FRICTION CLASS (2):

OA represent normal reaction by ground

OB .......... force of limiting friction
OC... is the resultant of the above two forces by
parallelogram law of vector addition.
θ = angle between the normal reaction & the resultant
force in the figure= angle of friction.
we know by law of friction:
𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅........(I)
from triangle AOC:
𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐵 𝑓
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = .............(II)
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝐴 𝑅
so using (i). from (ii) we get
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜇
this is the relation between angle of friction &
coefficient of friction.
**********************************************
************
TOPIC2: ANGLE OF REPOSE:
It is defined as the minimum angle of inclination of a
plane with the horizontal, such that a body placed on the
plane just begins to slide down.
here three force are acting on the object placed on
inclined plane:
i) weight vertically downward.
ii) normal reaction R , perpendicular to plane AB.
iii) force of friction acting up the plane AB.

here we resolve mg into two rectangular

components as shown in the above fig.
Now , object is at equilibrium position:
so, R = mgcos𝜙...........(i)
& f= mgsin𝜙.............(ii)
dividing (ii) by (i), we get,
𝑓 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
= = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙....................(iii)
𝑅 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
now, we know, 𝑓 = 𝜇𝑅...............(IV)
so, comparing we get
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 = 𝜇
we also have proved,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝜇
thus, we can conclude,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
so. 𝜃 = 𝜙, i,e angle of friction is equal to the
angle of repose.
***************************************
************
TOPIC 3: Calculation of acceleration of a body
down a rough plane:

in place of 𝜙 put 𝜃.
now, here 𝜃 is such an angle of inclined plane ,
that body is sliding down the plane due to its
own weight.
now, from fig.
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃............(i)
as the body is sliding down, resultant force,
down the plane
=𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓
using, Newton’s 2nd law of motion
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 𝑚𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
TOPIC 4: Calculation of acceleration of a body
upward of a rough plane:

when , the body is moving upward , down the

plane two forces are acting: 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 & 𝑓
so, for upward motion, using Newton’s 2nd law:
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑓 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑚𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 𝑚𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
***************************************
************
TOPIC:5: CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION &
BANKING OF ROADS & BENDING OF A CYCLIST:
whenever a car is about to take a round of a circular
path, there is always a tendency to skid away from
track.So, driver is allowed to attain a max speed
whenever take a round around a circular track without
skidding.
Here, centripetal force is supplied by both friction
between tyre and road , also, due banking of road,
component of normal reaction is responsible.
here three forces are acting on car: as shown in fig &
also f & R are resolved into their respective rectangular
components.
as there is no acceleration along vertical direction:
𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜇𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑅 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔
𝑅= ....................(i)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

now , for centripetal force,

𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ) =
𝑟
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑣 2
( ) ∗ (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟

2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑟 ∗ ( )
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑔𝑟(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑣=√
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
 𝑔𝑟(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇)
𝑣=√
(1 − 𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)

****************************************
07/08/2020(FRIDAY)
BENDING OF A CYCLIST:
why bends?
When a cyclist taken a turn, he requires some
centripetal force. If he keeps himself vertical while
turning, his weight is balanced by normal reaction of the
ground, in that event, he has to depend upon force of
friction between tyres & road for obtaining necessary
centripetal force. As force of fractions is small &
uncertain, dependence on it is not safe.
To avoid dependence on force of friction for obtaining
centripetal force, the cyclist has to bend a little inwards
from his vertical position, while turning.
how much to bend?
θ is angle of bending from vertical position inwards.
v= velocity of cyclist while turning
r= radius of circular turn.
m= mass of cyclist.
Here. Normal reaction R, is resolved into two rectangular
components:
i) Rcos θ along vertical upward, which balances the
weight of cyclist
ii) R sin θ along horizontal , towards the centre of
circular track, providing necessary centripetal force.
thus,
Rcos θ = mg..................(i)
𝑚𝑣 2
Rsin θ = ...................(ii)
𝑟
dividing (ii) by (i), we get,
 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= 𝑟
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = × =
𝑟 𝑚𝑔 𝑔𝑟

2
−1 𝑣
𝜃= tan ( )
𝑔𝑟

fx-82MS casio
OPIC: MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE:
during vertical motion , at each point tension in string T
is different, also, value of velocity is different at different
points., which indicates motion in a vertical circle is
NON-UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION.
Our motive is To find values of T & v, at any point P , at
lowest point L & at highest point H.

Here, two forces are acting on the body

i) weight mg vertically downward
ii) Tension T in the string.
in fig, we see that, at any point P , T is acting towards
centre & mgcosθ is acting away from centre.
thus, net force acting towards centre=𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
now, to be in a circle , object require centripetal force.
𝑚𝑣 2
thus. 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ..................(i) FOR ANY POINT P.
𝑟
********************************************
14/08/2020(FRIDAY)
calculation of 𝑣 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐻.
THE body will move along the vertical circle only
when,𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥ 0.If 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 < 0, THE string will slack & the
body will fall down from H, instead of moving in a circle.
thus, minimum value of 𝑇𝐻 =0.......................(II)
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + =0
𝑟
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 + =0
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
−𝑚𝑔 + = 0[𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 = −1]
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
= 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
𝑣 2 = 𝑔𝑟
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑣𝐻 = √𝑔𝑟......................(III)
NOTE: remember express, so can attend MCQ.
Calculation of velocity & tension at lowest point L:
Applying principle of conservation of mechanical energy:
total energy at L = total energy at H
1 1
0 + 𝑚𝑣𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔 ∗ 2𝑟 + 𝑚𝑣𝐻 2
2
2 2
1 2
1
𝑚𝑣𝐿 = 2𝑚𝑔𝑟 + 𝑚 ∗ 𝑔𝑟
2 2
𝑚𝑣𝐿 2 = 4𝑚𝑔𝑟 + 𝑚𝑔𝑟
𝑣𝐿 2 = 5𝑔𝑟
𝑣𝐿 = √5𝑔𝑟
as we put ,
𝑣𝐻 = √𝑔𝑟, so, minimum velocity at lowest point
L is =√5𝑔𝑟
--------------------------------------
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ..................(i)
𝑟
Now, from eq(i) we can easily say that tension has the
maximum value at lowest point L
so, 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜃 = 0
2
𝑚𝑣 𝐿
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠00 +
𝑟
 5𝑔𝑟
𝑇𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚 ∗
𝑟
𝑇𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔 + 5𝑚𝑔 = 6𝑚𝑔

******************************************
page: 3/132(pradeep)

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 = 300 , 𝑣 = 100𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 9.8 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1
Given system is in equilibrium,
for 𝑀1 :
𝑅 = 𝑀1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑀1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠300 … … . (𝑖)
𝑇 = 𝑀1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑀1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛300 … … (𝑖𝑖)
For 𝑀2 :
𝑇 = 𝑀2 𝑔 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
from (iii) using (ii)
𝑀2 𝑔 = 𝑀1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛300
1
𝑀2 = 𝑀1 ∗
2
𝑀1 = 2𝑀2 … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
Given , T=98N.
from (iii)
𝑇 98
𝑀2 = = = 10𝑘𝑔
𝑔 9.8
using (iv)
𝑀1 = 2 ∗ 10 = 20𝑘𝑔
***************
p=267:
we know, for angle of repose 𝜃
𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
3
3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼
19/08/2020(WEDNESDAY)
WORK-ENERGY & POWER:
TOPIC: COLLISSIONS IN ONE DIMENSIONS:
 Types of collisions:
i) perfectly elastic
ii) perfectly inelastic
iii) imperfect or semi elastic collisions
A) Now the degree of elasticity of a collision is
determined by a quantity , called coefficient of
restitution or coefficient of resilience.
B) it is denoted by letter ′𝑒 ′ .
C) coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of
the relative velocity of separation after collision to the
relative velocity of approach before collision.
i.e,
relative velocity of separation
𝑒=
relative velocity of approach
D) for perfectly elastic collision 𝑒 = 1
for perfectly inelastic collision 𝑒 = 0.
for all other type of collisions 0 < 𝑒 < 1
---------------------------------------------------------
 Calculation of velocity after collision:

let two bodies of masses 𝑚1 & 𝑚2 are moving with

their initial velocity as show in diagram.
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟, u1>u2 .
now, as we are taking, perfectly elastic collision, so ,
two theorems to be obeyed here:
i) law of conservation of momentum.[LCM]
ii) law of conservation of kinetic energy.[LCKE]
by LCM..
total momentum before collision= total momentum
after collision
m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+ m2v2........................(i)
or, m1u1 - m1v1= m2v2 - m2u2
or, m1(u1-v1)=m2(v2-u2)......................(ii)

again by LCKE
total K.E before collision= total K.E after collision
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 ..............(iii)
2 2 2 2
 1 1
𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣22 − 𝑢22 )............(iv)
2 2

dividing (iv) by (ii)

1 1
𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) 𝑚2 (𝑣22 − 𝑢22 )
2 =2
m1(u1 − v1) m2(v2 − u2)
𝑢1 + 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ..................(v)
.........................................................................
NOTE:
Now, from (v)
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ...........(vi)
now, relative velocity of approach=𝑢1 − 𝑢2
also, relative velocity of separation =𝑣2 − 𝑣1
relative velocity of separation 𝑣2 −𝑣1
so, 𝑒 = = = 1[using
relative velocity of approach 𝑢1 −𝑢2
vi]
.............................................................................
now, from (v)
𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2
substituting in (i)
m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+ m2(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − 𝑢2 )
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1 − 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚2 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑣1 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) = 𝑢1 (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) + 2𝑚2 𝑢2
(𝑚1 −𝑚2 ) 2𝑚2
𝑣1 = ( 𝑢 +(
) 1
𝑢2 ..............(vii)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2 )

again, from (v)

𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − 𝑢2
substituting using (vii)
(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) 2𝑚2
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 + 𝑢1 + 𝑢2
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) 2𝑚2
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 [1 − ] + 𝑢2 [ − 1]
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
2𝑚2 𝑚2 −𝑚1
𝑣2 = ( 𝑢 +((
) 1
) 𝑢2
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2 )
𝑚2 −𝑚1 2𝑚2
𝑣2 = ( 𝑢 +
) 2 (
𝑢 ..................(viii)
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2 ) 1

CASES:
(I)
(𝑚1 −𝑚2 ) 2𝑚2
𝑣1 = ( 𝑢 +( 𝑢2 .
𝑚1 +𝑚2 ) 1 𝑚1 +𝑚2 )
𝑚2 −𝑚1 2𝑚1
𝑣2 = ( 𝑢 +
) 2 (
𝑢
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2 ) 1
let, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
i.e mass of colliding bodies are equal.
(𝑚 − 𝑚 ) 2𝑚
𝑣1 = 𝑢 + 𝑢
(𝑚 + 𝑚 ) 1 (𝑚 + 𝑚 ) 2
𝑣1 = 𝑢2
also,
𝑚−𝑚 2𝑚
𝑣2 = 𝑢 + 𝑢
(𝑚+𝑚) 2 (𝑚+𝑚) 1

𝑣2 = 𝑢1
𝑣1 = 𝑢2
Conclusion: during perfectly elastic collision of two
bodies of equal masses, their velocities get interchanged
after collision.
CASE II:
when the target body is initially at rest i.e 𝑢2 = 0
(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )
𝑣1 = 𝑢
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 1
2𝑚1
𝑣2 = ( 𝑢
𝑚1 +𝑚2 ) 1

now three cases arises,

a) 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
 (𝑚 − 𝑚 )
𝑣1 = 𝑢1 = 0
(𝑚 + 𝑚 )
2𝑚
𝑣2 = 𝑢 = 𝑢1
(𝑚 + 𝑚 ) 1
moving body stops & rest body starts moving with
velocity of colliding body.
b)
𝑚2 ≫ 𝑚1
i.e, rest body is very heavy.
(−𝑚2 )
𝑣1 = ( 𝑢 [ 𝑚1 is neglected ,as 𝑚2 is very heavy]
+𝑚2 ) 1

𝑣1 = −𝑢1
conclusion: colliding body rebounds with equal velocity.
c)
𝑚1 ≫ 𝑚2 .
now body at rest has negligible mass.
(𝑚1 )
𝑣1 = 𝑢1 = 𝑢1
(𝑚1 )
2𝑚1
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 = 2𝑢1
(𝑚1 )
conclusion: heavy body continue to move with the same
velocity , whereas , the rest light body starts moving
with double the initial velocity of heavy body.

Now Perfectly Inelastic Collision In One Dimension:

for perfectly inelastic collision, colliding two bodies
stick or combine together & continue to move with a
common velocity

here, velocity of approach=𝑢1 − 𝑢2

but , velocity of separation=0
𝑣2 −𝑣1 0
thus, 𝑒 = = = 0.
𝑢1 −𝑢2 𝑢1 −𝑢2

20/08/2020(FRIDAY)
TOPIC: Collision In One & Two Dimensions:
Calculation of loss of energy due to perfectly inelastic
collisions:
at first we take into account LCM:
According to which,
Total momentum before collision= total momentum
after collision
m1u1+m2u2= (m1+ m2) V........................ (i)
Thus, common velocity after collision
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑉= .................(II)
𝑚1 +𝑚2

Now, as we know collision is perfectly inelastic, so

there is no conservation of K.E, i.e, there is always a loss
of K.E due to collision,
Now, total K.E before collision:
1 1
(𝐾. 𝐸)𝐵 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 .................(III)
2 2

K.E after collision:

1
(𝐾. 𝐸)𝐴 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑉 2 .................(IV)
2

Thus loss in K.E:

 ∆𝐾. 𝐸 = (𝐾. 𝐸)𝐵 − (𝐾. 𝐸)𝐴
1 2
1 2
1
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 − (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑉 2
2 2 2
1
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = [𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 − (𝑚1 +
2
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 2
)
𝑚2 ( ) ][ Using(ii)]
𝑚1 +𝑚2

( ) 2
1 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = [𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 − ]
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
∆𝐾. 𝐸
1 𝑚12 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑢22 + 𝑚22 𝑢22 − 𝑚12 𝑢12 − 𝑚22 𝑢22 −
= [
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
1 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑢22 − 2𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑢1 𝑢2
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = [ ]
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
1 𝑢12 + 𝑢22 − 2𝑢1 𝑢2
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚2 𝑚1 [ ]
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
1 (𝑢1 − 𝑢2 )2
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚2 𝑚1 ×
2 𝑚2 + 𝑚1
1 𝑚2 𝑚1
∆𝐾. 𝐸 = × × (𝑢1 − 𝑢2 )2
2 𝑚2 + 𝑚1
-----------------------------------------------------
COLLISION IN TWO DIMENSIONS:
Perfectly Elastic:
Now, collision is perfectly elastic:
so, firstly, Using LCM,
along X-Axis:
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙.........(i)
along Y-Axis:
0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙.................(ii)
also due conservation of K.E:
total K.E before collision= total K.E after collision
1 1 1 1
𝑚1 𝑢12 + 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 ..............(iii)
2 2 2 2

************************
Show, that when , there are two equal masses present,
& one mass is at rest, called target body, then if the first
body collide with second body, then total angle between
them after collision will be =900 .
𝑖. 𝑒 𝜃 + 𝜙 = 900 .
as in my previous problem, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 & 𝑢2 = 0.
then, 𝜃 + 𝜙 = 900 .
******************************
Q.1 A bullet of mass m moving with a velocity v is
embedded into a block of mass M, suspended by a
thread. As a result of this collision the block along with
the bullet rises to a height h.Prove that velocity of bullet
(𝑚+𝑀)
was
𝑚
√2𝑔ℎ.
Total momentum before collision= total momentum
after collision
mv+M*0= (m+ M) V........................ (i)
Thus, common velocity after collision
𝑚𝑣
𝑉= .................(II)
𝑚+𝑀

As, according to law of conservation of energy

𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ
1
(𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑉 2 = (𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑔ℎ
2
𝑉 2 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ....................(III)
FORM (ii)
velocity of bullet,
(𝑚 + 𝑀 ) 𝑉
𝑣=
𝑚
𝑚+𝑀
𝑣= √2𝑔ℎ
𝑚
**************************************
26/08/2020(WEDNESDAY)
WORK-ENERGY-POWER:
Q.1
State and prove Work-Energy Theorem.
Statement:
The work done by a force in displacing a body is equal to
the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
Proof:
let a body of mass m is moving an initial velocity u.
When, a force F acts upon it in the direction of motion,
its velocity increasing from u to v. Then work done by
the force for a small displacement 𝑑𝑠 is given

𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠00 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠...............(i)
if 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹,
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
now , from (i)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑚 ( ) 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑚 ( ) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
hence, total work done in increasing the velocity u to v
is:
 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

𝑤 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢
𝑣
𝑣2
𝑤 = 𝑚[ ]
2 𝑢

𝑣 2 𝑢2
𝑤 = 𝑚[ − ]
2 2
1 1
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢2 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∆𝐾
2
2 2

EXPALANATORY NOTE:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 ∆𝑠
𝑣= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡
Remember change has two kind of symbol, depending
upon nature of change,
if change in finite, symbol : ∆
if change in infinitesimally small : 𝑑
if time interval is infinitesimally small i.e. 𝑑𝑡, then
change in displacement is also infinitesimally small
i.e. 𝑑𝑠
thus,
 ∆𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Similarly,
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜 𝑣 − 𝑢 ∆𝑣
𝑎= = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
thus,
∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In mathematics addition can be done in two ways:
discrete addition & continuous addition
example:
𝑠 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
𝑠 = Σ𝑛𝑖 =
Σ 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙
𝑠 = 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 10 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑠 = 1 + 1.000001 + 1.000002
+ ⋯ … … … … … … … … . . +10
10

𝑠 = ∫ 𝑑𝑛
1
 10

∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠

1

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1 𝑡𝑜 10
𝑛+1
𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1
𝑣 1+1 𝑣2
∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = =
1+1 2
Q.2
Calculate the energy stored in an ideal spring having
spring constant K.

Whenever we apply deforming force 𝐹 ′ on a body, to

make change in its configuration (shape or size), then
within the body a restoring force is generated to regain
its original configuration.
By HOOK’s law, within elastic limit:
Restoring force ∝ -change
so, 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝐹 = −𝐾𝑥............. (i)

******************************************

28/08/2020(FRIDAY)
Thus to stretch the spring against F, WORK IS needed to
be done & this amount of work done is stored as elastic
potential energy.
now, external force 𝐹 ′ = −𝐹 = −(−𝐾𝑥 ) = +𝑘𝑥
so, small amount of work done is small stretching dx
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
thus, total work done for total stretching:
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑤 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
𝑥
𝑥2
𝑤 = 𝑘| |
2 0
 𝑥2 1 2
𝑤 = 𝑘 [ − 0] = 𝑘𝑥
2 2
1 2
𝐸𝑃𝐸, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥
2

CHAPTER: GRAVITATION:

here is two objects of mass m1 & m2, separated by a

distance r.
Now, according to Newton’s law of gravitation, a
attractive force is acting between them, which is
expressed as:
𝐹 ∝ 𝑚1 𝑚2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1
𝐹 ∝ 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑟
now, combining above two ,
 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟2
Where 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
Q.1 )Establish a relation between 𝑔 & 𝐺:

𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ, 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑐
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
Now, by Newton’s law of gravitation:
𝑀𝑚
𝐹 = 𝐺 2 … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑟
Again we know weight of an object= force with which
Earth attracts the object towards its centre.
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Thus, equating (i) & (ii) we get,
𝐹=𝑊
𝑀𝑚
𝐺 2 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2
𝑅
Discussion:
1
i) 𝐴𝑠, 𝐺 & 𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , 𝑔 ∝
𝑅2

as EARTH is not spherical in shape, its equatorial & polar

radius is different

SPHERICAL OBLATE
OR OBLATE SPHEROID.
thus due to this shape,
𝑅𝑒 > 𝑅𝑝
1 1 1 1
< [if, 3>2, < ]
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑝 3 2

1 1 1
< 2 [𝑔 ∝ ]
𝑅𝑒2 𝑅𝑝 𝑅2

𝑔𝑒 < 𝑔𝑝
𝑚𝑔𝑒 < 𝑚𝑔𝑝
𝑊𝑒 < 𝑊𝑝
Thus weight of any object at pole is more than at
equator.
**********************
Q.2.Variation of g with height from surface of Earth:
R= radius of EARTH
p is a point at a height h
from surface of earth.
at this height , we wish to
calculate the expression
for g:
now, on surface of earth
𝐺𝑀
𝑔0 = ..............(i)
𝑅2

now , at height h,
𝐺𝑀
𝑔ℎ = 2
… … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
(𝑅 + ℎ)
dividing , (ii) by (i)
𝐺𝑀
𝑔ℎ (𝑅 + ℎ)2
=
𝑔0 𝐺𝑀
𝑅2
𝑔ℎ 𝑅2
=
𝑔0 (𝑅 + ℎ)2
 𝑔ℎ 𝑅2
= 2
𝑔0 ℎ
𝑅2 [1 + ]
𝑅
𝑔ℎ 1 ℎ −2
= = [1 + ]
𝑔0 ℎ 2 𝑅
[1 + ]
𝑅
𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≪ 1, (1 + 𝑥 )−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 4 − ⋯
ℎ
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 ≫ ℎ, 𝑠𝑜, ≪ 1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑅
ℎ
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑅
𝑔ℎ 2ℎ
= [1 − ]
𝑔0 𝑅
2ℎ
𝑔ℎ = 𝑔0 [1 − ]
𝑅
Q.3. Variation of g with depth from surface of Earth:
02/09/2020
(WEDNESDAY)
let, a body of mass
m , is at depth d, from
the surface of Earth.
Here, we consider, that the body is on the sphere of
radius(R-d), & gravitational force is acting on it only due
to this inner sphere (R-d) i.e, we neglect the mass in the
shell of thickness d.
now,
for g:
now, on surface of earth
𝐺𝑀
𝑔0 = ..............(i)
𝑅2

now , at depth d,
𝐺𝑀′
𝑔𝑑 = 2
… … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
(𝑅 − 𝑑)
dividing , (ii) by (i)
𝐺𝑀′
𝑔𝑑 (𝑅 − 𝑑)2
=
𝑔0 𝐺𝑀
𝑅2
𝑔ℎ 𝑅2 𝑀′
= 2
×
𝑔0 (𝑅 − 𝑑 ) 𝑀
here, we assume Earth to a sphere of uniform density𝜌.
 4
𝑔𝑑 𝑅 2 𝜋 (𝑅 − 𝑑 ) 3 𝜌
= × 3
𝑔0 (𝑅 − 𝑑)2 4 3
𝜋𝑅 𝜌
3
𝑔𝑑 (𝑅 − 𝑑)
=
𝑔0 𝑅
𝑔𝑑 𝑑
= [1 − ]
𝑔0 𝑅
𝑑
𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔0 [1 − ]
𝑅
NOTE: value of g at the centre of Earth is ZERO.
Reason: for centre, depth 𝑑 = 𝑅
𝑅
𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔0 [1 − ] = 𝑔0 [1 − 1] = 0
𝑅
AS 𝑔𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ, 𝑠𝑜, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒.

Q. Show the variation of g with distance from centre of

Earth.
ans:
the expression of g at height h is:
 𝑔ℎ 𝑅2
=
𝑔0 (𝑅 + ℎ)2
𝑔0 𝑅2 𝑔0 𝑅2
𝑔ℎ = = 2
(𝑅 + ℎ )2 𝑟
[r is the distance of object from centre of Earth]
1
𝑔ℎ ∝ 2 [ 𝑅 + ℎ = 𝑟]
𝑟
the expression of g at depth d is:
𝑔𝑑 (𝑅 − 𝑑)
=
𝑔0 𝑅
𝑔0 (𝑅−𝑑) 𝑔0 𝑟
𝑔𝑑 = = [r=R-d]
𝑅 𝑅

𝑔𝑑 ∝ 𝑟 [ 𝑅 − 𝑑 = 𝑟]
now, equate two expressions of g:[ 𝑔ℎ &𝑔𝑑 ]

𝑔ℎ = 𝑔𝑑
2ℎ 𝑑
𝑔𝑜 [1 − ] = 𝑔𝑜 [1 − ]
𝑅 𝑅
2ℎ 𝑑
1− =1−
𝑅 𝑅
2ℎ 𝑑
=
𝑅 𝑅
𝑑 = 2ℎ
For example: 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑔 = 9.71 𝑚𝑠 −2 & ℎ = 1000𝑚
𝑑 = 2000𝑚.
Q. studies the variation of g with latitude & rotation.

𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 =
𝑅

𝑟 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
thus centrifugal force at latitude 𝜆 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆
[Value or expression for centripetal force which is
required to move in circle about a fixed axis or point
𝑚𝑣 2
= & 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟]
𝑟

Here, due to rotation of Earth, around its own axis with

angular velocity𝜔, a centrifugal force is always acting, as
shown in our diagram, at place P, whose latitude is𝜆,
away from centre,
Thus, net force at Place P:
 𝐹 ′ = 𝐹 − 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑚𝑔′ = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
now, from diagram:
𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆 =
𝑅
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜆
𝑔′ = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆
NOTE:
i) 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝜆 = 00
𝑔𝑒 = 𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅 [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠00 = 1]
ii) 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 ∶ 𝜆 = 900
𝑔𝑝 = 𝑔 − 0 = 𝑔 [𝑐𝑜𝑠900 = 0]
Thus variation in the value of g, when we move from
equator to pole:
𝑔𝑝 − 𝑔𝑒 = 𝑔 − (𝑔 − 𝜔2 𝑅 ) = 𝜔2 𝑅
***************************************
KEPLERS’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION:
*************************************
1. Law of orbit:
Every planet revolves around the SUN, in an elliptical
orbit with SUN at one of its foci.
2. Law of Area:
The line joining the planet and the Sun, sweeps out
equal area in equal interval of time.
3. Law of Time period:
The square of the time period of every planet revolving
around the sun in elliptical orbit is directly proportional
to the cube of the semi major axis of the ellipse.
 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 Δ𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵
& 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 Δ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃 𝑡𝑜 𝑄
, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝐴𝐵 & 𝑆𝑃𝑄, 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒.
𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒,
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑.
𝑚𝑣𝐵 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑚𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝑃
𝑣𝐵 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝑃
𝑣𝐵 𝑟𝑃
=
𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝑃
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑟𝑃 > 𝑟𝐵
𝑟𝑃 𝑣𝐵
> 1, ⇒ > 1 ⇒ 𝑣𝐵 > 𝑣𝑃
𝑟𝐵 𝑣𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑖) 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑛
𝑖𝑖) 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑣𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛,
𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠
𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
will the planet take equal time to traverse BAC and CPB.
𝑚𝑣𝐴 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑚𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝑃
𝑣𝐴 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝑃
𝑣𝐴 𝑟𝑃
=
𝑣𝑃 𝑟𝐴
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑟𝐴 > 𝑟𝑃
𝑟𝐴 𝑣𝐴
> 1, ⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑣𝐴 < 𝑣𝑃
𝑟𝑃 𝑣𝑃
FROM fig area SBAC is greater than area SCPB. As areal
velocity is constant around sun i.e equal areas are swept
out in equal time., hence planet will take longer time to
traverse BAC than CPB.
Q. state & prove keplers’ third law, assuming circular
orbit.
Law of Time period:
the square of the time period of every planet revolving
around the sun, is directly proportional to the cube of
the mean radius of the orbit.
Proof:
*******************************************
04/09/2020[FRIDAY]
Proof of Kepler’s law:
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑛 & 𝑝𝑎𝑙𝑛𝑒𝑡
= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡.
We, know, for revolution in circular orbit, centripetal
force is required, which is supplied by force of
gravitation between sun & planet
 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐺
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
⇒ 𝑣2 = ..................(I)
𝑟

now, time period of revolution is given by

2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣
2 2 2 2
2
4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑇 = = × [𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖)
𝑣2 1 𝐺𝑀
2 3
2
4𝜋 𝑟
𝑇 =
𝐺𝑀
𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑟 3 [ 𝐺, 𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠]
thus we have proved Kepler’s Third law.
 𝑇1 2 𝑟1 3
= 3
𝑇2 2 𝑟2
***********************
Gravitational potential:
here we know, that force of gravitation is always
attractive, so, gravitational potential is always negative.
it is defined as the work done in carrying a unit mass
from infinity to a position where potential is to be found
, in a gravitation field of a mass.

now work done in moving the unit mass from A to B,

againt force of gravitation

𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝐹𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠1800
𝑑𝑤 = −𝐹𝑑𝑟
𝐺𝑀×1
now𝐹 =
𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑑𝑤 = −(− )𝑑𝑟 [as force is externally applied
𝑟2
against gravity]
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦
 𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
∞ ∞
𝐺𝑀
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑟 𝑟
∞

𝑊 = +𝐺𝑀 ∫ 𝑟 −2 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑛+1
𝑥
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1

∑ ,∫

𝑆 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 = 55
10

𝑆 = ∑ 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + ⋯ . . +𝑁10
𝑖=1

𝑆 = 𝐴𝐷𝐷 𝐴𝐿𝐿 𝑃𝑂𝑆𝐼𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐸 𝑁𝑈𝑀𝐵𝐸𝑅 𝐹𝑅𝑂𝑀 1 𝑇𝑂 10

10 10
𝑁2 1
𝑆 = ∫ 𝑁𝑑𝑁 = [ ] = [50 − ] = 49.5
2 1 2
1

The Ramanujan Summation: 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + ∞ = -

1/12?
 ∞
𝑟 −2+1
𝑊 = +𝐺𝑀 [ ]
−2 + 1 𝑟
∞
𝑟 −1
𝑊 = +𝐺𝑀 [ ]
−1 𝑟

−1 ∞
𝑊 = +𝐺𝑀 [ ]
𝑟 𝑟
1 1
𝑊 = +𝐺𝑀 [− − (− )]
∞ 𝑟
1
𝑊 = +𝐺𝑀[0 + ]
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
𝑊=+
𝑟
thus work done in bringing the unit mass from infinity to
r
𝐺𝑀
𝑊=−
𝑟
thus, gravitational potential at a distance r:
𝐺𝑀
𝑉=−
𝑟
********************************
expression for gravitational potential energy of mass m:
 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐺. 𝑃𝐸 = −
𝑟
**********************
Q. defines escape velocity & finds an expression for it
from Earth surface, in consideration of energy.
ans:
It is the minimum velocity with which if a body is
thrown, from earth surface, will never return on it.
Calculation:
𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑣𝑒 = 𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜.
now, from conservation of energy:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸 = 0
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1
− + 𝑚𝑣𝑒 2 = 0
𝑅 2
 1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣𝑒 =
2 𝑅
2
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅

2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 = √
𝑅

𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤. 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅2

2𝑔𝑅2
𝑣𝑒 = √ = √2𝑔𝑅
𝑅
𝑚
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑔 = 9.8 2 , 𝑅 = 6400𝐾𝑚
𝑠
𝑣𝑒 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚/𝑠

2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 = √
𝑅
4 3
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑀 = 𝜋𝑅 𝜌
3
4 3
√ 2𝐺 ∗ 𝜋𝑅 𝜌
𝑣𝑒 = 3
𝑅
 8
𝑣𝑒 = √ 𝜋𝐺𝑅2 𝜌
3

𝑣𝑒 ∝ 𝑅 & 𝑣𝑒 ∝ √𝜌

********************************
SATELLITE MOTION
******************
i) velocity
ii) time period
iii) height

Q. Show that velocity of a satellite does’t depend on its

mass.
 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑎𝑟ℎ & 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒
= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡.
We, know, for revolution in circular orbit, centripetal
force is required, which is supplied by force of
gravitation between Earth & satellite
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐺
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
= 2
𝑟 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
⇒ 𝑣2 = ...........[𝑟 = 𝑅 + ℎ]
𝑟

𝐺𝑀
𝑣=√ ...................... (i)
𝑅+ℎ
from (i) we can conclude that , velocity of satellite is
independent of mass
*******************
Let, satellite is revolving very close to Earth
as the height of the satellite will be small compared to R,
𝑅+ℎ ≈𝑅
𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅2

𝑔𝑅2
𝑣0 = √ = √𝑔𝑅
𝑅
𝑚
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑔 = 9.8 2 , 𝑅 = 6400𝐾𝑚
𝑠

𝑣 = 8 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
******************************
Q. Calculate the ratio between escape velocity & velocity
of satellite revolving very close to earth.
ans:
we know , escape velocity is :

𝑣𝑒 = √2𝑔𝑅
& velocity of satellite revolving very close to earth
 𝑣 = √𝑔𝑅
thus Ratio:

𝑣𝑒 √2𝑔𝑅 2
= =√
𝑣 √𝑔𝑅 1

𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑣𝑒 : 𝑣 = √2 ∶ 1
**************************************
Now, time period of satellite is given by:
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣
2𝜋(𝑅 + ℎ)
𝑇=
√ 𝐺𝑀
𝑅+ℎ
2𝜋
𝑇= × (𝑅 + ℎ)√𝑅 + ℎ
√𝐺𝑀
2𝜋√(𝑅 + ℎ)3
𝑇=
√𝐺𝑀
(𝑅+ℎ)3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ ......................(II)
𝐺𝑀

******************************
Now for satellite revolving very close to earth
 𝑅+ℎ ≈𝑅
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜. 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅2
FROM (ii)

𝑅3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ 2
𝑔𝑅

𝑅
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ .....................(iii)
𝑔

𝑚
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑔 = 9.8 2 , 𝑅 = 6400𝐾𝑚
𝑠

𝑇 = 84 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
AGAIN:

(𝑅 + ℎ )3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝑀
4 3
𝑊𝑒, 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑀 = 𝜋𝑅 𝜌
3

3 (𝑅 + ℎ )3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
4𝐺𝜋𝜌𝑅3

3𝜋(𝑅 + ℎ)3
𝑇=√
𝐺𝜌𝑅3
NOW,
Now for satellite revolving very close to earth
𝑅+ℎ ≈𝑅

3𝜋𝑅 3
𝑇=√
𝐺𝜌𝑅3

3𝜋
𝑇=√
𝐺𝜌

𝑅
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

******************************************
09/09/2020[WEDNESDAY]
Calculation of height:

(𝑅 + ℎ )3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝑀

𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

( ) 3
𝑅 + ℎ
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 ×
𝐺𝑀
 𝑇 2 𝐺𝑀 3
= ( 𝑅 + ℎ )
4𝜋 2
2 2
𝑇 𝑔𝑅
(𝑅 + ℎ )3 = [ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔𝑅2 ]
4𝜋 2
1
𝑇 2 𝑔𝑅2 3
𝑅+ℎ =( )
4𝜋 2
1
𝑇 2 𝑔𝑅2 3
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, ℎ = ( ) −𝑅
4𝜋 2
1
746496 ∗ 103 ∗ 9.8 ∗ 4096 ∗ 104 3
ℎ=( ) − 6400
4 ∗ 9.869
ℎ = 42354.4 − 6400 = 35954.5 ≈ 36000𝑘𝑚

NOTE: i)WILL DO NUMERIACL BASED ON KEPLER’S third

law.
ii) numerical related to escape velocity
iii)numerical on calculation of ,g based on formula.
Q. 1
if a rocket is launched with velocity 10 km/s, if radius of
earth is R, then maximum height attained by it........
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
= 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑠 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑀
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚
− + 𝑚𝑣 = − +0
𝑅 2 𝑅+ℎ
1 2
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑣 = − +
2 𝑅+ℎ 𝑅
1 2 −𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝐻
𝑣 = 𝐺𝑀 [ ]
2 𝑅(𝑅 + 𝐻)
1 2 𝐻
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑅 [ ]
2 𝑅+𝐻
2
𝐻
𝑣 = 2𝑔𝑅 [ ]
𝑅+𝐻
2 2[
𝐻
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒 ]
𝑅+𝐻
𝑅+𝐻 𝑣𝑒 2
−1= 2 −1
𝐻 𝑣
𝑅 𝑣𝑒 2
= 2 −1
𝐻 𝑣
𝑅
𝐻=
𝑣𝑒 2
{ 2 − 1}
𝑣
 𝑅 100 ∗ 𝑅
𝐻= = ≈ 4𝑅[ 3.93𝑅]
125.44 25.44
{ − 1}
100
Q.2 RADIUS same but mass becomes 4 times of the
planet, then how its escape velocity changes?

2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 = √
𝑅

2𝐺 ∗ 4𝑀
𝑉=√ = 2𝑣𝑒
𝑅

Q.3 Find our depth at which g becomes g/4.

𝑑
𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔0 [1 − ]
𝑅
𝑔 𝑑
= 𝑔 [1 − ]
4 𝑅
𝑑 1
1− =
𝑅 4
𝑑 3
=
𝑅 4
3𝑅
𝑑=
4
ALTERNATIVELY:
when the rocket will move from surface of earth to a
max height H, then change in P.E
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸, 𝑎𝑡 max ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔(𝑅 + 𝐻)
2
𝑣 2 = 2𝑔(𝑅 + 𝐻)
𝑣 2 100 ∗ 106
𝑅+𝐻 = = = 5 ∗ 106
2𝑔 2 ∗ 10

*****************************************
NEW CHAPTER:
MAIN HEADING: BULK PROPERTIES OF MATTER:
1) ELASTISITY .........solid, liquid, gas
2) SURFACE TENSION......... only for liquid, on free
surface
3) VISCOSITY......fluid (liquid & gas), when in motion
4) FLUID MOTION........
TOPIC: ELASTICITY:
************************************
What is elasticity?
It is the property of a body by virtue of which it tries to
maintain its original configuration (shape & size), when
is in under deforming force.
Parameters: stress & strain
what a force can do?
i) change in state of motion[ Force: push or pull]
OR
ii) change in configuration(shape & size) [force:
deforming force]
Stress:
if a body gets deformed under deforming
force(external), then due to elasticity an internal
restoring force is developed or set up within body to
restore its original configuration.
This internal restoring force per unit area of cross-
section is called stress.
Strain:
when deforming force acts on a body & make changes in
its shape & size, then, the ratio of the change in any
dimension to the original dimension, is called strain
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
strain=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

------------------------------------------------------
Type of stress:
i) Normal stress
ii) hydraulic stress
iii) tangential or shearing stress
1 ) Normal Stress : If the deforming force acts
normally over an area of a body, the stress is said to
be normal stress. This stress is of two types. One is
tensile stress and other is compressive stress.
Tensile Stress : It is the restoring force developed
per unit cross sectional area of a body when the
length of the body increases in the direction of
deforming force.
Compressive Stress : It is the restoring force
developed per unit cross sectional area of a body
when the length of the body decrease under action
of deforming force.
2 ) Tangential Stress Or Shearing Stress : When
the deforming force acting tangentially to the
surface of a body changes the shape of the body,
then the stress developed in the body is called as
Tangentially stress or Shearing stress.
3 ) Hydrostatic Or Hydraulic Stress : The stress
developed in a body when it is compressed
uniformly from all sides is called as Hydrostatic
stress.

Tangential Stress Or Shearing Stress

Tensile Stress
Compressive Stress

Hydrostatic Or Hydraulic Stress

--------------------------------------------------------
Hook’s Law
Statement of Hook’s law : ” With in elastic limit,
the extension of an elastic body is directly
proportional to the force that is producing it.”
OR
” With in the elastic limit the stress is directly
proportional to the strain”.
Mathematical form of Hook’s Law :
with in the elastic limit
Stress ∝ Strain
Stress = K * Strain
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
where K is proportionality constant and is called as
modulus of elasticity.
Modulus of elasticity : From Hook’s law, the ratio
of stress to the strain with in the elastic limit, is
called as Modulus of elasticity. Its value depends on
the nature of material of the deformed. It is also
called as the coefficient of elasticity of the material.
The unit and dimension of stress are the unit and
dimension of the Modulus of elasticity. It is called as
coefficient of elasticity.
Types of modulus of elasticity :
1. Young’s Modulus
2. Bulk Modulus
3. Modulus of rigidity
****************************
expression oF Young’s modulus:
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌=
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹/𝐴
𝑌=
∆𝑙
𝐿
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
strain=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
REMEMBER:
Stress has unit=𝑁/𝑚2
strain has no unit as it is the ration of similar quantity
Thus unit of Young’s modulus=𝑁/𝑚2
Q.1
Which one is more elastic, steel or rubber?
ans:
let L length of steel wire & also of a rubber.
F= same force is applied on both of them to elongate.
A= same area of cross-section
𝑌𝑠 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑌𝑅 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑟
Here same force is applied BUT elongation is different
∆𝑙𝑅 > ∆𝑙𝑆
 𝐹/𝐴 𝐹/𝐴
NOW, 𝑌𝑅 = ∆𝑙𝑅 & 𝑌𝑆 = ∆𝑙𝑆
𝐿 𝐿

𝐹/𝐴
∆𝑙𝑅 ∆𝑙𝑆
𝑌𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 ∆𝑙𝑆
= = =
𝑌𝑆 𝐹/𝐴 ∆𝑙𝑅 ∆𝑙𝑅
∆𝑙𝑆 𝐿
𝐿
𝑏𝑢𝑡, ∆𝑙𝑅 > ∆𝑙𝑆
∆𝑙𝑆
<1
∆𝑙𝑅
𝑌𝑅
<1
𝑌𝑆
𝑌𝑅 < 𝑌𝑆
----------------------------------------------------------------
*********************************************
11/09/2020[FRIDAY]
Q.1
NOTE: 1) stress actually depends on strain.
dependent variable............ along y-axis
independent variable----- along X – axis
𝐻𝑂𝑂𝐾 ′ 𝑆 𝑙𝑎𝑤
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡.

i) OP portion: graph straight line & HOOK’s LAW obeyed.

Point P is called point of proportional limit.
ii) beyond P, stress –strain variation is not a straight line,
as indicated by portion PE, but if stress is removed ,
body will regain its original dimension. but, HOOK’s law
is not obeyed.
OE region is called elastic region.
E point is called elastic limit or Yield Point.

iii) beyond E, in the portion EA, strain increases , more

rapidly with stress & now if we remove stress, the graph
will not follow AEPO path , rather it follows
𝐴𝑂′ , path. & we observe permanent strain is produced
shown in graph by 𝑂𝑂′ .
Q.2

Q.3
Ductile & Brittle Material.
 𝐸𝐹 … … . 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑖. 𝑒.,
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡,
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙.
& 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙,
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙.
***********************

Poisson’s ratio: Siméon Poisson

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠. , 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛.
 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∆𝐷
−
𝜎= 𝐷
∆𝐿
𝐿
𝑁𝑂𝑇𝐸: 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
− 1 𝑡𝑜 0.5, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 0 &0.5.
Q. Determine Poisson ratio for a wire whose volume
remains constant under external normal stress.
𝐷2
𝑉=𝜋 𝑙
4
𝑑 𝑛
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 (𝑢𝑣) = 𝑑𝑢. 𝑣 + 𝑢. 𝑑𝑣
𝜋𝑙 𝜋𝐷2
0 = . 2𝐷𝑑𝐷 + 𝑑𝑙
4 4
2𝐷𝑑𝐷𝑙 + 𝐷2 𝑑𝑙 = 0
−𝐷𝑑𝑙 = 2𝑙𝑑𝐷
 𝑑𝐷
−
𝐷 =1
𝑑𝑙 2
𝑙
𝜎 = +0.5
*****************************************

16/09/2020[Wednesday]
Topic: ELASTICITY
Q.1. Prove that elastic potential energy density stored in
wire of length L , extended under force F , is :
1
= × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2
ans:
L= length of wire

A= area of cross-section of wire

F= force acted for elongating by ∆𝑙 amount of the wire
0+𝐹 𝐹
here , we will take average force= =
2 2
So, total work done against elasticity:
𝑤 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹
𝑤 = × ∆𝑙
2
1 𝐹 ∆𝑙
𝑤 = × × × (𝐴 × 𝐿 )
2 𝐴 𝐿
1
𝑤 = × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
2
now this work done will be stored as elastic potential
energy of the wire, so:
1
𝑈 = × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒
2
𝑈 1
= × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 2
1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦( 𝑢) = × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2

Q. what is the value of young modulus of a perfectly

rigid body?
Infinite.
BULK MODULUS:
 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
𝐴 𝑃
𝐵= =−
∆𝑉 ∆𝑉
𝑉 𝑉
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
Compressibility:
it is reciprocal of bulk modulus.
1
𝑘=
𝐵
REMEMER:
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑖𝑢𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒. 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.
Q. what is the value of bulk modulus of a perfectly rigid
body?
Infinite.
Q. What is more elastic, water or air?
water is more elastic than air; because bulk modulus of
elasticity is reciprocal of compressibility & air is more
compressible than water.
****************************************
CHAPTER: VISCOSITY
****************************
VISCOSITY...................liquid friction or it is also called
internal friction.
>> friction arises whenever there is a relative motion
between two surfaces in contact.
There are differences between solid friction & viscosity:
i) solid friction does not depends on area
ii) independent of relative motion
iii) depends on normal reaction between surfaces in
contact
viscosity depends on:
i) area of layers
ii) relative velocity
iii) distance between layers
iv) independent of normal reaction between layers.
************************************
Q. Define viscosity & also coefficient of viscosity.
Write dimensions of coefficient of viscosity.

Reason solid liquid gas

Elasticity Deforming Yes Yes Yes
force
Viscosity Relative No Yes Yes
motion
between
layers &
cohesive
force
Surface Cohesive no yes no
tension force &
adhesive
force
 Viscosity is the property of fluid by virtue of which
an internal friction comes into play when the liquid is in
motion in the form of layers having relative motion.
Due to viscosity, slower moving layer tries to retard
the faster moving layer as cohesive forces between
layers comes into play.
Cohesive force: force of attraction between same
type of molecules [ eg: among only liquid molecules]
Adhesive force: force of attraction between different
type(KIND) of molecules. [eg: solid & liquid molecules]

**********************************************
******************************************
18/09/2020[FRIDAY]
TOPIC: VISCOSITY
************************
NOTE: WE WILL COSNISDER FLUID is flowing in
form of layers.
when liquid flows in the form of a layer, velocity of
different layer is different & vary with height, thus
𝑑𝑣
velocity gradient ( )exists.
𝑑𝑧

[∆= 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 , 𝑑 =

𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 (𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙)𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒]
here one layer exert a tangential force on another but
due to cohesive force slower moving layer tries to retard
the faster moving layer.
now, it is experimentally found out that:
tangential force depends on:
i) directly proportional to the velocity gradient
 𝑑𝑣
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝐹 ∝
𝑑𝑧
ii) directly proportional to surface area of liquid layers in
contact
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝐹 ∝ 𝐴
Thus combining above two factors we can write
𝑑𝑣
𝐹∝𝐴
𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑣
THUS, 𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴
𝑑𝑧

here 𝜂 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑑𝑣
NOW, 𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴 ....................(I)
𝑑𝑧

DEFINITION & UNIT OF: 𝜂

𝑑𝑣
in (i) we put 𝐴 = 1, =1
𝑑𝑧

𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐹 = 𝜂
thus , coefficient of viscosity of a liquid is numerically
equal to the tangential force, required to maintain unit
velocity gradient between two parallel layers of liquid
each of area unity.
again from (i)
 𝐹
𝜂=
𝑑𝑣
𝐴
𝑑𝑧
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
[𝜂] = 2 −1 = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]
[𝐿 ][𝑇 ]
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜂 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ∗ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜂 = 2
𝑚 ∗ (𝑚 ∗ 𝑠 −1 ∗ 𝑚−1 )
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜂 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑠
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑆. 𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒.
**************************************
Stoke's law, motion of a sphere falling through a fluid,
hollow rigid sphere rising to the surface of a liquid,
parachute, obtain the expression of terminal velocity;
forces acting; viscous drag, a force proportional to
velocity; Stoke’s law; ν-t graph.
Stoke's law:
Stokes found that the backward dragging force F acting
on a small spherical body of radius r, moving through a
medium of coefficient of viscosity 𝜂, with velocity v, is
given by
𝑭 = 𝟔𝝅𝜂𝑟𝑣

𝐹 = 𝐾𝜂𝑎 𝑟 𝑏 𝑣 𝑐 = 𝐾𝜂𝑟𝑣
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]𝑎 [𝐿]𝑏 [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]𝑐
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝑎 𝐿−𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑇 −𝑎−𝑐 ]
𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑀: 1 = 𝑎
𝐿: 1 = −𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑇: − 2 = −𝑎 − 𝑐
𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1
***************************
Terminal velocity:
It is the maximum constant velocity acquired by a body
while falling through a viscous medium.
on a small spherical body falling through a viscous
medium , three forces acts on it:
i) weight of the body acting vertically downwards
ii) upward thrust or buoyant force active vertically
upward
iii) viscous drag acting opposite to motion i.e, here in
upward direction

initially downwards force is greater, but as the velocity

goes on increasing due to gravity, viscous drag increase
rapidly. A stage reaches when the downward force just
becomes equal to sum of upward thrust and upward
viscous drag. At this stage , no net force acts on body,
hence it starts falling with a constant velocity, called
terminal velocity.
Calculation of expression of terminal velocity:
let 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝜎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
so, weight of the spherical body
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ∗ 𝑔 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑔
4
𝑤 = 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑔................(i)
3

𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡
= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 ∗ 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ∗ 𝑔
4 3
𝐹𝑏 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔
3
again, viscous drag given by stokes’
𝐹𝑣 = 𝟔𝝅𝜂𝑟𝑣
now, for terminal velocity
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑣
4 3 4 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜌𝑔 = 𝜋𝑟 𝜎𝑔 + 𝟔𝝅𝜂𝑟𝑣
3 3
 4 3
𝟔𝝅𝜂𝑟𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
3
4 3
𝜋𝑟 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
𝑣= 3
𝟔𝝅𝜂𝑟
2 𝑟 2 𝑔 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )
𝑣=
9 𝜂
𝑣 ∝ 𝑟2
*************************************
23/09/2020[WEDNESDAY]
TOPIC: VISCOSITY & SURFACE TENSION
*************************************
Q.1 why machine parts jammed in winter season?[hints:
for liquid, viscosity varies inversely with temperature]
ans: A lubricating oil is generally used between the
various parts of a machine to reduce friction. In winter,
since the temperature is low, the viscosity of oil between
machine parts increases considerably, resulting in
jamming of machine parts.
Q.2
If two rain drops of equal velocity coalesces, what is the
velocity of resulting drop?
ans: let, two drops of equal radius r, falling with velocity
v.
velocity of each drop,
2 𝑟 2 𝑔 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )
𝑣= … … … . (𝑖)
9 𝜂
as, they will form a bigger drop,
4 3 4 3
2. ( 𝜋𝑟 ) = 𝜋𝑅
3 3
2𝑟 3 = 𝑅 3
1
𝑅= 23 𝑟 … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
now, terminal velocity of bigger drop,
2 𝑅 2 𝑔 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )
𝑉= … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
9 𝜂
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑏𝑦 (𝑖 ) 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡,
2
2
𝑉 𝑅 23 𝑟 2
= 2 = 2 … … [ 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑖𝑖 )]
𝑣 𝑟 𝑟
𝑉 2
= 23
𝑣
 2
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑉 = 23 𝑣

************************************
TOPIC: SURFACE TENSION
*********************************
Q.1 what is surface tension?

ans: it is the property of liquid of by virtue of which the

free surface of liquid at rest, tends to have minimum
surface area & behaves like a stretched membrane.
Q.2
Why rain (liquid) drops are spherical in size?
ans: for a given volume, free surface area of sphere is
the least, as due to surface tension free surface of liquid
tends to have minimum surface area , so liquid drops are
spherical in size.
Q.3
How can you measure surface tension?
Ans. surface tension of a liquid is measured as the force
acting on unit length of a line imagined to be drawn
tangentially anywhere on the free surface of liquid at
rest. It acts at right angles to this line on both sides and
along tangent to the liquid surface.
𝐹
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑆 = ..............(i)
𝑙

unit of surface tension is : N/m.

[𝑆] = [𝑀𝐿0 𝑇 −2 ]
Q.4
Establish a relation between surface tension & surface
energy.
**********************************
25/09/2020[FRIDAY]
TOPIC: SURFACE TENSION
*******************************

ABCD is a rectangular frame, on which PQ can slide. we

now dip it inside a soap water solution, after taking out ,
a soap film is present now in region ABQP.
Due to surface tension, force is acting inwards normally
on PQ, thus to move PQ by a distance∆𝑥, work must be
done against surface tension.
now, work done= force*∆𝑥
𝑤 = 2𝑆 ∗ 𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑥 [ factor 2 is due to fact , there are 2
free surface of the film]
𝑤 = 𝑆 ∗ 2 ∗ 𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑥
𝑤 = 𝑆 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑤 = 𝑆 ∗ ∆𝐴
thus surface energy stored =E=𝑆 ∗ ∆𝐴
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
= 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
now, if we put, ∆𝐴 = 1
thus, 𝐸 = 𝑆
this means, surface tension is numerically equal to the
surface energy per in unit area, provided temperature is
constant .
20/11/2020[Friday iemon]
EXCESS PRESSURE:
*****************
CONCLUSION:
For a curved surface of liquid in equilibrium the pressure
on concave side of liquid will be greater than on its
convex side.

*******************************
Q.5
 Calculate excess pressure inside a liquid drop or inside a
soap bubble.

let, R= radius of
liquid drop.
S= surface tension of
liquid

𝑃0 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒.
Excess pressure inside the drop
𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃0
now, due to excess pressure(p), let increase in
radius,∆𝑅.
THUS, work done by excess pressure
𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ ∆𝑅
𝑊 = 𝑝 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑅
𝑊 = 𝑝 ∗ 4𝜋𝑅2 ∗ ∆𝑅 … … … … … . (𝐼)
Increase in surface area
∆𝐴 = 4𝜋(𝑅 + ∆𝑅 )2 − 4𝜋𝑅2
∆𝐴 = 4𝜋[𝑅2 + 2𝑅∆𝑅 + ∆𝑅2 − 𝑅2 ]
∆𝐴 = 4𝜋[2𝑅∆𝑅] = 8𝜋𝑅∆𝑅 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
[we neglect ∆𝑅2 , 𝑎𝑠∆𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙]
now, we know,
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑝 ∗ 4𝜋𝑅2 ∗ ∆𝑅 = 𝑆 ∗ 8𝜋𝑅∆𝑅 [ using (i) & (ii)]
𝑝 ∗ 𝑅 = 2𝑆
2𝑆
𝑝=
𝑅

NOTE: for soap bubble,

4𝑆
𝑝=
𝑅
***************
ANGLE OF CONTACT

Q.6
Define angle of contact .Write down factors on which its
value depends upon.
ANS:
1st part:
The angle of contact between a liquid and solid in
contact, is defined as the angle enclosed between the
tangents to the liquid surface at the point of contact and
the solid surface inside the liquid.

2nd part:
*************************************01/10/202
0[THURSDAY]
TOPIC: SURFACE TENSION
**********************************
Q.1
Define capillarity. Derive ascent formula for liquid in a
capillary tube.
ans. The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid in a
capillary tube is called capillarity.
2nd part:
***********************************
Q.2
When a shaving brush or drawing brush is taken out of
water, its hair cling together, why?
Ans. due to surface tension the water film formed
between the hairs will tend to make the surface area
minimum. As a result, hairs of brush come close to each
other.
numerical :

*************************************
02/10/2020[FRIDAY]
TOPIC: FLUID MOTION
*********************************
what is Streamline flow or steady flow?
what are streamlines?
why two streamlines never cross each other?
ans:
1st part:
It is flow of liquid, such that every particle of liquid
follows exactly the path of its preceding particle and has
the same velocity in magnitude and direction as that of
its preceding particle while crossing through that point.
2nd part:
A streamline is the actual path followed by the
procession of particles in a steady flow, which may be
straight or curved such that tangent to it at any point
given direction of flow of liquid at that point.
3rd point:

in a steady flow if two streamlines crosses each other,

then, the particles of liquid at the point of intersection
will have two different direction for their flow, as shown
in above fig, by tangents. In such a case steady nature of
flow will be disturbed. So, they never cross each other.
Q.2
Define critical velocity and find out an expression for it.
Flow of liquid will be streamline if velocity of liquid is
always less than a certain velocity, called critical velocity
and above which flow is turbulent or unstable.

DIMENSIONS:
[ ], 𝑀, 𝐿, 𝑇
𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡
dimensions of velocity= [𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
*************************************
07/10/2020[WEDNESDAY]
TOPIC: FLUID MOTION
************************
Expression for Critical Velocity:
Let critical velocity depends upon
i) Coefficient of viscosity
ii) Density of liquid
iii) Radius of the tube through which it is flowing
let,
𝑣𝑐 = 𝐾𝜂𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝑟 𝑐 … … . . (𝑖)
𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
where , a, b,c are dimensions of 𝑣𝑐 , in terms of 𝜂, 𝜌 & 𝑟.
now, writing dimensions of terms, we have from (i)
[𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ] = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]𝑎 [𝑀𝐿−3 ]𝑏 [𝐿]𝑐
[𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ] = [𝑀𝑎+𝑏 𝐿−𝑎−3𝑏+𝑐 𝑇 −𝑎 ]
by principle of homogeneity of dimensions, we get
 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
−𝑎 − 3𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
−𝑎 = −1
𝑎=1
from (ii) b=-1
from (iii) -1+3+c=1
𝑐 = −1
thus, putting dimensions , we get from (i)
𝑣𝑐 = 𝐾𝜂1 𝜌−1 𝑟 −1
𝐾𝜂1
𝑣𝑐 =
𝜌𝑟
this is the expression for critical velocity.
*********************************************
Q. Define Reynolds’s number & its expression.
It is a pure number which determines the nature of
liquid through pipe.
According to Reynolds, the critical velocity of a liquid
flowing through a tube of diameter D is given by
𝑁𝑅 𝜂1
𝑣𝑐 =
𝜌𝐷
 𝜌𝐷𝑣𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑁𝑅 =
𝜂
If the value of Reynolds’s number lies between 0 to
2000, flow is streamline; above 3000 flow is turbulent &
unstable if value lies between 2000 to 3000.
Q.
Water flows at a speed of 6 cm/s through a tube of
radius 1 cm. coefficient of viscosity water at room tem is
0.01 poise. What is nature of the flow?
𝜌𝐷𝑣𝑐
𝑁𝑅 =
𝜂
1∗2∗6
= = 1200
0.01

********************************
Equation of continuity:

consider a non-viscous liquid is flowing through a tube

AB of varying cross-section as shown in figure.
𝜌1 , 𝜌2 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐴 & 𝐵.
Now, volume of liquid flowing in per sec at A
= 𝑎1 𝑣1
[volume= base area* height; but for 1 sec, velocity=
distance]
mass of liquid flowing in per sec at A
= 𝜌1 𝑎1 𝑣1
similarly mass of liquid flowing out of at B end
= 𝜌2 𝑎2 𝑣2
now, according to law of conservation of mass,
𝜌1 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝑎2 𝑣2
but liquid is incompressible, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜌1 = 𝜌2
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
1
𝑣∝
𝑎
this equation is known as equation of continuity.
*********************
Viscosity & current topic
**********************************
09/10/2020
SURFACE TENSION
**********************************

14/10/2020[WEDNESDAY]
********************************
23. Eng lit,
24. Eng Lang,
25. Phy ,
26. chem,
28. Computer,
30. Maths,
01. Biology,
02. Eco. ,
03. phy edu,
04. Evs.

Q.1
Define capillarity. Find expression of Ascent formula.
1+3=4
Q.2
Define angle of contact. Write its values in different
cases. 1+2=3
Q.3
Find an expression of excess pressure for water bubble.
3
Q.4
a) Why water drops are spherical in shapes.
b) Why shaving brush cling together after dipped in
water. 2
Last pdf submit time: 9.00 pm

NEXT: GRAVIATATION
*********************************
**********************************
15/10/2020[THURSDAY]
CLASS:01
TOPIC:
*************************************

16/10/2020[FRIDAY]
TOPIC: EXAM: GRAVITATION]
**********************************
TOTAL: 18 marks: TIME: 50 mins.
COPY SUBMISSION TIME (pdf): 08: 45 p.m
Q.1
Derive an expression of variation of “g” with depth
below Earth’s surface. 3
Q.2
State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. 3
Q.3
From energy consideration derive expression foe escape
velocity of a body from Earth’s surface. 3
Q.4
Draw a graph showing variation of “g” with distance
from centre of Earth. 2
Q.5
At what distance from Earth surface, values of “g” are
same, for a point below and above? 2
Q.6
Calculate Time period of a satellite revolving very close
to Earth’s surfaces. 3
Q.7
Calculate the ratio of escape velocity of body and orbital
velocity of a satellite revolving very close to Earth’s
surface. 2

28/10/2020 [Wednesday]
TOPIC: FLUID MOTION
*******************************************
ENERGY OF A FLIUD:
A liquid in motion possesses three types of energy:
I) pressure energy
Ii) Kinetic energy
Iii) Potential energy
Expression for them:
i) kinetic energy:
kinetic energy of mass of liquid moving with velocity v is
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
thus, kinetic energy per unit mass= 𝑣 2
2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑚 1
kinetic energy per unit volume = 2
= . 𝑣 2 = 𝜌𝑣 2
𝑉 2 𝑉 2

ii) Potential energy:

Potential energy of liquid of mass m, flowing at a height
h is given by =𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑚𝑔ℎ
Potential energy per unit mass= = 𝑔ℎ
𝑚
𝑚𝑔ℎ
Potential energy per unit volume= = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑉
iii) Pressure energy:

work done in pushing a liquid through a distance x, due

to hydrostatic pressure of liquid column h ( 𝑝 = ℎ𝜌𝑔) is
given by =𝑃𝑎𝑥
[where a= area of cross-section in which liquid in
pushed]
Volume of pushed liquid =𝑎𝑥.
Mass of pushed liquid =𝜌𝑎𝑥
Thus,
𝑃𝑎𝑥
Pressure energy per unit VOLUME = =𝑃
𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑎𝑥 𝑃
pressure energy per unit MASS = =
𝜌𝑎𝑥 𝜌
STATE & PROVE BERNOULLI’S THEOREM:
This theorem states that, for streamline flow of an ideal
fluid, the total energy (the sum of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy) per unit mass
remains constant at every cross-section throughout the
liquid flow.
So, mathematically:
𝑃 1 2
+ 𝑔ℎ + 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝜌 2
if liquid is flowing through a horizontal tube, above
equation takes the form
𝑃 1 2
+ 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
1 2
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
2
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
1 2
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
Q.1. It is advised not to stand near a running train, why?
when fast moving train passes on a rail, then the velocity
of air stream in between rail & person standing near rail
is very large as compared to velocity on other side of
person away from rail. Now, according to Bernoulli’s
theorem, air pressure will become low between person
& rail and is high on the other side, as a result of this
pressure difference a thrust on the person push
towards the rail side & the person may met with an
accident.
Q.2. Flags flatter in breeze. Why?
Ans. when air is breezing, the air layers are moving with
unequal velocity on the two faces of flag. Due to it, there
will be unequal pressure on the two faces of the flag
according to Bernoulli’s theorem, which results in
flattering of flag.
**********************************************
**
04/11/2020[Wednesday]
Topic: Fluid Motion
**********************************************
**
Q. 2 What is venturimeter?
it is a device , used for measuring the speed of
incompressible liquid and rate of flow of liquid through
pipes. It works on Bernoulli’s theorem.

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟

 sec 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
𝑉 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎1 𝑎2 √
𝜌(𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2 )

𝑣1 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

2(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) 2ℎ𝜌𝑚 𝑔
= 𝑎2 √ 2 2
= 𝑎2 √
𝜌(𝑎1 − 𝑎2 ) 𝜌(𝑎1 2 − 𝑎2 2 )

**********************************************
**
06/11/2020[Friday]
topic: mixed
**********************************************
**
Q.1
Q.2

Q.3

Q.4

Q.5
 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
70
𝑐𝑚
10−5 𝑁 10−5+2 𝑁 10−3 𝑁
= 70 ∗ −2 = 70 ∗ = 70 ∗
10 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
= 7 ∗ 10−2

𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
 [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] 2 −1 ]
ℎ= = [𝑀𝐿 𝑇 …….𝐴
[𝑇 −1 ]

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 0.06 ∗ [2 ∗ 4𝜋𝑟2 2 − 2 ∗ 4𝜋𝑟1 2 ]
= 0.06 ∗ 8 ∗ 𝜋[0.07 ∗ 0.03]𝐽
= 0.0031667 𝐽
 2𝑇 2 ∗ 7.2 ∗ 10−2 5 −2
𝑃2 = + 𝑃1 = + 1.013 ∗ 10 𝑁𝑚
𝑅 0.1 ∗ 10−3
= 144 ∗ 10 + 1.013 ∗ 105
= 1.44 ∗ 103 + 101.3 ∗ 103 = 102.74 ∗ 103
= 1.0274 ∗ 105

4 3 4 3
𝜋𝑅 = 64 ∗ 𝜋𝑟
3 3
𝑅3 = 64𝑟 3
𝑅 = 4𝑟
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= [64 ∗ 4𝜋𝑟 2 − 4𝜋𝑅2 ]
 2
𝑅
= 4𝜋[64𝑟 2 − 𝑅2 ] = 4𝜋 [64 ∗ − 𝑅2 ]
16
= 4𝜋[3𝑅 2 ]
𝑊𝑂𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 72 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 4 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 3 ∗ 10−6 𝐽
= 2712.96 ∗ 10−9 = 2.7 ∗ 10−6 𝐽
**********************************************
*
11/11/2020[Wednesday]
Topic: revision
**********************************************
*
18/11/2020[WEDNESDAY]
TOPIC: Q/A DISCUSSION
*********************************************
Q. DERIVATION:
EXCESS PRESSURE
ASCENT FORMULA
PROJCTILE: PATH IS PARABOLA: HORIZONTAL RANGE:
TIME OF FLIGHT
ELASTIC P.E =1/2*STRESS*STRAIN
STRESS – STRAIN CURVE QUESTION
BRNOULII’S THEOEM PROOF
TERMINAL VELOCITY CALCULATION
VARIATION OF g with height & depth & their graph
unit normal vector calculation
angle between two vectors
*********************************************

𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘

at first calculate normal vector :

𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐶⃗ = | 2 3 −1|
−1 1 2
3 −1 2 −1 2 3
= 𝑖| |−𝑗| |+𝑘| |
1 2 −1 2 −1 1
= 𝑖 [3 ∗ 2 − {1 ∗ (−1)}] − 𝑗[2 ∗ 2— {(−1) ∗ (−1)}] +
𝑘[2 ∗ 1 − {(−1) ∗ 3}]
 = 𝑖 [6 + 1] − 𝑗[4 − 1] + 𝑘[2 + 3]
= 7𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 5𝑘

|𝐶⃗| = √(7)2 + (−3)2 + 52 = √49 + 9 + 25 = √83

𝐶⃗
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
|𝐶⃗|
7𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 5𝑘
=
√83
**********************************************

𝐴⃗ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝐵
⃗⃗ = −𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘

𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ −1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = =−
|𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗ | √14 ∗ √6 √84

−1
1
𝜃 = cos {− }
√84
|𝐴⃗| = √22 + 32 + (−1)2 = √4 + 9 + 1 = √14
⃗⃗| = √(−1)2 + 12 + 22 = √1 + 1 + 4 = √6
|𝐵

𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 2 ∗ (−1) + 3 ∗ 1 + (−1) ∗ 2 = −2 + 3 − 2
= −1
*********************************************
𝐹 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡
 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒.
𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 & 𝑏.
𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑠𝑜
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝐿𝐻𝑆 & 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙.
𝑎𝑠 𝐿𝐻𝑆 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 , 𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡
𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.
[𝐹 ] = [𝑎]
[𝑎] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
again, [F]=[bt]=[b][t]=[b][T]
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑏][𝑇]
[𝑏] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 ]
**********************************************
*
19/12/2020[SATURDAY]
TOPIC: SHM
**********************************************
Oscillatory Motion

Oscillatory motion is the repeated to and fro movement of

a system from its equilibrium position. Every system at
rest is in its equilibrium position. At this point, no external
force is acting on it. Therefore, the net force acting on the
system is zero. Now, if this system is displaced a little
from its fixed point, a force acts on the system which tries
to bring back the system to its fixed point. This force is the
restoring force and it gives rise to oscillations or
vibrations.
For example, consider a ball that is placed in a bowl. It
will be in its equilibrium position. If displaced a little from
this point, it will oscillate in the bowl. Therefore, every
oscillatory motion is periodic but all periodic motions are
not oscillatory. For instance, the circular motion is a
periodic motion but not oscillatory.
Moreover, there is no significant difference between
oscillations and vibrations. In general, when the frequency
is low, we call it oscillatory motion and when the
frequency is high, we call it vibrations.
Furthermore, simple harmonic motion is the simplest type
of oscillatory motion. This motion takes place when the
restoring force acting on the system is directly
proportional to its displacement from its equilibrium
position.

Difference Between Periodic and Oscillatory

Motion
The main difference is that oscillatory motion is always
periodic but a periodic motion may or may not be
oscillatory. For example, the motion of a pendulum is both
oscillatory and periodic but the motion of the wheels of a
car is only periodic because the wheels rotate in a circular
motion. Thus, circular motion is only periodic and not
oscillatory because the wheels do not move to and fro
about a mean position.

Definition – The linear periodic motion of a body in

which the restoring force is always directed towards the
equilibrium position or mean position and its magnitude
is directly proportional to the displacement from the
equilibrium position. Also, all simple harmonic motions
are periodic in nature, but all periodic motions are not
simple harmonic motions.
Difference between Periodic and Simple
Harmonic Motion

Simple
Periodic
Harmonic
Motion
Motion

In the simple
In the periodic
harmonic
motion, the
motion, the
displacement of
displacement of
the object may
the object is
or may not be in
always in the
the direction of
opposite
the restoring
direction of the
force.
restoring force.

And, the simple

Also, the
harmonic
periodic motion
motion is
may or may not
always
be oscillatory.
oscillatory.

Periodic motion Simple

examples are harmonic
the motion of motion
the hands of a examples: the
clock, the motion of a
motion of the pendulum,
wheels of a car, motion of a
etc. spring, etc.

DOPPLER’S EFFECT:
****************************
IF there is a relative motion between the source of
sound, medium and the observer, the frequency of
sound perceived or received by observer is different
from the frequency of sound waves emitted by source.
This phenomenon is known as Doppler effect.

𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑.
𝑛 = 𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑛′ = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦.
𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑇𝐸𝑅 𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑀𝑈𝐿𝐴:
 ′
(𝑉 ± 𝑣0 )
𝑛 = 𝑛
(𝑉 ± 𝑣𝑠 )

′
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
CASE:1: source is moving but listener is at rest
CASE:2: listener is moving but source is at rest
CASE:3: both source & listener are moving
i) they are moving is same direction (left)
ii) they are moving is same direction (right)
iii) they are moving opposite to each other
iv) they approach each other
************************************
SHM
************
For a motion to b simple harmonic:
i) restoring force is directly proportional to the
displacement from point of equilibrium.
ii) restoring force is always opposite to the direction of
displacement.
Mathematically: 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 [ 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡]
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑘
𝑎=− 𝑥
𝑚
𝑎 ∝ −𝑥
Condition for a motion to be SHM.
𝑘
here: = 𝜔2
𝑚

𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚

𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
EQUATION FOR SHM
 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑥

𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜔=√ =√
𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

*************************
Equation that will represent a SHM:
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥
𝑣= =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim =
𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
in mathematics { calculus}
𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
∆ 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑑 , 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑡 → 0
∆𝑣
𝑎=
∆𝑡
 ∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑎 = lim =
𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎= ( )= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
note:
𝑑
… 𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑂𝑅 … . 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2
2
… 𝑂𝑃𝐸𝑅𝐴𝑇𝑂𝑅 … 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ….
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 2
2
= −𝜔 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 2
2
+ 𝜔 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡
second order differential eq, with constant coefficient
Differential equation of SHM, d2 y/dt2 +ω2 y=0 from
the nature of force acting F=-k y; solution y=A sin
(ωt+φ0) where ω2 = k/m; obtain expressions for
velocity, acceleration, time period T and frequency f.
Graphical representation of displacement, velocity and
acceleration. Examples, simple pendulum, a mass m
attached to a spring of spring constant k. Derivation of
time period of simple harmonic motion of a simple
pendulum, mass on a spring (horizontal and vertical
oscillations) Kinetic and potential energy at a point in
simple harmonic motion. Total energy E = U+K (potential
+kinetic) is conserved. Draw graphs of U, K and E Verses
y.
𝑥 = asin (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝜃 = (𝜔𝑡 + ∅)𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
∅ = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑐ℎ
a= amplitude of maximum displacement from mean
position.
𝐴 𝑆𝐻𝑀 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ii) from extreme end position
iii) from a position in between them.

𝑥 = asin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃 ,

𝑎 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
*************
𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝐴
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 , 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
*****************
𝑖𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑂.
𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
*************************************
27/12/2020 [ SUNDAY]
TOPIC: SHM
****************************************
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝜔 & 𝑇 … … … . 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
𝑇
= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 , 𝐴 𝑇𝑜 𝑂, 𝑂 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 ,
𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝑂
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝜔𝑡 𝑡

X=0, at O 0 0
X=a, at A 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜔𝑡 𝑡 =
2 2𝜔
X=a, at O 𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = 𝑡 =
2 2𝜔
X=a, at B 𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = 𝑡 =
2 2𝜔
X=a,at O 𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 = 𝑡 =
2 2𝜔

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋
𝑇= + + + = =
2𝜔 2𝜔 2𝜔 2𝜔 2𝜔 𝜔
 𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
𝑥
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑎

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝑎 ∝ −𝑥
*****************************************

calculation of velocity & acceleration:

i)
𝑥 = asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑣 = [asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = aωcos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑣 = ±𝜔𝑎√1 − sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)

 𝑥2
𝑣 = ±𝑎𝜔√1 − 2
𝑎

𝑎𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑣=±
𝑎
𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑜, 𝑥 = 0; 𝑣 = ±𝜔𝑎
𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵, 𝑥 = 𝑎; 𝑣 = 0
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑎, 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑥 = 𝑤 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 𝑑
𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑥 = 3 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥
cos = ∗ (− sin )
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑑
(𝑐 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑎 = [aω cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = aω ∗ {−ω sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)}
𝑎 = −aω2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
x
𝑎 = −aω ∗
a
𝑎 = −ω2 x
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒, 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ω2 a, at either ends
*************************************
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦:

𝑣 = ±𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝑣 = aωcos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
 1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑘(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
2

𝑘
𝜔 = √ , 𝑚𝜔2 = 𝑘, 𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑚

Calculation of potential energy:

Thus to stretch the spring against F, WORK IS needed to
be done & this amount of work done is stored as elastic
potential energy.
now, external force 𝐹 ′ = −𝐹 = −(−𝐾𝑥 ) = +𝑘𝑥
so, small amount of work done is small stretching dx
𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
thus, total work done for total stretching:
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑤 = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
0 0 0
𝑥
𝑥2
𝑤 = 𝑘| |
2 0
 𝑥2 1 2
𝑤 = 𝑘 [ − 0] = 𝑘𝑥
2 2
1 2
𝐸𝑃𝐸, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥
2
1
𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸
𝐸 =𝐾+𝑈
1 1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑎 − 𝑥 + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2
2( 2 2)
2 2
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆. 𝐻. 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 1 2
𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥
2
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑘(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
2
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 = 𝑐
2
𝐸, 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑦 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3

𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝐾 = 𝑈
1 2 2
1 2
𝑘(𝑎 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥
2 2
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 = 𝑎2
 𝑎
𝑥=± , 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ
√2
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
**************************************

28/12/2020[ Monday]
topic: SHM(3)
******************************************

2𝜋
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 =
𝜔
𝜋 𝑇
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 = =
2𝜔 4
position t K= 1 E conclusion
U= 𝑘𝑥 2
2
𝐾. 𝐸
1
= 𝑘 (𝑎 2
2
− 𝑥2)

X=0 0 1 0 1 E=K
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
2 2
A(x=a) 𝑇 0 1 1 E=U
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
4 2 2
O 2𝑇 1 0 1 E=K
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
4 2 2
B 3𝑇 0 1 1 E=U
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
4 2 2
0 4𝑇 1 0 1 E=K
𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
4 2 2

**************************************
Mass Attached To A Spring Of Spring Constant K
**************************************
CASE :1
Horizontal spring:
CASE:2
VERTICAL SPRING
CASE:3
SERIER COMBINATION
CASE:4
PARALLEL COMBINATION
CASE:5
MIXED COMBINATION
********************************
CASE :1
Horizontal spring
 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
CASE:2
VERTICAL SPRING
 𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑑
𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏,
𝐹1 + 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝐹1 = −𝑚𝑔
−𝑘𝑑 = −𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑑
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹2 = −𝑘(𝑑 + 𝑥)
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1
𝐹 = −𝑘 (𝑑 + 𝑥 ) − (−𝑘𝑑 ) = −𝑘𝑑 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑑 = −𝑘𝑥
 𝐴𝑠, 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝐻𝑀
𝑚
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘

𝜇
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝜇= = 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

𝑚1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
CASE:3
SERIER COMBINATION
 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐹 = −𝑘1 𝑥1 = −𝑘2 𝑥2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝐹 𝐹 1 1 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑥=− − = −𝐹 [ + ] = −𝐹 [ ]
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐹 = −𝑥
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
𝑘1 𝑘2
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘 =
𝑘1 + 𝑘2

𝑚(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘1 𝑘2
 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘4
Q.
If a spring having spring constant k is equally divided
into 3 equal parts, what would be spring constant of
each part?

1 1 1 1 3
= + + =
𝐾 𝐾′ 𝐾′ 𝐾′ 𝐾′
𝐾 ′ = 3𝐾
CASE:4
PARALLEL COMBINATION
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐹1 = −𝑘1 𝑥 & 𝐹2 = −𝑘2 𝑥
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑙𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝐹 = −𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑥(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘1 +𝑘2
if we pull the mass to one side by x, then one spring gets
compressed by x & another gets stretched by x
𝐹1 = −𝑘1 𝑥 & 𝐹2 = −𝑘2 𝑥
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑙𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝐹 = −𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑥(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐹 ∝ −𝑥
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘1 +𝑘2
*****************************************
𝐹 = −𝐾𝑥
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
in case of resistors combination:
SERIES......... CONSTANT 𝐼
PARALLEL......... CONSTANT...𝑉
IN OUR CASE (spring combination):
PARALLEL: x constant ........elongation is same for both
spring
series: F is same for both spring
*********************************************2
8/12/2020[Monday]
topic: SHM(4)
****************************************
Q. Derive expression for time period for a simple
pendulum.
 𝑂 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑏𝑜𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑂 𝑡𝑜 𝐴,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑, 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑥
𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴, 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑏 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑖) 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑖𝑖) 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚, 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑠
𝑤𝑒, 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒, 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … … (𝑖 )
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑂, 𝑠𝑜, 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒,
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝜃3 𝜃5
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃 − + −⋯
5! 5!
ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜃, ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐
 𝑠𝑜, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖 )𝐹 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃 … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖 )
𝑥
𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦, 𝜃 =
𝑙
𝑠𝑜, 𝑥 = 𝑙𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚, (𝑖𝑖𝑖 ), 𝐹 = −
𝑙
𝑚𝑔𝑥
𝑚𝑎 = −
𝑙
𝑔𝑥
𝑎=−
𝑙
𝑎 ∝ −𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑏𝑜𝑏 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝐻𝑀
𝑥
𝑆𝑜, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑎

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

**********************************************
************
**********************************************
**********
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑣𝑡
± 𝑥 ) … . 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒.
𝑦 = a sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
Equation of a plane progressive harmonic wave:
 displacement of the particle at O, at any instant t
𝑦(0, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 … … … … (𝑖)
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠, 𝑖. 𝑒, 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 than 𝑎𝑡 𝑂.
𝜙 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡 𝑂
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝜆) , 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 2𝜋
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥:
2𝜋
𝜙= 𝑥
𝜆
 2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝜆
2𝜋
𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑘 =
𝜆
= 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑦 = asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 )
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
****************************************
2𝜋
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝜔 =
𝑇
𝑣 = 𝜆/ 𝑇,
2𝜋
𝜔 𝑇 2𝜋
= = = 𝑘 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑣 𝜆𝑇 𝜆
𝜔 = 𝑘𝑣
*****************************************
 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) … … … . (𝑖)
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔= &𝑘 =
𝑇 𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin ( 𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑇 𝜆
𝑡 𝑥
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 ( − ) … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑇 𝜆
2𝜋
𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜔 = 𝑘𝑣 & 𝑘 =
𝜆
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝑘𝑣𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
= 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘(𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 )
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 ) … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝜆
*********************************************
Relation between Phase difference & path difference:
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ∶
𝜙 = 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡 & 𝑥.
A) t is constant: we are considering two different
position of particles namely 𝑥1 &𝑥2 at the same time t.
𝜙1 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1
𝜙2 = 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥2
𝜙1 − 𝜙2 = 𝑘(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
∆𝜙 = 𝑘∆𝑥
2𝜋
𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜆

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************29/12/2020[TUESDAY]
TOPIC: BEATS & STATIONARY WAVES
**********************************************
*********
Beats: The phenomenon of regular rise & fall in the
intensity of sound, when two waves of nearly equal
frequencies travelling along same line & same direction
superimpose each other, is called beats.
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
beat =8
 1
= 0.125
8
beat= 11
1
= 0.09 𝑠𝑒𝑐
11
frequency of two sounds should not differ by more than
10hz.
Mathematical treatment:
let consider two waves of same amplitude bur slightly different freq.
represented by
𝑦1 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔1 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜈1 𝑡 … … … (𝑖)
𝑦2 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜈2 𝑡 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
according to the principle of superposition, the resultant
displacement
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜈1 𝑡 + 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜈2 𝑡
𝑦 = 𝐴 [𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜈1 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜈2 𝑡]
2𝜋𝜈1 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝜈2 𝑡 2𝜋𝜈1 𝑡 − 2𝜋𝜈2 𝑡
𝑦 = 𝐴 [2 sin cos ]
2 2
𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 + 𝜈2
𝑦 = 2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 ( )𝑡
2 2
′
𝜈1 + 𝜈2
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 ( ) 𝑡 … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴′
𝜈1 − 𝜈2
= 2𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑡 … … … (𝑖𝑣) 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
2
𝜈1 + 𝜈2
𝑒𝑞 (𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 ( )
2
& 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐴′
now, amplitude will be maximum if
𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑡 = ±1
2
𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝜋 [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … ]
2
𝜈1 − 𝜈2
2𝜋 𝑡 = 𝑛𝜋
2
𝑛
𝑡=
𝜈1 − 𝜈2
1 2 3
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠, , ,
𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
thus, time interval between two successive maxima
2 1 1
𝑇= − =
𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
1
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑇
amplitude will be minimum if
𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 𝑡=0
2
𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋 (
𝑡 = cos 2𝑛 + 1) [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … ]
2 2
 𝜈1 − 𝜈2 𝜋
2𝜋 𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2 2
2𝑛 + 1
𝑡=
2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 )
1 3
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠, , ,
2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 ) 2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 )
5
, 𝑒𝑡𝑐
2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 )
1 3
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 , ,
2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 ) 2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 )
5
, 𝑒𝑡𝑐
2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 )
thus, time interval between two successive maxima
3 1 1
𝑇= − =
2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 ) 2(𝜈1 − 𝜈2 ) 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
1
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
𝑇
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜈1 − 𝜈2

*********************************************
Application:
Determination of an unknown frequency:
in exam, two tuning forks are given let A & B.
frequency of A= 256 HZ.
Determine frequency of B?
After loading by wax, frequency of fork decreases
After filing , frequency of fork increases.
𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 & 𝐵 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 4 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠
/𝑠𝑒𝑐
 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 = 256 + 4 𝑜𝑟 256 − 4
= 260 𝑜𝑟 252 𝐻𝑧
loading method:
a little wax is added to the prong.
frequency of fork B decreases
𝐿𝑒𝑡, 260𝐻𝑧 … … … … … … … 258ℎ𝑧
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 258 − 256 = 2
conclusion, if after loading fork of unknown freq, beat freq
decreases, unknown freq =256+4=260 hz
𝑙𝑒𝑡, 252 ℎ𝑧 … … … … … … . .250 ℎ𝑧
now beats =256-250=6
𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 , 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒
= 256 − 4 = 252

filing method:
frequency of fork B increases.
𝑙𝑒𝑡, 260𝐻𝑍 … … … … .262ℎ𝑧
𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 262 − 256 = 6
𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒
= 256 + 4 = 260
𝑙𝑒𝑡, 252 ℎ𝑧 … … … … . .254
 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 256 − 254 = 2
𝑖𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒
= 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 256 − 4 = 252

NUMERICAL:
A tuning fork pair produces 4 beats with one fork of fre
288 hz. A little wax is placed on the unknown fork & it
then produces 2 beats /sec. What is the unknown fre ?
ANS:
A tuning fork pair produces 4 beats with one fork of fre
288 hz. A little wax is placed on the unknown fork & it
again produces 4 beats /sec. What is the unknown fre ?
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 288 − 4 = 284 𝑜𝑟 292 ℎ𝑧
as beat fre, remains unchanged even on loading, so, of
the two possible fre one must be initial & other must be
final.
**********************************************
************30/12/2020[Wednesday]
Topic: STATIONARY WAVES
**********************************************
**********
Standing waves or stationary waves;
formation by two identical progressive waves travelling
in opposite directions (e.g.,: along a string, in an air
column - incident and reflected waves); obtain y=
y1+y2= [2 ym sin (kx)] cos (ωt) using equations of the
travelling waves; variation of the amplitude A=2 ymsin
(kx) with location (x) of the particle; nodes and
antinodes; compare standing waves with progressive
waves

**********************************************
***********01/01/2021[ FRIDAY]
TOPIC: STATIONARY WAVES
**********************************************
**********
FORMATION OF STATIONARY WAVES
******************************
When two waves of same amplitude & period (identical)
but travelling in opposite directions superimpose each
other, then the resultant wave is called stationary wave.
Mathematical treatment:
Let two transverse waves of same freq, amplitude & speed travelling
in opposite direction.

𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖)

𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑋 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Now, according to the principle of superposition, the
resultant wave is:
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) + asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 )
= 𝑎[sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) + sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 )]
(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
= 𝑎 [2 sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ]
2 2

= 2𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠(−𝑘𝑥)
𝑦 = (2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 ) × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Here amplitude of resultant wave
𝐴 = (2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 )
eq(iii) represents stationary waves. it can not represent
a progressive wave because the argument of any of its
trigonometric functions does not contain the
combination (𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥 ).
𝑦 = (2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 ) × 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡,
𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒.
Observe: i) stationary & progressive wave have same
angular frequency
ii) in case of stationary wave amplitude is not same for
all particles, it varies harmonically with position x
(2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 ) of particle
***************************
Now, amplitude A will be maximum, when
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 = ±1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋
2𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋
𝜆
𝜆
𝑥=𝑛
2
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 ∶
𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆
0, , , …
2 2 2
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝜆 𝜆
( )
: 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛
2 2
𝜆 𝜆
(
= 𝑛+1−𝑛 = )
2 2
Now, amplitude A will be minimum, when
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
𝜆 2
𝜆
𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1)
4
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝒏𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 ∶
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
, , …
4 4 4
 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝜆 𝜆
: 𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 = [2(𝑛 + 1) + 1] − (2𝑛 + 1)
4 4
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
= [2𝑛 + 2 + 1 − 2𝑛 − 1] = [2] =
4 4 2
Again observe:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 & 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒:
𝜆 𝜆
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 − (𝑥𝑛 )𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑛 − (2𝑛 + 1)
2 4
𝜆 𝜆
= [ 2𝑛 − 2𝑛 − 1] = −
4 4
𝜆
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 =
4
************************************
Laws of vibrations of a stretched string. Obtain equation for fundamental frequency
f0=(½l) T/m ; sonometer.

(d)Modes of vibration of strings and air columns (closed and open pipes); standing waves
with nodes and antinodes; also in resonance with the periodic force exerted usually by a
tuning fork; sketches of various modes of vibration; obtain expressions for fundamental
frequency and various harmonics and overtones; mutual relations.

**************************************
Standing waves in strings fixed at both ends:
Analytic treatment:
Let, L=length of a uniform string, stretched by a tension
T, is fixed along X-axis, with its ends rigidly fixed at
ends𝑥 = 0 & 𝑥 = 𝐿.
Let, a transverse wave is produced and travelled along
positive X-direction & gets reflected at fixed end𝑥 = 𝐿.
They are represented as:
𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = Asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖)
𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = − Asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐴, 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑑.
Now by principle of superposition, the resultant displacement
is :
𝑦 = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑦 = Asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) − Asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 )
𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥
= −𝐴[2 cos sin
2 2
𝑦 = −2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠:
𝑦 = 0, 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
𝑦 = 0, 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞(𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑
2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝐿 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0
𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡, 𝑖𝑓𝑓
sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0 = 𝑛𝜋
2𝜋
𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝜆
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 ∶ 𝑛
= 1,2,3 … 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 1𝑠𝑡, 2𝑛𝑑, 3𝑟𝑑. . 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔.

now, speed of transverse wave on a string having linear mass

density m

𝑇
𝑣=√
𝑚

𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑣 𝑛 𝑇
𝜈𝑛 = = √
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 𝑚
 1 𝑇
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝑛 = 1, 𝜈1 = √
2𝐿 𝑚

𝑇𝐻𝐼𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑

𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
120 ℎ𝑧, 240 ℎ𝑧, 300ℎ𝑧, 360ℎ𝑧, 380 ℎ𝑧, 400 ℎ𝑧, 480 ℎ𝑧.
***************************************************
*02/01/2020[SATURDAY]
Topic: STATIONARY WAVES IN STRING & ORGAN PIPES
***************************************************
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 ∶ 𝑛
= 1,2,3 … 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑜 1𝑠𝑡, 2𝑛𝑑, 3𝑟𝑑. . 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓
𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔.

Now, speed of transverse wave on a string having linear mass

density m

𝑇
𝑣=√
𝑚

𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

 𝑣
𝜈𝑛 =
𝜆𝑛
I) first normal mode of vibrations:
𝜆1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 1

2𝐿
𝜆1 =
1
𝜆1
𝐿=
2
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡. 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜
𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 are fixed so two nodes are there & one
antinode in the middle.

thus frequency of vibration:

𝑣 1 𝑇
𝜈1 = = √
𝜆1 2𝐿 𝑚

𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 & 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐.

I) second normal mode of vibrations:
 𝜆2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 2

2𝐿
𝜆2 =
2
2𝜆2
𝐿= = 𝜆2
2
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡. 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜
𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 are fixed so three nodes are there & two
antinode in the middle.

𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2
𝐿 = + = 2 = 𝜆2
2 2 2
thus frequency of vibration:

𝑣 2 𝑇
𝜈2 = = √ = 2𝜈1
𝜆2 2𝐿 𝑚

𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐

𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒.
I) third normal mode of vibrations:
𝜆3 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 3

2𝐿
𝜆3 =
3
3𝜆3
𝐿=
2
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3
𝐿= + + =3
2 2 2 2
2𝐿
𝜆3 =
3
thus frequency of vibration:

𝑣 3 𝑇
𝜈3 = = √ = 3𝜈1
𝜆3 2𝐿 𝑚

𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐

𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒.
Conclusion:
in a stretched string:
𝜈1 : 𝜈2 : 𝜈3 : … . = 1: 2: 3: ….
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡.
LAWS OF VIBRATION OF STRETCHED STRINGS:
****************************************
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦:

𝑛 𝑇
𝜈𝑛 = √
2𝐿 𝑚

from this equation:

i) law of length:
1
𝜈𝑛 ∝ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇 & 𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿
ii) law of tension:

𝜈𝑛 ∝ √𝑇, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

iii) law of mass:
1
𝜈𝑛 ∝ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐿 & 𝑇 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
√𝑚
Two more laws:
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷2
=𝜋× ×𝜌
4

𝑛 𝑇
𝜈𝑛 =
2𝐿 √ 𝐷2
𝜋× ×𝜌
4

𝑛 𝑇
= √
𝐿𝐷 𝜋𝜌

LAW of diameter:
1
𝜈𝑛 ∝ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇, 𝐿, 𝜌 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐷
law of density:
1
𝜈𝑛 ∝ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑇, 𝐿, 𝐷 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
√𝜌
***********************************************
VIBRATIONS IN AIR COLUMNS:
**********************************
STATIONARY WAVES IN AN OPEN PIPE:

𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = Asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖)

𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = Asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Now by principle of superposition, the resultant displacement
is :
𝑦 = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑦 = Asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) + Asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 )
𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥
= 𝐴[2 sin cos ]
2 2
𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin𝜔𝑡 cos 𝑘𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 𝑠in𝜔𝑡 … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
now, as pipe is open , for all t, the resultant displacement is
maximum at x=0 & x=L. This condition is satisfied if from (iii)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 = ±1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋
2𝜋
𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝜆
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦:

𝑣 𝑛 𝛾𝑃
𝜈𝑛 = = √
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 𝜌

𝛾𝑃
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟: 𝑣 = √
𝜌

******************************************
i) first mode of vibration :
it is the simplest mode, there will be only one node at the
middle & two antinodes at ends.

𝜆1 𝜆1 𝜆1 𝜆1
𝐿= + =2 =
4 4 4 2
𝜆1 = 2𝐿
Thus frequency of vibration:
𝑣 1
𝜈1 = = 𝑣
𝜆1 2𝐿
𝑣 1
𝜈1 = = 𝑣
𝜆1 2(𝐿 + 2𝑒)

ii) second mode of vibration:

here two nodes will be present between two antinodes at two
free ends.
 𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2 + 2𝜆2 + 𝜆2 4𝜆2
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐿 = + + = = = 𝜆2
4 2 4 4 4
Thus frequency of vibration:
𝑣 2
𝜈2 = = 𝑣 = 2𝜈1
𝜆2 2𝐿
ii) THIRD mode of vibration:
here three nodes will be present between two antinodes at
two free ends.

𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3 + 2𝜆3 + 2𝜆3 + 𝜆3 6𝜆3

𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝐿 = + + + = =
4 2 2 4 4 4
3𝜆3
=
2
2𝐿
𝜆3 =
3
Thus frequency of vibration:
𝑣 3
𝜈3 = = 𝑣 = 3𝜈1
𝜆3 2𝐿
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡.
STATIONARY WAVES IN A CLOSE PIPE:
 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 & ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿
THE sound wave initially sent along closed end
represented by:
𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = Asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖)
the reflected wave from closed end
𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −Asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Now by principle of superposition, the resultant displacement
is :
𝑦 = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑦 = Asin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) − Asin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥
= 𝐴[2 cos sin ]
2 2
𝑦 = 2𝐴 cos𝜔𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
now it is clear from (iii) that, at x=0 , y=0 for all t, i.e a node is
present at closed end x=0.
now, at x=L , there is antinode for all t( Y is maximum)
thus, (iii) will be satisfied if
 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 = ±1 = sin(2𝑛 − 1)
2
2𝜋𝐿 𝜋
(
= 2𝑛 − 1 )
𝜆𝑛 2
4𝐿
𝜆𝑛 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
(2𝑛 − 1)
𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦:

𝑣 (2𝑛 − 1) 𝛾𝑃
𝜈𝑛 = = √
𝜆𝑛 4𝐿 𝜌

𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑡, 𝑛 = 1,

1 𝛾𝑃
(𝜈1 )𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = √
4𝐿 𝜌

this is fundamental freq. in a closed organ pipe.

𝑣 1 𝛾𝑃
(𝜈1 )𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = = √
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 𝜌

(𝜈1 )𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 2(𝜈1 )𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑

i) first mode of vibration :

it is the simplest mode, there will be only one node at the
closed end & one antinodes at free end.
 𝜆1
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐿 =
4
𝜆1 = 4𝐿
Thus frequency of vibration:
𝑣 1
𝜈1 = = 𝑣
𝜆1 4𝐿

ii) second mode of vibration:

in this mode , there is one node added between closed end ,
an antinode at free end .

𝜆2 𝜆2 2𝜆2 + 1𝜆2 3𝜆2

𝐿= + = =
2 4 4 4
4𝐿
𝜆2 =
3
Thus frequency of vibration:
 𝑣 3
𝜈2 = = 𝑣 = 3𝜈1
𝜆2 4𝐿
ii) THIRD mode of vibration:
here two additional nodes will added between node at fixed
end & antinode at free end

𝜆3 𝜆3 𝜆3 2𝜆3 + 2𝜆3 + 𝜆3 5𝜆3

𝐿= + + = =
2 2 4 4 4
4𝐿
𝜆3 =
5
Thus frequency of vibration:
𝑣 5
𝜈3 = = 𝑣 = 5𝜈1
𝜆3 4𝐿
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜈1 : 𝜈2 : 𝜈3 : … . . = 1: 3: 5: … ..
***************************************************
*END CORRECTION:
In actual practice, antinode is not formed at the opened, but it is
formed a little above from the open end. Then the difference
between actual position of the antinode and the position f the
open end is called end correction.
According to the Rayleigh, “the end correction for the closed
organ pipe is 0.3d and 0.6 d for the open organ pipe. Where d
is the internal diameter of the pipe.”
If to be the first resonating length and be the wave length of the
wave in the pipe then in first resonation,

Similarly if l2 be the second resonating length and be the wavelength of wave in the pipe,
then,

Solving equation (i) and (ii), we get

***************************************************
*04/01/2021[Monday]

TOPIC: KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

***************************************************
EXPRESSION FOR THE PRESSURE OF A GAS:
WE need to determine momentum change in one sec.
in one collision change in momentum =2mu.
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘

|𝑟⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝐶, … . 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤
𝑐 2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2
let consider a cube container of side = 𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
it contains number of molecules =N
concentrate on one molecule
only collisions with wall of container contribute to pressure bt
gas molecules
concentrate on one molecule
so, we have
𝑐1 2 = 𝑢1 2 + 𝑣1 2 + 𝑤1 2
now momentum along positive x directions =𝑚𝑢1
assuming collision with to be perfectly elastic, momentum
after collision= −𝑚𝑢1
so, in one collision change in momentum =2m𝑢1 .
container cube: 𝑙
 2𝑙
time taken between two successive collision=
𝑢1
𝑢1
number of collisions in one sec=
2𝑙

𝑢1 𝑚𝑢12
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 2m𝑢1 ∗ =
2𝑙 𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋
2
𝑚𝑢22 𝑚𝑢32 𝑚𝑢42 𝑚𝑢𝑁
− 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 , , ,…….,
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑠𝑜, 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠:
𝑚 2
𝐹𝑥 = [𝑢1 + 𝑢22 + ⋯ … … + 𝑢𝑛2 ]
𝑙
𝑠𝑜, 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑋 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠:
𝐹𝑥 𝑚 2
𝑝𝑥 = 2 = 3 [𝑢1 + 𝑢22 + ⋯ … … + 𝑢𝑛2 ]
𝑙 𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠:
𝑚 2
𝑝𝑦 = 3 [𝑣1 + 𝑣22 + ⋯ … … + 𝑣𝑛2 ]
𝑙
𝑚
𝑝𝑧 = 3 [𝑤12 + 𝑤22 + ⋯ … … + 𝑤𝑛2 ]
𝑙
𝑎𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐, 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑝𝑧 = 𝑃
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝𝑦 + 𝑝𝑧
𝑃=
3
 𝑚
= 3 [(𝑢12 + 𝑣12 + 𝑤12 ) + (𝑢22 + 𝑣22 + 𝑤12
2 )
3𝑙
+ (𝑢32 + 𝑣32 + 𝑤312 )
+ ⋯ . . +(𝑢𝑛2 + 𝑣𝑛2 + 𝑤𝑛2 )
𝑚 2
= 3 [𝑐1 + 𝑐22 + 𝑐32 + ⋯ . . +𝑐𝑛2 ]
3𝑙
𝑚 2
= 3 𝑁𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
3𝑙
𝑚 2
𝑃= 𝑁𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 … … (𝑖)
3𝑉
2 2 2 2
2
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 + ⋯ . . +𝑐𝑛
[𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = ]
𝑁
1 2
𝑁
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑛𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 … … . (𝑖𝑖) [ 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦]
3 𝑉
************************************
𝑚 2
𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑃 = 𝑁𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
3𝑉
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑀 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑚𝑁
1𝑀 2
𝑃= 𝑐
3 𝑉 𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
1 2 𝑀
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖) [ 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠]
3 𝑉
********************************************
from (iii)
 2
3𝑃
𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
𝜌

3𝑃
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
𝜌

again,

3𝑃𝑉 3𝑅𝑇
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =√ = √ … … … (𝑣 )
𝜌𝑉 𝑀

[𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇]

𝐼𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑓𝑜𝑟, 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑅 & 𝑀 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 ∝ √𝑇
square root of absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly
proportional to the mean r.m.s velocity if its molecule.
Define absolute zero from KTG:
Absolute zero of temp. may be defined as that temp. at which
the r.m.s velocity of gas molecules reduces to zero.
**************************************************
09/01/2021[SATURDAY]
TOPIC: K.T.G (II)
***************************************************
KINETIC INTERPRETATION OF TEMPERATURE:
Let consider 1 gm mole ideal gas occupies volume V at temp.
T.
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1 1 1 1
= 𝑚𝐶12 + 𝑚𝐶22 + 𝑚𝐶32 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝐶𝑁2
2 2 2 2
1
= 𝑚[𝐶12 + 𝐶22 + 𝐶32 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁2 ]
2
1 [𝐶12 + 𝐶22 + 𝐶32 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁2 ]
= 𝑚𝑁 ×
2 𝑁
1 2
= 𝑀𝐶𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
AS,

2
3𝑃
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐾𝑇𝐺, 𝑐𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
𝜌

3𝑃
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =√
𝜌

3𝑃𝑉 3𝑅𝑇
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =√ = √
𝜌𝑉 𝑀
 [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇]
1 3𝑅𝑇
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀 ×
2 𝑀
3
= 𝑅𝑇
2
3
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑅𝑇
2
3
𝑅𝑇
𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 2
𝑁
3 𝑅 3
= ( ) 𝑇 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 𝑁 2
𝐾𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
1 2
3
𝑚𝐶𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑅𝑇
2 2
1 2
𝑚𝐶𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∝𝑇
2
thus, avg kinetic energy of translation pre molecule of a gas is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of gas
*************************************

𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 ∝ √𝑇
square root of absolute temperature of an ideal gas is directly
proportional to the mean r.m.s velocity if its molecule.
Define absolute zero from KTG:
Absolute zero of temp. may be defined as that temp. at which
the r.m.s velocity of gas molecules reduces to zero.
**********************************************
Relation between Pressure & Kinetic energy of gas
***********************************
From KTG:
1 2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝐶
3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 1 × 𝜌 = 𝜌
1
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀𝐶 2
2
1 2
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌𝐶
2
1 2
𝑃 3 𝜌𝐶 2
= =
𝐸 1 𝜌𝐶 2 3
2
2
𝑃= 𝐸
3
THUS, pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to
two third of the mean kinetic energy of translation per unit
volume of gas.
***************************************
 𝛾𝑃
velocity of sound in gas: 𝑉 = √
𝜌

3𝑃
𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶 = √
𝜌

𝑉: 𝐶 = √𝛾: √3
**************************************************
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
****************************************
The degrees of freedom of a dynamical system are defined as
the total number of independent quantities or coordinates
required to completely specify the position or configuration (
arrangement of constituent atoms in space) of the system.
𝑓 = 3𝑁 − 𝑘
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑘 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠: 𝑓 = 3 ∗ 1 − 0 = 3
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑓 = 3 ∗ 2 − 1 = 5
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓 = 3 ∗ 3 − 2 = 7
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓 = 3 ∗ 3 − 3 = 6
***********************************
LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF ENERGY
**************************
FOR any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium the total
energy is distributed equally among all the degrees of
freedom and the energy associated with each molecule per
1
degree of freedom is 𝐾𝐵 𝑇, where 𝐾𝐵 is Boltzmann constant
2
& T is tem of system.
Degrees of freedom:
it is the total number of independent ways in which a particle
of a system can acquire energy
******************************************

Calculation Of Specific Heat Capacities Of All Types Of Gases:

****************************************
Δ𝑄 = ΔU + W
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
𝑑𝑈
𝐶𝑉 =
𝑑𝑇
MONOATOMIC GAS:
 1
K.E of translation per molecule per degrees of freedom= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2

𝑓 = 3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
1 1 1 1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑁 × 𝑓 = (𝑘𝐵 𝑁)𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ 3 ∗ 𝑇
2 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 1 3𝑅 𝑑 3𝑅 3𝑅
𝐶𝑉 = (𝑈) = ( 𝑅 ∗ 3 ∗ 𝑇) = (𝑇) = ∗1=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2 2 𝑑𝑇 2 2
3𝑅 2𝑅 + 3𝑅 5𝑅
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 + = =
2 2 2
5𝑅
𝐶𝑃 2 5
𝛾= = = = 1.67
𝐶𝑉 3𝑅 3
2

𝑑 𝑛
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛 ∗ 𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 5
(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑥 ) = 1 ∗ 𝑥 1−1 = 1 ∗ 1 = 1
𝑑𝑥
DIATOMIC GAS:
1
K.E of translation per molecule per degrees of freedom= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2
 𝑓 = 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
1 1 1 1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑁 × 𝑓 = (𝑘𝐵 𝑁)𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ 5 ∗ 𝑇
2 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 1 5𝑅 𝑑 5𝑅 5𝑅
𝐶𝑉 = (𝑈) = ( 𝑅 ∗ 5 ∗ 𝑇) = (𝑇) = ∗1=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2 2 𝑑𝑇 2 2
5𝑅 2𝑅 + 5𝑅 7𝑅
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 + = =
2 2 2
7𝑅
𝐶𝑃 2 7
𝛾= = = = 1.40
𝐶𝑉 5𝑅 5
2

TRIATOMIC GAS:
LINEAR MOLECULES:
1
K.E of translation per molecule per degrees of freedom= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2

𝑓 = 7 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
1 1 1 1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑁 × 𝑓 = (𝑘𝐵 𝑁)𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ 7 ∗ 𝑇
2 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 1 7𝑅 𝑑 7𝑅 7𝑅
𝐶𝑉 = (𝑈) = ( 𝑅 ∗ 7 ∗ 𝑇) = (𝑇) = ∗1=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2 2 𝑑𝑇 2 2
7𝑅 2𝑅 + 7𝑅 9𝑅
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 + = =
2 2 2
 9𝑅
𝐶𝑃 2 9
𝛾= = = = 1.28
𝐶𝑉 7𝑅 7
2
1
K.E of translation per molecule per degrees of freedom= 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2

𝑓 = 6 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 =
1 1 1 1
𝑈 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑁 × 𝑓 = (𝑘𝐵 𝑁)𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅𝑓𝑇 = 𝑅 ∗ 6 ∗ 𝑇
2 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 1 6𝑅 𝑑 6𝑅 6𝑅
𝐶𝑉 = (𝑈) = ( 𝑅 ∗ 6 ∗ 𝑇) = (𝑇) = ∗1=
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 2 2 𝑑𝑇 2 2
6𝑅 2𝑅 + 6𝑅 8𝑅
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 + = =
2 2 2
8𝑅
𝐶𝑃 2 8
𝛾= = = = 1.33
𝐶𝑉 6𝑅 6
2
***************************************************
**************************************************
19/01/2021[TUESDAY]
TOPIC: 1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
************************************************
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODNAMIC SYSTEM: hydrostatic system (p,V,T)
in this system state of system can be described by
thermodynamic coordinates or state variables
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒

MECHANICAL equilibrium: if there is absence of unbalanced

force in the interior of system or between system &
surroundings
chemical equilibrium: absence of any spontaneous change in
the internal structure by way of diffusion or chemical reaction
or both in a system in mechanical equilibrium implies chemical
equilibrium
now for a system in mechanical & chemical equilib, said to be
thermal equilb is said to be attained if no spontaneous change
in thermodynamic coordinates when separated from
surroundings by a diathermic wall.
if all the three conditions are fulfilled by a system , it is said to
be in thermodynamic equilibrium.
************
macroscopic coordinates or variables (measurable quantities)
pressure, volume, temperature, mass , compositions etc.
**********************
thermodynamic process:
a system is said o undergo a thermodynamic process , when
the values of its thermodynamic variables changes from one
equilibrium state to another .
***********************
indicator diagram: to analyze a thermodynamic process
the variation of one thermodynamic variable is plotted w.r.t
the other known as indication diagram.
One such diagram is p-V diagram.
****************************************
quasi-static process:
When a process is carried out extremely slowly such that
every state through which the system passes through departs
only infinitesimally from equilibrium.
*******************************
For a hydrostatic system undergoes a quasi-static process
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊.
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑝𝑑𝑉
******************************************
Thermodynamic variable are of two types:
i) extensive........ change with size of system
ii) intensive....... does not change with size of system
 ***************************************
Thermodynamic process:
i) isothermal : no change in temp. 𝑑𝑇 = 0
ii) adiabatic: No exchange of heat . 𝑑𝑄 = 0
iii) isobaric: no change in pressure, 𝑑𝑃 = 0
iv) isochoric: No change in volume, 𝑑𝑉 = 0
v) cyclic: system returns back to its initial state, 𝑑𝑈 = 0.
*****************************************
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS ADAIBATIC PROCESS
Represented by : 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾 Represented by : 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾
Wall of container must be Wall of container must be
perfectly conducting, to allow perfectly non-conducting, to
exchange heat between prevent exchange heat
system & surroundings between system &
surroundings
Process of expansion or Process of expansion or
compression should be slow compression should be
to provide time for the sudden so that no time for
exchange of heat the exchange of heat
𝑑𝑇 = 0, 𝑎𝑠 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑄 = 0

*******************************
Plotting of isothermal & adiabatic process on indicator
diagram or p-v diagram.

THE shape of adiabatic curves is similar to the shape of

isothermal curves
but to draw them on the same p-V diagram we will calculate
slopes of these curves at a point.
************************************************
slopes of isothermal curves:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑑𝑦
𝑚= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
now in p-V diagram 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑉

𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾
𝑑
(𝑃𝑉) = 0
𝑑𝑉
𝑑 𝑑
𝑉 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑉=0
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
 𝑑𝑃
𝑉 +𝑃∗1=0
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
( ) =−
𝑑𝑉 𝐼𝑆𝑂 𝑉
for adiabatic process:
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾
𝑑
(𝑃𝑉 𝛾 ) = 0
𝑑𝑉
𝛾
𝑑 𝑑 𝛾
𝑉 𝑃 +𝑃 𝑉 =0
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑃
𝛾
𝑉 + 𝑃 ∗ 𝛾𝑉 𝛾−1 = 0
𝑑𝑉
𝛾
𝑑𝑃 𝑃𝛾𝑉
𝑉𝛾 =−
𝑑𝑉 𝑉
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
( ) = −𝛾
𝑑𝑉 𝐴𝐷𝐼𝐴 𝑉
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
() −𝛾
𝑑𝑉 𝐴𝐷𝐼𝐴 𝑉=𝛾>1
𝑁𝑂𝑊, =
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
( ) −
𝑑𝑉 𝐼𝑆𝑂 𝑉
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
( ) >( )
𝑑𝑉 𝐴𝐷𝐼𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝐼𝑆𝑂
𝐶𝑂𝑁𝐶𝐿𝑈𝑆𝐼𝑂𝑁:
𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠
***********************************************
NOTE: area under P-V curves = work done in that process
*************************************************
********************************************
Calculation of work done in isothermal process:
Let consider one gram mole ideal gas in a closed cylinder,
initially at𝑃1 , 𝑉1 , 𝑇, as process is isothermal so temp. T remains
constant during it, finally reaches to 𝑃2 , 𝑉2 , 𝑇
So work done by gas in expansion from initial volume 𝑉1 to
final volume 𝑉2
𝑉2

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉1

Now for ideal gas 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇

𝑅𝑇
𝑃=
𝑉
𝑉2
𝑅𝑇
𝑊= ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑉1
 𝑉2
1
𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑉1
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇[𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉]𝑉21

𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇[𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉2 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉1 ]
𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑉1
𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑠, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1
𝑊 = 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( )
𝑃2
**************************************************
25/01/2021[MONDAY]
TOPIC:
*************************************************

Calculation of work done in adiabatic process:

so work done by gas in expansion from initial volume 𝑉1 to
final volume 𝑉2
𝑉2

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾
𝐾
𝑃= 𝛾
𝑉
𝑉2
𝐾
𝑊 = ∫ 𝛾 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑉1
𝑉2

𝑊 = 𝐾 ∫ 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
𝑛+1
𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛+1
𝑉
𝑉 −𝛾+1 2
𝑊 = 𝐾[ ]
−𝛾 + 1 𝑉
1

𝑉2 −𝛾+1 𝑉1 −𝛾+1
𝑊 = 𝐾[ − ]
−𝛾 + 1 −𝛾 + 1
1
𝑊= [𝐾𝑉2 −𝛾+1 − 𝐾𝑉1 −𝛾+1 ]
1−𝛾
1
𝑊= [𝑃2 𝑉2 𝛾 𝑉2 −𝛾+1 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝛾 𝑉1 −𝛾+1 ]
1−𝛾
1
𝑊= [𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 ]
1−𝛾
1
𝑊= [𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2 ]
𝛾−1
 𝑁𝑂𝑊, 𝐹𝑂𝑅 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
1
𝑊= [𝑅𝑇1 − 𝑅𝑇2 ]
𝛾−1
𝑅
𝑊= [𝑇 − 𝑇2 ]
𝛾−1 1
IN CHEMISTRY:
work done on the system is positive, and
the work done by the system is negative.
IN PHYSICS:
Adiabatic expansion:
Work is done by gas, 𝑊 > 0
𝑅
[𝑇 − 𝑇2 ] > 0
𝛾−1 1
[𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ] > 0
𝑇1 > 𝑇2
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
Adiabatic expansion produces cooling.
Adiabatic compression:
Work is done on gas, 𝑊 < 0
𝑅
[𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ] < 0
𝛾−1
[𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ] < 0
 𝑇1 < 𝑇2
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
Adiabatic compression produces heating.
*************************
Establish the Mayer’s formula
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
 (𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 )𝑑𝑇 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑁𝑂𝑊, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑢𝑞𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝑑𝑃 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝐴𝑠 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑑𝑃 = 0
𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑅𝑑𝑇
(𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 )𝑑𝑇 = 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
************************************************

The P-V diagram for a cyclic process is a triangle ABC drawn in

order. Calculate work done during process from A to B, B to C
and C to A. Also calculate work done in complete cycle.
ans:
work done from A to B:
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝐵𝐾𝐿
 1
= [𝐴𝐿 + 𝐵𝐾 ) ∗ 𝐾𝐿
2
1
= [4 + 2]𝑁𝑚−2 ∗ (4 − 1)𝑙𝑖𝑡
2
= 3 ∗ 3 = 9 𝑁𝑚−2 ∗ 10−3 𝑚3 = +9 × 10−3 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Work done from B to C:
𝑊𝐵𝐶 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝐶 = −(𝐾𝐿 ∗ 𝐿𝐶 ) = −(3 ∗ 2)
= −6 × 10−3 𝐽
Work done from C to A:
𝑊𝐶𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝐴 = 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
net work done=𝑊𝐴𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶𝐴 = +9 × 10−3 −
6 × 10−3 + 0 = 3 × 10−3 𝐽
Process AB is isobaric
𝑁𝑂𝑊, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑢𝑞𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝑑𝑃 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝐴𝑠 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑑𝑃 = 0
𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝑉2

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉1
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑑𝑇 = 2 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ (500 − 300) = 400𝑅
Q.30
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊.
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = 2 ∗ 103 ∗ 4.2 − 500 = 7900 𝐽
Q.17
𝑅
𝑊= [𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ]
𝛾−1
3
3
8.3 × 10 ×7
−146 × 10 =
𝛾−1
8.3 × 7
1−𝛾 =
146
1 − 𝛾 = 0.40
𝛾 = 1.40
Q.20
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑃1 = 𝑃, 𝑃2 =? 𝑉1 = 400𝑐𝑐, 𝑉2 = 100 𝑐𝑐
𝑉1 𝛾
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ( ) = 𝑃(4)2.5 = 32𝑃
𝑉2
Q.21
𝑅
𝑊= [𝑇 − 𝑇2 ]
𝛾−1 1
5
𝑇1 = 𝑇, 𝑊 = 6𝑅, 𝛾 = , 𝑇2 =?
3
𝑅
6𝑅 = [𝑇 − 𝑇2 ]
2
3
4 = 𝑇 − 𝑇2
 𝑇2 = (𝑇 − 4)𝐾
***************************************************
29/01/2021 [FRIDAY]
SUBJECT: MATHEMATICS
TOPIC: STATISTICS [SEC-A]
PERIOD: 4
**************************************************

MEAN DEVIATION ABOUT MEAN

𝑛
1
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 + , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴,
∑ 𝑓𝑖
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 + × 𝑐 [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑖 = ]
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑐
𝑛
1
𝑴. 𝑫 (𝑥̅ ) = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ |
𝑛
𝑖=1
Class Mid- 𝑑𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 |𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 |𝑥𝑖
interv Freq point = 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴 − 𝑥̅ | − 𝑥̅ |
=
al uenc 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴 𝑐
y
𝑓𝑖

Q.1
Height 95- 105- 115- 125- 135- 145-
105 115 125 135 145 155
Number 9 13 26 30 12 10
of boys

ANS:
Class Mid- 𝑑𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 |𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 |𝑥𝑖
interval Frequ point = 𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴 − 𝑥̅ | − 𝑥̅ |
=
ency 𝑥𝑖 −𝐴 𝑐
𝑓𝑖
95-105 9 100 -20 -2 -18 25.3 227.7
105- 13 110 -10 -1 -13 15.3 198.9
115
115- 26 120 0 0 0 5.3 137.8
125 (A)
125- 30 130 10 1 30 4.7 141
135
135- 12 140 20 2 24 14.7 176.4
145
145- 10 150 30 3 30 24.7 247
155
∑ 𝑓𝑖
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖= 53 1128.8

= 100

∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 + ×𝑐
∑ 𝑓𝑖
53
= 120 + × 10 = 120 + 5.3 = 125.3
100
𝑛
1
𝑴. 𝑫 (𝑥̅ ) = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ |
𝑛
𝑖=1
1
= × 1128.8 = 11.288 = 11.29
100
********************************
STANDARD DEVIATION
*******************************
ROOT MEAN SQUARE DEVIATION 𝜎

(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )
(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
=
𝑛

∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎=√
𝑛

∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎=√
∑ 𝑓𝑖

***************************************

∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎=√
∑ 𝑓𝑖

2
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖2 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝜎= √ −( )
∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

*****************************************
DEVIATION METHOD:
 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 + [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴 ]
∑ 𝑓𝑖
2
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖2 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝜎=√ −( )
∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

**************************************
STEP DEVIATION:
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 + × 𝑐 [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑖 = ]
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑐
2
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖2 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝜎=𝑐 √ −( )
∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

****************************************
Age(years) 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50
No. of 170 110 80 45 40 35
persons

ANS:
Class Mid- Frequency 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑖2 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖2
𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴
point 𝑓𝑖 =
𝑐
𝑥𝑖
20-25 22.5 170 -2 4 -340 680
25-30 27.5 110 -1 1 -110 110
30-35 32.5(A) 80 0 0 0 0
35-40 37.5 45 1 1 45 45
40-45 42.5 40 2 4 80 160
45-50 47.5 35 3 9 105 315
TOTAL ∑ 𝑓𝑖 =480 -220 1310

2
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖2 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝜎=𝑐 √ −( )
∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

1310 −220 2
= 5√ −( )
480 480

131 121
= 5√ −
48 575

= 7.9359
Q.3

Find the S.d for following data:

57,64,43,67,49,59,44,47,61,59
ANS:

∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎=√
𝑛
 𝑛
1
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1

1
= × 550 = 55
10
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
2 4
9 81
-12 144
12 144
-6 36
4 16
-11 121
-8 64
6 36
4 16
TOTAL =662

∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎=√
𝑛

662
=√ = 8.14
10

Q.4

Diameters 33-36 37-40 41-44 45-48 49-52

No. of 15 17 21 22 25
circles
ANS:
Adjusted Mid- Frequency 𝑢𝑖 𝑢𝑖2 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖2
Class point 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴
=
𝑥𝑖 𝑐
32.5- 34.5 15 -2 4 -30 60
36.5
36.5- 38.5 17 -1 1 17 17
40.5
40.5- 42.5(A) 21 0 0 0 0
44.5
44.5- 46.5 22 1 1 22 22
48.5
48.5- 50.5 25 2 4 50 100
52.5
TOTAL =100 =25 =199

2
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖2 ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑢𝑖
𝜎=𝑐 √ −( )
∑ 𝑓𝑖 ∑ 𝑓𝑖

********************************************************
06/02/2021[SATURDAY]
TOPIC:
**************************************************

NOTE: SOURCE: high temperature reservoir

SINK: low temperature reservoir.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄1
𝑊 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
from 1st law of thermodynamics:
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊
but as process under which a Carnot or say ideal engine
works: cyclic, which means ∆𝑈 = 0.
 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝜂= =1−
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝑄1 𝑇1
i can show you by analysis: =
𝑄2 𝑇2

I) HIGH TEMP. RESERVOIR

II) WORKING SUBSTANCE: ideal gas
III) LOW TEM . RESRVOIR
Q.1

ANS:
𝑇1 = 15000 𝐶 = 1773𝐾 ; 𝑇2 = 5000 𝐶 = 773𝐾
𝑇2
𝜂1 = 1 −
𝑇1
773
=1− = (0.56 × 100)% = 56%
1773
Again,
𝑇1 = 1500 + 100 = 16000 𝐶 = 1873𝐾,
𝑇2 = 5000 𝐶 = 773𝐾
 𝑇2 773
𝜂2 = 1 − = 1 − = (0.587 × 100)% = 58.7%
𝑇1 1873
≈ 59%
Q.2

ANS:
𝑇2 = 300𝐾, 𝜂1 = 40% = 0.40
𝑇2
𝜂1 = 1 −
𝑇1
300
0.40 = 1 −
𝑇1
300
= 0.60
𝑇1
𝑇1 = 500 𝐾
𝜂2 = 0.40 + 0.40 × 50% = 0.40 + 0.20 = 0.60
𝑇2
𝜂2 = 1 −
𝑇1
 300
0.60 = 1 − ′
𝑇1
300
= 0.40
𝑇1′
300
𝑇1′ = = 750 𝐾
0.40
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. = 750 − 500 = 250𝐾
Q.3

ANS:
𝑇2
𝜂1 = 1 −
𝑇1
1 𝑇2
=1−
6 𝑇1
𝑇2 5
= … … … . (𝐼)
𝑇1 6
𝑇2′
𝜂2 = 1 −
𝑇1
 2 𝑇2′
=1−
6 𝑇1
𝑇2′ 2
=
𝑇1 3
𝑇2 − 62 2
=
𝑇1 3
𝑇2 62 2
− =
𝑇1 𝑇1 3
5 62 4
− =
6 𝑇1 6
62 1
=
𝑇1 6
𝑇1 = 62 × 6 = 372𝐾 = 372 − 273 = 990 𝐶
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
FORMULAS:
i) 𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠:
𝑛1 𝐶𝑉1 + 𝑛2 𝐶𝑉2
𝐶𝑉 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛1 &𝑛2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠.

Type of gas Degrees of freedom f Expression of 𝐶𝑉

Monoatomic 3 3
𝑅
2
Diatomic 5 5
𝑅
2
Triatomic linear 7 7
𝑅
2
𝑖𝑖) 𝛾 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒:
𝑛1 𝛾1 + 𝑛2 𝛾2
𝛾=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
2
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝛾 & 𝑓: 𝛾 = 1 +
𝑓
iii) 𝑇 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒:
𝑛1 𝑇1 + 𝑛2 𝑇2
𝑇=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q.4
2 moles of oxygen are mixed with 8 moles of helium. Find the
effective 𝐶𝑉 of mixture.
ANS:
𝑛1 𝐶𝑉1 + 𝑛2 𝐶𝑉2
𝐶𝑉 =
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
5
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑛1 = 2, 𝐶𝑉1 = 𝑅 [ 𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐]
2
3
𝑛2 = 8, 𝐶𝑉2 = 𝑅 [ 𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐]
2
5 3
2 ∗ 𝑅 + 8 ∗ 𝑅 5𝑅 + 12𝑅 17𝑅
𝐶𝑉 = 2 2 = = = 1.7𝑅
2+8 10 10
Q.5

Two moles of gas A at 27 0c are mixed with 3 moles of gas B at 370C. If

both are monatomic gases, find temperature of mixture.
ANS:
𝑛1 𝑇1 + 𝑛2 𝑇2
𝑇=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
2 ∗ 300 + 3 ∗ 310 600 + 930 1530
𝑇= = = = 306𝐾 = 330 𝐶
2+3 5 5
Q.6

One mole of monoatomic gas is mixed with one mole of

diatomic gas. Find the 𝛾 of mixture.
ANS:
𝑛1 𝛾1 + 𝑛2 𝛾2
𝛾=
𝑛1 + 𝑛2
𝑛1 = 𝑛2 = 1
2 5
𝛾1 = 1 + = [ 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 ]
3 3
2 7
𝛾2 = 1 + = [ 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 ]
5 5
5 7
1∗ +1∗
𝛾= 3 5 = 46 = 23 = 1.53
1+1 15 ∗ 2 15
Q.7
7
The molar specific heat at constant pressure of an ideal gas 2 𝑅. The
ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume
is ?
ANS:
𝐶𝑃
𝛾=
𝐶𝑉
 7
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅
2
𝑊𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
7
𝑅 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
2
7 5
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅−𝑅 = 𝑅
2 2
7
𝐶𝑃 2 7
𝛾= = = = 1.4
𝐶𝑉 5 5
2
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐.
Q.8

The temperature at which oxygen molecule has the same rms

speed as that of hydrogen molecule at 300𝐾.
ANS:

3𝑅𝑇
𝐶𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
𝑀

𝑀ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 = 2, 𝑀𝑜𝑥𝑦 = 32

𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦 =? , 𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 = 300𝐾

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐶ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 = 𝐶𝑜𝑥𝑦

3𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 3𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦
√ =√
2 32

3𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 3𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦
=
2 32
𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦
𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 =
16
 𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦 = 300 ∗ 16 = 4800𝐾.

Q.9

At what temperature is the rms velocity of a hydrogen molecule

equal to that of an oxygen molecule at 470 𝑐 ?
ANS:

3𝑅𝑇
𝐶𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √
𝑀

𝑀ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 = 2, 𝑀𝑜𝑥𝑦 = 32

𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦 = 320𝐾, 𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 =?

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝐶ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 = 𝐶𝑜𝑥𝑦

3𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 3𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦
√ = √
2 32

3𝑅𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 3𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦
=
2 32
𝑇𝑜𝑥𝑦 320
𝑇ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜 = = = 20𝐾
16 16
Q.10
A body doing SHM has an amplitude a & time period T. What is the
𝑎
taken to go from 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = 2.

ANS:
Q.11

𝐼) 𝑇1 = 𝑇2 , 𝐼𝐼) 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 , 𝐼𝐼𝐼) 𝑇1 < 𝑇2 𝐼𝑉) 𝑇1 = 2𝑇2

****************************************************************
*08/02/2021 [ MONDAY]

TOPIC: SHM

***************************************************************

Q.1
ANS: 2
Q.2

ANS:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡.
Comparing, 𝜔 = 200 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠, 𝑎 = 0.25 𝑐𝑚

𝑣 = 𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑦 2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑎 = 200 ∗ 0.25 = 50 𝑐𝑚/𝑠

Q.3
ANS:

ANS:
𝑎
𝑇 = 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑦=
2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡.
𝑎
= 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
2
1 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = = sin
2 6
𝜋
𝜔𝑡 =
6
𝜋 1 𝜋 𝑇 2 1
𝑡= ∗ = ∗ = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
6 𝜔 6 2𝜋 12 6
Q.4
ANS:
𝑎 = 3 𝑐𝑚, 𝑦 = 2𝑐𝑚

𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝜔2 𝑦
𝑎 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝜔2 𝑦 2
9 − 4 = 𝜔2 ∗ 4
5
𝜔2 =
4
√5
𝜔=
2
2𝜋 √5
=
𝑇 2
4𝜋
𝑇=
√5
Q.5
ANS:
max 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜔2 𝑎 = 𝛼
max 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝜔𝑎 = 𝛽
𝛼
=𝜔
𝛽
𝛼 2𝜋
=
𝛽 𝑇
2𝜋𝛽
𝑇=
𝛼
Q.6

ANS:

𝑀
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐾
 2𝑀 𝑀
𝑇 ′ = 2𝜋√ = √2 ∗ 2𝜋√ = √2𝑇
𝐾 𝐾

Q.7

ANS:

𝑣 = 𝜔 √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2

𝑎2 3𝑎2 2𝜋 √3𝑎 𝜋𝑎 √3
𝑣= 𝜔 √𝑎 2 − = 𝜔√ = ∗ =
4 4 𝑇 2 𝑇

Q.8

ANS:
2
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥1 𝜔′ 𝑎 104 1
= = =
𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥2 𝜔 ′′ 2 𝑎 106 102
Q.9
ANS:
𝜋
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑥 = asin (𝜔𝑡 + )
6
1
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
1
𝜔 √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 = ∗ 𝜔𝑎
2
𝑎
√𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 =
2

2
𝑎22
𝑎 −𝑥 =
4

2
𝑎2 3𝑎2
2
𝑥 =𝑎 − =
4 4
√3𝑎
𝑥=
2
𝜋 √3𝑎
a sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) =
6 2
𝜋 √3 𝜋
sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) = = sin
6 2 3
𝜋 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 + =
6 3
 𝜋
𝜔𝑡 =
6
𝜋 𝑇 𝑇
𝑡= ∗ =
6 2𝜋 12

Q.10

ans:
2𝜋
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑇
Q.11

ANS:
𝑐𝑚
𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜. 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 16
𝑠
𝑐𝑚
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16
𝑠
𝜔𝑎 = 16
𝜔 = 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝜔√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 8√3

 4√𝑎2 − 𝑥2 = 8√3

√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 2√3
16 − 𝑥 2 = 12

𝑥2 = 4

𝑥 = 2 𝑐𝑚

Q.12

ANS:

𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 , 𝑦 = asin( 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

𝑎 = 8 𝑐𝑚, 𝐾 = 0.1 ∗ 2𝜋 , 𝜔 = 2 ∗ 2𝜋

2𝜋
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒 = ∗ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝜆
= 𝐾 ∗ 2 = 0.1 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 2 = 0.4𝜋 = 0.4 ∗ 180 = 720
Q.13
ANS:
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔 = 200 , 𝑘 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑐𝑚
𝑠
𝜔 = 𝑘𝑣
𝜔 200
𝑣= = = 200 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑘 1
Q.14

ANS: 4
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 ) 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑎 = 0.00 𝑐𝑚, 𝜔 = 100 , 𝑘 = 1 𝑐𝑚−1
𝑠
𝜔 100 50 −1
𝑓= = = 𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2𝜋
𝑘= =1
𝜆
𝜆 = 2𝜋 𝑐𝑚
𝜔 100
𝑣= = = 100 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 −1
𝑘 1
Q.15

ANS: 3
𝑚
𝑎 = 0.2 𝑚, 𝑣 = 360 , 𝜆 = 60𝑚.
𝑠

𝑘𝑣 = 𝜔
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑣=
𝜆 𝑇
 𝑣 1
=
𝜆 𝑇
1 360
= =6
𝑇 60
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 )
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑦 = asin ( 𝑡 − 𝑥)
𝑇 𝜆
𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 = asin [2𝜋 ( − )]
𝑇 𝜆
𝑥
𝑦 = 0.2 sin [2𝜋 (6𝑡 − )]
60
Q.16

ANS: 4
𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 = asin [2𝜋 ( − )]
𝑇 𝜆
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝑇 = 0.02 𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝜆 = 100 𝑐𝑚, 𝑎 = 4 𝑐𝑚
𝜔 1 1 100
𝑓= = = = = 50 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋 𝑇 0.02 2
 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆 = 50 ∗ 100 = 50 ∗ 102 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
Q.17

ANS: 4
2𝜋
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓 = ∗ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝜆
= 𝑘 ∗ 2.5
𝑤 2𝜋𝑓 2.5 2.5𝜋
= ∗ 2.5 = ∗ 2.5 = 2𝜋 ∗ 100 ∗ = = 0.5𝜋
𝑣 𝑣 10 ∗ 100 5
𝜋
=
2
Q.18
ANS:
possible freq =256+4=260 Hz or 256-4 =252 Hz.
now, tuning fork of fre. 256Hz is loaded with wax. so it’s fre
will decreases.
but now number of beats increase:
after decrease : let it be 254 Hz
number of beats = 260-254=6 or 254-252=2

************************************************
13/02/2021[SATURDAY]
TOPIC: NUMERICAL
*************************************************
Q.1 [5+7=12 marks]
5 MCQ
7X1=7
SEC:B NUMBER OF QUESTIONS:11
Q.2 TO Q.12 [11X2=22]
in any two questions there will be internal or
SEC:C NUMBER OF QUESTIONS: 7
Q.13 TO Q.19 [ 7X3=21]
in any two questions there will be internal or
SEC:D NUMBER OF QUESTIONS: 3 [3x5=15]
Q.20
A) OR B)
Q.21
A) OR B)
Q.22
A) OR B)
***************************************************
***************************************************

𝐴⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂
𝐵

𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
|𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗|
1−1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =0
√2√2
𝜃 = 900

iv) What is the relation between the pressure and the kinetic energy per unit volume
of a gas?
v)

𝑐𝑚
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑎 = 200 ∗ 0.25 = 50
𝑠
Q.10)

: What is the relation between 𝑌𝐴 & 𝑌𝐵 ?

ans:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌= = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑌𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛600 = √3
1
𝑌𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛300 =
√3
𝑌𝐴 √3
= = √3 × √3 = 3 > 1
𝑌𝐵 1
√3
𝑌𝐴 > 𝑌𝐵

Q.
Two equal rain drops are falling with the same velocity, coalesced.
Calculate the terminal velocity of the bigger drop.