SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL

Naga City

GLOBAL SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

SJS LEARNING MODULE

This copy of the learning module belongs to:

________________________________________________________________

Grade 11 - __________________
THE SJS LEARNING MODULE
The SJS Learning Module has the following parts and corresponding icons:

START UP
This icon will give you an idea of what previously learned skills you will need for this
module or an idea of what you are about to learn. There are activities you need to do to
recall/review those skills or to prepare you for the new learning.

WORK IT OUT
This icon contains the concepts you need to learn, including the examples illustrating
the concepts. The examples are in the form of questions with solutions for you to understand
better the concept and to be guided on how to properly apply the concept learned.

INTEGRATE
This icon takes care of value integration. This highlights what values you will acquire or
develop and some real-life applications of the concept to deepen your learning by relating
concepts to experiences.

TRY THESE!
This icon prompts you to assess how much you have learned by applying the concepts
learned. This is the same as the practice exercises done inside the classroom. These activities
can be done online, thru the LMS, or offline in your notebook. This was designed to help you
study on your own, and as such, the Answer Key is provided on the last page of the module.

CHALLENGE YOURSELF
This icon will provide you with challenge questions to stimulate your higher-order
thinking skills. Some of the challenge questions or activities are brain exercises to further
deepen your understanding of the concept.

HIGH FIVE!
This icon is a celebration of your success in the module. The questions in this part ask
you to provide what you have learned throughout the discussions. You may be asked also
to reflect or assess how well you performed.

❖❖
This learning module was collaboratively developed and reviewed by the
teacher, the Subject Area Coordinator, and the Academic Affairs Officer. We
encourage the learner, the parents, and/or the guardian to give their feedback,
comments, and recommendations directly to the school.
❖❖

All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
electronic or mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from Saint Joseph School. © 2020

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 2

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...... 4

Learning Standards ……………………………………………………………………… 4

Pre-Assessment ………………………………………………………………………… 5

Lesson 1: Probability and Normal Distribution ……………………………………… 8

Work It Out…………………………………………………………………………. 8
Probability Distribution…………………………………………………. 8
Normal Distribution………………………………………………………. 13
Try These……………………………………………………………………………. 17
Challenge Yourself………………………………………………………………. 18
High Five……………………………………………………………………………. 18
The Standard Normal Table……………………………………………………. 19

Lesson 2: Sampling and Sampling Distribution………………………………........ 20

Work It Out…………………………………………………………………………. 20
Random Sampling……………………………………………………... 20
Parameter and Statistic…………………………………………………. 24
Sample Mean of a Frequency Distribution…………………………. 27
Sample Variance and Standard Deviation………………………… 28
The Central Limit Theorem……………………………………………… 30
Try These…………………………………………………………………………… 35
Challenge Yourself………………………………………………………………. 36
High Five…………………………………………………………………………… 36

Lesson 3: Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………………………. 37

Work It Out…………………………………………………………………………. 37
Common Terms in Inferential Statistics………………………………. 37
The z and t Distributions…………………………………………………. 38
Hypothesis Testing………………………………………………………… 41
Challenge Yourself………………………………………………………………. 46
The t Distribution Table…………………………………………………………. 48

Post-Assessment………………………………………………………………………… 49

Answer Key………………………………………………………………………………… 52

Worksheet 1………………………………………………………………………………. 53

Worksheet 2………………………………………………………………………………... 56

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 3

INTRODUCTION

Tossing a coin, rolling a die, and spinning a wheel are

few of those many games of chance that mostly of us are
very familiar with. A game of chance is a game whose
outcome is strongly influenced by some randomizing
device. It is a different game where skill is not the basis for
winning but the “luck” of surpassing the probabilities.

In mathematics, probability is used to predict how

likely events are to happen. This is discussed in theories to help in making larger
decisions that would make or break a life of a someone who wants to bet over the
chances.

Aside from probability, statistics also deal with decision-making. We test claims
and hypotheses based on statistic values to make an informed decision. Usually used
in Quantitative Research, statistics help in determining whether two or more variables
are significantly different or not no matter how big or small their intrinsic values.

In this module, you will learn a lot more about Probability and Statistics and
how this branch of Mathematics is used in real-life.

LEARNING STANDARDS

By the end of this course, you should be able to demonstrate an understanding

of key concepts of random variables, sampling, test of hypothesis, and probability,
sampling, and normal distributions; solve problems involving probabilities and
statistics to make sound recommendations and perform appropriate test of
hypothesis to make inferences in real-life problems across disciplines.

To achieve those goals, the lessons in this module will help you to learn:

Lesson 1:
1. calculate the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a discrete random
variable,
2. solve problems involving mean and variance of probability distributions,
3. identify regions under the normal curve corresponding to different standard
normal values; and
4. convert a normal random variable to a standard normal variable and vice
versa.

Lesson 2:
1. identify the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a population and a
sample,
2. define the sampling distribution of the sample mean for the normal population
when the variance is known and unknown,
3. illustrate the Central Limit Theorem,
4. define the sampling distribution of the sample mean using the Central Limit
Theorem; and
5. solve a problem involving sampling distribution of the sample mean.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 4

Lesson 3:
1. formulates the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses,
2. identifies the appropriate form of the test-statistic,
3. identifies the appropriate rejection region for a given level of significance,
4. computes for the test-statistic value,
5. draws conclusion based on the test-statistic value and the rejection region;
and
6. solves problems involving test of hypothesis.

PRE-ASSESSMENT
Directions: Find out how much you already know about this module. Choose the
letter that you think best answers the questions. Write your response before the
number in each item. If the answer is not found in the options, write E. Please answer
all the items. Take note of the items that you could not answer correctly and find the
correct answer as you go through this module.

1. Which of the following is NOT a discrete variable?

A. pages of book
B. number of students in 3 universities
C. frequency of absences
D. velocity of a bus

2. In a single throw of a pair of coins, what is the probability that only one head
will appear?
1 1 1 1
A. 8 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2

3. In a single throw of a pair of dice, how many sample point(s) will have a sum
of 12
A. 0 B. 1 C. 2 D. 3

For number 4-6. Consider the following discrete probability distribution:

X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.15 0.25

4. What is the sample space of the experiment?

A. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
B. {0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0,3}
C. 𝑥𝜖[0, 4]
D. 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒

5. What are the sample points associated to 0.1≤ P(X) ≤ 0.3?

A. {1, 2, 3, 4}
B. {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
C. {0, 1, 2, 3}
D. {1, 3}

6. What are the sample points associated to P(X) < 0.2

A. {1, 2} B. {1} C. {1, 2, 3} D. {2, 3}

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 5

 For number 7-8. Consider the given discrete probability distribution.
Sample
1 2 3 4 5 6
points x
1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X=x) 21 21 21 21 21 21

7. What is 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 2)?

1 3 6 2
A. 21 B. 21 C. 21 D. 21

8. What is 𝑃(1 < 𝑋 < 5)?

9 10 14 15
A. 21 B. 21 C. 21 D. 21

9. Which of the following is NOT a probability function of a probability

distribution?
A. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 0.1, 0.25, 0.15, 0.35, 0.15
B. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 20%, 50%, 15%, 15%
2 1 2 1
C. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 4 , 4 , 4 , 4
2 2 4 2
D. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 7 , 7 , 14 , 14

For number 10-11. Leni is one of the students who took the final examinations
in 3 subjects. The result of their examination are as follows:
Subject Average score of students 𝜎 Leni’s Score (x)
Math 78 5 85
English 82 9 87
Science 85 15 92

10. In which subject did Leni get a lower score than the rest?
A. Math B. English C. Science D. None

11. If top 7% of the examinees in math will be given incentives, what must be
their score to be part of the list?
A. 90 and higher
B. 95 and higher
C. 80 and higher
D. 85 and higher

12. In sampling distribution, the mean of the sample means is equal to the ___.
A. population mean
B. sample variance
C. population variance
D. sample standard deviation

13. Which of the following has a lower spread around the mean and has a taller
peak?
A. distribution of the sample means of a students’ outputs
B. sampling distribution of 8 sample means of a machine’s efficiency
C. sampling distribution of the population means of cholesterol level in meats
D. distribution of 3 sample means from the distance traveled by vehicle

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 6

 For items 14-16: Use the set of data below.
12, 15, 18, 21, 35, 42, 54

14. What is the population mean?

A. 27 B. 30.35 C. 28.14 D. 30

15. What is the population variance?

A. 3.97 B. 15.78 C. 3.5 D. 1.5

16. What is the sample standard deviation if n = 4?

A. 1.97 B. 2.19 C. 3.5 D. 1.5

17. An expert claim that the results of his proposed treatment for insomnia is
normally distributed and can cure an average of 15 patients per session with
standard deviation of 4 patients per session. What is the probability that in 6
sessions, the average of healed patients per session is less than 12?
A. 0.4671 B. 0.5329 C. 0.0329 D. 0.9671

18. What kind of sampling technique is illustrated if for instance, samples are
randomly taken from provinces first, then subsequent cities, then municipalities
or barangays, and then households?
A. Systematic sampling
B. Stratified sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Multi-stage sampling

19. What kind of sampling technique is illustrated if we wish to draw a sample of

2,000 from a population of 6,000, we can select every 3rd person in the list?
A. Systematic sampling
B. Stratified sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Lottery sampling

20. What kind of sampling technique is illustrated if members of the population

have their names represented by a small piece of paper which are then mixed
and picked out at random? Then the selected members will be included in the
sample.
A. Systematic sampling
B. Stratified sampling
C. Cluster sampling
D. Lottery sampling

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 7

 LESSON 1 PROBABILITY AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

LEARNING TARGETS
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. distinguish between a discrete and a continuous random variable,
2. compute probabilities corresponding to a given random variable,
3. calculate the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a discrete random variable,
4. solve problems involving mean and variance of probability distributions,
5. construct a normal curve,
6. identify regions under the normal curve corresponding to different standard normal values,
7. convert a normal random variable to a standard normal variable and vice versa; and
8. compute probabilities and percentiles using the standard normal table.

WORK IT OUT
 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
✓ Concept of a Random Variable
Definition. A function whose value is a real number determined by each element 𝑛 the sample space is
called a random variable.

Remark. We shall use an uppercase letter, say 𝑋, to denote a random variable and its corresponding
lowercase letter, 𝑥 in this case, for one of its values.

Illustrative Example 1 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

(Experiment #1): An experiment consists of tossing a coin 3 times and observing the result. The possible
outcome and the values of the random variables 𝑋 and 𝑌, where 𝑋 is the number of heads and 𝑌 is the
number of heads minus the number of tails are

Sample Points X Y

HHH 3 3

HHT 2 1

HTH 2 1

HTT 1 -1

THH 2 1

THT 1 -1

TTH 1 -1

TTT 0 -3

✓ Discrete and Continuous Probability Distributions

Definition. If a sample space contains a finite number of possibilities or an unending sequence with as
many elements as there are whole numbers, it is called a discrete sample space.

Definition. A random variable defines over a discrete sample space is called a discrete random variable.

Definition. If a sample space contains an infinite number of possibilities equal to the number of points
on a line segment, it is called a continuous sample space.
PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 8
Definition. A random variable defines over a continuous sample space is called a continuous random
variable.

Illustrative Example 2 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The following are examples of discrete and continuous random variables.
1. Let 𝑋 = number of students randomly selected to be interviewed by a researcher. This is a discrete
random variable because its possible values are 0, 1, or 2, and so on.
2. Let 𝑌 = number of left-handed teachers randomly selected in a faculty room. This is a discrete
random variable because its possible values are 0, 1, or 2, and so on.
3. Let 𝑍 = number of defective light bulbs among the randomly selected light bulbs. This is a discrete
random variable because the number of defective light bulbs, which X can assume, are 0, 1, 2, and
so on.
4. Let 𝐴 = the weights of randomly selected students in kilograms. This is a continuous random
variable because its values can be between any two given weights. Also, weights are measured
using a weighing scale.
5. Let 𝐵 = the lengths of randomly selected shoes of senior high school students in centimeters. The
lengths of shoes of the students can be between any two given lengths. The values can be obtained
by using a measuring device, a ruler. Hence, the random variable B is a continuous random
variable.
6. Let 𝐶 = the hourly temperatures last Sunday. C is a continuous random variable because its values
can be between any two given temperatures resulting from the use of a thermometer.

Exercise #1: Determine if the given random variable is discrete or continuous. Write D if it is discrete
and C if it is continuous.
______1. 𝑋 = number of points scored in the last season by a randomly selected basketball player in the
PBA
______2. 𝑌 = the heights of daisy plants in the backyard
______3. 𝑋 = the height of a randomly selected student inside the library in centimeter
______4. 𝑌 = the number of birds in a nest
______5. 𝑋 = the number of women randomly selected in a political rally
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
✓ Discrete Probability Distributions

Definition. A table or formula listing all possible values that a discrete random variable can take on,
along with the associated probabilities, is called a discrete probability distribution.

Remark. The following properties must be satisfied before a distribution can be considered a discrete
probability distribution.

a. The probability of each value of a discrete random variable is between 0 and 1

inclusive.
0 ≤ 𝑃(𝑥) ≤ 1
b. The probabilities associated with all possible values of a discrete random variable
must sum to exactly 1.
∑ 𝑃(𝑥) = 1

Illustrative Example 3 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

For Experiment #1, the discrete probability distributions of the random variables X and Y are

𝑥 0 1 2 3
1 3 3 1
𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)
8 8 8 8

𝑦 -3 -1 1 3
1 3 3 1
𝑃(𝑌 = 𝑦)
8 8 8 8
PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 9
Exercise #2: Answer the following items involving discrete probability distribution.

1. The spinner shown at the right is divided into eight sections. Let 𝑋 be the
score wherein the arrow will stop (numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, in the drawing
below).
a. Find the probability that the spinner will stop at 1, 2, 3, and 4.
b. Construct the discrete probability distribution of the random variable 𝑋.

2. A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution. Find the value of 𝑃(2).
𝑥 0 1 2 3 4
𝑃(𝑥) 0.1 0.2 ? 0.2 0.2

3. A random variable X has the following probability distribution. Find the value of 𝑐.
𝑥 1 2 3 4
𝑃(𝑥) 0.21 29𝑐 0.29 0.21

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
✓ Probability Mass Function
Definition. A probability distribution describes the probability of each specific value in a random
variable. The probability distribution of a discrete random variable is called probability mass function
(𝑝𝑚𝑓). The 𝑝𝑚𝑓 of 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) and satisfies the following two basic properties:

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) ≥ 0 if 𝑥 𝜖 the Support S

b. ∑𝑥∈𝑆 𝑓(𝑥) = ∑𝑥∈𝑆 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 1

Definition. The Support S of a random variable is the set of values that the random variable can take. It
contains countably infinite number of possible values.

Illustrative Example 4 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Suppose a random variable 𝑋 can only take four values (0, 1, 2, and 3). If each value has equal probability,
then its probability mass function is:
1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
4
1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 1
4
𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 2
4
1
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 3
4
{ 0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒.

In simplified form, the above pmf can be represented as:

1
𝑓(𝑥) = {4 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, 𝑜𝑟 3
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒.
Here the Support, denoted by S, is 𝑆 = { 0, 1, 2, 3}.

Illustrative Example 5 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Consider the pmf:
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = {6 𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ {1, 2, 3}
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒.
Show that 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) is indeed a probability mass function.

Solution:
1
a. 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 𝑥 > 0 for 𝑥 ∈ {1, 2, 3} and 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 0 for 𝑥 ∉ {1, 2, 3}.
6

Therefore, 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) ≥ 0. The nonnegative property of the probability mass function is satisfied.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 10

 b. ∑3𝑥=1 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 1) + 𝑃(𝑋 = 2) + 𝑃(𝑋 = 3)
1 1 1
= (1) + (2) + (3)
6 6 6
1 2 3
= + +
6 6 6
6
=
6
=1

Since the property that the sum of the probabilities is equal to 1 is satisfied. Therefore, 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)
is indeed a probability mass function.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
✓ Expected Value
Definition. The expected value of a discrete random variable X, denoted by 𝐸(𝑋), is equal to the weighted
average of the elements 𝑥 in the Support 𝑆 where each element is weighted by its respective probability.
Use the following formula:

𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥∈𝑆

Illustrative Example 6 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Let X be a discrete random variable with Support S = {1, 2, 3}.
The probability mass function of 𝑋 is
1
𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆
𝑓(𝑥) = {6
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∉ 𝑆

Compute the expected value.

Solution:
𝐸(𝑋) = ∑𝑥∈𝑆 𝑥𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)

= 1𝑃(𝑋 = 1) + 2𝑃(𝑋 = 2) + 3𝑃(𝑋 = 3)

1 1 1
= 1 ( ) (1) + 2 ( ) (2) + 3 ( ) (3)
6 6 6

1 4 9
= + +
6 6 6
14
= ̅̅̅̅
or 2.33
6

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
✓ Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable

Definition. The mean of a discrete random variable X is also called the expected value of X. It can be
computed using the following formula:

𝐸(𝑋) = ∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)]

where 𝑋 = discrete random variable

𝑥 = outcome or value of the random variable
𝑃(𝑥) = probability of the outcome x

Illustrative Example 7 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

A researcher surveyed the households in a small town. The random variable X represents the
number of college graduates in the households. The probability distribution of X is shown below:

𝑥 0 1 2
𝑃(𝑥) 0.25 0.59 0.25
Find the mean or the expected value of 𝑋.
PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 11
Solution:

𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)

0 0.25 0

1 0.50 0.50

2 0.25 0.50

∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)] = 1.00

The expected value is 1. So, the average number of college graduates in the household of the small
town is one.

Definition. The variance of a random variable 𝑋 is denoted by 𝜎 2 and can be written as Var(X). It is the
expected value of the square of the difference between the assumed value of random variable and the
mean. The variance of 𝑋 is:

𝜎 2 = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)]

where: 𝑥 = outcome

𝜇 = population mean

𝑃(𝑥) = probability of the outcome

Definition. The standard deviation of a discrete random variable 𝑋 is written as 𝜎. It is the square root
of the variance. The standard deviation is computed as:

𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)]

Remark. The larger the value of the variance, the farther are the values of X from the mean. The variance
is tricky to interpret since it uses the square of the unit measure of X. So, it is easier to interpret the value
of the standard deviation because it uses the same unit of measure of X.

Illustrative Example 8 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Determine the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the following probability mass function:

𝑥 0 1 2 3 4
𝑃(𝑥) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.1

Solution:

𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥−𝜇 (𝑥 − 𝜇)2 (𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)

0 0.1 0 0 – 2.1 = -2.1 4.41 0.441
1 0.2 0.2 1 – 2.1 = -1.1 1.21 0.242
2 0.3 0.6 2 – 2.1 = -0.1 0.01 0.003
3 0.3 0.9 3 – 2.1 = 0.9 0.81 0.243
4 0.1 0.4 4 – 2.1 = 1.9 3.61 0.361

∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)] = 2.1 ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)] = 1.29

𝜇 = ∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)] 𝜎 2 = ∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)] 𝜎 = √∑[(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑥)]

= 2.1 = 1.29
= √1.29
= 1.14

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 12

✓ Alternative Method
Definition. The variance of a discrete random variable can also be determined by subtracting the square
of its mean from the summation of the products of the squares of the outcomes and their corresponding
probabilities. Hence, the following formula:
2
𝜎 2 = ∑[𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)] − (∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)])

Using Example 8,

𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥𝑃(𝑥) 𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)

0 0.1 0 0 0
1 0.2 0.2 1 0.2
2 0.3 0.6 4 1.2
3 0.3 0.9 9 2.7
4 0.1 0.4 16 1.6

∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)] = 2.1 ∑[𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)] = 5.7

2
𝜎 2 = ∑[𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)] − (∑[𝑥𝑃(𝑥)])

= 5.7 − (2.1)2

= 5.7 − 4.41

= 1.29

𝜎 = √1.29 = 1.14

Exercise 3. Find the expected value, variance, and standard deviation of each of the following situation
or probability distribution:

1. A discrete random variable X has this probability distribution:

𝑥 0 1 2 3 4
𝑃(𝑥) 0.12 0.25 0.18 0.35 0.10

2. Jack tosses an unbiased coin. He receives Php 50 if a head appears and he pays Php 30 if a tail
appears. Find the expected value and variance of his gain.

3. You are in a carnival and you see a game. The rule says that the outcome in the game is a random
variable from 1 to 14 and that if the outcome is even, you win Php 50. If the outcome is odd, you
win nothing. If you play the game, what is the expected gain if there is any?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
A normal distribution is determined by two parameters: the
mean 𝜇 and the standard deviation 𝜎. If the mean 𝜇 is 0 and the
standard deviation 𝜎 is 1, then the normal distribution is a standard
normal distribution. Its graph is called as the normal curve, a bell-
shaped figure.

The area under the normal curve represents the probability

and the total area under the curve sums to 1.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 13

✓ Properties of A Normal Curve
The Normal Distribution has the following six properties:
1. It is symmetrical about X .
2. The mean is equal to the median, which is also equal to mode.
3. The tail or ends are asymptotic relative to the horizontal line.
4. The total area under the normal curve is equal to 1 or 100%.
5. The normal curve area may be subdivided into at least three standard scores each to the left
and to the right of the vertical axis.
6. Along the horizontal line, the distance from one integral standard score to the next integral
standard score is measured by the standard deviation.

✓ Area Under the Normal Curve

Area under the standard normal curve can be found using the Areas under the Standard Normal
Curve Table (refer to the last part of your module). These areas are the regions under the normal curve.

Illustrative Example 9 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Find the area under the normal curve in each of the following cases.

1. 𝑃(0 < 𝑧 < 1.54) 2. 𝑃(1.52 < 𝑧 < 2.5)

Since 1.54 is positive, it is somewhere in the right of 0. Then,

locate z = 1.54 under the Standard Normal Curve Table.
Proceed down the column marked z until you reach 1.5. Then
proceed to the right along this row until you reach the column
marked .04. The intersection of the row that contains 1.5 and
the column marked .04 is the area. The area is 0.4382.
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟖𝟐
3. 𝑃( 𝑧 > 1.56) 4. 𝑃(− 1.5 < 𝑧 < −2.5)

5. 𝑃(− 1.35 < 𝑧 < 2.95) 6. 𝑃(𝑧 < 2.32)

7. 𝑃(𝑧 > −1.8) 8. 𝑃(𝑧 < −1.52)

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 14

✓ Standard Scores
Definition. The standard score or z-score measures how many standard deviation a given value (x) is
above or below the mean.

Remark. The z-scores are useful in comparing observed values. A positive z-score indicates that the
score or observed value is above the mean, whereas a negative z-score indicates that the score or
observed value is below the mean.

In making use of the properties of the normal curve to solve certain types of statistical problems,
one must first learn how to find areas under the normal curve.

The first step in finding areas under the normal curve is to convert the normal curve of any given
variable into a standardized normal curve by using the formula:
𝑋 − 𝑋̅
𝑍=
𝑆
where 𝑍 = standard score

𝑋̅ = mean

𝑆 = Standard deviation

𝑋 = given value of a particular variable

Illustrative Example 10 __________________________________________________________________________________________

1. On a final examination in Biology, the mean was 75 and the standard deviation was 12. Determine
the standard score of a student who received a score of 60 assuming that the scores are normally
distributed.
Solution:

𝑋 − 𝑋̅
𝑍=
𝑆
60 − 75
𝑍=
12
𝑍 = 1.25

This means that 60 is 1.25 standard deviation below the mean.

2. Luz scored 90 in an English Test and 70 in a Physics test. Scores in the English test have a mean
of 80 and a standard deviation of 10. Scores in the Physics test have a mean of 60 and a standard
deviation of 8. In which subject was her standing better assuming that the scores in her English
and Physics class are normally distributed?

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 15

3. In a Science test, the mean score is 42 and the standard deviation is 5. Assuming the scores are
normally distributed, what percent of the score is
a. Greater than 48?
b. Less than 50?
c. Between 30 and 48?

4. The mean height of grade 9 students at a certain high school is 164 centimeters and the standard
deviation is 10 centimeters. Assuming the heights are normally distributed, what percent of the
heights is greater than 168 centimeters?

5. In a Math test, the mean score is 45 and the standard deviation is 4. Assuming normality, what is
the probability that a score picked at random will lie
a. Above score 50?
b. Below score 38?

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 16

 TRY THESE!
A. Schoology Activity.
B. On your notebook, answer the following exercises:
1. A random variable 𝑋 has the following probability distribution. Find 𝑃(3).
𝑥 0 1 2 3 4
𝑃(𝑥) 0.06 0.23 0.35 ? 0.05

2. A random variable 𝑋 has the following probability distribution. Find 𝑦.

𝑥 1 2 3 4 5
𝑃(𝑥) 1/6 2/9 y/18 2/9 1/9

3. Determine the expected value, variance, and standard deviation of the given probability
distribution (using the first method):
𝑥 𝑃(𝑥)
1 0.15
2 0.25
3 0.30
4 0.15
5 0.10
6 0.05

4. A researcher surveyed the households in a remote area. The random variable X represents the
number of high school graduates in the households. The probability distribution of X is shown
below:
𝑥 0 1 2 3 4
𝑃(𝑥) 0.02 0.18 0.30 0.40 0.10

Find the expected value, variance, and standard deviation of 𝑋 using the alternative method.

5. Laverny tosses an unbiased coin. He receives Php 100 if a head appears and he pays Php 40 if a
tail appears. Find the expected value and variance of his gain.

6. Find the area under the normal curve in each of the following cases:
a. 𝑃( 𝑧 < 0.92)
b. 𝑃(−1.48 < 𝑧 < 2.04)
c. 𝑃( 𝑧 < −2.02)
d. 𝑃( 𝑧 > −0.85)
e. 𝑃(1.33 < 𝑧 < 1.56)

7. In a given normal distribution, the population mean is 80 and the population standard deviation
is 2.5 Find the standard score of the following values:
a. 78
b. 76
c. 84
d. 85

8. In an English test, the mean is 60 and the standard deviation is 6. Assuming the scores are
normally distributed, what percent of the scores is:
a. Greater than 65?
b. Less than 70?
c. Between 50 and 65?

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 17

 CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Solve the following problems. Write your complete solution on a clean sheet of bond paper.

1. You play a game with two six-sided dice. If you roll a sum of 3 or 8, you win Php 600 and if you
roll a sum of 10, you win Php 400. However, you lose Php 500 if you roll for anything else. If you
continue to play the game, how much do you expect to win or lose in the game?

2. A used car dealer finds that in any day, the probability of selling no car is 0.4, one car is 0.2, two
cars is 0.15, 3 cars is 0.10, 4 cars is 0.08, five cars is 0.06 and six cars is 0.01. Let 𝑔(𝑋) = 500 +
1500𝑋 represent the salesman’s daily earnings, where 𝑋 is the number of cars sold. Find the
salesman’s expected daily earnings.

3. Genesis wants to invest his money in a fast-food restaurant. There is a 38% chance of losing Php
400,000, a 30% chance of making a profit of Php 550,000, and 32% chance of getting a break
even. Based on this information, should Genesis invest his money in the fast-food restaurant?

4. A soft drink machine is regulated so that it discharges an average of 200 milliliters per cup. If the
amount of drink is normally distributed with a 𝜎 = 15 milliliters,
a. What is the probability that a cup contains between 180 and 230 milliliters?
b. How many cups will likely overflow if 220 milliliter cups are used to the next 1000 drinks?
c. Below what value do we get the smallest 35% of the drinks?

HIGH FIVE!
To synthesize all that you have learned in this topic, answer the following questions.

✓ In your own understanding, how will you differentiate a discrete and continuous random
variable?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

✓ How are probability and normal distributions used in solving real-life problems and in making
decisions?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

✓ How did the different topics discussed help you realize the importance of topics like these in
Statistics and Probability in real life?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 18

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 19
 LESSON 2 SAMPLING AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS

LEARNING TARGETS
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. illustrate random sampling,
2. distinguish between parameter and statistic,
3. identify the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a population and a sample,
4. define the sampling distribution of the sample mean for the normal population when the variance
is known and unknown,
5. illustrate the Central Limit Theorem,
6. define the sampling distribution of the sample mean using the Central Limit Theorem; and
7. solve a problem involving sampling distribution of the sample mean.

WORK IT OUT
 RANDOM SAMPLING
Random sampling is the process or technique of selecting a representative sample from the entire
population such that every element in the population has a chance of being chosen. Population is the
entire group of individuals under study and sample is the subset of the population for which observations,
experimentations, measurements, and the like will be conducted. All the results obtained from the
sample will be used to describe the entire population.

✓ Types of Random Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

Definition. A simple random sampling is a sampling technique in which every element of the population
has the same probability of being selected for inclusion in the sample. There are two ways to do simple
random sampling: 1) by using a Table of Random Numbers and 2) by using the Lottery Method.

Illustrative Example 1 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

A researcher wants to study the effects of social media on Grade 11 students in Manila
Mathematics High School. He wishes to use the simple random sampling technique in choosing the
members of his sample. If there are 1,000 Grade 11 students in the school, how many students should
there be in his sample? Discuss the steps he must take if he wishes to use the lottery method.

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the number of students that should be in the sample. Use the Yamane’s Formula
(1967).
𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
where 𝑛 = number of samples needed

𝑁 = population size

𝑒 = margin of error

For the margin of error, use 5% or 0.05

1,000
𝑛=
1 + (1,000)(0.05)2

𝑛 = 285.7 𝑜𝑟 286

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 20

Step 2: Assign a number to each member of the population. In this problem, assign a number to each of
the 1,000 students.

Step 3: Write the numbers on pieces of paper of the same size and shape. Fold the pieces of paper.

Step 4: Put all the folded pieces of paper in a bowl or box.

Step 5: Without looking, randomly pick out 286 folded pieces from the bowl or box.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Illustrative Example 2 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

A Grade 11 student wants to make a study on the opinions of Grade 8 students concerning the
use of the Filipino language in the teaching of Mathematics. There are 510 Grade 8 students. She wants
to interview only 10% of the Grade 8 students in the school where the study is to be conducted. If you
were the student, how are you going to do it by using a Table of Random Numbers?

Solution:

Step 1: Multiply 510 by 10% to obtain the members of the sample.

510×10% = 51

The number of students is a three-digit number; therefore, assign a three-digit number to each of
the 510 students.

Step 2: Randomly select a starting number from the table. If the table of random numbers contains 5-
digit numbers, consider only the last 3 digits, since the total number of students in the study is 510 which
is a three-digit number. Move down columns selecting the appropriate number.

Illustration:

52467 ← 1 (1st member of the sample)

16386 ← 2 (2nd member of the sample)

14534 ← (omit since 534 > 510)

23610 ← (omit since 610 > 510)

45217 ← 3 (3rd member of the sample)

Continue doing this until 51 students are selected. If there are no numbers left in the first column,
move to the second column. You can also create your Table of Random Numbers by using a
random number generator.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Systematic Sampling

Definition: Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique in which every kth element of the
population is selected until the desired number of elements in the sample is obtained. The value of k is
calculated y dividing the number of elements in the population by the number of elements in the desired
sample. The value of k is the sampling interval.
𝑁
𝑘=
𝑛
where: 𝑘 = sample interval

𝑁 = population size

𝑛 = sample size

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 21

Illustrative Example 3 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

In a group of 250 students, how will you select a sample containing 71 students by using the
systematic sampling technique?

Solution:

Step 1: Prepare a sampling frame by randomly arranging the 250 students.

Step 2: Assign each student a number from 1 to 250.

Step 3: Find the sampling interval k. Divide the population size 250 by the sample size 71.
𝑁 250
𝑘= = = 3.52 𝑜𝑟 4
𝑛 71
Step 4: Select a number from the whole numbers between 0 and k+1 by simple random technique. The
numbers that are between 0 and k+1 are 1, 2, 3, and 4. This chosen value is called the random start.

Step 5: Assume that the randomly selected number is 2. Use 2 as the starting number.

Step 6: Select every 4th student from the sampling frame starting from the 2nd student.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,…

↓ ↓ ↓

1st 2nd 3rd

The numbers of the sample will then be 2, 6, 10, 14, 18,…

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Stratified Sampling

Definition: Stratified sampling is a random sampling technique in which the population is first divided
into strata (subgroups based on some characteristics like year level, gender, age, ethnicity, etc.) and then
samples are randomly selected separately from each stratum.

Illustrative Example 4 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

You want to interview 200 students in your school to determine their opinion on the new school
uniform. How are you going to choose your sample by using stratified sampling if there are 1,200
students in Grade 7; 1,100 in Grade 8; 1,050 in Grade 9; 940 in Grade 10; 900 in Grade 11, and 810 in
Grade 12?

Solution:

Subdivide the population into several strata. In this problem, subdivide the population into grade
levels. Then, make a table similar to the following:

Population Number of Students Sample

N = 6,000 per Stratum n = 200
Grade 7 1,200 40
Grade 8 1.100 37
Grade 9 1,050 35
Grade 10 940 31
Grade 11 900 30
Grade 12 810 27
Total 6,000 200
To obtain the sample size per year level, divide the total number of students per year level by
the total number of students in school, and then, multiply the result by 200. Then, select the members
of each sample by using simple random sampling.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 22

 Compute the sample size in each Grade Level:
1,200 1,100
a. Grade 7: × 200 = 40 b. Grade 8: × 200 = 36.667 𝑜𝑟 37
6,000 6,000

1,050 940
c. Grade 9: × 200 = 35 d. Grade 10: × 200 = 31.333 or 31
6,000 6,000

900 810
e. Grade 11: × 200 = 30 f. Grade 12: × 200 = 40
6,000 6,000

Note: Sometimes, the computation will result in one less than the value of n. If this happens,
round up one of the data to the next integer. In this problem, 𝑛 = 200. If the sum of all the samples per
year level is 199 instead of 200, then round up one of the data which is not a whole number to the next
integer.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Cluster or Area Sampling

Definition: Cluster or area sampling is a random sampling technique in which the entire population is
broken into small groups or clusters, and then, some of the clusters are randomly selected. The data from
the randomly selected clusters are the ones that are analyzed.

Illustrative Example 5 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

A researcher wants to determine who among the families in a small town is using the new
detergent product. How is she going to do this using the cluster sampling technique?

Solution:

Step 1: Divide the population into clusters. Use barrios as clusters.

Step 2: Not all the barrios of the town will be included in the sample. Choose the final barrios by using
either simple random sampling or a systematic sampling technique.

Step 3: Not all the families in each selected barrio will be included in the study. Select the final families
to be included in the sample by using either a simple random sampling or systematic sampling technique.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 1 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Identify the type of sampling technique used by the researcher in each of the following situations.

_______________________1. The office clerk gave the researcher a list of 500 Grade 10 students. The researcher
selected every 20th name on the list.

_______________________2. A researcher interviewed people from each town in the province of Albay for his
research on population.

_______________________3. A researcher is doing a research work on the students’ reaction on the newly
implemented curriculum in Mathematics and interviewed every 10th student entering the gate of the
school.

_______________________4. A researcher who is studying the effects of educational attainment on promotion

surveyed 50 randomly selected workers from each of these categories: high school graduate, with
undergraduate degrees, with master’s degree, and with a doctoral degree.

_______________________5. In a recent research that was conducted in a private school, the subjects of the
study were selected by using the Table of Random Numbers.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 23

 PARAMETER AND STATISTIC

Definition: A parameter is a measure that describes a population. Parameters are usually denoted by
Greek letters. The population mean 𝜇, population variance 𝜎 2 , and population standard deviation 𝜎 are
examples of parameters.

Definition: A statistic is a measure that describes a sample. Statistics are usually denoted by Roman
letters. Examples of statistics are sample mean 𝑥̅ , sample variance 𝑠2 , and sample standard deviation 𝑠.

✓ Population Mean

Definition: The population mean is the mean of the entire population. It is represented by the Greek
letter mu (𝜇) and is computed using the formula:
∑𝑥
𝜇=
𝑁
where: 𝑥 = given data, 𝑁 = population size

Illustrative Example 6 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The number of workers in six outlets of a fast-food restaurant is 12, 10, 11, 15, 12, and 14.
Treating these data as a population, find the population mean 𝜇.

Solution:

Number x
1 12
2 10
3 11
4 15
5 12
6 14
∑ 𝑥 = 74
∑ 𝑥 74
𝜇= = = 12.33
𝑁 6
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Note: The mean is affected by each datum. If the value of one datum is too small in comparison with the
other data, it will lower the value of the mean. If a datum is too big compared with the other data, it will
increase the value of the mean.

✓ Population Variance and Population Standard Deviation

Definition: Variance and standard deviation are widely used measures of dispersion of data in research.
The population variance 𝜎 2 is the sum of the squared deviations of each datum from the population mean
divided by the population size. The population standard deviation 𝜎 is the square root of the population
variance.

Formula for Population Variance 𝜎 2 Formula for Population Standard Deviation 𝜎

∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝜎2 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝑁 𝜎=√
𝑁
where: 𝑁= population size
𝑥 = given data
𝜇 = population mean

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 24

Illustrative Example 7 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The following are the ages of the 16 Math teachers at Archimedes Secondary School.

30 34 32 38 28 36 40 31

35 34 33 30 37 40 30 40

Compute the following:

a. Population variance
b. Population standard deviation

Solution:

First, compute the population mean. Then, subtract the population mean from each data. Square
all the deviations of the data from the population mean. Then, find the sum of all the squared deviations.
Divide the resulting sum by the population size.

Teacher Age 𝑥−𝜇 (𝑥 − 𝜇)2

1 30
2 34
3 32
4 38
5 28
6 36
7 40
8 31
9 35
10 34
11 33
12 30
13 37
14 40
15 30
16 40
∑𝑥 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2

∑𝑥 ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝜇= 𝜎2 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝑁 𝑁 𝜎=√
𝑁

✓ Sample Mean, Variance, and Standard Deviation

Definition: The sample mean 𝑥̅ is the average of all the values randomly selected from the population.
∑𝑥
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
Where 𝑥 = sample mean

𝑛 = sample size

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 25

Definition: The sample variance 𝑠2 is the sum of the squared deviation of each data from the sample
mean 𝑥̅ divided by 𝑛 − 1. It uses the following formula:

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 =
𝑛−1
Definition: The sample standard deviation is the square root of the sample variance given by the
equation below:

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠=√
𝑛−1

Illustrative Example 8 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The following are the scores of 8 randomly selected students in Grade 10.

7, 8, 12, 15, 10, 11, 9, and 14

Compute the following:

a. Sample mean
b. Sample variance
c. Sample standard deviation

Solution:

Number 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
1 7
2 8
3 12
4 15
5 10
6 11
7 9
8 14
∑𝑥 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 =

∑𝑥 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑥̅ = 𝑠2 = ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑠=√
𝑛−1

Notice that the computation process from determining the mean is the same in population and
sample means. Only the values of the divisor are different, 𝜇 uses N while 𝑥̅ uses n.

Alternative Formula for finding the sample variance and standard deviation:

𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑥)2
𝑠2 = 𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑥)2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑠=√
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 26

Illustrative Example 9 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

Calculate the sample variance and the sample standard deviation of the data in Example 8 using
the alternative method.

Solution:

Number 𝑥 𝑥2
1 7
2 8
3 12
4 15
5 10
6 11
7 9
8 14
∑𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥2 =

∑𝑥 𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑥)2
𝑥̅ = 𝑠2 = 𝑛(∑ 𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑥)2
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑠=√
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 Finding the Sample Mean from a Frequency Distribution

Sometimes, researchers organize and present their data using a frequency distribution table
(FDT).

Illustrative Example 10 _________________________________________________________________________________________

Find the sample mean from the frequency distribution table below.

Score Frequency (f)

40 – 42 2
43 – 45 5
46 – 48 8
49 – 51 12
52 – 54 6
55 – 57 4
58 - 60 3
Solution:

Score Frequency (f) Class mark (x) 𝑓𝑥

40 – 42 2 41 82
43 – 45 5 44 220
46 – 48 8 47 376
49 – 51 12 50 600
52 – 54 6 53 318
55 – 57 4 56 224
58 - 60 3 59 177
∑ 𝑓 = 40 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 1,997

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 27

 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 1,997
𝑥̅ = = = 49.925 𝑜𝑟 49.93
∑𝑓 40

The following formula can also be used to find the sample mean from an FDT.

Alternative formula for finding the sample mean 𝑥̅ :

Deviation Method:

∑ 𝑓𝑑
𝑥̅ = 𝐴. 𝑀. + ( )𝑖
∑𝑓

where 𝐴. 𝑀. = assumed mean

𝑓 = frequency of each class

𝑥−𝐴.𝑀.
𝑑= = coded deviation from A.M.
𝑖

𝑖 = class interval

First, find the class marks (𝑥) of the intervals. From the class marks, choose an assumed mean.
Any of the class marks may be chosen as an assumed mean (arbitrary). Subtract the assumed mean from
each of the class marks and divide each difference by the size of the class interval to find d. Multiply the
values of d by the values of f. Find the algebraic sum of the values of 𝑓𝑑. Then use the above formula for
𝑥̅ .

Score Class mark (x) d f 𝑓𝑑

40 – 42 41 -3 2 -6
43 – 45 44 -2 5 -10
46 – 48 47 -1 8 -8
49 – 51 50 0 12 0
52 – 54 53 1 6 6
55 – 57 56 2 4 8
58 - 60 59 3 3 9
𝑖=3 ∑ 𝑓 = 40 ∑ 𝑓𝑑 = −1

∑ 𝑓𝑑
𝑥̅ = 𝐴. 𝑀. + ( )𝑖
∑𝑓

−1
𝑥̅ = 50 + ( ) 3
40
𝑥̅ = 50 + (−0.075)

𝑥̅ = 49.925 𝑜𝑟 49.93

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 28

 Finding the Sample Variance and Standard Deviation from a Frequency Distribution

∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑠2 = ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
(∑ 𝑓) − 1 𝑠=√
(∑ 𝑓) − 1
Illustrative Example 11 _________________________________________________________________________________________

The scores in Chemistry of randomly selected Grade 10 students are shown below. Solve for a)
sample variance and b) standard deviation.

Score Frequency
60 – 64 1
65 – 69 2
70 – 74 2
75 – 79 4
80 – 84 6
85 – 89 8
90 - 94 5
95 - 99 7
Solution:

Class mark
Score 𝑓 𝑓𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
(𝑥)
60 – 64 1 62 62 −23 529 529
65 – 69 2 67 134 −18 324 648
70 – 74 2 72 144 −13 169 338
75 – 79 4 77 308 −8 64 256
80 – 84 6 82 492 −3 9 54
85 – 89 8 87 696 2 4 32
90 - 94 5 92 460 7 49 245
95 - 99 7 97 679 12 144 1008
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
∑ 𝑓 = 35 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 2,975
= 1,292 = 3,110

∑ 𝑓𝑥 ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑥̅ = 𝑠2 = ∑ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
∑𝑓 (∑ 𝑓) − 1 𝑠=√
(∑ 𝑓) − 1

Alternative formula for computing the Variance and Standard Deviation from an FDT:

∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑓𝑥)2
𝑠2 =
∑ 𝑓 [(∑ 𝑓) − 1]

∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑓𝑥)2
𝑠2 = √
∑ 𝑓 [(∑ 𝑓) − 1]

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 29

 Score 𝑓 Class mark (𝑥) 𝑓𝑥 𝑓𝑥 2
60 – 64 1 62 62 3,844
65 – 69 2 67 134 8,978
70 – 74 2 72 144 10,368
75 – 79 4 77 308 23.716
80 – 84 6 82 492 40,344
85 – 89 8 87 696 60,552
90 - 94 5 92 460 42,320
95 - 99 7 97 679 65,863
∑ 𝑓 = 35 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 2,975 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 = 255,985

∑ 𝑓𝑥 ∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑓𝑥)2
𝑥̅ = 𝑠2 = ∑ 𝑓(∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 ) − (∑ 𝑓𝑥)2
∑𝑓 ∑ 𝑓 [(∑ 𝑓) − 1] 𝑠=√
∑ 𝑓 [(∑ 𝑓) − 1]

Exercise 2 _________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation of the given FDT.

Age of Teachers at St. Andrew’s Academy

Age Frequency
21 – 25 4
26 – 30 7
31 – 35 6
36 – 40 10
41 – 45 14
46 – 50 9
51 - 55 8
56 - 60 2

 THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

Definition: If sample size n, where n is sufficiently large, is drawn from any population with a mean 𝜇
and a standard deviation 𝜎, then the sampling distribution of sample means approximates a normal
distribution.

The sampling distribution of the sample means taken with replacement from a population N with
the population mean 𝜇 and the standard deviation 𝜎 will approach a normal distribution according to the
Central Limit Theorem.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 30

Illustrative Example 12 _________________________________________________________________________________________

Consider a population consisting of the values 1, 2, 3, and 4.

1. Compute the following:

a. population mean

b. population variance

c. population standard deviation

2. Draw the probability histogram of the population.

Solution:

Observation 𝑥 𝑥−𝜇 (𝑥 − 𝜇)2 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)

1
1 1 −1.5 2.25
4
1
2 2 −0.5 0.25
4
1
3 3 0.5 0.25
4
1
4 4 1.5 2.25
4
∑ 𝑥 = 10 ∑(𝑥 − 𝜇)2 = 5.00 ∑ 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 1

∑𝑥 ∑(𝑥−𝜇)2
a. 𝜇= b. 𝜎2 = c. 𝜎=√
∑(𝑥−𝜇)2
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
10 5
𝜇= 𝜎2 =
4 4 5
𝜇 = 2.5 𝜎 2 = 1.25 𝜎=√
4
𝜎 = 1.12

Note: The population mean can also be obtained using probabilities.

1
𝜇 = ∑ 𝑥[𝑃(𝑥)] = 10 ( ) = 2.5
4

The probability histogram of the population is shown below. Here, 𝑛 = 1.

The histogram above has a uniform distribution and does not approximate a normal curve.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 31

 Now, consider all possible values of size 2 that can be drawn with replacement from the
population 1, 2, 3, and 4.
1. Compute the following:
a. Mean of the sampling distribution of the means
b. Variance of the sampling distribution of the means
c. Standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means
2. Draw the probability histogram of the sampling distribution of the means.

Random Sample of Size 2 from Population with Replacement (1, 2, 3, 4)

Observation Sample 𝑥̅ 𝑥̅ − 𝜇𝑥̅ (𝑥̅ − 𝜇𝑥̅ )2
1 (1, 1) 1 −1.5 2.25
2 (1, 2) 1.5 −1 1.00
3 (1, 3) 2 −0.5 0.25
4 (1, 4) 2.5 0 0
5 (2, 2) 2 −0.5 0.25
6 (2, 1) 1.5 −1 1.00
7 (2, 3) 2.5 0 0
8 (2, 4) 3 0.5 0.25
9 (3, 3) 3 0.5 0.25
10 (3, 1) 2 −0.5 0.25
11 (3, 2) 2.5 0 0
12 (3, 4) 3.5 1 1.00
13 (4, 4) 4 1.5 2.25
14 (4, 1) 2.5 0 0
15 (4, 2) 3 0.5 0.25
16 (4, 3) 3.5 1 1.00
∑ 𝑥̅ = 40 ∑(𝑥̅ − 𝜇𝑥̅ )2 = 10.0

∑ 𝑥̅ ∑(𝑥̅ −𝜇𝑥̅)2
a. 𝜇 = b. 𝜎 2 𝑥̅ = c.
∑(𝑥̅ −𝜇𝑥̅ )2
𝜎𝑥̅ = √
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
40 10
𝜇= 𝜎2 𝑥̅ =
16 16 10
𝜇 = 2.5 𝜎 2 𝑥̅ = 0.625 𝜎𝑥̅ = √
16
𝜎𝑥̅ = 0.79

Sampling Distribution of 𝑥̅ with Replacement (𝑛 = 2)

𝑥̅ 𝑓 Probability P(x)
1
1 1
16
2
1.5 2
16
3
2 3
16
4
2.5 4
16
3
3 3
16
2
3.5 2
16
1
4 1
16

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 32

 The probability histogram of the sampling distribution of 𝑥̅ when 𝑛 = 2.

The sampling distribution of 𝑥̅ is approximately normally distributed.

Now, consider all possible samples of size 3 that can be drawn with replacement from the
population 1, 2, 3, and 4 then compute the mean.

Random Samples of Size 3 from Population (1, 2, 3, 4) with Replacement

Sample 𝑥̅ Sample 𝑥̅ Sample 𝑥̅ Sample 𝑥̅

(1, 1, 1) 1 (2, 1, 1) 1.33 (3, 1, 1) 1.67 (4, 1, 1) 2.00
(1, 1, 2) 1.33 (2, 1, 2) 1.67 (3, 1, 2) 2.00 (4, 1, 2) 2.33
(1, 1, 3) 1.67 (2, 1, 3) 2.00 (3, 1, 3) 2.33 (4, 1, 3) 2.67
(1, 1, 4) 2.00 (2, 1, 4) 2.33 (3, 1, 4) 2.67 (4, 1, 4) 3.00
(1, 2, 1) 1.33 (2, 2, 1) 1.67 (3, 2, 1) 2.00 (4, 2, 1) 2.33
(1, 2, 2) 1.67 (2, 2, 2) 2.00 (3, 2, 2) 2.33 (4, 2, 2) 2.67
(1, 2, 3) 2.00 (2, 2, 3) 2.33 (3, 2, 3) 2.67 (4, 2, 3) 3.00
(1, 2, 4) 2.33 (2, 2, 4) 2.67 (3, 2, 4) 3.00 (4, 2, 4) 3.33
(1, 3, 1) 1.67 (2, 3, 1) 2.00 (3, 3, 1) 2.33 (4, 3, 1) 2.67
(1, 3, 2) 2.00 (2, 3, 2) 2.33 (3, 3, 2) 2.67 (4, 3, 2) 3.00
(1, 3, 3) 2.33 (2, 3, 3) 2.67 (3, 3, 3) 3.00 (4, 3, 3) 3.33
(1, 3, 4) 2.67 (2, 3, 4) 3.00 (3, 3, 4) 3.33 (4, 3, 4) 3.67
(1, 4, 1) 2.00 (2, 4, 1) 2.33 (3, 4, 1) 2.67 (4, 4, 1) 3.00
(1, 4, 2) 2.33 (2, 4, 2) 2.67 (3, 4, 2) 3.00 (4, 4, 2) 3.33
(1, 4, 3) 2.67 (2, 4, 3) 3.00 (3, 4, 3) 3.33 (4, 4, 3) 3.67
(1, 4, 4) 3.00 (2, 4, 4) 3.33 (3, 4, 4) 3.67 (4, 4, 4) 4.00
Total 32.00 37.33 42.67 48

∑ 𝑥̅ 32 + 37.33 + 42.67 + 48 160

𝜇𝑥̅ = = = = 2.5
𝑛 64 64

Notice that the mean is still 2.5. That is 𝜇𝑥̅ = 𝜇.

Sampling Distribution of 𝑥̅ with Replacement (n = 3)

𝑥̅ 𝑓 𝑃(𝑥̅ )
1
1 1
64
3
1.33 3
64
6
1.67 6
64
10
2.00 10
64

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 33

 12
2.33 12
64
12
2.67 12
64
10
3.00 10
64
6
3.33 6
64
3
3.67 3
64
1
4.00 1
64
Total 64

The sampling distribution of 𝑥̅ when the sample size is 𝑛 = 3 is almost normal than the sample
𝑛 = 2.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 3__________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Consider the same population consisting of the values 1, 2, 3, and 4. This time, consider all
possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn without replacement.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Our discussion about sampling distribution with replacement through the Central Limit
Theorem, we were able to arrive at this summary:

1. As the sample size n increases, the sampling distribution of the means approaches a normal
distribution.
2. The mean of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the mean of the population.
𝜇𝑥̅ = 𝜇
3. The variance of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the variance of the population
divided by the sample size n.
𝜎2
𝜎 2 𝑥̅ =
𝑛
4. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of means is equal to the standard deviation
of the population divided by the square root of the sample size n.
𝜎
𝜎𝑥̅ =
√𝑛

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 34

 TRY THESE!
A. Schoology Activity.
B. In your notebook, answer the following exercises:
I. Identify the type of sampling technique used by the researcher in each situation.
1. A researcher interviewed randomly selected people from each town in the province of Albay
for his research on population.
2. A researcher chose her respondents by selecting every 13th member of the population.
3. A researcher randomly selected 10 barangays in a town for her study.
4. Members of the sample were chosen by picking 45 pieces of paper in a container.

II. Tell whether the given value is a parameter or statistic.

5. The Philippines consists of 7,641 islands.
6. 25 people were randomly selected by a researcher which will take part in a research study
on cleanliness.
7. A teacher randomly selected 35 questions from the previous questions to be given in the
upcoming elimination round for the mathematics contest.
8. The Mathematics department consists of 10 male teachers, 12 female teachers, and one
department head.

III. Answer the following problems. Show your complete solution.

9. Gemma wants to determine who shops more online, the male or the female. She wants to limit
her study to Grade 11 students with 460 male and 570 female. She wants her sample to
consist of 70 students. How many in each gender will be considered for her study?
10. The following are the heights to the nearest centimeter of 15 English teachers in St. Joseph’s
Academy.
162 164 163 165 166
160 154 155 156 160
152 153 161 165 151

Compute the following:

a. Population mean
b. Population variance
c. Population standard deviation

11. The hourly rates of contractual workers from different fast-food chains in the city of Naga are
shown below:

Hourly rate No. of workers

35-37 3
38-40 8
41-43 12
44-46 20
47-49 14
50-52 11
53-55 3
Compute for the sample mean, sample variance, and sample standard deviation.

12. Sample of size n was randomly selected from populations with means and variances given below.
In each case, find the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means.
a. 𝑛 = 4 𝜇 = 4.6 𝜎2 = 4
b. 𝑛 = 9 𝜇=7 𝜎2 = 4
c. 𝑛 = 16 𝜇 = 8.5 𝜎2 = 9

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 35

 CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Solve the following problems. Write your complete solution on a clean sheet of bond paper.

1. XYZ Cable Corporation employs 2,500 people. If a random sample of 165 is to be taken from the
entire population by systematic sampling, what is the value of k? From which numbers will you
choose the starting number? How will you choose the starting number? How will you prepare a
frame for this study?

2. A set of 50 numbers consists of nine 7s, ten 8s, twelve 9s, ten 10s, five 11s, and the remainder
were 12s. Find the mean of the numbers.

3. Consider a population consisting of values (3, 6, 9).

a. List all the possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn from the population with
replacement.
b. Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of the means.
c. Compute the variance of the sampling distribution of the means.
d. Compute the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means.
e. Construct the probability histogram of 𝑥̅ with replacements when 𝑛 = 2.

HIGH FIVE!
To synthesize all that you have learned in this topic, answer the following questions.

✓ How will you differentiate the four types of random sampling?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

✓ What is the importance of studying sampling distributions especially computing for the mean,
variance, and standard deviation?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

✓ In your own words, how will you explain the Central Limit Theorem?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 36

 LESSON 3 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

LEARNING TARGETS
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1. illustrates: (a) null hypothesis; (b) alternative hypothesis; (c) level of significance; (d) rejection
region; and (e) types of errors in hypothesis testing,
2. identifies the parameter to be tested given a real-life problem,
3. formulates the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses,
4. identifies the appropriate form of the test-statistic,
5. identifies the appropriate rejection region for a given level of significance,
6. computes for the test-statistic value,
7. draws conclusion based on the test-statistic value and the rejection region; and
8. solves problems involving test of hypothesis.

WORK IT OUT
 COMMON TERMS IN INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Confidence interval
✓ A range of values within which the population mean is most likely to be located.

Confidence level
✓ refers to the probability that the confidence interval contains the true population parameter

✓ uses interval estimate to define a range of values that includes the parameter being estimated
with a specified level of significance.
✓ Confidence level = 100% - 𝛼, where: 𝛼 is the level of significance (1%, 5%, 10%)

Critical value
✓ the value that indicates the point beyond which lies the rejection region. This region does not
contain the true population parameter.

One-Tailed Rejection Region Two-Tailed Rejection Region

Left-tailed Test

Right-tailed Test

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 37

Hypothesis

✓ It is a conjectural statement of the relationship between two or more variables that is stated in
declarative form.

✓ It is an educated guess that can be tested.

✓ It is a tentative explanation, a claim, or assertion about people, objects, or events.

Null Hypothesis (𝑯𝒐 )

✓ A statement saying that, “there is no significant difference between the population parameter and
the value that is being claimed.”

Alternative Hypothesis (𝑯𝒂 )

✓ A statement saying that, “there is a significant difference between the population parameter and
the value that is being claimed.”

 z AND t DISTRIBUTIONS
✓ THE z DISTRIBUTION

The z-distribution or the normal distribution curve is used to accept or reject claims regarding
the sample mean and population mean where the population variance is known. This is mainly used if
the sample size (n) is greater than 30.
In using the z-distribution, we shall compare the computed z-value and tabulated z-value. To get
the computed z-value, we shall use:
𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑧= 𝜎
√𝑛
where:

𝑥̅ = sample mean, 𝜇 = population mean, 𝜎 = population standard deviation, and n = sample size.

To get the tabulated z-value (or simply critical value), we use the cumulative standardized normal
distribution table. However, since the commonly used level of significance are 10%, 5% and 1%, below
are the critical values:

One-Tailed Test
Two-Tailed Test
Left Right
1% ±2.575 -2.33 2.33

5% ±1.96 -1.645 1.645

10% ±1.645 -1.285 1.285

Let us study the examples below on how we can use the z-distribution.

Illustrative Example 1 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The weight of crabs is normally distributed with mean 28.5 ounces and standard deviation of 3
ounces. A new breeder claims that he can breed crabs yielding a mean weight of more than 28 ounces. A
random sample of 36 crabs from the new breeder had a mean weight of 29.2 ounces. A researcher wants
to determine if the breeder’s claim is true at 𝛼 = 5%.

Solution:
Step 1: Identify the given.
𝑥̅ = 29.2, 𝜇 = 28.5, 𝜎 = 3, 𝑛 = 36, 𝛼 = 5%, Right-tailed Test

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 38

Step 2: Compute for the z-value.
𝑥̅ − 𝜇 29.2 − 28.5
𝑧= 𝜎 = = 1.4
3
√𝑛 √36
Step 3: Identify the critical value.

At 𝛼 = 5%, 𝑐𝑣 = 1.645
Step 4: Analyze the results.

What do we know? Right-tailed Test 𝑧 = 1.4 critical value = 1.645

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

Since the computed z-value does not fall in the rejection region, at 5% level of significance, the
mean weight of 16 crabs is not different from (or the same as) the mean weight of 28.5 ounces. Thus, the
claim of the breeder is not true.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

For the next example, try to solve using the suggested step-by-step procedure.
Illustrative Example 2 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

In a time and motion study, it was found that the average time required by workers to complete
a certain manual operation was 26.6 mins with a standard deviation of 3 mins. A group of 20 workers
was randomly chosen to receive a special training for two weeks. After the training it was found that their
average time was 24 minutes. Can it be concluded that the special training speeds up the operation with
99% confidence?

Solution:
Step 1: Identify the given.

𝑥̅ = _______, 𝜇 = _______, 𝜎 = _______, 𝑛 = _______, 𝛼 = _______, Left / Right / Two-Tailed Test

Step 2: Compute for the z-value.

𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑧= 𝜎 =
√𝑛
Step 3: Identify the critical value.
At 𝛼 = _______, 𝑐𝑣 = _______

Step 4: Analyze the results.

What do we know? 𝑧 = _______ critical value = _______

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 39

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
✓ THE t DISTRIBUTION

The distribution that is used when the population variance is unknown. This is mainly used when
the sample size is less than 30. The same with z distribution, this is used to accept or reject claims by
comparing the computed t-value and the tabulated t-value.

To get the computed t-value, we shall use the following:

𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑡= 𝑠
√𝑛
where:
𝑥̅ = sample mean, 𝜇 = population mean, s = sample standard deviation, and n = sample size

To get the tabulated t-value (or simply critical value), we shall use the t-Distribution: Critical
Values of t Table. Also, we will need the degree of freedom (df) to obtain our critical value. The degree of
freedom is the number of the remaining values in the data set that are free to vary after one or more
values have been deducted. In other words, 𝒅𝒇 = 𝒏 − 𝟏.
Let us study the following example on how the t distribution is used.
Illustrative Example 3 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

A student researcher wants to determine whether the mean score in Mathematics of the 25
students in Grade 8 Newton is significantly different from the school mean of 89. The mean and standard
deviation of the scores of 8 - Newton are 95 and15, respectively. Assume a 95% confidence level.

Solution:
Step 1: Identify the given.

𝑥̅ = 95, 𝜇 = 89, 𝑠 = 15, 𝑛 = 25, 𝛼 = 5%, Two-Tailed Test

Step 2: Compute for the z-value.
𝑥̅ − 𝜇 95 − 89
𝑡= 𝑠 = = 2.0
15
√𝑛 √25
Step 3: Find the degree of freedom. Then, identify the critical value using the table.

At 𝛼 = 5%, with 𝑑𝑓 = 25 − 1 = 24, 𝑐𝑣 = 2.064.

Step 4: Analyze the results.

What do we know? 𝑡 = 2.0 critical value = 2.064

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

Since the computed t-value does not fall in the rejection region, at 5% level of significance, the
mean score of 8-Newton is the same as the mean score of all the students taking up Grade 8 Mathematics.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 40

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Try the next example using the suggested step-by-step procedure.

Illustrative Example 4 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

In a time and motion study, it was found that the average time required by workers to complete
a certain manual operation was 26.6 mins with a standard deviation of 3 mins. A group of 20 workers
was randomly chosen to receive a special training for two weeks. After the training it was found that their
average time was 24 minutes. Can it be concluded that the special training speeds up the operation with
99% confidence?

Solution:
Step 1: Identify the given.

𝑥̅ = _______, 𝜇 = _______, 𝑠 = _______, 𝑛 = _______, 𝛼 = _______, Left / Right / Two-Tailed Test

Step 2: Compute for the z-value.
𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑡= 𝑠 =
√𝑛
Step 3: Find the degree of freedom. Then, identify the critical value using the table.

At 𝛼 = _______ with 𝑑𝑓 = _______, 𝑐𝑣 = __________

Step 4: Analyze the results.

What do we know? 𝑡 = _______ critical value = _______

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis Testing is an area of statistical inference wherein we can evaluate a conjecture of a
population based on the data gathered from the sample. Its main goal is to decide whether to accept or
reject a statement or an assumption about some parameter in any research problem.
Methods of Hypothesis Testing:

1. Traditional Method (Critical Value Method) - Compare the obtained z-value or t-value from the
critical value in making decision

2. Alternative Method (p-value Method) - Compare the obtained p-value of the z-value or t-value
from the 𝛼 in making decision

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 41

✓ STEPS OF HYPOTHESIS TESTING

1. State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

Two Kinds of Hypothesis:

A. Null Hypothesis (𝐻𝑜 )

Example: There is no significant difference between the mean score (𝜇) of all Grade 11
students and the mean score (𝑥̅ ) of 45 randomly selected Grade 11 students. In symbols,
𝜇 = 𝑥̅

B. Alternative Hypothesis (𝐻𝑎 )

Example: There is a significant difference between the mean score (𝜇) of all Grade 11 students
and the mean score (𝑥̅ ) of 45 randomly selected Grade 11 students. In symbols,
𝜇 ≠ 𝑥̅ or 𝜇 > 𝑥̅ or 𝜇 < 𝑥̅

Two Types of Alternative Hypothesis:

1. non-Directional - It does not tell the direction of relationship between or among variables (that
is, less than or greater than).
Example: There is a difference between the mean scores of all Grade 11 students and the mean
score of 45 randomly selected Grade 11.

2. Directional - It states explicitly what the relationship is.

Example: The mean scores of all Grade 11 students is higher than the mean score of 45
randomly selected Grade 11.

2. Determine the appropriate statistical test and critical values.

One-Tailed Test Two-Tailed Test

➢ use when the alternative hypothesis ➢ use when the alternative hypothesis
is directional is non-directional

z Test t Test
➢ use when the population standard ➢ use when the sample standard
deviation is known. deviation is known.
➢ sample size (n) is greater than 30 ➢ sample size (n) is less than 30
𝑥̅ − 𝜇 𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑧= 𝑡= 𝑠
𝜎
√𝑛 √𝑛

3. Compute for the test statistic or test value.

4. Make the decision.

In making decisions, it is either failed to reject the null hypothesis or reject the null hypothesis.
The decision rule is to reject 𝐻𝑜 if the computed value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region.

5. Interpret and make a conclusion.

In making conclusions, consider the claim.

A. If the claim is null and

1. If your decision is “failed to reject”, then you say, “There is no enough evidence to reject
the claim...”.

2. If your decision is “reject”, then you say, “There is enough evidence to reject the claim...”.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 42

 B. If the claim is alternative and

1. If your decision is “failed to reject”, then you say, “There is no enough evidence to
support the claim...”.
2. If your decision is “reject”, then you say, “There is enough evidence to support the
claim...”.
Let us use the above steps by studying the following examples.

Illustrative Example 5 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The Head of PE Department claims that the mean height of Grade 7 students is 163 cm with a
standard deviation of 2. The mean height of 45 randomly selected Grade 7 students is 161 cm. Using 0.01
level of significance, can it be concluded that the mean height of the Grade 7 students is different from
163 as claimed by the Head of PE Department?

Solution:

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

𝐻𝑜 : 𝜇 = 163 (Claim)

𝐻𝑎 : 𝜇 ≠ 163
Step 2: Determine the appropriate statistical test and critical values.

This is a two-tailed test since the alternative hypothesis is non-directional. In addition, we will
use z-test since the population standard deviation is given. At 0.01 level of significance, the critical values
are ±2.575.

Step 3: Compute for the test statistic or test value.

𝑥̅ − 𝜇 161 − 163
𝑧= 𝜎 = = −6.708
2
√𝑛 √45
Step 4: Make the decision.

Since the z-value falls in the rejection region, the decision is to reject 𝑯𝒐 .

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

There is enough evidence to reject the claim that the mean height of the Grade 7 students is 163
cm. Thus, it can be concluded that the mean height of the Grade 7 students is different from 163 cm.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 43

Illustrative Example 6 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

It was announced over the radio that the average price of a kilogram of a pork liempo in Naga City
is Php395. However, a sample of 15 prices randomly collected from different markets in Naga City
showed an average of Php400 and a standard deviation of Php10. At 95% level of confidence, is there
sufficient evidence to conclude that the average price of pork liempo in Naga City is more than Php395?

Solution:

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

𝐻𝑜 : 𝜇 = 395

𝐻𝑎 : 𝜇 > 395 (Claim)

Step 2: Determine the appropriate statistical test and critical values.

This is a one-tailed test (right-tailed) since the alternative hypothesis is directional. In addition,
we will use t-test since the sample standard deviation is given. At 0.05 level of significance and 𝑑𝑓 =
15 − 1 = 14, the critical value is 1.761.

Step 3: Compute for the test statistic or test value.

𝑥̅ − 𝜇 400 − 395
𝑡= 𝑠 = = 1.936
10
√𝑛 √15
Step 4: Make the decision.

Since the t-value falls in the rejection region, the decision is to reject 𝑯𝒐 .

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

There is enough evidence to support the claim that the average price of pork liempo in Naga City
is more than Php395.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Illustrative Example 7 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The average weight of a canned meatloaf of a certain brand is 150 g. One store owner believed
that the mean weight was less than this. So, they randomly selected 40 cans, weighed the meatloaves,
and computed mean weight. They obtained a mean weight of 140 g with a standard deviation of 4 g. At
5% level of significance, is there enough evidence to support that store owner’s claim?

Solution:

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

𝐻𝑜 :

𝐻𝑎 :
Step 2: Determine the appropriate statistical test and critical values.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 44

Step 3: Compute for the test statistic or test value.

Step 4: Make the decision.

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
✓ THE p-VALUE METHOD
The p-value is the smallest level of significance at which 𝐻𝑂 will be rejected based on the
information contained in the sample. In making a decision and drawing a conclusion, the following
decision rules are important.

➢ If p-value ≤ 𝛼, reject 𝐻𝑂 .
➢ If p-value > 𝛼, failed to reject 𝐻𝑂 .
Let us study the following examples on how the p-value method is used.
Illustrative Example 8 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

The Head of PE Department claims that the mean height of Grade 7 students is 163 cm with a
standard deviation of 2. The mean height of 45 randomly selected Grade 7 students is 161 cm. Using 0.01
level of significance, can it be concluded that the mean height of the Grade 7 students is different from
163 as claimed by the Head of PE Department?
Solution:

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

𝐻𝑜 : 𝜇 = 163 (Claim)

𝐻𝑎 : 𝜇 ≠ 163

Step 2: Determine the appropriate statistical test.

This is a two-tailed test since the alternative hypothesis is non-directional. In addition, we will
use z-test since the population standard deviation is given.
Step 3: Compute for the test statistic or test value.

𝑥̅ − 𝜇 161 − 163
𝑧= 𝜎 = = −6.708
2
√𝑛 √45

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 45

Step 4: Find the p-value and make the decision.

To get the p-value, we should find the area under the normal curve given that 𝑧 = −6.708 and we
have a two-tailed test.

So, we should find 𝑃(𝑧 > 6.708) and 𝑃(𝑧 < −6.708). Add the two areas to get the p-value, then
compare the p-value to the level of significance (𝛼).

𝑃(𝑧 > 6.708) = 0.0002 and 𝑃(𝑧 < −6.708) = 0.0002. Thus, p-value = 0.004. Since 0.004 < 0.05,
we have to reject 𝑯𝒐 .

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

There is enough evidence to reject the claim that the mean height of the Grade 7 students is 163
cm. Thus, it can be concluded that the mean height of the Grade 7 students is different from 163 cm.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Illustrative Example 9 ___________________________________________________________________________________________

It was announced over the radio that the average price of a kilogram of a pork liempo in Naga City
is Php395. However, a sample of 15 prices randomly collected from different markets in Naga City
showed an average of Php400 and a standard deviation of Php10. At 95% level of confidence, is there
sufficient evidence to conclude that the average price of pork liempo in Naga City is more than Php395?

Solution:

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

𝐻𝑜 : 𝜇 = 395

𝐻𝑎 : 𝜇 > 395 (Claim)

Step 2: Determine the appropriate statistical test.

This is a one-tailed test (right-tailed) since the alternative hypothesis is directional. In addition,
we will use t-test since the sample standard deviation is given.
Step 3: Compute for the test statistic or test value.

𝑥̅ − 𝜇 400 − 395
𝑡= 𝑠 = = 1.936
10
√𝑛 √15
Step 4: Find the p-value and make the decision.

Since 𝑑𝑓 = 14, the computed t-value is between 1.761 and 2.145 under the column headed 0.05
and 0.025, respectively. This means 0.025 < 𝑝 < 0.05. So, reject 𝑯𝒐 .

Step 5: Make a conclusion.

There is enough evidence to support the claim that the average price of pork liempo in Naga City
is more than Php395.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 46

 CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Carry out a complete test of hypothesis for the following problems. You can use either the traditional
method or the p-value method.
1. A certain brand of powdered milk is advertised as having net weight of 250 grams. You claimed
that the average net weight is less than the advertised. You collected a random sample of 10 cans,
weighed them and obtained the weights as 253, 248, 252, 245, 247, 249, 251, 250, 247 and 248
grams. Can it be concluded that the average net weight of the cans is less than the advertised
amount? Use 𝛼 = 0.01 and assume that the net weight of this brand of powdered milk is
normally distributed.

2. In a time and motion study, it was found that the average time required by workers to complete
a certain manual operation was 26.6 minutes with a standard deviation of 3 mins. A group of 20
workers was randomly chosen to receive a special training for two weeks. After the training it
was found that their average time was 24 minutes. The Human Resource Office claims that the
special training speeds up the operation. Test the claim at 𝛼 = 0.05.

3. The manager of an appliance store, after noting that the average daily sales was only 12 units,
decided to adopt a new marketing strategy. Daily sales under this strategy were recorded for 90
days after which period the average was found to be 15 units with a standard deviation of 4 units.
The manager claims that the new marketing strategy is effective in increasing the daily sales. Do
you agree? Employ 𝛼 = 0.01.

4. The daily wages in a particular industry are normally distributed with a mean of P350.00 and a
standard deviation of P15.00. A large company claims that their average daily wage is different
from P350.00. In a random sample of 144 workers of a very large company in this industry, the
average daily wage was found to be P370.00. Is the company saying the truth? Test at 0.05 level
of significance.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 47

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 48
 POST-ASSESSMENT
Directions: How much have you learned in this module? Choose the letter that you
think best answers the questions. Write your response before the number in each
item. If the answer is not found in the options, write E.

1. The following are examples of a random variable except

A. number of Bangus fingerlings in a randomly selected fish pond in Bulacan
B. the degree of divinity of a randomly selected person in a certain
community
C. the score in a 10-item quiz of a randomly selected student
D. the age of randomly selected fourth year student

2. Which of the following is NOT a probability mass function?

A. 𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝜋 𝑥 (1 − 𝜋)1−𝑥 , 𝑥 = 0, 1; 0 < 𝜋 < 1
1 𝑦
B. 𝑝(𝑦) = (2) , 𝑦 = 1,2,3, …
0.12 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 0
C. 𝑝(𝑧) = {0.36 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 1
0.52 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = 2
3 1 𝑥
D. 𝑝(𝑥 ) = ( ) ( ) , 𝑥 = 0,1,2,3
𝑥 2

3. A random variable has expected value 10 and standard deviation 1. What

can we say about the probability that the random variable is greater than or
equal to 13?
1
A. The probability is at most 3
1
B. The probability is at most 9
1
C. The probability is at least
3
1
D. The probability is at least 9

For number 4-6. Consider the following discrete probability distribution:

X 0 1 2 3 4
P(X) 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.15 0.25

4. Which of the following variables can be described by a normal distribution?

A. The number of blue whales residing in a given region in Sorsogon.
B. The gender of a person suffering from pneumonia.
C. The distance, in meters, travelled by a sprinter in 10 seconds.
D. The number of patients with visual impairment in a group of 20 patients.

5. Which statement is TRUE about normal distribution?

A. Normal distributions have two modes (or bimodal)
B. The mean and the median of a normal distribution are equal.
C. Normal distributions have longer tails on the right than on the left.
D. Normal distributions are distributions defined on a countably infinite sample
space

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 49

6. A sampling method which assumes that every element of the population has
equal chance of being selected in the sample is called ______.
A. systematic sampling.
B. simple random sampling
C. cluster sampling
D. stratified random sampling

7. A random sample size of 25 is taken from a population with mean 6 and

variance 9. What is the standard error of the sample mean?
6 9 6 3
A. 5 B. 25 C. 25 D. 5

8. An agriculturist plants 100 mustard seeds in pots that are numbered from 1 to
100. If she wants to take a sample of size 20 using systematic sampling, how
will she perform the sampling?
A. Divide 100 pots into 4 groups; then obtain 5 samples from each group
using simple random sampling
B. Obtain the 20 pots using the table of random numbers
C. Divide the 100 pots into 20 groups containing 5 pots; then choose a pot
from group 1 (with numbers 1 to 5) at random and select all pots every
5th after the first selected pot.
D. None of the above.

9. Which of the following is NOT a probability function of a probability

distribution?
A. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 0.1, 0.25, 0.15, 0.35, 0.15
B. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 20%, 50%, 15%, 15%
2 1 2 1
C. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): , , ,
4 4 4 4
2 2 4 2
D. 𝑃 (𝑋 = 𝑥 ): 7 , 7 , 14 , 14

10. Given the sampling distribution of the sample mean, compute its expected
value.
𝑋̅ 1 1.5 2 2.5
𝑃(𝑋̅ = 𝑥̅ ) 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.2

A. 1.825 B. 3.5625 C. 0.2319 D. 0.4816

11. A graduate from DG University has a 75% chance of getting a job in his/her
field of discipline. What is the probability that 5 out of 7graudeates from this
university will be hired in their respective fields?
A. 25% B. 11.40% C. 76.50% D. 31.15%

12. About 90% of the applicants passes the admission test every year. How many
of the 250 applicants are expected to pass the admission test this year?
A. 200 B. 225 C. 120 D. 150

13. Which of the following is NOT a property of a normal curve?

A. The curve is symmetric about zero.
B. The curve extends indefinitely in one direction.
C. The total area under the normal curve is equal to 100%.
D. The area can be determined based on the standard score or z-score.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 50

14. What is the z-score of 𝑥 = 90 if 𝜇 = 95.3 and 𝜎 = 3?
A. 2.37 B. −2.25 C. −1.77 D. 1.77

15. What is the area under the normal curve bounded by 𝑥 = 90 if 𝜇 = 95.3 and
𝜎 = 3?
A. 0.4616 B. 0.4608 C. −0.4616 D. −0.4608

16. What is the probability that an amount between Php 85000 to Php110,000 will
be randomly chosen if the mean is Php100,000 with a standard deviation of
Php15,000?
A. 58.99% B. 34.13% C. 24.86% D. 11.12%

17. A researcher wants to study the academic performance in Mathematics of

students in a certain school. The school has a population of 12,000 students. If
the researcher allows a margin of error of 5%, how many students must he
include in his sample?
A. 378 B. 386 C. 387 D. 388

18. When is the best time to use a multi-stage cluster sample?

A. You only have a limited amount of time and money to travel.
B. To generalize the results, you'll want to utilize a probability sample.
C. Geographically, the population is dispersed.
D. All of the above.

19. What is the consequence of increasing the sample size on sampling error?
A. It decreases the sampling error.
B. It increases the sampling error.
C. It has no effect in the sampling error.
D. None of the above.

20. Which one of the following is the advantage of using simple random sampling?
A. Interviewers have complete freedom in selecting respondents.
B. The results are always representative.
C. Informants can refuse to participate.
D. We can calculate the accuracy of the results.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 51

TRY THESE!
Lesson 1:
1. P(3) = 0.31
2. y=5
3. 𝐸(𝑋) = 2.95, 𝜎 2 = 1.85, 𝜎 = 1.36
4. 𝐸(𝑋) = 2.38, 𝜎 2 = 0.92, 𝜎 = 0.96
5. The expected gain is Php 30.
The variance is 4,900.
6. Find the area under the normal curve in each of the following cases:
a. P( z < 0.92) = 0.8212
b. P(-1.48 < z < 2.04) = 0.9099
c. P( z < -2.02) =0.0217
d. P( z > -0.85) = 0.8023
e. P(1.33 < z < 1.56) = 0.0324
7. In a given normal distribution, the population mean is 80 and the population standard deviation
is 2.5 Find the standard score of the following values:
a. Z = -0.8
b. Z = -1.6
c. Z = 1.6
d. Z = 2
8. In an English test, the mean is 60 and the standard deviation is 6. Assuming the scores are
normally distributed, what percent of the scores is:
a. 20.33%
b. 95.25%
c. 74.92%

Lesson 2:
I. 1. Cluster or Area Sampling
2. Systematic Sampling
3. Cluster Sampling
4. Simple Random Sampling
II. 5. Parameter
6. Statistic
7. Statistic
8. Parameter

III. 9. Male = 31, Female = 39

10. 𝜇 = 159.13, 𝜎 2 = 25.05, 𝜎 = 5.00
11. 𝑥̅ = 45.34, 𝑠 2 = 19.94, 𝑠 = 4.47
12. a. 𝜇𝑥̅ = 4.6 𝜎 2 𝑥̅ = 1 𝜎𝑥̅ = 1
4 2
b. 𝜇𝑥̅ = 7 2
𝜎 𝑥̅ = 𝑜𝑟 0.44 𝜎𝑥̅ = 𝑜𝑟 0.67
9 3
9 3
c. 𝜇𝑥̅ = 8.5 𝜎 2 𝑥̅ = 𝑜𝑟 0.56 𝜎𝑥̅ = 𝑜𝑟 0.75
16 4

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 52

 SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Global Senior High School
Panganiban Drive, Naga City

Name: _____________________________________________________________________ Section _________________ Score __________

WORKSHEET 1
Probability and Normal Distributions

General Instructions: Read and analyze each item carefully. Do what is required of you in each part. As much as possible,
avoid erasures. Do not forget to staple the extra sheet that you will use for the graphs. God bless!

A. Find the missing value for the following probability distributions. (2 points each)
1. Find P(4) 2. Find P(3)
𝑥 1 2 3 4 5 𝑥 1 2 3 4 5
𝑃(𝑥) 0.05 0.25 0.4 ? 0.06 𝑃(𝑥) 0.06 0.23 ? 0.35 0.05

3. Find b. 4. Find k.
𝑥 1 2 3 4 5 𝑥 1 2 3 4 5
𝑃(𝑥) 1 3 2 1 1 𝑃(𝑥) 0.1 2k 0.4 0.25 0.1
10 𝑏 5 4 10

B. Show that each of the following is a probability mass function. (3 points each)
1 2
𝑥 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ {1,2,3,4,5}
5. 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = {55
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 53

C. Find the expected value, variance, and standard deviation of the following probability distribution. Use the alternative
method (4 points for the table, 2 points each for the expected value, variance, and standard deviation)

6. 𝑥 0 1 2 3 4 5
𝑃(𝑥) 0.042 0.321 0.032 0.158 0.139 0. 308

D. Find the area under the normal curve in each of the following cases. (2 points each)
7. 𝑃(𝑧 < −1.23) 8. 𝑃(1.56 < 𝑧 < 2.51)

9. 𝑃(−2.76 < 𝑧 < −1.25) 10. 𝑃(−0.76 < 𝑧 < 1.35)

11. 𝑃(𝑧 > −2.85)

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 54

E. Solve the following problems. Show your complete solution.

11. Five hundred tickets will be sold and these will be raffled during the twon fiesta. One of these tickets will win Php 3,000
and the rest will win nothing. What will be the expected outcome and variance of your gain if you will buy one of tickets.
(4 points)

12. Luz scored 90 in an English test and 70 in a physics test. Scores in the English test have a mean of 80 and a standard
deviation of 10. Scores in the Physics test have a mean of 60 and a standard deviation of 8. In which subject was her standing
better assuming that the scores in her English and Physics class are normally distributed? (4 points)

13. Consider the normal distribution of IQs with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. What percentage of IQs
are: (2 points each)
a. greater than 95? b. less than 120? c. between 90 and 110?

________________________________________________ ___________________
Parent’s Signature Over Printed Name Date

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 55

 SAINT JOSEPH SCHOOL
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
Global Senior High School
Panganiban Drive, Naga City

Name: _____________________________________________________________________ Section _________________ Score __________

WORKSHEET 2
Sampling and Sampling Distributions

General Instructions: Read and analyze each item carefully. Do what is required of you in each part. As much as possible,
avoid erasures. Do not forget to staple the extra sheet that you will use for the graphs. God bless!

A. Answer the following problems. Show your complete solution.

1. Marcela, a Statistics student, wants to determine who cares more about their physical appearances, the male or the female
students. She wants to limit her study to the Grade 10 students. There is an unequal number of Grade 10 students: 340 are
male and 500 are female. She wants her sample to consist of only 50 students. Show a table and solution of how she chose
her sample by stratified sampling technique. (3 points for the table and solution, 2 points for the final answer)

2. In a group of 250 students, how will you select a sample containing 71 students by using the systematic sampling
method? Illustrate each step. (5 points)

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 56

3. There were a total of 10 master’s students who took the comprehensive examination. Their scores are given below.
93 92 85 78 90
83 81 80 82 85
Compute for the population mean, population variance, and population standard deviation.
Scoring rubric: 10 pts. – all required parameters were accurately and completely identified; supported with tables; notations used are correct; 7, 8,
or 9 pts. - correctly identified all parameters but there are minor errors in the solution and notations used; 5 or 6 pts. – correctly identified all
parameters but solutions do not support the answer; 2, 3, or 4 pts. – correctly identified at least one of the required parameters (i.e. E(X)); 1 pt. –
generally incorrect solution but “effort” is evident.

4. The following frequency distribution is made up of the weights in kg of 100 males who are participating in a diabetes
prevention program:
Weight f
65 – 67 2
68 – 70 10
71 – 73 26
74 – 76 34
77 – 79 18
80 - 82 10
Compute the sample mean, sample variance, and sample standard deviation.
Scoring rubric: 10 pts. – all required parameters were accurately and completely identified; supported with tables; notations used are correct; 7, 8,
or 9 pts. - correctly identified all parameters but there are minor errors in the solution and notations used; 5 or 6 pts. – correctly identified all
parameters but solutions do not support the answer; 2, 3, or 4 pts. – correctly identified at least one of the required parameters (i.e. E(X)); 1 pt. –
generally incorrect solution but “effort” is evident.

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 57

5. Consider a population consisting of the values (1, 3, 4).
a. Compute the population mean.
b. Compute the population variance.
c. List all the possible samples of size 2 that can be drawn from the population with replacement.
d. Compute the mean of the sampling distribution of the means.
e. Compute the variance of the sampling distribution of the means.
f. Compute the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means.
g. Construct the probability histogram of 𝑥̅ with replacements when 𝑛 = 2.
Scoring rubric: 15 pts. – all required parameters were accurately and completely identified; supported with tables; notations used are correct; 11 -14
pts. - correctly identified all parameters but there are minor errors in the solution and notations used; 7 – 10 pts. – correctly identified all parameters
but solutions do not support the answer; 2 – 6 pts. – correctly identified at least one of the required parameters (i.e. E(X)); 1 pt. – generally incorrect
solution but “effort” is evident.

________________________________________________ ___________________
Parent’s Signature Over Printed Name Date

PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS | 58