Chapter-2: Boolean algebra

[2m-1,3m-1,5m-1, total=10m]
• Boolean algebra is concept which deals with Boolean values (1 and 0) and
logical operators(NOT, OR and AND).
• It is also called “switching algebra”
• It is suitable for designing the electronic circuits
• Logical statement or truth function: A sentence which can determined to be
TRUE or FALSE is called logical statement or truth function

EX: “Shall I take the class tomorrow “ → TRUE or 1

• Truth value: The result(TRUE or FALSE) of local statement is called truth

value
• Logical variable: A variable that can store these truth values are called
“logical variables or binary valued variables”

Ex: X=0, Y=1

Logical function or compound statement:

A function which is the combination of logical variables and logical operators

Ex: X OR Y AND Z

Y NOT X OR Z

Truth table: It is a table which represents all possible values for the logical variable
along with result for the different combinations of values

Ex:

X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Tautology: If the result of any logical statement/ sentence is always TRUE or 1, it is

called “Tautology” .

Ex: 1+X is tautology

 Fallacy: If the result of any logical statement/ sentence is always FALSE
or 0, it is called “Fallacy”.

Ex: 0.X is fallacy

Logical operators

The different logical operators are

1. NOT operator
2. OR operator
3. AND operator
1. NOT operator
• NOT operator operates on one variable only
• The operation performed by this operator is called “complementation”
• The symbol we use for this operator is bar(-).
• We represent NOT X as ̅ X (complement of X).
Truth table:
X ̅
X
0 1
1 0

Venn diagram:

X
𝑋̅
̅𝑥

2. OR operator

• OR operator operates on two or more variables

• The operation performed by this operator is called “logical addition”
• The symbol we use for this operator is + or U or V
• We represent X OR Y as X+Y
Truth table:
X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
 1 0 1
1 1 1
Venn diagram

3. AND operator

• AND operator operates on two or more variables

• The operation performed by this operator is called “logical
multiplication”
• The symbol we use for this operator is dot(.)or ∩ or ˄
• We represent X AND Y as X.Y
Truth table:
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Venn diagram
 Evaluation Boolean expression using truth table

1. Prove that X+XY=X using truth table

X Y XY X+XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

X and X+XY columns are identical

Therefore X+XY=X
2. Draw the truth table for the following Boolean expressions
1. ̅
X̅ ̅Y
Y+X

2. XYZ̅ +X̅ ̅
YZ
̅ (𝒁
3X𝒀 ̅ +Y𝒁
̅ )+ 𝒁
̅

̅]
̅ + 𝑪)+ 𝑪
3. A[ (𝑩

1. ̅
X̅ ̅Y
Y+X

X Y ̅
X ̅
Y ̅
X̅Y ̅
XY ̅
X̅ ̅Y
Y+X
0 0 1 1 1 0 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0 0 0

2. XYZ̅ +X̅ ̅
YZ
X Y Z X̅ ̅
Y Z̅ XYZ̅ X̅ ̅
YZ XYZ̅
+X̅ ̅
Y
Z
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

̅ (𝒁
3. X 𝒀 ̅ +Y𝒁
̅ )+ 𝒁
̅

X Y Z ̅
Y Z̅ ̅
X𝒀 ̅
Y𝒁 ̅ +Y𝒁
𝒁 ̅ X𝒀̅ (𝒁
̅ X𝒀̅ (𝒁̅
+Y𝒁̅) +Y𝒁̅ )+ 𝒁
̅
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

̅]
̅ + 𝑪)+ 𝑪
4. A[ (𝑩

Logic gate
 Gate: A gate is simply an electronic circuit which operates on one or more input
signals and produces an output signal.

There are mainly 2 types of gate. They are

1. Basic logic gates

2. Derived logic gates
1. Basic logic gates
There are 3 types of basic logic gate. They are
1. NOT gate or inverter
2. OR gate
3. AND gate
1. NOT gate
• It is also called as “Inverter”.
• Def: It is a gate which accepts only one input signal and produces
one produces signal. The output signal is the complementation of
input signal.
We represent NOT X as X̅
Truth table:

X X̅
0 1
1 0

Standard symbol

2. OR gate
• Def: It is a gate which accepts two or more input signals and
produces one output signal. The output signal is the logical
addition of input signals.
• We represent X OR Y as X+Y.
Truth table:
 X Y X+Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Standard symbol:

3. AND gate
• Def: It is a gate which accepts two or more input signals and
produces one output signal. The output is the logical multiplication
of input signals.
• We represent X AND Y as X.Y
Truth table:
X Y X.Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Standard symbol:
Basic postulates of Boolean algebra

Def: The fundamental laws of Boolean algebra are called basic postulates of
Boolean algebra

I. If X ≠0 then X=1 and if X≠1 then X=0

II. OR relations(Logical addition)
1. 0+0=0
2. 0+1=1
3. 1+0=1
4. 1+1=1
III. AND relations(Logical multiplication)
1. 0.0=0
2. 0.1=0
3. 1.0=0
4. 1.1=1
IV. Complement rules
1. 0̅=1
2. 1̅=0

Principle of duality

It states that starting with a Boolean relation and another Boolean relation can be
derived by

a) Changing each OR sign(+) to AND sign(.)

b) Changing each AND sign(.) to OR sign(+)
c) Changing each 0’s by 1 and 1’s by 0
The relation which is derived using duality principle is called the dual of
original relation
 Ex:
1. Dual of 0+1=1 is 1.0=0
2. Dual of 1.1=1 is 0+0=0
3. Dual of X(Y’+XZ’) is X+( Y’.(X+Z’))
4. Dual of AB’+(C’+A’B’) is (A+B’).(C’.(A’+B’))

Theorems of Boolean algebra

Proof by perfect induction: It is a method of proving
the theorems of boolean algebra by substituting all
possible values of variables
Properties of 0 and 1
1. 0+X=X
2. 1+X=1
3. 0.X=0
4. 1.X=X
1.0+X=X
Proof by perfect induction:
If X=0
L.H.S=0+X
=0+0
=0
=X
=R.H.S
If X=1
L.H.S=0+X
=0+1
=1
 =X=R.H.S
Theorems of Boolean algebra
1. Indempotence law: it states that
a) X+X=X b) X.X=X

Proof:
a)X+X=X
1.Using Proof by perfect induction
If X=0
LHS= X+X
=0+0
=0
=X=RHS
If X=1
LHS= X+X
=1+1
=1
=X=RHS
X+X=X
2. Using truth table
 X X X+X
0 0 0
1 1 1

X and X+X columns are identical

Therefore X+X=X

b)X.X=X
1. Using proof by perfect induction
If X=0
LHS=X.X
=0.0
=0
=X=RHS
If X=1
LHS=X.X
=1.1
=1
=X=RHS
X.X=X

2. Using truth table

X X X.X
0 0 0
1 1 1

X and X.X columns are identical

Therefore X.X=X
2.Involution law: It states that
 ̿ =X
X

Proof:
1. Using proof by perfect induction method
If X=0
𝑋̅ = 0̅=1
̿=1̅=0=X=RHS
X

If X=1
𝑋̅ = 1̅=0

LHS=X̿=0̅=1=X=RHS
2. Using truth table

X 𝑋̅ ̿
X
0 1 0
1 0 1

̿ columns are didentical

X and X
̿=X
X
3.Complementary law: it states that
̅=1
a) X + X ̅=0
b) X . X
Proof :

a) X + ̅
X=1

1. Using proof by perfect induction

If X=0
̅
LHS= X + X

=0+1

=1=RHS

If X=1

LHS= X + ̅
X

=1+0

=1=RHS

X+̅
X=1

3. Using truth table

X ̅
X ̅
X+X
0 1 1
1 0 1

X+̅
X=1
 ̅=0
b)X. X

1. Using proof by perfect induction

if X=0

LHS= X. ̅
X

=0.1

=0=RHS

if X=1

LHS= X. ̅
X

=1.0

=0=RHS

X. ̅
X=0

2.Using truth table

X ̅
X X.̅
X
0 1 0
1 0 0

X. ̅
X=0

4. Commutative law: It states that

a) X+Y=Y+X b) X.Y=Y.X

a) X+Y=Y+X
1. Using proof by perfect induction
If X=0
LHS= X+Y
=0+Y
=Y
 RHS= Y+X

=Y+0

=Y

If X=1

LHS= X+Y
=1+Y
=1 (Properties of 0 and 1)
RHS= Y+X

=Y+1

=1

Therefore X+Y=Y+X

2. Using truth table

5. Associative law: it states that

a) X+(Y+Z)=(X+Y)+Z (Associative law of addition)

b) X(YZ)=(XY)Z (Associative law of multiplication)

6. Distributive law: It states that

a) X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ b) X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
Proof:

a) X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ
1. Using proof by perfect induction method
If X=0
LHS= X(Y+Z)
=0.(Y+Z)
=0
RHS= XY+XZ
=0.Y+0.Z
=0+0
=0
If X=1
LHS= X(Y+Z)
=1.(Y+Z)
=Y+Z (1.X=X)
RHS= XY+XZ
=1.Y+1.Z
=Y+Z (1.X=X)
LHS=RHS
X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ
2. Using truth table
 X Y Z Y+Z XY XZ X(Y+Z) XY+XZ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

X(Y+Z) and XY+XZ columns are identical

Therefore X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ

b) X+YZ=(X+Y).(X+Z)
1. Algebraic method
RHS= (X+Y).(X+Z)
= X.X+X.Z+Y.X+Y.Z
= X+X.Z+X.Y+Y.Z
=X(1+Z+Y)+Y.Z
=X.(1) +Y.Z (1+X=1)
=X+Y.Z=LHS
X+YZ=(X+Y).(X+Z)
2. Using truth table

7. Absorption law: It states that

a) X+XY=X b) X(X+Y)=X

Proof:
a) X+XY=X
 1 Using algebraic method
LHS=X+XY
=X(1+Y)
=X(1) (1+Y=1)
=X=RHS

2. Using truth table

b)X(X+Y)=X
1. Using algebraic method
LHS=X(X+Y)
=X.X+X.Y
=X+X.Y (X.X=X)
=X(1+Y)
=X(1) (1+Y=1)

=X=RHS

X(X+Y)=X

2.Using Truth table

X Y X+Y X(X+Y)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
X and X(X+Y) columns are identical

Therefore X(X+Y)=X

• Prove algebraically that X+𝑋̅Y=X+Y

LHS= X+𝑋̅Y

= (X+𝑋̅) .(X+Y) (X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z))

=(1).(X+Y)

=X+Y

=RHS
De Morgan’s theorem

I Demorgan’s first theorem: It states that ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅

X + Y =X̅.Y
̅

Proof: we will prove demorgan’s theorems using complementary

laws i. e
̅=1
a) X+X ̅=0
b) X.X
Let P=X+Y, where P, X and Y are logical variables. Accordingly
complementary law
̅=1
a) P +P ̅=0
b) P . P

a) X+Y+X̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ Y=1 b) (X+Y).( ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X + Y)=0
We should prove that
a) X+Y+(X̅.Y̅)=1 ̅.Y
b) (X+Y). (X ̅)=0

̅.Y
a) X+Y+(X ̅)=1
LHS= X+Y+(X ̅.Y̅)
= (X+Y+X̅).(X+Y+Y
̅) (x+yz=(x+y).(x+z))
=( X+X̅+Y) (X+Y+Y̅)
=(1+Y)(X+1) ̅=1 & Y+Y
(X+X ̅=1)
=(1).(1)
=1
=RHS
 ̅.Y
b) (X+Y). (X ̅)=0

LHS=(X+Y). (X̅.Y̅)
̅.Y
=(X. X ̅)+(Y. X̅.Y
̅)
̅.Y
=(X. X ̅)+(Y.Y ̅. X
̅)
̅ + 0. X
= 0. Y ̅ ̅=0 & Y.Y
(X. X ̅=0)
=0+0
=0
=RHS

Therfore ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X + Y =X̅.Y
̅

II De Morgan’s second theorem: It states that

̅̅̅̅̅ ̅+Y
X. Y =X ̅

Proof: we will prove demorgan’s theorems using complementary

laws i. e
̅=1
b) X+X ̅=0
b) X.X
Let P=X.Y, where P, X and Y are logical variables. Accordingly
complementary law
̅=1
a) P +P b) P . ̅
P=0
̅̅̅̅̅
a)X.Y+X. Y=1 ̅̅̅̅̅
b) (X.Y).( X. Y)=0
 We should prove that
̅+Y
a) X.Y+(X ̅)=1 ̅+Y
b) (X.Y). (X ̅)=0

̅+Y
a) X.Y+(X ̅)=1
LHS = X.Y+(X ̅+Y
̅)
̅+Y
= (X ̅+X).( X
̅+Y
̅+Y) (x+yz=(x+y).(x+z))
̅+X+Y
= (X ̅).( X
̅+Y
̅+Y)

=(1+Y̅).( X
̅+1) (X̅+X=1 & Y̅+Y=1 )
=(1).(1)
=1
=RHS
̅+Y
b) (X.Y). (X ̅)=0
LHS= (X.Y). (X ̅+Y
̅)
=(X.Y. X̅)+(X.Y. Y
̅)
=(X. X̅.Y)+(X.Y. Y
̅)
=0.Y + X.0 (X. X ̅=0 & Y. Y
̅=0)
=0+0
=0
=RHS

Therefore ̅̅̅̅̅
X. Y ̅+Y
=X ̅

Note: “Break the line , change the sign to demorganise the Boolean expression”

1. Solve using Demorgan’ theorem

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅
AB + A + AB

Sol
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅
=AB + A + AB
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑋 + 𝑌=𝑋̅. 𝑌̅)
 ̿̿̿̿ .𝐴
=𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ 𝐴𝐵

=AB.(𝐴̅. ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵)

=AB. 𝐴̅.( 𝐴̅+𝐵̅) ( ̅̅̅̅̅

𝑋. 𝑌 =𝑋̅+𝑌̅)

= AB. 𝐴̅. 𝐴̅ + AB. 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅

= AB. 𝐴̅+ A. 𝐴̅.B. 𝐵̅

= A. 𝐴̅.B+ A. 𝐴̅.B. 𝐵̅

=0.B+0.0=0+0

=0

1. What would be the complement of the Boolean expression

A’(BC’+B’C)

Applications of Demorgan’s theorem

1. De morgans’s theorems are useful in the implementation of basic logic

gates
2. They are used in the simplification of Boolean expressions
3. De morgan’s theorems are used for text searching using logical operators
such as NOT, OR and AND operators
4. De morgan’s theorems are the best examples for mathematical duality

Derivation of Boolean expressions

Literal: A Boolean expression consisting of a single variable and its

complement is called a “literal”.

Ex: A, B’ and X
 • A Boolean expression contains two important terms. They
are
1. Minterm 2. Maxterm

1. Minterm: A minterm is the product of all the literals(with

or without bar) within the logical system
Ex: XY’, A’B’C etc
• We can form a minterm as follows
1. If the value of variable is ‘0’ then take its compliment
otherwise take the variable as it is.
Ex: 1.if X=1, Y=0 then minterm is XY’
2. If A=0, B=0, C=1 then minterm is A’B’C
Shorthand notation of minterm
1. Find the shorthand notation of the minterm 𝑋̅YZ
Binary values: 011
Equivalent decimal:3
(0x22+1x21 +1x20 =0+2+1=3)
Express 3 with the subscript of m i.e m3
Maxterm: A maxterm is the sum of all the literals(with or without
bar) within the logical system
(X+Y), A’+B+C etc
We can represent a maxterm as follows
If the value of variable is ‘1’ then take its compliment
otherwise take the variable as it is.
Ex: 1. If W=1, X=0, Y=0 and Z=1 then maxterm is
̅ +X+Y+𝑍̅
𝑊
2.If A=0, B=1, C=0 then the maxterm is A+𝐵̅+C
Shorthand notation of maxterm
 1. Find the shorthand notaion for X+𝑌̅+𝑍̅
Sol
Binary values: 011
Decimal Equivalent:3
Express 3 with a subscript of M i. e M3
Canonical expression
Def: A Boolean expression which is composed entirely either of
a minterms or maxterm is referred to as “canonical expression”
We can use two types of canonical expressions
1. Sum of Product(SOP)
2. Product of Sum(POS)
1. Sum Of Product(SOP): When a Boolean expression is
represented purely as a sum of minterms, it is said to be in
canonical SOP form.
Ex: XY+𝑋̅𝑌̅, A𝐵̅C+ABC etc
1. Convert X+Y into minterms
OR
Convert X+Y into canonical sop form
Sol
Multiply by
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
missing variable+𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
=X(Y+𝑌̅)+Y(X+𝑋̅)
=XY+X𝑌̅+YX+Y𝑋̅
Remove duplicate terms
=XY+ X𝑌̅+𝑋̅Y//
(11 10 01)
=m3+m2+m1
 XY, X𝑌̅,𝑋̅Y
2. Convert 𝑋̅Y+ 𝑋̅𝑍̅ to canonical sop form

3. A Boolean function F defined on three variables X, Y and

Z is 1 iff the number of 1’s is odd. Draw the truth table for
the above and express it in the canonical sop form
Sol:

X Y Z F MINTERMS
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 X’Y’Z
0 1 0 1 X’YZ’
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 XY’Z’
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 XYZ

Canonical SOP form

X’Y’Z+X’YZ’+XY’Z’+XYZ

2. Product Of Sums(POS)
Def: When a Boolean is purely expressed as product of maxterms, it is
said to be in canonical SOP form.
Ex: (X+Y).(X’+Y)
1. Convert (A+C).(C+D) into canonical POS form

Sol: (A+C).(C+D)
Add (missing
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
variable).( 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
 =(A+C+D. 𝐷̅ ).(C+D+A. 𝐴̅)
(x+yz=(x+y).(x+z))
(A+C+D).(A+C+𝐷 ̅ ).(C+D+A).(C+D+𝐴̅
)
Remove duplicate terms
=(A+C+D) .(A+C+𝐷 ̅ ) (𝐴̅+C+D)
(000 001 100)
= M0.M1.M4
=π(0,1,4)
2. Convert (X+Y)(Y+Z)(Z+X) into canonical product of sums form

3. Express the Product of sums from the boolean function F and truth
table is given below
X Y Z F Maxterms
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 X+Y+Z’
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 X+Y’+Z’
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 X’+Y+Z’
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Multiply all the maxterms i.e

(X+Y+Z’).(X+Y’+Z’).(X’+Y+Z’)

Minimization Boolean expression

A Boolean expression can be minimized in two ways. they are

1. Algebraic method
2. Karnaugh map method
1. Algebraic method

1. simplify A𝐵̅C𝐷
̅ +A𝐵̅𝐶𝐷+ABC𝐷̅ +ABCD algebraically
= A𝐵̅C𝐷̅ +A𝐵̅𝐶𝐷+ABC𝐷 ̅ +ABCD

= A𝐵̅C (𝐷
̅ +D)+ABC(𝐷
̅ +D)

= A𝐵̅C(1)+ABC(1) (𝐷 ̅ +D=1)
= A𝐵̅C+ABC
=AC(𝐵̅+B)
=AC(1)
=AC
2. Reduce the expression ̅̅̅̅
𝑋𝑌+𝑋̅+XY Using algebraic method

Karnaugh map or K-map

Def: K-map is a graphical display of fundamental product in a truth table

K-map is nothing but it is rectangle made up of a certain number of squares, each

square representing either a minterm or maxterm

Sum of products reduction using K-map

Two variable K-map

 Y ̅
0 𝐘 1𝐘

X
̅
0𝑿 ̅𝐘
𝑿 ̅ ̅Y
𝑿
m0 m1
0 1
̅
X𝐘 XY
1 X m3
m2
2 3

3 variable K-map

YZ ̅ 𝐙̅
00 𝐘 ̅Z
01𝐘 11 YZ 10 Y𝐙̅

X
̅
0𝑿 0 1 3 2

1 X
4 5 7 6

4 Variables K-map

YZ Y’Z’ 00 Y’Z 01 YZ 11 YZ’ 10

0 1 3 2

4 5 7 6
 WX

W’X’ 00

12 13 15 14

W’X 01 8 9 11 10

WX 11

WX’ 10

The binary code 00 01 11 10 is called gray code.

Groups in K-map

Pair: If two adjacent 1’s are encircled, it is called a pair

Quad: If four adjacent 1’s are encircled, it is called a quad

Octet: If eight adjacent 1’s are encircled, it is called an octet.

Map rolling: Map rolling is defines as its left edges are touching the right edges or

as its top edges touching the bottom edges.

• It is very important property of K-map and all opposite edges squares and
corner squares are to be brought together to form a group

Overlapping group: It is a group in which the same 1 is encircled with other group

Redundant group: It is a group in which all 1’s are encircled with other groups (pair,
quad and octet)

• Redundant group can be ignored in a K-map.

Reducing SOP problems using K-map

1.Reduce the F(a,b,c,d)= ∑(1,2,3,4,5,7,9,11,12,13,15) using K-

map
Sol:
F(a,b,c,d)=m1+m2+m3+m4+m5+m7+m9+m11+m12+m13+m15
m1=0001=𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐̅d
m2=0010=𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐𝑑̅

cd 𝑐̅ 𝑑̅ 00 𝑐̅d 01 c d 11 c 𝑑̅ 10

ab
0 1 1 1
𝑎̅ 𝑏 ̅ 00

0 1 3 2
1 1 1 0
𝑎̅b 01

4 5 7 6
1 1 1 0
a b 11

12 13 15 14
0 1 1 0
a 𝑏̅ 10

8 9 11 10

Mark 1’s for given minterms

Mark 0’s for left out squares

Groups:

Octet: m1+m3+ m5+m7+ m13+m15+ m9+m11

Quad: m4+m5+ m12+m13

Pair: m2+m3

Octet: m1+m3+ m5+m7+ m13+m15+ m9+m11

̅ 𝑐̅d+
=a̅𝑏 a̅𝑏̅cd+ a̅b𝑐̅d+ a̅bcd+ ab𝑐̅d+
abcd+ a𝑏̅𝑐̅d+ a𝑏̅cd
=
a̅𝑏̅d(𝑐̅+c)+ a̅bd(𝑐̅+c)+abd(𝑐̅+c)+ a𝑏̅d (𝑐̅+c)
= a̅𝑏̅d(1)+ a̅bd(1)+ abd(1)+ a𝑏̅d (1)
=a̅𝑏̅d+ a̅bd+ abd+ a𝑏̅d
=
a̅d(𝑏̅+b)+ad(𝑏̅+b)
= a̅d(1)+ ad(1)
= a̅d+ ad
=d(a̅+a)
=d
Quad: m4+m5+ m12+m13

=𝑎̅b𝑐̅ 𝑑̅ +𝑎̅b𝑐̅ d+ a b𝑐̅ 𝑑̅+ab𝑐̅ d

=𝑎̅b𝑐̅(𝑑̅+d)+ a b𝑐̅(𝑑̅+d)

=𝑎̅b𝑐̅(1)+ a b𝑐̅(1)

=𝑎̅b𝑐̅+ a b𝑐̅

= b𝑐̅(𝑎̅+a)

= b𝑐̅ (1)

= b𝑐̅
Pair: m2+m3

=𝑎
̅𝑏 ̅ c 𝑑̅+𝑎̅ 𝑏 ̅ c d

=𝑎̅ 𝑏 ̅ c( 𝑑̅+d)

=𝑎̅ 𝑏 ̅ c(1)

=𝑎̅ 𝑏 ̅ c

Reduced sop expression

d+ b𝑐̅+𝑎̅ 𝑏 ̅c

2.Reduce the function F(a,b, c,d)=∑(0,2,7,8,10,15) using K-map

cd c’d’ 00 c’d 01 cd 11 cd’ 10

 ab
0 0
a’b’00 1 1

1
0 3 2

a’b 01 0 0 1 0

4 5 7 6
0 0 1 0
ab 11

13 15
12 14
1 0 0 1
ab’ 10
8
9 11 10

Mark 1’s for given minterms

Mark 0’s for left out squares
Groups:
Quad: m0+ m2+ m8+ m10
b’d’
Pair: m7+m15
bcd
Reduced Sop expression bcd+b’d’

3. Minimize the following function using K-map

F(W, X, Y, Z)= ∑(0,4,8,9,10,11,12,13,15)

 YZ Y’Z’ 00 Y’Z 01 YZ 11 YZ’ 10

WX
1 0 0 0
W’X’00

0 1 3 2
0 0 0
W’X 01 1

5 7
4 6
1 1 0
WX 11 1

12 13 15 14
1 1 1 1
WX’ 10

8 9 11 10

Redundant group

Groups:
Quad1: m0+m4+m12+m8 (Y’Z’)

Quad2:m13+m15+m9+m11 (WZ)

Quad3: m8+m9+m11+m10 (WX’)

Reduced sop expression

3. Reduce the following expression F(X, Y,Z)=∑(1,3,5,7) Using K-map

 YZ ̅ 𝐙̅
00 𝐘 ̅Z
01 𝐘 11 YZ 10 Y𝐙̅

̅
0 𝑿 0 1 3 2

1 X
4 5 7 6

5. Draw the K-map for the following expression and reduce the expression

m2+m3+m5+m7+m9+m11+m13

6.Given the function F(A,B,C,D)= ∑(5,6,7,8,9,10,14).Use karnaugh map to reduce

the function f using sop form. Write a logic diagram for the reduced expression

Reducing POS problems using k-map

 1. Given F(A,B,C,D)=(0,2,6,8,10,14).Use Karnaugh map to reduce the function F
using POS form. Write a logic gate diagram for the reduced expression

CD C+D 00 ̅ 01
C+𝐷 𝐶̅ +𝐷
̅ 11 𝐶̅ +D 10

AB

A+B 00 0 1 1 0

0 1 3 2
0
A+ 𝐵̅ 01 1 1 1

4 5 7 6
1 1 0
𝐴̅ + 𝐵̅ 11 1

12 13 15 14
1 1 0
0
𝐴̅ +B 10

8 9 11 10

Redundant group

Mark o’s for given maxterms

Mark 1’s for left out suares
Groups:
Quad1: M2.M6 .M14.M10
Quad2: M0.M8 .M2.M10 (Map rolling)
Quad: M2.M6 .M14.M10
=(A+B+𝑪̅+D).(A+𝑩 ̅+D).( 𝑨
̅ +𝑪 ̅+
̅+D)( ̅̅̅̅
̅ +𝑪
𝑩 𝑨+B+𝑪̅+D).
̅+D+B).(A+𝑪
=(A+𝑪 ̅+D+𝑩
̅ ).( 𝑨 ̅+D+𝑩
̅ +𝑪 ̅ )( ̅̅̅̅
𝑨
̅+D+B).
+𝑪
̅+D+B. 𝑩
= (A+𝑪 ̅ ) .( 𝑨 ̅+D+𝑩
̅ +𝑪 ̅ .B)
(X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z))
̅+D+0).( 𝑨
=(A+𝑪 ̅+D+0)( B. 𝑩
̅ +𝑪 ̅ =0)
̅+D).( 𝑨
=(A+𝑪 ̅+D)
̅ +𝑪
̅+D+A).( 𝑪
= (𝑪 ̅ +D+𝑨
̅)
̅+D+A. 𝑨
=(𝑪 ̅) (X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z))
̅+D+0)
=(𝑪
̅+D) //
=(𝑪
Quad2: M0.M8 .M2.M10
=(A+B+C+D). (𝑨 ̅+D).
̅ +B+C+D). (A+B+𝑪
( ̅̅̅̅
𝑨+B+𝑪̅+D)

=(B+C+D+A). (B+C+D+𝑨 ̅+D+A).

̅ ). (B+𝑪
̅+D+𝑨
( B+𝑪 ̅)
(X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
=(B+C+D+A. 𝑨 ̅+D+A. 𝑨
̅ ). (B+𝑪 ̅)
̅+D+0) (A. 𝑨
=(B+C+D+0). (B+𝑪 ̅ =0)
̅+D)
=(B+C+D). (B+𝑪
̅)
=(B+D+C)(B+D+𝑪
(X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
̅)
=(B+D+C. 𝑪
=(B+D)//
Reduces POS expression
̅+D). (B+D)
=(𝑪