239
U 27
0 92 92
_ water in pipe
239
92 U→ Np +
239
93
0
-1e+v
_ friction in turbine and ac
Np →
239 239
Pu + -1
0
e+v 15
93 94
generator
Comment on the international implications
electrical heating losses 5
of the product of these reactions.
a) Calculate the overall efficiency of the
2 (IB) conversion of the gravitational potential
The diagram shows a pumped storage power energy of water in the tank into electrical
station used for the generation of electrical energy. energy.
b) Sketch a Sankey diagram to represent the
energy conversion in the power station.

tank
4 (IB)
A nuclear power station uses uranium-235
310 m pipe (U-235) as fuel.
a) Outline:
turbine
(i) the processes and energy changes
that occur through which the internal
energy of the working fluid is increased
(ii) the role of the heat exchanger of
lake the reactor and the turbine in the
generation of electrical energy.
b) Identify one process in the power station
where energy is degraded.
Water stored in the tank falls through a pipe to
a lake through a turbine that is connected to an
electricity generator. 5 (IB)

The tank is 50 m deep and has a uniform area The intensity of the Sun’s radiation at the position
of 5.0 × 104 m2. The height from the bottom of of the Earth is approximately 1400 W m–2.
the tank to the turbine is 310 m. Suggest why the average power received per
The density of water is 1.0 × 10 kg m . 3 –3 unit area of the Earth is 350 W m–2.

a) Show that the maximum energy that can be

delivered to the turbine by the falling water
is about 8 × 1012 J.

350

16
 QUESTIONS

6 (IB) a) State the region of the electromagnetic

spectrum to which the resonant frequency
The diagram shows a radiation entering or
of nitrogen oxide belongs.
leaving the Earth’s surface for a simplified model
of the energy balance at the Earth’s surface. b) Using your answer to (a), explain why
nitrogen oxide is classified as a greenhouse
atmosphere TA = 242 K gas.

9 (IB)
The diagram shows a simple energy balance
transmitted through radiated by climate model in which the atmosphere and
atmosphere 245 W m-2 atmosphere the surface of Earth are treated as two bodies
radiated by Earth’s 0.700 σT4A
surface = σT4E each at constant temperature. The surface
Earth’s surface TE of the Earth receives both solar radiation
and radiation emitted from the atmosphere.
a) State the emissivity of the atmosphere. Assume that the Earth’s surface and the
atmosphere behave as black bodies.
b) Determine the intensity of the radiation
radiated by the atmosphere towards the 344 W m-2
Earth’s surface.
c) Calculate TE.
e = 0.720 242 K
atmosphere
7 a) Outline a mechanism by which part of the a = 0.280
radiation radiated by the Earth’s surface
is absorbed by greenhouse gases in the
atmospheric radiation solar radiation
atmosphere. Go on to suggest why the
incoming solar radiation is not affected by
the mechanism you outlined.
288 K
Earth’s surface
b) Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse
gas. State one source and one sink (that
removes CO2) of this gas. Data for this model:
average temperature of the atmosphere of
8 (IB) Earth = 242 K
The graph shows part of the absorption emissivity e of the atmosphere of Earth = 0.720
spectrum of nitrogen oxide (N2O) in which
the intensity of absorbed radiation A is plotted average albedo a of the atmosphere of
against frequency f. Earth = 0.280
solar intensity at top of atmosphere = 344 W m–2
average temperature of the surface of
Earth = 288 K
a) Use the data to determine:
A/arbitrary units

(i) the power radiated per unit area of the

atmosphere
(ii) the solar power absorbed per unit area
at the surface of the Earth.

2 3 4 5
f/×1013 Hz

351

17
8 E NE RG Y P RODU CTION

b) It is suggested that, if the production of 10 (IB)

greenhouse gases were to stay at its
It has been estimated that doubling the amount
present level, then the temperature of
of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere
the Earth’s atmosphere would eventually
changes the albedo of the Earth by 0.01.
rise by 6 K.
Estimate the change in the intensity being
Calculate the power per unit area that reflected by the Earth into space that will result
would then be from this doubling. State why your answer is
(i) radiated by the atmosphere an estimate.
(ii) absorbed by the Earth’s surface. Average intensity received at Earth from the
c) Estimate the increase in temperature of the Sun = 340 W m–2
Earth’s surface. Average albedo = 0.30

352

18


Topic 8.1a Energy Sources Problems

Conceptual Questions
(These questions are not in an IB style but instead designed to check your understanding of the concept of this
topic. You should try your best to appropriately communicate your answer using prose)

1. Identify one process in the power station where energy is degraded [1 mark]

2. In any cyclical process designed to continuously convert thermal energy to work, some energy is
always degraded. Explain what is meant by degraded energy. [2 marks]

3. A laptop computer transfers 65 J of energy every second. Of that energy, 5 J is used by the screen
and 10 J comes out of the computer as sound.
a. Draw a labelled Sankey diagram for the energy transfer. [3 marks]
b. Calculate the overall efficiency of the laptop computer. [1 mark]

4. Define energy density of a fuel. [2 marks]

5. State what is meant by a fossil fuel. [2 marks]

6. Outline one reason why the usage of fossil fuels has increased over the last 400 years. [3 marks]

Calculation-based Questions
7. One litre of gasoline releases 35 MJ of energy when burned. The efficiency of a car operating on
this gasoline is 40%. The speed of the car is 9.0 m/s when the power developed by the engine is
20kW. Calculate how many kilometres the car can go with one litre of gasoline when driven at this
speed. [3 marks]

19


8. A coal burning power station produces 1.0 GW of electricity. The overall efficiency of the power
station is 40%. Taking the energy density of coal to be 30 MJ/kg, calculate the amount of coal that
must be burned in one day. [3 marks]

9. A 250MW coal fired power station burns coal with an energy density of 35MJ/kg. Water enters the
cooling tower at a temperature of 293K and leaves at a temperature of 350K and the water flows
through the tower at a rate of 4200 kg/s. (Assume specific heat of water is 4200J/kg K). Calculate:
a. the energy removed by the water each second. [3 marks]
b. the energy produced by the combustion of coal each second. [1 mark]
c. the overall efficiency of the power station. [1 mark]
d. the mass of coal burned each second. [2 marks]

20


Topic 8.1b Renewable Energy Problems

Conceptual Questions
(These questions are not in an IB style but instead designed to check your understanding of the concept of this topic. You
should try your best to appropriately communicate your answer using prose)

1. Why must the fission process release neutrons if it is to be useful?

2. The energy from nuclear fission appears in the form of thermal energy – but the thermal energy of what?

3. If uranium – 235 released only 1.5 neutrons per fission on the average, would a chain reaction be possible? If
so what would be different?

21

Calculation-based Questions
1. Identify element X in the following fission reaction. (You will need a periodic table). [1 Mark]
𝑛 + %&' + $&
$%𝑈 ⟶ *𝑋 + &.𝑆𝑟 + 2𝑛

2. In the following fission reaction how many neutrons are produced? [1 Mark]
𝑛 + %&' 1&2 $4
$%𝑈 ⟶ '&𝐼 + &$𝑌 + 𝑋𝑛

3. How many fissions take place per second in a 200-MW reactor? Assume 200MeV is released per fission.
[3 Marks]

4. How much Uranium-235 is required to produce the same amount of energy as burning 1kg of coal (about
3x107J)? Assume 200MeV is released per fission. You will need Avogadros number which is 6.02x1023 nuclei
per mole. [3 Marks]

5. What initial mass of uranium-235 is required to operate a 650-MW reactor for 1 year? Assume 40%
efficiency. [3 Marks]

6. Sunlight of intensity 700W/m2 is captured with 70% efficiency by a solar panel, which then sends the
captured energy into a house with 50% efficiency. If the house loses thermal energy through bad insulation
at a rate of 3.0kW, find the area of the solar panel needed in order to keep the temperature of the house
constant.
[2 Marks]

22


7. A solar heater is to heat 300L of water initially at 15°C in a time of 1.2 hours. The amount of solar radiation
falling on the collecting surface of the solar panel is 240W/m2 and is collected at an efficiency of 65%.
Calculate the area of the collecting panel that is required.
[3 Marks]

8. A solar heater is to warm 150kg of water by 30K. The intensity of solar radiation is 600W/m2 and the area of
the panel is 4.0m2. The specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/kg K. Estimate the time it will take assuming a
solar panel efficiency of 60%.
[3 Marks]

23

9. The graph shows the variation with incident solar power P of the temperature of a solar panel used to heat
water when thermal energy is extracted from the water at a rate of 320W. The area of the panel is 2.0m2
and the intensity of the solar radiation incident on the panel is 400W/m2. Calculate (a) the temperature of
the water; (b) the power incident on the panel and; (c) the efficiency of the panel.
[3 Marks Total]

360
355
350
345
Temperature (K)

340
335
330
325
320
315
310
300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500
Incident Intensity per metre squared (W)

10. Find the power developed when water in a waterfall with a flow rate of 500L/s falls from a height of 40m.
[3 Marks]

11. Water falls from a vertical height h at a flow rate (volume per second) Q. Deduce the maximum theoretical
power that can be extracted is given by P = ρQgh.
[3 Marks]

24


Topic 8.2 Greenhouse Effect Problems

Conceptual Questions
(These questions are not in an IB style but instead designed to check your understanding of the concept of this topic. You
should try your best to appropriately communicate your answer using prose)

1. Evaporation is a method of energy loss. Do you expect this method to be more significant for a tropical
ocean or an arctic ocean? Explain your answer.

2. Distinguish between the natural greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect.

3. Outline the main ways in which the surface of the earth loses thermal energy to the atmosphere and to
space.

25

Calculation-based Questions
1. If one assumes the sun is a perfect black body with a surface temperature of 6000K, estimate the energy per
second emitted from its surface. Assume that the radius of the sun is 7x108m.

2. It takes 2x1011J of thermal energy to heat 50m2 of the surface of the Earth by 10K. Determine the surface
heat capacity, Cs.

3. Consider the energy balance climate diagram shown below.

a. The incident solar radiation on the earth’s atmosphere is about 1380W/m2. Suggest the reasons why
the model uses an average incoming solar radiation of 343W/m2. [2 Marks]

b. From the diagram above determine the albedo. [1 Mark]

c. Suggest the reasons why your answer calculated above is only an average. [1 Mark]

26

d. The Earth is not a perfect Black-body.
i. What is meant by emissivity? [1 Mark]

ii. Using the model above, determine the assumed emissivity. [1 Mark]

e. What can be deduced about the temperature of the Earth from the model shown above? [3 Marks]

f. Outline a mechanism by which part of the radiation emitted by the earth’s surface is absorbed by
greenhouse gases. [3 Marks]

g. CO2 is a greenhouse gas. State one method by which it may be removed from the atmosphere.
[1 Mark]

27
 42 Evaporation is a method of thermal energy loss. R E C
Explain whether you would expect this method
to be more significant for a tropical ocean or an
arctic ocean.
43 The diagram shows two energy flow diagrams
a
for thermal energy transfer to and from specific
areas of the surface of the Earth. R represents the
R E C
net energy incident on the surface in the form of
radiation, E is the thermal energy lost from the
Earth due to evaporation, and C is the thermal
energy conducted to the atmosphere because of
the temperature difference between the surface b
and the atmosphere.
Suggest whether the Earth area in each diagram 44 It is estimated that a change of albedo by 0.01
is most likely to be dry and cool or moist and will result in a 1 °C temperature change. A large
warm. area of the Earth consists of 60% water and
40% land. Calculate the expected change in
temperature if melting ice causes a change in the
proportion of the area covered by water from
60% to 70%. Take the albedo of dry land to be
0.30 and that of water to be 0.10.

Exam-style questions

1 A power plant produces 500 MW of electrical power with an overall efficiency of 20%. What is the input power to
the plant?
A 100 MW B 400 MW C 625 MW D 2500 MW

2 The specific energy of a fuel is the:

A energy that can be extracted from a unit volume of the fuel
B energy that can be extracted from a unit mass of the fuel
C energy contained in a unit volume of the fuel
D energy contained in a unit mass of the fuel.

340
28
3 What is the efficiency of a system whose Sankey diagram is shown below?

output

input

A 10% B 20% C 30% D 40%

4 Which of the following lists contains one renewable and one non-renewable source of power?
A uranium, coal
B natural gas, biomass
C wind power, wave power
D hydropower, solar power

5 A plastic ruler and a metallic ruler are in the same room. The metallic ruler ‘feels’ colder when touched. What is the
reason for this?
A Plastic has a lower specific heat capacity than metal.
B Plastic has a higher specific heat capacity than metal.
C Plastic is a better conductor of heat than metal
D Plastic is a worse conductor of heat than metal.

6 A fireplace warms a room by:

A conduction
B convection
C radiation
D conduction, convection and radiation

7 A star explodes in the vacuum of space. The thermal energy transferred by the star takes place through:
A radiation B conduction C convection D evaporation

8 ENERGY PRODUCTION 341

29
 8 Four different rooms are losing energy to the outside through a wall. The temperature difference between the
inside and the outside of the rooms is the same. Which combination of wall area and wall thickness results in the
smallest rate of heat loss?

Area Thickness
A S d
B 2S d
2
C S 2d
D 2S 2d

9 The graph shows the variation with wavelength of the I 1.0

intensity from a unit area of a black body. The scale on
0.8
the vertical axis on all graphs in this question is the same.
0.6

0.4

0.2

The area and the temperature of the black body are both 0.0
halved. Which graph now shows the correct variation 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
λ / mm
with wavelength of the intensity from a unit area of
the body?
I 1.0 I 1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
λ / mm λ / mm
A B
I 1.0 I 1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
λ / mm λ / mm
C D

342
30
10 The intensity of solar radiation incident on a planet is S. The diagram represents the energy balance of the planet.
The atmosphere reflects an intensity 0.20S and radiates 0.35S. The surface reflects 0.05S and radiates 0.40S.
S 0.20S 0.35S

0.05S 0.40S

What is the albedo of the planet?

A 0.05 B 0.20 C 0.25 D 0.60

11 A nuclear power plant produces 800 MW of electricity with an overall efficiency of 0.32. The fission reaction
taking place in the core of the reactor is:

1 235
0n + 92 U → 140 94 1
54 Xe + 38Sr + 20n

a i Using the masses provided below show that the energy released in one fission reaction is
about 180 MeV. [2]
1 235 140 94
0n = 1.009 u, 92 U = 235.044 u, 54 Xe = 139.922 u, 38Sr = 93.915 u.

ii Estimate the specific energy of uranium-235. [2]

iii Show that the mass of uranium-235 undergoing fission in one year is about 1500 kg. [3]
b In a nuclear fission reactor, describe the role of:
i the moderator [2]
ii the control rods [2]
iii the heat exchanger. [2]
c Suggest what might happen to a nuclear fission reactor that does not have a moderator. [2]
d State one advantage and one disadvantage of nuclear power. [2]

12 In a pumped storage system, the high reservoir of water has area 4.8 × 104 m2 and an average depth of 38 m.
When water from this reservoir falls to the lower reservoir the centre of mass of the water is lowered by a
vertical distance of 225 m. The water flows through a turbine connected to a generator at a rate of 350 m3 s–1.
a Calculate the mass of the water in the upper reservoir. [1]
b Determine the loss of gravitational potential energy when the upper reservoir has been completely
emptied. [2]
c Estimate the power supplied by the falling water. [2]
The efficiency of the plant in converting this energy into electricity is 0.60. The price of electricity sold
by this power station at peak times is $0.12 per kW h. The plant can buy off-peak electrical power at
$0.07 per kW h. The efficiency at which water can be pumped back up to the high reservoir is 0.64.
d Estimate the profit made by the power plant for a single emptying and refilling of the high reservoir. [3]

8 ENERGY PRODUCTION 343

31
 13 a Outline, in the context of a wind turbine, the meaning of primary and secondary energy. [2]
b The power that can be theoretically extracted by a wind turbine of blade radius R in wind of speed v is
Pmax = 12 R2v3
i State one assumption that has been made in deriving this expression. [1]
ii Explain one other reason why the actual power derived from the wind turbine will be less than Pmax. [2]
c A wind turbine has an overall efficiency of 0.30. The following data are available:
Density of air entering turbine = 1.2 kg m–3
Density of air leaving turbine = 1.9 kg m–3
Speed of air entering turbine = 8.2 m s–1
Speed of air leaving turbine = 5.3 m s–1
Blade radius = 12 m
Estimate the power extracted by this wind turbine. [3]

14 a On a hot summer day there is usually a breeze from the sea to the shore. Explain this observation. [3]
b Explain why walking on a day when the temperature is 22 °C would be described as very comfortable
but swimming in water of the same temperature would be described as cool. [2]
A black body has temperature T. The graph shows the variation with wavelength of the intensity of
radiation emitted by a unit area of the body. The units on the vertical axis are arbitrary.
I 1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
λ /μm

c i Describe what is meant by a black body. [2]

ii Estimate T. [2]
d On a copy of the axes above sketch a graph to show the variation with wavelength of the intensity of
radiation emitted by a unit area of:
i a grey body of emissivity 0.5 and temperature T (label this graph G) [2]
2T
ii a black body of temperature (label this graph B). [2]
3

344
32
15 The diagram shows a black body of temperature T1 emitting radiation towards a grey body of lower temperature
T2 and emissivity e. No radiation is transmitted through the grey body.

a Using all or some of the symbols T1, T2, e and , state expressions for the intensity:
i radiated by the black body [1]
ii radiated by the grey body [1]
iii absorbed by the grey body [1]
iv reflected by the grey body. [1]
b The black and the grey bodies in a gain as much energy as they lose. Deduce that their temperatures
must be the same. [2]

16 The power radiated by the Sun is P and the Earth–Sun distance is d. The albedo of the Earth is .
a i Deduce that the solar constant (i.e. the intensity of the solar radiation) at the position of the Earth is
P
S= [2]
4 d2
ii State what is meant by albedo. [1]
S(1 − )
b i Explain why the average intensity absorbed by the Earth surface is [3]
4
ii P = 3.9 × 1026 W, d = 1.5 × 1011 m and = 0.30. Assuming the Earth surface behaves as a black body,
estimate the average equilibrium temperature of the Earth. [2]
c The average Earth temperature is much higher than the answer to b ii. Suggest why this is so. [3]

8 ENERGY PRODUCTION 345

33
? Test yourself
1 a Distinguish between specific energy and energy 8 a Calculate the energy released in the fission
density of a fuel. reaction:
b Estimate the energy density of water that falls 1 235
0n + 92U → 236 140 94 1
92U → 54Xe + 38Sr + 2 0n
from a waterfall of height 75 m and is used to
drive a turbine. (Mass data: uranium-235, 235 92U = 235.043 923 u;
2 A power plant produces 500 MW of power. xenon-140, 140 54Xe = 139.921 636 u;
94
a Determine the energy produced in one second. strontium-94, 38Sr = 93.915 360 u; neutron,
1
Express your answer in joules. 0n = 1.008 665 u.)
b Determine the energy (in joules) produced in b The power output is 200 MW. Estimate the
one year. number of fission reactions per second.
3 A power plant operates in four stages. The 9 The energy released in a typical fission reaction
efficiency in each stage is 80%, 40%, 12% and 65%. involving uranium-235 is 200 MeV.
a Find the overall efficiency of the plant. a Calculate the specific energy of uranium-235.
b Sketch a Sankey diagram for the energy flow in b Estimate how much coal (specific energy
this plant. 30 MJ kg−1) must be burned in order to give
4 A coal power plant with 30% efficiency burns the same energy as that released in nuclear
10 million kilograms of coal a day. (Take the fission with 1 kg of uranium-235.
specific energy of coal to be 30 MJ kg−1.) 10 a A 500 MW nuclear power plant converts
a Calculate the power output of the plant. the energy released in nuclear reactions into
b Estimate the rate at which thermal energy is electrical energy with an efficiency of 40%.
being discarded by this plant. Calculate how many fissions of uranium-235
c The discarded thermal energy is carried away are required per second. Take the energy
by water whose temperature is not allowed to released per reaction to be 200 MeV.
increase by more than 5 °C. Calculate the rate at b What mass of uranium-235 is required to
which water must flow away from the plant. fission per second?
5 One litre of gasoline releases 34 MJ of energy 11 a Draw a diagram of a fission reactor, explaining
when burned. The efficiency of a car operating the role of i fuel rods, ii control rods and iii
on this gasoline is 40%. The speed of the car is moderator.
9.0 m s−1 when the power developed by the engine b In what form is the energy released in a fission
is 20 kW. Calculate how many kilometres the car reactor?
can go with one litre of gasoline when driven at 12 Distinguish between a solar panel and a
this speed. photovoltaic cell.
6 A coal-burning power plant produces 1.0 GW 13 Sunlight of intensity 700 W m−2 is captured
of electricity. The overall efficiency of the power with 70% efficiency by a solar panel, which then
plant is 40%. Taking the specific energy of coal to sends the captured energy into a house with 50%
be 30 MJ kg−1, calculate the amount of coal that efficiency.
must be burned in one day. a The house loses thermal energy through bad
7 In the context of nuclear fission reactors, state insulation at a rate of 3.0 kW. Find the area of
what is meant by: the solar panel needed in order to keep the
a uranium enrichment temperature of the house constant.
b moderator b Draw a Sankey diagram for the energy flow
c critical mass. from the panel to the house.

8 ENERGY PRODUCTION 327

34
 14 A solar heater is to heat 300 kg of water initially 18 a State the expected increase in the power
at 15 °C to a temperature of 50 °C in a time of 12 extracted from a wind turbine when:
hours. The amount of solar radiation falling on the i the length of the blades is doubled
collecting surface of the solar panel is 240 W m−2 ii the wind speed is doubled
and is collected at an efficiency of 65%. Calculate iii both the length of the blades and the wind
the area of the collecting panel that is required. speed are doubled.
15 A solar heater is to warm 150 kg of water b Outline reasons why the actual increase in the
by 30 K. The intensity of solar radiation extracted power will be less than your answers.
is 600 W m−2 and the area of the panels is 19 Wind of speed v is incident on the blades of a
4.0 m−2. The specific heat capacity of water is wind turbine. The blades present the wind with
4.2 × 103 J kg−1 K−1. Estimate the time this will an area A. The maximum theoretical power that
take, assuming a solar panel efficiency of 60%. can be extracted is given by:
16 The graph shows the variation with incident P = 12 Av3
solar intensity I of the temperature of a solar
State the assumptions made in deriving this
panel used to heat water. Thermal energy is
equation.
extracted from the water at a rate of 320 W. The
20 Air of density 1.2 kg m−3 and speed 8.0 m s−1 is
area of the panel is 2.0 m2. Calculate, for a solar
intensity of 400 W m−2: incident on the blades of a wind turbine.The radius
of the blades is 1.5 m. Immediately after passing
T / K 360
through the blades, the wind speed is reduced
350 to 3.0 m s−1 and the density of air is 1.8 kg m−3.
Estimate the power extracted from the wind.
340
21 Calculate the blade radius of a wind turbine
330 that must extract 25 kW of power out of wind
of speed 9.0 s−1. The density of air is 1.2 kg m−3.
320 State any assumptions made in this calculation.
22 Find the power developed when water in a
310
300 350 400 450 500 waterfall with a flow rate of 500 kg s−1 falls from a
I / W m–2 height of 40 m.
a the temperature of the water
23 Water falls from a vertical height h at a flow
b the power incident on the panel
rate (volume per second) Q. Deduce that the
c the efficiency of the panel.
maximum theoretical power that can be extracted
17 The graph shows the power curve of a wind
is given by P = Qgh.
turbine as a function of the wind speed. For
24 A student explaining pumped storage systems says
a wind speed of 10 m s−1, calculate the energy
that the water that is stored at a high elevation is
produced in the course of one year, assuming
allowed to move lower, thus producing electricity.
that the wind blows at this speed for 1000 hours
Some of this electricity is used to raise the water
in the year.
back to its original height, and the process is then
P / kW 300
repeated. What is wrong with this statement?
250 25 Make an annotated energy flow diagram showing
200 the energy changes that are taking place in each
150 of the following:
100 a a conventional electricity-producing power
station using coal
50
b a hydroelectric power plant
0
0 5 10 15 c an electricity-producing wind turbine
v / m s–1 d an electricity-producing nuclear power station.

328
35
 ? Test yourself
26 A cylindrical solid tube is made out of two 31 The total power radiated by a body of area
smaller tubes, X and Y, of different material. X 5.00 km2 and emissivity 0.800 is 1.35 × 109 W.
and Y have the same length and cross-sectional Assume that the body radiates into a vacuum at
area. The tube is used to conduct energy from a temperature 0 K. Calculate the temperature of
hot to a cold reservoir. the body.
32 Assume that the distance d between the Sun and
energy flow the Earth decreases. Then the Earth’s average
temperature T will go up. The fraction of the
hot X Y cold power radiated by the Sun that is received on
1
Earth is proportional to 2; the power radiated
d
by the Earth is proportional to T 4.
a Deduce the dependence of the temperature T
State and explain whether the following are
of the Earth on the distance d.
equal or not:
b Hence estimate the expected rise in
a the rates of flow of energy through X and Y
temperature if the distance decreases by 1.0%.
b the temperature differences across X and Y.
Take the average temperature of the Earth to
27 Suggest whether there is any point in using a
be 288 K.
ceiling fan in winter.
33 a Define the term intensity in the context of
28 Calculate the ratio of the power radiated per unit
radiation.
area from two black bodies at temperature 900 K
b Estimate the intensity of radiation emitted by
and 300 K.
a naked human body of surface area 1.60 m2,
29 a State what you understand by the term black
temperature 37 °C and emissivity 0.90, a
body.
distance of 5.0 m from the body.
b Give an example of a body that is a good
34 A body radiates energy at a rate (power) P.
approximation to a black body.
a Deduce that the intensity of this radiation at
c By what factor does the rate of radiation
distance d from the body is given by:
from a body increase when the temperature is
P
increased from 50 °C to 100 °C? I=
4 d2
30 The graph shows the variation with wavelength
of the intensity of radiation emitted by two b State one assumption made in deriving this
bodies of identical shape. result.
35 The graph shows the variation with wavelength
I / arbitrary 2.0
units
of the intensity of the radiation emitted by a
1.5 black body.
I / arbitrary 6
1.0 units
5
0.5 4
3
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2
λ / × 10–5 m 1

a Explain why the temperature of the two bodies 0

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75
is the same. λ / × 10–5 m
b The upper line corresponds to a black body.
Calculate the emissivity of the other body.

338
36
 a Determine the temperature of the black body. The average incoming radiation intensity is
b Copy the diagram and, on the same axes, draw S –2
4 = 350 W m . The albedo of the atmosphere is
a graph to show the variation with wavelength
0.300. Assume that only a fraction t of the energy
of the intensity of radiation emitted by a black
radiated by the Earth actually escapes the Earth
body of temperature 600 K.
and that the surface behaves as a black body.
36 a Define the term albedo.
The model assumes that part of the radiation
b State three factors that the albedo of a surface
from the Earth is reflected back down from the
depends on.
atmosphere.
37 a State what is meant by the greenhouse
a The intensity radiated by the Earth is I1, the
effect.
intensity radiated by the atmosphere is I2 and
b State the main greenhouse gases in the Earth’s
the fraction of the intensity escaping the Earth
atmosphere, and for each give three natural
is I3 . By examining the energy balance of the
and three man-made sources.
atmosphere and the surface separately, show
38 A researcher uses the following data for a
that:
simple climatic model of an Earth without an
2 (1 − )S
atmosphere (see Worked example 8.10): incident I1 = × ,
1 − +t 4
solar radiation = 350 W m–2, absorbed solar
radiation = 250 W m–2. 1 − − t (1 − )S
I2 = × and
a Make an energy flow diagram for these data. 1− +t 4
b Determine the average albedo for the Earth 2t (1 − )S
I3 = ×
that is to be used in the modelling. 1− +t 4
c Determine the intensity of the outgoing long- b Show that as much energy enters the Earth–
wave radiation. atmosphere system as leaves it.
d Estimate the temperature of the Earth c Show that a surface temperature of T ≈ 288 K
according to this model, assuming a constant implies that t = 0.556.
Earth temperature. d i Explain why the emissivity of the
39 The diagram shows a more involved model of atmosphere is 1 − t − .
the greenhouse effect. ii Calculate the temperature of the atmosphere.
S
40 Outline the main ways in which the surface of
αS I3 I2
4 4 the Earth loses thermal energy to the atmosphere
and to space.
41 a Compare the albedo of a subtropical, warm,
dry land with that of a tropical ocean.
α I1 I1 I2 b Suggest mechanisms through which the
subtropical land and the tropical ocean lose
thermal energy to the atmosphere.
c If the sea level were to increase, sea water
would cover dry land. Suggest one change in
Exam tip the regional climate that might come about as
You will not get anything as complicated a result.
as this in the exam, but this is excellent
practice in understanding energy balance
equations.

8 ENERGY PRODUCTION 339

37
 42 Evaporation is a method of thermal energy loss. R E C
Explain whether you would expect this method
to be more significant for a tropical ocean or an
arctic ocean.
43 The diagram shows two energy flow diagrams
a
for thermal energy transfer to and from specific
areas of the surface of the Earth. R represents the
R E C
net energy incident on the surface in the form of
radiation, E is the thermal energy lost from the
Earth due to evaporation, and C is the thermal
energy conducted to the atmosphere because of
the temperature difference between the surface b
and the atmosphere.
Suggest whether the Earth area in each diagram 44 It is estimated that a change of albedo by 0.01
is most likely to be dry and cool or moist and will result in a 1 °C temperature change. A large
warm. area of the Earth consists of 60% water and
40% land. Calculate the expected change in
temperature if melting ice causes a change in the
proportion of the area covered by water from
60% to 70%. Take the albedo of dry land to be
0.30 and that of water to be 0.10.

Exam-style questions

1 A power plant produces 500 MW of electrical power with an overall efficiency of 20%. What is the input power to
the plant?
A 100 MW B 400 MW C 625 MW D 2500 MW

2 The specific energy of a fuel is the:

A energy that can be extracted from a unit volume of the fuel
B energy that can be extracted from a unit mass of the fuel
C energy contained in a unit volume of the fuel
D energy contained in a unit mass of the fuel.

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Topic 8 (New) [34 marks]
In a pumped storage hydroelectric system, water is stored in a dam of depth 34 m.

The water leaving the upper lake descends a vertical distance of 110 m and turns the turbine of
a generator before exiting into the lower lake.

Water flows out of the upper lake at a rate of 1.2 × 10 5 m 3 per minute. The density of water is
1.0 × 103 kg m –3.

1a. Estimate the specific energy of water in this storage system, giving an appropriate unit [2 marks]
for your answer.

39
Show that the average rate at which the gravitational potential energy of the water