Lab #1 Hooke’s Law

Aim: To determine the spring constant of a mass spring.

Theory: Hooke’s Law states that the amount of force applied to a body is directly proportional to
the magnitude of deformation in the body until an elastic limit is reached. This is represented by
the equation:

F=kx

where “F” represents the Force, “x” represent the extension and “k” represents the spring
constant.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Retort Stand
 Mass Spring
 Weights and Weight holder
 Ruler

Method:

1. To begin the experiment the apparatus was set up similar to that in the diagram section of
the lab.
2. The position of the pointer of the empty mass holder was recorded as the initial length.
3. A 50 g mass was then put on the mass holder and the new length reading was recorded.
4. The initial length was then subtracted from the new length to obtain the extension.
5. Following this another 50 g mass was added to the holder, bringing the total mass on the
holder to 100 g. The new length was then recorded and subtracted from the initial length
to find the next extension.
6. This procedure was then repeated to obtain a total of eight readings, of mass and their
corresponding extensions.
7. Using the data a table was constructed and a graph was plotted to obtain the force
constant of the spring.
Lab #2 Simple Pendulum

Aim: To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.

Theory: The time period of a simple pendulum is related to the length of the string using the
formula

l
T = 2π
√ g

Where ‘T’ is the period, ‘l’ is the length of string and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.

Simple Pendulum Method

1. To begin the experiment the clamp was secured onto the retort stand and the bobb was
tied to the clamp at a length of 20 cm.
2. The bobb was then pulled to a suitable amplitude and released to oscillate freely for 20
cycles. The timer was started the moment the bobb was released to oscillate and was
stopped after the 20 cycles.
3. The time the bobb took to make the 20 oscillations was then divided by 20. This value of
time was then recorded as the first time period.
4. The length of the string was then adjusted to 25 cm and the above procedure was
repeated.
5. The string was then continuously lengthened by 5 cm, with the above procedures being
repeated after each adjustment, until a total of 8 readings were obtained.
6. The data was then tabulated.
7. All time periods were also squared and a new column of T2 was added to the table.
8. Lastly a graph of T2 against l was plotted.
Lab #3 Density of an irregularly shaped object

Aim: To determine the density of an irregularly shaped object.

Theory: The density of an object is the concentration of matter in that object over the space it
takes up. In equation form it is:

ρ = m/V

Where “m” is the mass of the object and “V” is the volume.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Measuring Cylinder
 Electrical scale
 Water
 Stone
 Thin string

Method:

1. To begin the experiment the mass of the stone was measured and recorded using the
electric scale.
2. 180 milliliters of water was poured into the measuring cylinder and was recorded as the
initial volume of water.
3. The string was fastened onto the stone and the stone was slowly and carefully lowered
into the measuring cylinder until it was fully immersed in the water.
4. The new volume of the water was recorded as the final volume of water.
5. The initial volume of water was subtracted from the final volume of water to obtain the
volume of the stone.
6. Finally the mass of the stone was divided by the volume of the stone to obtain the density
of the stone.
Lab #4 The radius of a drop of water.

Aim: To determine the radius of a drop of water

Theory: A drop of water if roughly in the form of a sphere. Thus, to find the radius of the drop of
water, the formula is used

3V
r¿
√
3

4π

Where ‘V’ is the volume and ‘r’ is the radius.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Burette
 Measuring cylinder
 Retort stamp and clamp

Method:

1. To begin the experiment the burette was filled with water and clamped onto the retort
stand.
2. The faucet was then turned on the burette until a countable dripping rate is achieved.
3. The measuring cylinder was then swiftly put under the burette to collect the droplets and
the droplets were counted as soon as the first water droplet fell into the measuring
cylinder.
4. This is carried out until the volume of water reaches 50 mL in the measuring cylinder.
5. The number of droplets was then recorded.
Lab #5 Factors that affect stability

Observation:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

Hypothesis: The stability of an object is improved with the increase of base area and the
lowering of the centre of gravity.

Aim: To investigate two factors that may affect stability, namely the base area of an object and
the location of the centre of gravity.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Adjustable and rough (to prevent sliding) incline plane with hinges
 Protractor to measure angle of the plane
 Five blocks with the same height and different widths
 Five blocks with the same width and different heights

Diagrams:

Figure 1
Figure 2

Variables:

Independent –

Dependent –

Controlled –

Method 1 (Example):

1. To begin the experiment put all the blocks with equal heights and varying base areas onto
the flat plane, in order from least base area to most base area. Name each block based on
their base area from A to E.
2. Slowly raise the incline plane until the first block topples over. Record the block and the
angle it topples over.
3. Continue raising the plane until the second block topples over. Record the block and the
angle it topples over.
4. Continue the above process until all the blocks topple over.

Method 2 (Example):

1. To begin the experiment put all the blocks with equal base area and varying heights onto
the flat plane, in order from tallest to shortest. Name each block based on their height
from A to E.
2. Slowly raise the incline plane until the first block topples over. Record the block and the
angle it topples over.
3. Continue raising the plane until the second block topples over. Record the block and the
angle it topples over.
 4. Continue the above process until all the blocks topple over.

Expected Results:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Assumptions/Precautions/Possible sources of error

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Lab #6 Cooling curve of paraffin wax.

Aim: To determine the latency temperature of paraffin wax

Theory: Paraffin wax is known to begin melting at 37oC. At temperatures below this point, it is
solid, and after this point, it is liquid. Below can be seen an image of a cooling curve for the
paraffin wax.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Water bath
 Test tube
 Thermometer
 Paraffin wax
 Timer

Method: 

1. To begin the experiment water was poured into the beaker and the beaker was put on the
hot plate. The water was heated to about 90o
2. A few pieces of paraffin wax was placed into a test tube and the test tube was placed into
the beaker with hot water, until the wax was fully melted and had risen to a temperature
of 80o C.
3. The test tube was then carefully lifted from the water bath with the test tube holder after
reaching 80o C and secured in the clamp on the retort stand. A thermometer was also put
into the test tube with the molten paraffin wax.
 4. The stop watch was then started and the temperature of the paraffin wax was recorded at
every two minute interval while it was cooling.

5. The times and temperatures were then tabulated.

Lab #7 Specific Heat Capacity

Aim: To determine the specific heat capacity of a metal by the method of mixture.

Theory: The Specific Heat Capacity (SHC) of a material is the amount of heat required to change
1 kilogram of that material’s temperature by 1 K or 1o C. Also when two or more materials at
different temperatures come into contact, the heat gained by cooler material(s) is equal to the
heat loss by the warmer material(s).

Materials/Apparatus:

 Thermometer
 Hot water bath
 Electric scale
 Calorimeter
 Metal
 String
 Stirrer
 Water

Method:

1. To begin the experiment the mass of the metal was found and recorded.
2. A string was then tied around the metal, and the metal was placed in the hot water bath to
rise to a temperature of 80o C. This was the initial temperature of the metal.
3. During this the mass of the inner calorimeter can and the stirrer were measured and
recorded.
4. Following this some water at room temperature was poured into the inner calorimeter can
and the mass of it was measured and recorded. It should be noted that the inner
calorimeter can and the water were assumed to be in thermal equilibrium, with both their
initial temperatures at 27o C (room temperature).
5. After the mass had risen to the temperature of 80o C it was quickly placed into the
calorimeter, the lid was closed and the water was rapidly stirred.
6. The thermometer was read for the maximum temperature reading and this was recorded
as the final temperature of the system.
7. Using the masses, temperature values and formulas, the specific heat capacity of the
metal was calculated.
Lab #8 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of ice

Aim: To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice by the method of mixture.

Theory: When two objects of different temperatures come into contact heat migrates from the
warmer object into the colder object until thermal equilibrium is achieved. The heat gained by
the colder object is equal to the heat loss by the warmer object. The theoretical value for the
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion for ice is about 336,000 J/kg.

Material/Apparatus:

 Calorimeter and Stirrer

 Thermometer
 News paper
 Water
 Ice

Method:
1. To begin the experiment the mass of the inner calorimeter can and stirrer were measured
and recorded.
2. Following this some water at 40o C was poured into the can and then the new mass was
recorded. It should be noted that at the beginning of the experiment it is assumed that the
water, can and stirrer are in thermal equilibrium at 40o C. This temperature is used as the
initial temperature.
 3. The mass of the water was obtained by subtracting the mass of the empty calorimeter can
from the calorimeter can with the water inside. Afterwards the calorimeter was then
reassembled.
4. Following this some ice was then crushed and dried with the newspaper, and poured into
the calorimeter. The lid was swiftly closed and the mixture was stirred rapidly.
5. During the stirring the thermometer was read for the minimum temperature reading. This
reading was then recorded as the final mutual temperature of the system.
6. Using the values gathered from the experiment and the relationship between objects that
come into contact at different temperatures, the specific latent heat of fusion of ice was
calculated.

Lab #9 Speed of Sound in Air

Observation:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

Hypothesis: The time taken to hear an echo is directly proportional to the distance the
producer/observer is away from the source of the echo (screen).

Aim: To determine the relationship between distance away from the screen and the time taken
for an echo to be heard by a producer/observer.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Big solid screen (source of echo)

 Timer
 Source of sound
 Walking measuring wheel

Diagrams:
Variables:

Independent –

Dependent –

Controlled –

Method (Example):

1. To begin this experiment use the measuring wheel to measure 60 m perpendicular to the
screen.
2. Stand at the 60 m mark while facing the screen and do a loud clap.
3. Start the timer when the clap is produced and stop it when the echo is heard.
4. Record the distance and the time the echo is heard.
5. Move an additional 10 m away from the screen and repeat the above procedure.
6. Keep moving a further 10 m and repeat the above steps until a total of 8 sets of readings
are obtained.

Expected Results:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Assumptions/Precautions/Possible sources of error

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Lab #10 Refractive Index of a glass prism

Observation:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

Hypothesis: As light propagates from air through the boundary of glass it will bend towards the
normal since the refractive index of glass is greater than that of air.

Aim: To determine the relationship between the angle of incident and the angle of refraction.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Glass prism
 Protractor
 Small helium neon laser
 Paper

Diagrams:
Variables:

Independent –

Dependent –

Controlled –

Method (Example):

1. Place the glass prism on the sheet of paper and trace to outline of the glass block.
2. Draw a dashed line perpendicular to one of the two longest boundaries of the glass prism
tracing. This is the normal axis.
3. Measure and mark the angles 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o and 75o, from the normal axis. Record
these angles in a table and call them θ1.
4. Fit the glass block back into the tracing and turn on the helium neon laser (Be sure not to
point it at anyone or use it at eye level).
 5. Align the beam with the 15o marking and the point where the normal axis meets the
boundary of the prism. Measure and record the angle between the normal axis and the
refracted ray.
6. Align the ray with the 30o marking and the point where the normal axis meets the
boundary. Measure and recorded the angle between the normal axis and the refracted ray.
7. Repeat the above procedures for the other angles and record all refracted angles as θ2.
8. Take the ‘sin’ of all the angles of incidence and refraction, and construct a graph of sin θ1
against sin θ2.

Expected Results:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Assumptions/Precautions/Possible sources of error

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Lab #11 Refractive Index
Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass prism.
Theory: Snell’s Law states that the ratio of the angle of incidence and refraction of a wave are
constant when passing through a boundary of two different medium. From Snell’s law the
following formula is derived.

n1 Sinθ1 = n2 Sinθ2

Where ‘n1’ is the incident index, ‘n2’ is the refracted index, ‘θ1’ is the incident angle and ‘θ2’ is
the refracted angle.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Glass prism
 Protractor
 Small helium neon laser
 Paper
Method:

9. The glass prism was placed on the sheet of paper and traced using a pencil.
10. A dashed line was drawn perpendicular to one of the two longest boundaries of the glass
prism tracing. This is the normal axis.
11. Measurements and markings of the angles 15o, 30o, 45o, 60o and 75o, were taken from the
normal axis. These angles were recorded as θ1.
12. The glass block was fitted back into the tracing and the helium neon laser was turned on
(Be sure not to point it at anyone or use it at eye level).
13. The laser was aligned with the 15o marking and the point where the normal axis meets the
boundary of the prism. A point was then placed on the opposite boundary where the
emerging ray exits the glass and a line was drawn to connect the point to where the
normal meets the first boundary. A line was also draw to show the path of the emerging
ray.
14. The angle between the normal axis and the refracted ray was measured and recorded as
the first reading of θ2.
15. A new normal was drawn against the boundary where the ray emerged.
16. The angle between the emerging ray and the corresponding normal was measured. This
angle was then compared to the incident angle of 15o.
17. The laser was then aligned with the other angles of incidence and procedures from 4 to 7
were repeated for each angle.
18. All refracted angles were recorded under θ2.
19. The ‘sin’ of all the angles of incidence and refraction were taken, and a graph of sin θ1
against sin θ2 was plotted.
Lab #12 Turns Ratio of a Transformer

Aim: To determine the turns ratio of a transformer.

Theory: A transformer is a tool that uses two inductor coils connected to a core to step up or step
down voltages. In a transformer the ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is equal to the
ratio of the number of turns on the primary coil to the number of turns on the secondary coil.

Vp Np
=
V s Ns

Materials/Apparatus:

 Transformer
 Resistors
 AC power supply
 Rheostat
 Two voltmeters
Method:

1. To begin the experiment the circuit was set up similar to that in the diagrams section.
2. The current was then switched on and the rheostat was adjusted to a small input voltage.
This voltage value was then recorded as the first primary voltage. The voltage on the
second voltmeter was observed and recorded as the first secondary voltage.
3. The rheostat was then adjusted again and the new primary voltage and its corresponding
secondary voltage were recorded.
4. The above procedure was repeated until a total of eight readings were gathered and the
power was disconnected.
5. Using this data a table was constructed and a graph was plotted.

Lab #13 Ohm’s Law

Aim: To verify Ohm’s Law.

Theory: Ohm’s law is a law of electricity that states that in an electric circuit the electric current
is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. In equation
form it is

V = IR

Materials/Apparatus:

 Resistor
 Alligator Clips
 Banana Plugs
 DC Power Supply
 Ammeter
  Voltmeter

Method:

1. To begin the experiment the circuit was set up similar to that in the diagrams section.
2. The current was then switched on and the rheostat was adjusted until a small current was
observed on the ammeter. This current and the corresponding voltage reading on the
voltmeter were recorded. This is the first reading.
3. The rheostat was then adjusted again and the new current and voltage readings were
recorded. This is the second reading.
4. The above procedure was repeated until a total of eight readings were gathered and the
power was disconnected.
5. Using this data a table was constructed and a graph was plotted.

Lab #14 Resistors in series

Aim: To investigate resistors in series.

Theory: For resistors in series the total resistance is given as the sum of the resistance of all the
resistors in series. ie

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 +…..

The current for a series set up is also the same throughout the circuit.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Resistors
 Crocodile clips
 Banana plugs
 Four 1.5 v battery power supply
 Voltmeter
  Ammeter

Method:

1. To begin the experiment the apparatus was set up similar to that in the diagrams section.
2. The switch was then switched on and the voltage values were recorded. Across the power
supply, the first resistor and the second resistor.
3. The current from the ammeter was also recorded.
4. Following this the voltage drop across the two resistors were added and the total
resistance was calculated.
5. The voltage drop across the power supply was also compared with the total voltage drop
across the two resistors for consistency.
6. Lastly the resistors were read for the colour codes and these resistance values were then
added to gain the theoretical total resistance.
7. These two values of total resistance were then compared.

Lab #15 Resistors in Parallel

Aim: To investigate resistors in parallel.

Theory: For resistors in parallel the reciprocal of the total resistance is given as the sum of the
reciprocals of the resistance of all the resistors in parallel. ie
1 1 1
= + + ……..
RT R1 R2

The voltage drops across all resistors in parallel are the same.
Material/Apparatus:
 Resistors
 Crocodile clips
 Banana plugs
 Four 1.5 v battery power supply
 Voltmeter
 Ammeter
Method:

1. To begin this experiment the apparatus was set up similar to that in the diagram section.
2. The switch was then turned on and the voltage values were recorded across the power
supply, first resistor and the second resistor.
3. The current values were also measured and recorded.
4. Using the voltage across each resistor and the current through each, the resistance of each
resistor was calculated.
5. Following this the total resistance of the circuit was calculated.

Lab #16 Radioactive Decay

Aim: To construct a model of radioactive decay.

Theory: Radioactivity is the process by which the nuclei of an unstable atom, disintegrates. The
half-life of a sample of radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the original number of
radioactive nuclei to decay.

Materials/Apparatus:

 200 Dice
 Bag
 Flat Surface

Method:

1. To begin this experiment 200 dice were placed in a paper bag.

2. The dice were shaken in the bag and thrown onto a table.
3. The dice which landed on six were counted and removed. Both the number of removed
dice and the number of remaining dice were recorded.
4. The remaining dice were put back into the bag, shaken and thrown again.
5. The number of dice which landed on six were again counted and removed, and the
number of dice remaining were counted and recorded as well.
6. The above procedure was repeated for a total of 20 times, and the number of dice which
landed on six and the number remaining was recorded each time.
7. The results were then tabulated and a graph was plotted.