UNIT 8

BIODIVERSITY : THREATS AND

CONSERVATION

Structure
8.1 Introduction 8.7 Conservation of Biodiversity
Expected Learning Outcomes In-situ Conservation
8.2 Causes of Biodiversity Loss Ex-situ Conservation
Habitat loss
8.8 Nature Reserves
8.3 Human–Wild Life Conflict
8.9 Summary
Selective Destruction of Species
Domestication of Selective Species 8.10 Terminal Questions
Use of Pesticides 8.11 Answers
Global Climate Change
8.12 Further Reading
8.4 Poaching of Wild Life

8.5 Biological Invasion

8.6 Need for Conserving Biodiversity

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Since 3.5 billion years ago when life began, about 500 million kinds of plants, animals and
microorganisms have made earth their home. UN Convention on Biological Diversity says
there are some 13 million species still living on earth of which 1.7 million species have been
identified and described. We, however, do not have an exact number because there are
many areas of the earth that are biologically unexplored, such as the tropical rain forests
where majority of the living organisms live but are yet to be identified.
A few species naturally become extinct over time and it is believed that during certain periods
of geological time, great numbers of species have been lost relatively quickly – on the scale
of thousands of years. Scientists have documented five periods of mass extinctions since
the emergence of life on this planet. It is thought that each of these episodes, during which a
large fraction of all species were lost, was caused by a catastrophic natural event on earth.
Growing human population, leading to over exploitation of biotic resources and habitat
destruction, is responsible for today’s exceptionally high extinction rates. Many scientists
consider this as the sixth extinction episode. 149
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Biotic diversity -the richness of life on earth -is like a common property or
resource belonging to the whole human race. Therefore biodiversity
conservation is a major concern worldwide. Conservationists are involved in
global efforts to protect biodiversity. We should conserve the rich biodiversity
of the earth for the posterity so that in future people can enjoy the richness of
earth.
In this unit the two mechanisms for protection of biological diversity have been
given special emphasis. Conservation of natural communities and populations
in the wild is known as in situ or on site conservation. Nature reserves are also
very important site of flora and fauna as they are conserved there in pristine
state. The other strategy, where species are maintained in artificial conditions
under human supervision, is known as ex situ or off-site conservation.
Examples of ex situ conservation are the botanical gardens and zoological
parks.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit you should be able to:
 list various causes of biodiversity losses and discuss its major impact
on whole world;
 explain the need and concept of biodiversity conservation;
 enumerate the needs for in-situ conservation of species and the various
measures and mechanisms;
 appreciate the need for ex-situ conservation of species and the various
mechanisms that are involved in this process of conservation; and
 appreciate the importance of nature reserve in biodiversity conservation.

8.2 CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

The main causes of biodiversity loss include land-use changes, changing
levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, changing climate, biological invasion
and nitrogen deposition (air pollution). The causes of biodiversity loss are
many and varied, and often interrelated. You will study about these factors in
detail in the following subsections.

8.2.1 Habitat Loss

Habitat refers to the area where species seek food, get shelter and reproduce.
The greatest threat to wild plant and animal species is due to destruction or
alteration of their habitat. If an animal’s habitat is destroyed or disrupted, it
must adapt to the new changes, move elsewhere or die. When it is forced out
of its territory, and if it finds a suitable habitat there is a possibility that the
habitat is already in use. Consequently, it must compete with the local
population of the same species as well as other animals. The other option is
that it must migrate into a marginal habitat where it may succumb to
predation, starvation or disease. Some organisms such as pigeon, house
sparrows, rodents (like rat and mice) and deer flourish in the modified habitats
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Some habitats are more vulnerable to species extinction, these are called
fragile habitats. Coral reefs, oceanic islands and mountain tops are
important fragile habitats.

Box. 8.1: Case study 1: Fragile habitats

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs have been found to be particularly fragile as they are
susceptible to a rise in water temperature, sea levels and the
introduction of pollutants and sediments that change its water quality.
Coral reef development is greatest in warm, shallow sun-drenched
areas and it needs clean and clear water. Productivity is decreased, or
even eliminated, in areas subject to dirty sediment-laden water. Coral
growth is naturally very slow.
In 1992, about 10% of the earth’s existing coral reefs were found to be
irreparably damaged, while 30% were expected to suffer damage within
the next 20 years. It is also expected that there may be a further 30%
loss within the next 20-40 years if remedial action is not implemented. It
is estimated that Tsunami, 2004 had caused considerable damage to
the coral reefs of coastal areas of India, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Oceanic Islands
Existing data shows that 75% of the recorded animal extinctions since
1600 have been on islands rather than in continental areas .Terrestrial
species in isolated oceanic islands are more vulnerable to being wiped
out than continental species. The reasons for species extinction on
oceanic island are restricted ranges, threat from alien species and
characteristics of island species.
Habitat Islands
Species in ecological islands or “habitat islands” (areas of habitat
separated from other such areas by inhospitable environments that act
as effective barriers to dispersal) are at greater risk of extinction. For
instance, freshwater lakes – bodies of water surrounded by land – like
real islands, suffer high rates of extinction due to habitat modification or
the introduction of exotic invasive species. Among continental
extinctions, at least 66% of species loss has been in aquatic habitats.
Biodiversity loss in lakes is further increased by the fact that isolated
inland water bodies can also have a high species endemism, resulting in
global extinctions when these species are lost.

Habitat destruction is recognised today as the most significant threat to global

biodiversity and bears responsibility for much of the species loss worldwide.
This includes:
 felling of forests for land use (e.g. clear felling for development,
agriculture), large scale logging and small scale patchwork agriculture.
Shifting cultivation alone is believed to be responsible for 70% of
deforestation in Africa, 50% of deforestation in Asia, and 35% of forest
loss in the America. 151
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 destruction of mangrove sites for aquaculture
 mining and destruction of corals
 conversion of wetlands for land uses
 over-extraction of timber and fuel wood
 human-induced burning of habitats (e.g. forest firing for shifting cultivation
and firing grasslands to improve fodder for cattle)
 damming of rivers
 siltation and sedimentation of freshwater bodies
 pollution also disturbs the natural habitat considerably. Industrial wastes
cause severe impact, particularly on the aquatic habitats. For example,
during the 1950s and 1960s, insecticides particularly chlorinated
hydrocarbons (such as DDT), reduced the population levels of several
birds such as the bald eagle and brown pelican.
In many countries there are very few pristine areas left that have not been
modified in some way by humans. When habitats are not completely
destroyed, they are fragmented into smaller patches, creating islands of
habitats in a sea of development. Fragmentation exposes species to more
light, wind and temperature effects than are natural, thus affecting the species
survival as food and water sources are lost and few mates remain. In
fragmented landscapes many species soon become isolated from others of
their own kind resulting in inbreeding, loss of genetic diversity and local
extinction.

More than three quarters of the species that are in danger of extinction today
are due to the destruction of their forest habitats. A large number of these
species are from the tropics, where human population growth has been most
explosive and habitats have been destroyed most rapidly. Tropical rain forests
cover a mere 7 per cent of the earth’s surface, yet they house about three
quarters of the total species. Today these forests are being destroyed at an
alarming rate.

8.3 HUMAN–WILD LIFE CONFLICT

People use some plant and animal species at a greater rate than the species
can replace themselves. Nine of the world’s major ocean fisheries are
declining because of too much fishing as well as water pollution and habitat
destruction, e.g. southern bluefin tuna, the Atlantic halibut and the Pacific and
Atlantic salmon. Current logging rates threaten to eliminate mahogany and
many other tree species that take many years to grow and mature.

The $10 billion-a-year global market in wildlife – for pets, folk medicines,
gourmet foods, decorative objects and other uses – threatens elephants and
rhinos, sea horses and colourful corals, tropical plants and birds, and bears,
pandas and tigers.

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8.3.1 Selective Destruction of Species
The selective destruction of one species of an existing fauna can produce
equally unfortunate results. The perfect demonstration of unexpected
consequences of such selective destruction can be explained to you by the
example of Passenger pigeon (Fig. 8.1). The Passenger pigeon (Ectopistes
migratorius) was probably most abundant bird on earth as recently as the
middle of the nineteenth century. Their flocks darkened the sky during
migration, and one such flock alone was 400 km long and had no less than
two billion birds. So huge was their numbers that the branches of trees would
break under the weight of the perching birds. It took hours for the flocks to
pass through a place. There used to be as many as 90 nests per tree
throughout a stretch of forest of about 5 km width and 67 km length. In 1871,
an estimated 136 million passenger pigeons nested in a 2,200 sq. km area of
central Wisconsin, USA. An immense tonnage of droppings fertilised the
forests where passenger pigeons roosted. Today there is not even a single
passenger pigeon on the earth. You must be wondering why this extinction Fig.8.1: Passenger
pigeon a lesson learnt
occurred. This happened because millions of passenger pigeons were killed but too late.
for food every year.

8.3.2 Domestication of Selective Species

Several years ago, a
Humans have taken care of the living beings which are useful to them through hillside in Mexico
extensive breeding programmes, to derive maximum benefit of their products. was being ploughed
when a few alert
During the process, the species have lost certain useful characteristics so scientists discovered
much so that these forms cannot survive on their own in nature. A very good a previously
example is corn, which is pampered so much by human that if it is left on its unknown species of
own, it cannot survive. wild corn – Zea
diploperennis that
Today human has large herds of domestic animals. These animals can also only grew on that hill
play a significant part in the reduction of animal populations by overgrazing the and was found
nowhere else. These
land, thus destroying the vegetation on which both they and the wild animals corn plants are
depend. The native wildlife of a particular area is capable of utilising the native perennial whereas
plant life much more efficiently than introduced domestic cattle, and is thus the domestic
much less likely to convert fertile areas into deserts. varieties of corn are
annuals. Moreover,
The other important parameter is that the domestic cattle are carriers of the wild corn is
several diseases which they can transmit to wild animals. For example, the resistant to many
diseases that infest
steady rehabilitation of the Great Indian Rhinoceros was seriously hampered
domestic varieties.
by the rinderpest disease which they contracted from the local domestic The species was
cattle. thus saved and it is
now being used to
breed and improve
8.3.3 Use of Pesticides new domestic
Pesticides harm insect pollinators, including managed honeybee populations, varieties.
which can in turn reduce crop yields. Runoff seeping into rivers, lakes and
coastal environments can produce negative impacts on entire aquatic
ecosystems.
Several pesticides banned in the United States are still exported to developing
countries such as DDT, DDE and PCBs. These substances mimic or
interface with normal hormones in living organisms. Reproductive 153
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abnormalities have been found in alligators, terns, salmon and gulls exposed
to high levels of chemicals from pesticides and animal hormones in their
environment.

8.3.4 Global Climate Change

Substantial evidence demonstrates that people are contributing to measurable
changes in the global climate, threatening life. By burning fossil fuels such as
oil, natural gas and coal and by burning trees, we have dramatically increased
the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. While scientists do not know the exact
effects of increased CO2, they predict that it will lead to higher overall global
temperatures, increasing sea levels, and changes in climate patterns.
The changed atmospheric conditions that result from global warming could
create greater numbers of intense storms and prolonged droughts. On the
other hand, the expected speed of climate changes coupled with direct loss of
natural habitat may prevent some species from adapting quickly enough. They
are likely to become extinct, locally or more broadly, and their roles in natural
systems will be lost forever.

SAQ 1
a) What are the demerits of domestication of selective animals? How can it
destroy biodiversity?
b) The perfect example of selective destruction is
i) Great Indian Rhinoceros
ii) Alligators
iii) Passenger pigeon
iv) Sea gulls
c) The main reasons for animal species extinction at the current high rates are
i) Habitat destruction
ii) Hunting
iii) Over harvesting from the wild
iv) Domestication of selective species of animals
d) Habitat modification may occur due to
i) Fragmentation of original habitat
ii) Pollution
iii) Changes in species composition due to humans
iv) All of the above

8.4 POACHING OF WILD LIFE

The hunting and export of excessive numbers of certain animal species is
another important factor leading to dangerous reductions in numbers. There
are three main types of hunting:
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i) Commercial hunting – in which the animals are killed for profit from sale
of their furs, bones or other parts;

ii) Subsistence hunting – the killing of animals to provide food for survival;
and
Carolina parakeet-their
iii) Sport hunting – the killing of animals for recreation. Although brightly coloured
feathers caused their
subsistence hunting was once a major cause of extinction of some
downfall. These
species, it has now declined sharply in most areas. Sport hunting is now feathers were prized for
closely regulated in most countries; species are endangered only when decorating women’s
protective regulation does not exist or are not enforced. hats and made the
birds popular as pets.
On a worldwide basis, commercial hunting threatens a number of large animal Their extinction came in
1914.
species. The jaguar, tiger, snow leopard, and cheetah are hunted for their
skins, elephants for their ivory tusks (accounting for the slaughter of about The heath hen was
used as food. In the
90,000 elephants a year) and rhinoceros for their horns. Single rhino horn –
early 1900s people
which is a mass of compact hair – is worth as much as $24,000 in the black realised that the bird
market. It is used to make handles for ornamental knives in North Yemen, and was becoming scarce
ground into a powder and used in parts of Asia for medicinal purposes, and a bird sanctuary
was set up. The flock
especially reducing fever. It is also thought to be an aphrodisiac or sexual
soon grew, but a fire
stimulant even though it consists of a substance (keratin) that can be obtained swept across the
by eating hair trimmings and finger nails. Although 60 countries have agreed sanctuary, and only a
not to import or export rhino horns, illegal trafficking goes on because of its few males survived. The
last bird died in 1932.
high market value.
The Labrador duck
Another highly publicised commercial hunt is that of the whale. The whaling became extinct before
industry has generally concentrated its efforts on the large, profitable baleen anyone realised it was
gone. Most of the birds
whales, which were slaughtered for their blubber and baleen, the bony sieves
were killed for their
they filter sea water with. From the blubber, high grade oil was made for lamps feathers, which were
and for lubricating machines. The baleen or “whalebone” was used to make used to stuff pillows.
corset stays, combs and similar products. The history of whaling is one of Among all the
over-exploitation followed by abandonment. countries, India has the
greatest number of
mammalian species on
8.5 BIOLOGICAL INVASION the threatened species
(endangered, rare etc.)
Purposely or accidentally, people often bring non-native species into new list, and in the Red
areas where the species have few or no natural predators to keep their Data Book, ranks first
populations in check. These invasive species – also called alien, introduced of the world.
or exotic species – are considered the most important cause of native
biodiversity loss. Invasive or alien species are those species which when
introduced into new areas cause biological invasions. They range from
microbes to mammals. Invasive species also cause economic and
environmental havoc. Invasive species can also alter fire cycles, nutrient
cycling and the hydrology and energy budgets in native ecosystems. The
problem of invasive species will rise severely through climate change.
Some examples of invasive species are given below which you can see and
experience yourself how these destroy the local flora.
 Water hyacinth, a water plant with a showy purple flower, is a native of the
Brazil and is now seen as the most important nuisance aquatic plant
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worldwide. It affects water flow, electricity generation, transport, water
The blue whale, the quality and indigenous biodiversity. In India it was introduced in 1886 in
largest animal that has Bengal as an ornamental, pond plant. Since then it has spread throughout
ever lived, once numbered India as an obnoxious aquatic weed covering large area. Fish and rice
around 2,00,000 but by
crops worth millions of rupees are damaged each year at the hands of
the mid 1950s it has
been reduced to about this weed.
10,000. Many scientists
 Parthenium hysterophorus, also known as congress weed was
believe that the blue
whale population, introduced in India with food grains imported from USA. It reproduces
although now protected, freely from seeds and has spread in neglected areas throughout the
may not recover country. Its pollen also causes skin allergies.
 Golden apple snail is one of the most devastating invasive alien species. It
was imported from Latin America to South East Asia in the 1980s.
 Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite) in the semi-arid parts of India has displaced
other flora of the area. It has become as invasive seriously threatening the
biodiversity.

SAQ 2
a) Invasive species which causes skin allergies
i) water hyacinth
ii) congress weed
iii) mesquite
iv) sweet pea
b) Discuss with example how is poaching responsible for extinction of big
animals
c) Discuss the harmful effects of invasive species with example

8.6 NEED FOR CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY

Why is biodiversity so important? Why should we care about it? What is the,
value- biodiversity? May be the lay people don’t understand the various roles it
plays in our life, but certainly they know the importance of biodiversity.
There are many factors that underlie the need to conserve biodiversity, such
as,
“The more biodiversity we
destroy and the more  present and potential uses of the components of biological diversity -
irrevocably we change the especially as we have no way of knowing or predicting what will be of use
biosphere, the more we in the future.
limit our choices for the
future.”  biodiversity is essential to maintain the earth’s life support systems that
enable the biosphere to support human life.
 It is ethically important to maintain all of the earth’s biological diversity,
including all the other extant (currently existing) life forms.
Biological diversity has to be conserved at all levels - comprising genes,
species and ecosystems. The greater the number of individuals of a species
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and the number of different populations of the species conserved, the greater
will be the biological diversity conserved. Maintaining a high genetic diversity
ensures that individual species are more adapted to their environment and
changing conditions, and are thus less vulnerable to extinction. Wide
ecosystem diversity will ensure that more species have living conditions vital
for their survival; while a wide species diversity will ensure that ecosystems
are more stable in the long term.

8.7 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Conservation needs different strategies, they can be species based or habitat
based or ecosystem based. Some species are given importance at national
level while some need treatment at international levels. Most of the
conservation is done at in situ and ex situ conditions. In this unit we will
discuss what these conditions mean, what is the difference between them
and what are the methods and techniques used. We have also described
some important projects such as project tiger and how this project had helped
in increasing tiger populations. Some techniques such as seed bank and
tissue culture are also proving very helpful in conservation of plants which fulfill
several of our needs.
In-situ conservation means “on-site conservation”. It is the process of
protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either
by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from
predators. The benefit to in-situ conservation is that it maintains recovering
populations in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive
properties.
Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. This involves the
protection of wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to
enable the target species to exist in large numbers. The population size must
be sufficient to enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive within the
population.
Ex-situ conservation means, literally “off-site conservation”. It is the process
of protecting population of an endangered species of plant or animal by
removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and placing it, or part of it,
under the care of humans. While ex-situ conservation is comprised of some
of the oldest and best known conservation methods known to human, it also
involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.
Ex-situ conservation, while helpful in human’s efforts to sustain and protect
our environment, is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. It is to be
used as a last resort or as a supplement to in-situ conservation because it
cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire genetic variation of a
species, its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements which, over time, might
help a species adapt to its changing surroundings. Further more, ex-situ
conservation techniques are often costly. Plants and animals living in ex-situ
breeding grounds have no natural defense to the diseases and pests new to
the species.
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8.7.1 In-situ Conservation
This approach deals with maintaining species in their natural habitats, which is
believed to be the best way to maintain the earth’s biological diversity. It also
allows natural evolutionary processes to continue and for species to keep on
adapting to their surroundings. However, this needs good management
practices and controlled land use to ensure the successes of conservation
objectives. Thus Protected Areas play a very important role in in-situ
conservation of species, particularly threatened species, by ensuring
conservation of their habitat.
When a location is selected, the design of the preserved area plays an
important role and is characterised by three important characteristics: size,
shape and connectivity. If the size of the preserved area is big it increases the
number of species contained in preserved area. The rounder shape minimizes
edge effects because the perimeter (edge) is smaller relative to the area
inside than with other shapes. Connectivity between potential fragments
allows members of the same species to immigrate and interbreed. The
connections are also called corridors. Buffer zones are another important
preserve characteristic (Fig.8.2)

Outer buffer

Inner Buffer
Core Corridor Core
reserve reserve
Hiking

Camping
Grazing

Interregional

Fig.8.2: Structure of preserved areas

A buffer zone is moderately utilised land that provides a transition into the
unmodified natural habitat in the core preserve where no human disturbance is
allowed.
Buffer zones are very important for both psychological and practical reasons
and from this zone inhabitants of the area can derive some benefits from the
preserve. By permitting moderate recreational forestry, farming and other
activities, buffer zone provides jobs, and income with no ill effects on species
in the core preserve. Other types of areas that are important for in-situ
conservation of species are:
 National parks and sanctuaries
Most national parks are areas of land that have great natural beauty,
which are set aside and protected for the conservation of habitat of many
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plants and animals. In national parks peoples are allowed to enjoy the
scenery and wildlife, but visitor management is often required to reduce
conflicts between recreation and conservation.
National parks are largely natural and unchanged by human activities, but
many of them already had existing human impacts before they were
designated for protection and human activities have often been allowed to
continue. People have no rights in a National Park.
The first wildlife sanctuary was the Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary near
Madras, set up in 1878, which merely formalised the traditional protection
afforded by villagers for pelicans, herons and other birds breeding at
Vedanthangal. Another such sanctuary was set up at Ranganathittu near
Mysore, in 1942. As in 2018, India has 103 National Parks, 536 Wildlife
Sanctuaries and 18 Biosphere Reserves.

Box. 8.2: Tigers Reserves

Project tiger was launched on 1 April, 1973 as centrally sponsored

scheme of Government of India to maintain viable population of the tiger
and its natural habitat. The main objective of the scheme is to ensure a
viable population of tiger in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic,
cultural and ecological values and to preserve areas of biological
“A Tiger is a large-
importance as natural heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment
hearted gentleman
of the people. Main objectives under the scheme include wildlife (Fig.8.3) with
management and protection. Initially, the Project started with nine tiger boundless courage
reserves, covering an area of 16,339 sq.km with a population of 268 and that when he is
exterminated – as
tigers. At present there are 27 tiger reserves covering an area of 37,
exterminated he will
761 sq.km. with a population of 2967 tigers. This amounts of almost be unless public
1.14% of the total geographical area of the country. The selection of opinion rallies to his
reserves was guided by representation of ecotypical wilderness areas support – India will be
the poorer by having
across the biogeographic range of tiger distribution in the country.
lost the finest of her
Project Tiger is undisputedly a custodian of major gene pool in the fauna” -Jim Corbett
country. It is also a repository of some of the most valuable ecosystem
and habitats for wildlife.

Fig. 8.3: Indian Tiger.

The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a ‘core-buffer strategy’. The core

area is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, collection
of minor forest produce, grazing and human disturbances are not
allowed within. However, the buffer zone is managed as a ‘multiple use
area’ with twin objectives of providing habitat supplement to the spillover
population of wild animals from the core conservation unit, and to
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provide site specific ecodevelopmental inputs to surrounding villages for
relieving the impact on the core. No relocation is visualized in the buffer
area, and forestry operations, Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP)
collection and other rights and concessions to the indigenous
communities are permitted in a regulated manner to complement the
initiatives in the core unit. The effective protection and intensive
conservation measures inside the reserves have brought about
considerable indescribable achievements. The project has been
instrumental in mustering local support for conservation programme in
general.

Captive Breeding Programmes

Captive breeding does play an important role in elephant conservation. Some
of the most successful captive breeding programmes are those where
elephants are kept under semi-natural conditions like in forest camps. In the
forest camps in southern India, elephants have been seen to regularly breed in
captivity and it has also been observed that the elephant population has
sustained itself without the addition of any elephant from the wild.
In most forest camps, bulls and cows of all ages are kept together and are
allowed to mingle with each other. They are also left in the forests at night, so
that they can feed. Sometimes, the cows have been known to mate with wild
bulls.
Crocodile Conservation
In situ conservation of selected species of birds and reptiles has been fortified
through captive breeding programmes. The Government of India started a
Crocodile Breeding and Management Project in 1976 to save the three
endangered crocodilian species, the fresh water crocodile, salt water
crocodile and the gharial. Thousands of crocodiles of these three species
have been reared at 16 centres and several of these have been released into
the wild. Eleven sanctuaries have been declared specially for crocodile
protection including the National Chambal Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh. The
endangered white-winged wood duck was also bred in captivity and released
into Protected Areas of the Northeast, in an Indo-British collaborative
programme.

SAQ 3
a) Total number of Biosphere Reserves in India are
i) 12
ii) 14
iii) 16
iv) 18
b) Describe the importance of buffer zone in protected areas.

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8.7.2 Ex-situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation is comprised of some of the oldest and best known
conservation methods known to human, it also involves newer, sometimes
controversial laboratory methods.
Ex situ conservation has certain limitations for conservation of animals. These
include adaptation problems, loss of genetic variability due to inbreeding, and
concentration in small place, surplus animals, and continuity in funds.
Research on captive population can provide insight into the basic biology of
the species and suggest new conservation strategies.
However, much more needs to be done to protect global resource (flora and
fauna) needed for healthy and productive animals and plants that are used for
food, material, economic and aesthetic needs of the society.
 Botanical Gardens
Together, the world’s 1500 botanic gardens (Fig. 8.4), arboreta, and
national plant collections maintain the largest array of plant diversity
outside of nature, and they have major, if often overlooked, potential as
resource centers for conservation, education, and development. If the
infrastructure and technical facilities of most of these institutions can be
strengthened, they can conserve ex situ stocks of most of the world’s
endangered plant species. Already, individuals of an estimated 12,000 to
15,000 threatened species are being cultivated in botanic gardens and
arboreta

 Zoological Parks
Collectively the zoos of
The basic philosophy behind the creation of zoological parks in modern the network are visited
times is to create an understanding of the environment and ecological annually by at least
balance of life, meaning strengthening the bond between people and the 600,000,000 people
(approximately 10% of
living earth. These zoological parks are no mere picnic spots. They are
the current world
now centres for ex-situ wild life conservation and environmental population).
education.
The history of modern zoos has started some 200 years ago with the
creation of the first public zoo. Since then every part of world has
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developed their own zoological parks with great diversity such as aquaria,
bird-parks, private zoos and safari parks. The World Zoo Conservation
Strategy concludes that the evolution of zoo should continue to help the
conservation of wildlife. There are several species of wildlife which would
have been extinct today except for efforts by zoos and animal reserves.

Ex-Situ conservation of wild animals in zoo

Some important techniques used in ex-situ conservation are dealt here.

i) Captive breeding

Captive breeding is one of the important strategies used by both

government and non-government organizations. Captive-breeding
programmes of endangered and threatened species have become
familiar programmes that strive to preserve biodiversity and species-
survival plans such as cheetah.

ii) Embryo Storage and transfer technology

Techniques for embryo transfer and artificial insemination, which have

been developed for laboratory animals and farm animals, are potentially
very useful for improving the reproductive potential of captive populations
of endangered species. These kinds of techniques have been worked out
mainly for mammals.

iii) Artificial insemination

Artificial insemination is another technology that may be useful. Sperm

can be frozen and used later, or transferred to another breeding facility to
increase genetic diversity. Sometimes, the sperm can be added to the
eggs in a dish and fertilization will occur. In other cases (for example,
horses) the sperm has to be injected into the egg. A few years ago, the
black-footed ferret was down to six individuals, but artificial insemination
has now been used to produce 16 kittens. Elephants and cheetahs have
conceived, and a cheetah cub has been born following artificial
insemination. Elephants have not bred naturally in captivity, so this
method may be useful simply to make captive breeding possible.

In New Zealand iv) Somatic cell cloning

scientists are hoping to
use trans-species Somatic cell cloning holds some promise for propagating from one or a
cloning to bring back the few survivors of an almost extinct species. This was first done with
recently extinct Huia domestic sheep at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh (from University of
bird.
Virginia) but has since been done with other mammals. It has already
been used to rescue a rare breed of cattle that had been reduced to a
single old female (“Lady”) and some frozen sperm. Granulosa cells
(somatic cells in the ovary) from Lady were fused with enucleated eggs
(lacking DNA) from a different breed, and the resulting eggs were
implanted into an Angus cow (a common breed). The first calf born from
these cells is genetically identical to Lady, as expected, although her
markings were slightly different.
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v) Fostering
Many egg-laying animals (i.e. birds and reptiles) are capable of producing
many more eggs than they can rear. This raises the possibility of
collecting the extra eggs and hatching and rearing the animals in captivity
with a foster parent, then using them to supplement wild populations. It
has worked extremely well with some birds, particularly the peregrine
falcon, which is now doing so well that the fostering programme is being
phased out. Rearing of whooping cranes has also been successful, and
the species recovered from a population of 21 birds in 1941 to over 300 in
1996.
vi) Translocations
Sometimes conservation of faunal species involves or necessitates
translocation of animals. This means the movement of individuals from its
natural habitat, or from captivity, to another habitat. Translocations are
carried out in connection with introductions or reintroductions, and should
be handled with extreme caution.
vii) Introduction
This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural habitat or
from captivity) into an area outside its historical distribution. Such species
would then become an “exotic” to the area. This should be handled with
extreme care and needs. Extensive study of the habitat and the behaviour
and social organization of the species to be introduced has to be done, to
ensure that the species has a good chance of adapting to the habitat.
viii) Reintroduction
This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural habitat or In at least seven
from captivity) into an area within its historical distribution, either to boost cases (Pere David’s
existing populations, or to establish new populations when the original deer, Arabian Oryx,
American bison, Red
population had died out. This too should be handled with extreme care wolf, Guam kingfisher,
and needs extensive study of the habitat and the behaviour and social Guam rail, and the
organization of the species to be reintroduced. California condor) the
species were extinct
Seed Bank in the wild at the time
of reintroduction.
The preservation of plant germplasm in seedbanks, (or genebanks), is one of
the techniques of ex-situ conservation of plant species.Seeds have a natural
dormancy feature, which allows for their suspended preservation for long
periods of time with little damage, provided the conditions are favourable.
Banking dormant seeds enables to keep genetically representative samples of
rare and endangered plant species as a kind of “genetic insurance”.
Seeds Storing
Storing germplasm in seedbanks is both inexpensive and space efficient. It
allows preservation of large populations with little genetic erosion. Seedbanks
also offer good sources of plant material for biological research, and avoid
disturbance or damage of natural populations.

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Tissue Culture
Plant tissue culture is an essential component of plant biotechnology. The
possibility to regenerate whole plant from protoplasts, single cells, tissues and
organs, in vitro, has opened out entirely new approaches to plant
improvement, and has considerably enhanced the efficiency of the
conventional methods of plant breeding and plant propagation.

SAQ 4
a) Which of the following provides genetic insurance
i) tissue culture
ii) somatic cell cloning
iii) introduction
iv) seed bank
b) Artifical insemination can be beneficial in
i) Dogs
ii) Cats
iii) Elephants
iv) Snakes

8.8 NATURE RESERVES

The nature reserves are the important area for the conservation of biodiversity.
The growing destruction of biodiversity reemphasises the valuable contribution
of nature reserves. These areas are resourceful and useful means to deal with
biodiversity losses and help in buffering society from climatic effects and
maintains the critical ecosystem services to the society.
Biosphere Reserves
Bisphere reserves are internationally recognised areas established to promote
and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere
(Fig. 8.5). They highlight the value of nature conservation within a particular
natural region and reconcile the conservation of biological diversity with
sustainable use. Consequently they are ideally suited to meet today’s
conservation needs when human populations are increasing and the
practicality of leaving aside large areas to protect pristine natural wild lands is
decreasing, despite the fact that more people than ever before are dependent
on wild species and natural ecosystems for their well-being.
The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the Man and
Biosphere (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. Biosphere Reserves
programme is intended to conserve representative ecosystems as opposed to
only species or habitat conservation. It provides in-situ conservation under
natural conditions, long-term conservation of plants, animals and micro
organisms. The purpose of the formation of the Biosphere Reserve is to
164 conserve in-situ all forms of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so
Unit 8 Biodiversity: Threats and Conservation
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Fig. 8.5: Sundarban Biosphere Reserve.

that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring and evaluating changes
in natural ecosystems. The first biosphere reserve of the world was
established in 1979, since then the network of biosphere reserves has
increased to 425 in 95 countries in the world (MAB - 2003). Presently, there
are 18 designated biosphere reserves in India. India’s first Biosphere Reserve
was the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
Wetlands
India’s wetlands (Fig.8.6) are distributed in different geographical regions
ranging from the cold arid zone of Ladakh to the wet humid climate of Imphal;
the warm arid zone of Rajasthan to tropical monsoonal Central India, and the
wet humid zone of the Southern peninsula.

Fig. 8.6: Wetlands.

In the world over, a wetland is considered important if it:

 is particularly a good representative example of a natural or near natural
wetland, characteristic of the appropriate biogeographic region;
 plays a substantial hydrological, biological, or ecological role in the natural
functioning of a major river basin or coastal system;
 is a specific type of wetland, rare or unusual; or
 supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered
species or subspecies of plants or animals.
Importantly, wetlands are habitats for a wide variety of plant and animal life.
Most important of these is the waterfowl. Since wetlands are shallow water 165
Block 3 Environmental Issues and Concerns
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areas, they provide an ideal habitat for water birds. Examples of such kinds of
wetlands can be found all over the world.

Apart from harbouring birds, wetlands are also a nursery ground for several
species of fish and shell fish and a wide variety of aquatic organisms. Chilka in
Odisha, for example, has dolphins that move around in the area where the
lake meets the sea. Coastal wetlands especially being an ecotone between
the sea and freshwater, and/or freshwater and terrestrial habitats have high
species diversity.

Ecologically, too, wetlands perform important functions. They regulate the

water regime, act as natural filters and, display a marvelous nutrient
Bulwark a defensive wall, dynamics. As an ecosystem, wetlands are useful for nutrient recovery and
especially of earth cycling, releasing excess nitrogen, deactivating phosphates, removing toxins,
chemicals and heavy metals through absorption by plants and also in the
treatment of waste water.

Furthermore, coastal wetlands with their unique mangroves (Fig. 8.7) are a
Some of the most
important Indian
natural bulwark against erosion by sea. The possible threat of rise in sea level
wetlands are: Kolleru is universally dreaded. One immediate preventive of this possible threat, as
(Andhra Pradesh), Wullar has been suggested by experts, would be the plan of a network of mangroves.
(Jammu and Kashmir), In fact, mangrove wetlands of India and Bangladesh act as buffers against the
Chilka (Odisha), Loktak
(Manipur), Bhoj (Madhya
devastating storms of the Bay of Bengal. Wetlands, thus, help in mitigating
Pradesh), Sambar floods, recharging aquifers and reducing surface run-off and the consequent
(Rajasthan), Pichola erosion.
(Rajasthan), Ashtamudi
(Kerala), Sasthamkotta
(Kerala), Harike
(Punjab), Kanjli (Punjab),
Ujni (Maharashtra),
Sukhna (Chandigarh),
Renuka (Himachal
Pradesh), Kabar (Bihar),
Nalsarovar (Gujrat) and
Dal (Jammu and
Kashmir).

Fig. 8.7: Mangroves acting as bulwark for environment.

In the context of the environment, too, wetlands play a very important role.
They protect and improve the quality of water and keep the local weather
moderate. Using wetlands for water quality improvement has been tried in cold
climates. Wetlands in urban periphery are natural receptacles for waste water
and can harness effectively the nutrients available in the waste through
166 fisheries and agriculture.
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Box 8.3: Natural Wetlands of India

Most of the natural wetlands of India are connected with the river
systems of the North and South. On the other hand, the various multi-
purpose projects launched to harness river systems have provided a
number of wetlands, e.g., Harike Barrage at the confluence of the Beas
and Sutlej in Punjab, Bhakra Nangal Dam in Punjab and the Kosi
Barrage on the Bihar-Nepal border. Besides these, we also have a
network of lakes – natural as well as manmade, for example, Kabar lake,
Chilka lake, Pichola Complex and Sukhna lake etc. In addition of these,
there are 6,740 square kilometres of mangroves. The major
concentrations of mangroves in the country are the Sunderbans and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which hold 80% of the mangroves in
India. Rests of them are in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat, and Goa.
The two wetlands from India which found place in first International
Convention on Wetlands held at Ramsar in Iran in February 1971were
Chilka and Bharatpur. Currently there are 26 Ramsar sites in India,
covering most of the important wetlands.

In a remarkable sense, wetlands have become central points for bird

observations, the lead example being set by Bharatpur Sanctuary. It is,
therefore, proposed at various forums to develop other wetlands as tourist
attraction centres.

8.9 SUMMARY
 Biodiversity is threatened by the sum of all human activities. It is useful to
group threats into the categories of habitat destruction, invasion by non-
native species, over-hunting, pollution and climate charge.
 Habitat loss presents the single greatest threat to world biodiversity, and
the magnitude of this threat can be approximated from species-area
curves and rates of habitat loss. The spread of non-native species
threatens many local species with extinction, and pushes the world’s biota
towards a more homogeneous and widely distributed sub-set of survivors.
 Climate change threatens to force species and ecosystems to migrate
toward higher latitudes, with no guarantee of suitable habitat or access
routes.
 Many species have gone extinct, some naturally and others because of
human activities i.e. deforestation, desertification and destruction of
wetlands and coral reefs.
 Habitats that are vulnerable to greater species extinction are referred to
as fragile habitats. Coral reefs, oceanic islands, mountain tops and
habitat islands are considered as fragile habitats.
 Major impacts of biodiversity loss are steady increase in atmospheric
CO2 level, adverse effects on local climate and water flow, reduction of
genetic diversity, extinction of species and loss of livelihoods.
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 In-situ conservation meaning on-site conservation and Ex-situ
conservation meaning off-site conservation are two important ways of
conservation of species. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ
conservation. Ex-situ conservation is man’s efforts to sustain and protect
the environment and ex-situ conservation is used when species extinction
is imminent.
· In-situ conservation of species is generally operated in places like,
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, Wetlands, Biosphere Reserves.
Tiger Reserves and Elephant Reserves.
 Ex-situ conservation sites are Botanical Gardens and Zoologica Parks.
 Seed banks and tissue culture are important methods for plant
conservation.
 Nature reserves are hubs of biodiversity and they should be left as such
so ecosystem can function properly.

8.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Why is biodiversity important for human beings? Make a list of
advantages from biodiversity .
2. Describe how is global climate change harming biodiversity on the earth.
3. Why is biodiversity important? Discuss some of its values, and indicate
the ones you favour the most.
4. Describe each of the five major threats to biodiversity. Give an
example of a species affected by each of these threats.
5. Differentiate between in-situ and ex-situ conservation. What is the
ultimate goal of captive breeding? Why is it best used only as a last
resort?
6. Visit a local zoo or botanical garden. What activities are conducted there
to promote biological conservation? List them.
7. What are the advantages of tissue culture ?
8. Write a note on Biosphere Reserves.

8.11 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) please refer to sub-section 8.3.2
b) (iii);
c) (iv);
d) (iv)
2. a) (ii);
b) please refer to section 8.4
c) please refer to section 8.5
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3. a) (iv);
b) See sub-section 8.7.1
4. a) (iv);
b) (iii)

Terminal Questions
1. Refer to sub-section 8.6
2. Refer to sub-section 8.3.4.
3. Refer to introduction of the unit and section 8.6.
4. Refer to section 8.2 causes of biodiversity loss.
5. Refer to section 8.7 conservation of biodiversity.
6. This is open ended question, visit a local zoo or botanical garden make a
list of various activities that are taking place there for biological
conservation.
7. Refer to sub-section 8.7.2.
8. Refer to section 8.8 Nature reserves.

8.12 FURTHER READING

1. WCMC (1992) Global Biodiversity. Status of the earth’s Living Resources.
Chapman & Hall.
2. National Biodiversity Action Plan and Strategy of India, (Draft of 2002).
3. IUCN (1999) Resource Material on Biodiversity for General Certificate of
Education.
4. Glowka, L. et. al., (1994) A Guide to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
IUCN. Gland and Cambridge.
Internet Sites
http://www.unep.ch/conventions/geclist.htm
http://www.epw.org.in
http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml

Acknowledgement for Figures

1. Fig. 8.3 Indian Tiger

https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/international-tiger-
day-india-1298968-2018-07-28

2. Fig. 8.4 The Great Banyan Tree (photograph by Biswarup Ganguly)https://

www.atlasobscura.com/articles/curious-fact-of-the-week-great-banyan-tree

3. Fig. 8.5 sundarban reserves

http://www.moef.nic.in/report/0203/
169