Mathematical Methods

Unit 1&2 Notes

VCE Mathematical Methods
Daniel Sandvik
Units 1&2
Contents
Mathematica Commands..................................................................................................................................................................2
Probability & Counting Methods......................................................................................................................................................2
Matrices............................................................................................................................................................................................4
Introduction to Functions.................................................................................................................................................................7
Polynomials.......................................................................................................................................................................................8
Trigonometry & Unit Circle.............................................................................................................................................................10
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions..........................................................................................................................................11
Calculus...........................................................................................................................................................................................12
Mathematica Commands
 Solve[f(x), x]
 Simplify[f(x)]
 Factor[f(x)]
 Expand[f(x)]
 Reduce[f(x),x]
 PolynomialQuotientRemainder[f(x), x, x]
 Apart[f(x)]
 f[x_]:= [f(x)]
 //N
 //TraditionalForm
 //MatrixForm
 Plot[f(x), (x, n1, n2)]
 Binomial[]
 Log[b,z] (base, number)
 Log[z] (natural log)
 Log10[z] (base 10)
 D[f(x),x], differentiate.
 AxesLabel → {x,y}
 Table[f(x), {x,n}]
 PlotRange -> {{x1, x2}, {y1, y2}}
 <=, >= (less than or equal to, greater than or equal to)
 ArcSin/Cos/Tan[a]

Probability & Counting Methods

Random Events & Experimental Probability
 Event – a subset of a sample space.
o Elementary event – one element of the sample space (e.g. rolling a six, {6})
o Compound event – combined multiple elements (e.g. rolling an even number, {2,4,6})

number of ×event A occurs

Relative frequency of event A =
number of trials
n( A) number of favourable outcomes
Pr ( A )= ∨
n( ε ) total number of possible outcomes
Calculating & Representing Probabilities
 A question that states “at least” means 1 – probability that something doesn’t happen.
 Complementary events – the event that does not occur (A’)
o Pr(A’) = 1 – Pr(A)
Karnaugh Map (a.k.a. probability table)
 Is used to indicate all different areas of a Venn Diagram.
B B’
A Pr (A ∩ B) Pr (A ∩ B’) Pr(A)
A’ Pr (A’ ∩ B) Pr (A’ ∩ B’) Pr(A’)
Pr(B) Pr(B’) 1
The Addition Rule & Mutually Exclusive Events
 The Addition Rule
o Pr ( A ∪ B )=Pr ( A ) + Pr ( B )−Pr ⁡( A ∩ B)
o The probability of the sum of A and B is equal to Pr(A) + Pr(B), minus the intersection of A ∩ B.
 Mutually Exclusive Events
o Probability of both occurring = 0; not related.
o Pr ( A ∩ B )=0 and therefore: Pr ( A ∪ B )=Pr ( A ) + Pr ⁡(B)
Conditional Probability
 “The probability that this has occurred, given that something else has already occurred.”
 A question stating “given” or “if” implies that it is a conditional probability question.
 Pr(A|B) = probability of A given that B has already occurred.
Pr ⁡( A ∩ B)
 Pr ( A|B )=
Pr ⁡(B)
 If you rearrange the previous formula, you can find the intersection probability as so:
Pr ( A ∩ B )=Pr ( A|B )∗Pr ⁡( B)
 If a question asks to find to find the probability of (A|B’), first use the initial formula, then use:
Pr ⁡( A ∩ B' )
Pr ( A|B ' ) =
Pr ⁡(B' )
o This means that to find A given B hasn’t occurred, find the probability of A only (not intersection) and divide by
not B (1 – Pr(B)).
 These types of problems can be solved either using the formula, or drawing a Venn Diagram.
Multiplication Rule, The Law of Total Probability & Independent Events
 The Multiplication Rule
o Pr ( A ∩ B )=Pr ( A|B )∗Pr ⁡( B)
o Tree diagrams can be useful here.
o When trying to solve conditional probability here, define event A as the first event and B as the second event.
If using a tree diagram, show the alternative option to getting A as A’, not B. (e.g. pulling marbles out of a bag,
find probability of first one red, second one red)
 Law of Total Probability
o Pr ( A )=Pr ( A|B )∗Pr ( B ) + Pr ( A|B' )∗Pr(B' )
o Easily shown on a tree diagram.
o This is used to find two different ways that the end result A can be achieved regardless of what the first event
was.
 Independent Events
o Two events are independent if the first outcome of the first event does not affect the outcome of the second.
o If two events are independent, the following statements are true: Pr ( A|B )=Pr ( A ) and
Pr ( A ∩ B )=Pr ( A )∗Pr ⁡( B)
o To test if two events are mathematically independent, use the second formula.
Counting Methods
 The Addition Principle
o Add up all of the different possible outcomes.
o n ( A ∪ B )=n ( A ) +n (B)
o When seeing “or” in a question, it means to add.
 The Multiplication Principle
o Multiply the different branches of outcomes.
o n ( A ∩ B )=n ( A )∗n( B)
o When seeing “and” in a question, it means to multiply.
 Permutations with Repetition
o A permutation is an ordered set of objects (e.g. 123 is different to 321); the order matters.
o nr can be used to calculate the total number of permutations, where ‘n’ equals the number of different
possibilities and ‘r’ equals the number of repetitions.
 Permutations without Repetition
o This is where every time one possibility is used up, the total number of subsequent possibilities is reduced.
o This can be calculated using factorials (4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1), or partial factorials (e.g. 10 x 9 x 8 x 7)
n!
o Partial factorials are technically expressed as: Or: nPr.
( n−r ) !
 Calculating Permutations without a Calculator
 10! 10∗9∗8∗7∗6∗5∗4∗3∗2∗1
o First, write out both entire permutations without repetition: =
7! 7∗6∗5∗4∗3∗2∗1
o Then, cancel out the highest common factorial: 10∗9∗8

Combinations
 A combination is a set of objects where the order does not matter.
 n
Cr is used to calculate the number of different combinations.
 Additionally, nCr = nPr / r!
n!
 However, more commonly, the formula is nCr ¿
r ! ( n−r ) !
 Combinations can also be written in a matrix format.
 Calculating Combinations without a Calculator
o First write out both entire combinations.
o Then cancel highest common factorial and any remaining common factors.
Discrete Random Variable
 A random variable is a function that assigns a number to each outcome in the sample space ε.
o Discrete random variable is one which may take on only a countable number of distinct values
o Continuous random variable is one that can take any value in an interval of the real number line
 Denoted as Pr(X=x) or p(x)
X 0 1 2 3
Pr(X=x) 0.125 0.375 0.375 0.125
 For any discrete probability function, the following axioms exist:
o For every value of X, p(x) is between 0 and 1 inclusively, where p(x) = Pr(X = x)
o Sum of all probabilities is 1. ∑ p ( x )=1
o To determine the probability that X takes a value in the inclusive interval a to b, values of p(x) from x=a to x=b
x=b
is summed. Pr ( a≤ X ≤ b )= ∑ p( x )
x=a

Sampling with Replacement

 “Successive objects are selected from a finite group without being replaced, meaning the probability of success changes
after each selection.”
 Multiplication rule is very useful for this.
Sampling with Replacement: The Binomial Distribution
 Sampling with replacement means that the probability of success remains constant after each selection.
 There are only two possible outcomes regardless of how many different choices. (e.g. success or failure)
n!
 Pr ( X=x )= (nx) p (1−p)
x n− x
, where ( nx)= x ! ( n−x )!
PDF = only 1, only 2, only 3, etc.
CDF = 1, or 2, or 3, etc.

Matrices
 Representing linear systems with matrices
o Matrices have dimensions and are read row x column (i.e. 2x3 matrix = 2 rows, 3 columns)
o Any number which takes up a position is called an
entry or matrix element and may be denoted as
a r ,c (matrix ‘a’, row r, column c)
o “Augmented matrices are a shorthand way of
writing systems of equations.”
 o A system of equations can be represented by an augmented matrix. Each row represents an equation and
each column represents a variable or constant.
o If two equations differ in what variables they have (i.e. eqn 1 has ‘x’ and ‘y’ but eqn 2 has only ‘x’), the
equation without the variable will have 0 in the respective entry.
o If two equations have their variables written in a different order, rearrange them to fit into the matrix. (i.e. 3x
+ 2 = 12y -> 3x – 12y = -2)
 Matrix Row Operations
o Switch any two rows – order of equations does not matter.
 R1 ↔ R2 means interchange/swap row 1 and row 2.
o Multiply a row by a nonzero constant – multiply both sides by the same nonzero constant to obtain an
equivalent equation. Often done to eliminate a variable.
 3 R2 → R2 means replace row 2 with 3x itself.
o Add one row to another
 R1 + R2 → R2 means replace row 2 with the sum of row 1 and row 2.
 Adding and Subtracting Matrices
o Two matrices of the same dimensions will have both corresponding entries added together.
o Two matrices of the same dimensions will have both corresponding entries subtracted.
o Two matrices of different dimensions will give an undefined result.
 Multiplying Matrices by Scalars
o A multiplier applied to a matrix is known as a scalar.
o A scalar (multiplier) will apply to each entry.
o Repeated addition of a matrix (i.e. A + A + A) is the same thing as multiplying (i.e. 3A)
o Solving a matrix with a predefined scalar requires division or multiplication (i.e. 1/3A * 3 = A or 3A / 3 = A)
 Zero Matrices
o A zero matrix is where all entries are 0.
o Indicated by ‘O’ and a subscript where dimensions can be added (e.g. O 2 ×3 )
o Adding opposite matrices creates a zero matrix.
o Multiplying by scalar 0 creates a zero matrix.
 Multiplying Matrices by Matrices
o N-tuples and the dot product
 N-tuples are ordered pairs, triples, etc. (2,3) * (2,3) = 2*2 + 3*3 = 4 + 9 = 13
 Often indicated by a variable with an overhead arrow (e.g. a ⃗ =(3,1,8))
o Matrices and n-tuples
 When multiplying matrices, assign each row and column as an n-tuple.
o Matrices with different dimensions can be multiplied as long as the first one’s columns
is equal to the second one’s rows.
o The dimensions of the product matrix are the two outer numbers.
o E.g. 2x3 * 3x1 = 2x1 matrix.
o Matrices are not commutative. AB≠ BA
o Matrices are associative (AB)C = A(BC).
o Matrices are also distributive A(B+C) = (AB + BC) and (B+C)A = (BA + CA)
 Defined matrix operations
o Two matrices are defined if the number of columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in the
second matrix.
o The reason being is when multiplying matrices, the order matters.
 Matrix multiplication dimensions
o The first matrix’s number of rows by the second matrix’s number of columns are the dimensions of the new
matrix (e.g. 2x3 and 4x4 = 2x4)
 Identity Matrix
o n x n identity matrix ( I n) has each entry from top left to bottom right diagonally equal to 1 and all other entries
0.
o A matrix multiplied by its respective
identity matrix equals the original
matrix (i.e. I n∗A=A )
 o All identity matrices will be square.
 Determinant of 2x2 matrices
o Product of the diagonal top left to bottom right minus the product of diagonal top right to bottom left. (ad-bc)
o Also denoted as |A|
 Matrix Inverses
o A−1 A=I

o A= [ ac bd ]
1 d −b
o
−1
A =
ad−bc −c a [ ]
−1 1
o Or: A =
¿ A∨¿∗adj ( A)¿
o Remember that ab-bc is the determinant.
o The adjugate of a matrix is having a and d swapped, and having b and c inverting their signs. (e.g.

[ ac bd ]→ [−cd −ba ]
 Determining Invertible Matrices
o If the determinant of a matrix is anything but a 0, then it is invertible.
o If and only if (iff) | A|=0 , A−1 is undefined/singular/degenerate.
 Solving Equations with Inverse Matrices
o Matrices can be used to solve systems of equations, such as 2 x+3 y =−1 and x +2 y =−1.
o These two equations can be expressed in matrix forms, where the coefficients fit into a 2x2 matrix of numbers
x
[ 21 32] and the variables fit into a column vector
y
. The constants also fit into a column vector of
−1
−1
o The column vectors can be represented by X and B.
⃗ ⃗
o To solve for an unknown column vector, synthesise the matrices into an equation. In this case, A ⃗ X =⃗
B . Then
1
multiply both sides by the inverse matrix (which is ) A−1 A ⃗X =A−1 ⃗ B . Remember that A−1 A=I
det ⁡( A)
(inverse matrix) so it effectively cancels out. Then multiply the inverse matrix to ⃗ B to get a final column vector
which defines the variables.
 Representing transformations with matrices
o Represent the coordinate pair in a
cartesian plane as a 2x1 column matrix.
o To multiply most transformations, a
2x2 matrix known as a transformation
matrix is used.
Introduction to Functions
Linear and Quadratic Functions

y 2− y 1 rise
 y=mx+c where m= or m=
x 2−x 1 run
 m 1=m 2 if parallel (same gradient)
−1
 m 1= if perpendicular (inverse gradient) or m 1 m2=−1 (product of both gradients = -1)
m2
x1 + x 2 y 1 + y 2
 , =midpoint
2 2
 d= √( x 2−x 1)2 +( y 2− y 1)2 … distance formula. Remember to use each combination of vertex points, as in for a
triangle with three states vertices, use the distance formula three times for each combination of coordinates. Add all
three to find the perimeter. Remember: this is Pythagoras’ Theorem.
 θ=tan −1(m)
 m=tan ⁡(θ)
 Co-linear = same gradient, points are on the same line.
 y− y1 =m(x−x 1); gradient and a point.
Find the rule of a graph, use:
 To express a quadratic equation in standard form to the y=a(x−e )( x−f ) form, first remove any denominators
from the standard form, use DOPS or the ac/b method.
 To find the vertex of a parabola, find the x-intercepts by establishing the average distance between the two x-
intercepts, apply whether the graph will be maximum or minimum and then substitute the x-coordinate into the
original equation to find the y-coordinate. Finally, you will have an ordered pair.
 Completing the square: a x 2+ bx+ c=0 → a( x +d )2+ e=0
b
o d=
2a
b2
o e=c−
4a
Functions and Relations
 A relation is a set of ordered pairs, usually
expressed as a rule. (e.g. A = {(0,1), (2,3)} or y = 5x –
1)
 A function is a relation if for every x value there is a
different y value.
 Anything that can be mapped on a cartesian plane
using a rule is a relation.
 Functions can be one-to-one or many-to-one.
 All functions are relations, but not all relations are
functions.
 To test if a relation is a function, we use the vertical
line test. If placing a vertical line across the graph
and it only touches the graph once, it is a function.
 To test if a function is one-to-one or many-to-one,
we use the horizontal line test. Draw a horizontal
line and if it contacts the line once, it is one-to-one,
if it contacts >1 time it is many-to-one.
Function and set notation
 A rational number is any number that can be
a
written as a fraction in some way (i.e. )
b
  An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed into a fraction; no patterns (e.g. surd, Pi)
 Use [ ] and ( ) to indicate in interval notation whether a number is inclusive or exclusive. (e.g. { x : x ≥ 0 }=¿
 On number lines open circle = exclusive, closed circle = inclusive.
 {x: x} means “x such that…”
 Interval notation on a number line can have multiple points on it.
 If ‘x’ is part of all real numbers, it is an element of R. (e.g. x ∈ R)
Domain and Range
 Domain of a relation is the set of x-values
 Range of a relation is the set of y-values
 If the domain is unspecified, the largest subset of R possible. A.k.a. ‘implied’ or ‘maximal domain’.
 Co-domain in Math Methods is always R. It will never change in this subject. It means “we are only using real numbers”
2
 y=x 2 where x ∈ R we write f : R → R , f ( x ) =x
2
 y=x 2 where x ∈ ¿ we write f :¿ → R , f ( x )=x
 For x-intercepts, we solve f(x) = 0 (sub y=0)
 For y-intercepts, we evaluate f(0) (sub x=0)
 f(0) means substitute x=0 into the function to find the y-value.
 With interval notation always start with the lowest number.

Polynomials
Expansion of Polynomials

 (a+ b)6 – to find the coefficients of each term, use Pascal’s

triangle.
 The ‘a’s start at powers of 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0
 The ‘b’s start at powers of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
 a 6+ 6 a5 b+15 a 4 b 2+ 20 a3 b3 +15 a2 b4 +6 a b5 +b6
Division of Polynomials
 Use long division. (DMSB)
 First term will always cancel every time you follow the cycle.
 Put in 0x or 0 in to keep it neat.
 If dividing a polynomial and it results in a remainder, put it into a fraction.
 Or use synthetic division.
Remainder Theorem

P( x ) −α
 =P( )
βx+ α β
 If a polynomial is being divided by a divisor (e.g. 2x3-
2x2+3x+1 / x-2)
 Substitute the opposite value of -2 (+2) into P(x), making
P(2)
 Then solve the expression substituting x = 2.
Factor Theorem/Factorising a Polynomial

 βx +α ∨P ( x ) , P ( −αβ )=0
−α
P(
β )
 Conversely, =0 , βx +α ∨P ( x ) ,

 Note: ' ∨' in this case means “a factor of…”

 A cubic function can be factorised using the factor theorem to find the first linear factor and then using polynomial
division or the method of equating coefficients to complete the process.
 1. Use the factors of the constant and the remainder theorem to find a linear factor that works for the polynomial
 2. Use polynomial long division (remainder = 0) to factorise the cubic into a quadratic
 3. Factorise the quadratic (cross method, quadratic equation, complete square)
  4. Write a multiplication statement with 3 sets of linear factors multiplying by each other. If there are two linear
factors that are the same, combine them into an exponent.
Rational-root Theorem
n
 P ( x ) =∑ ai x i , ai ∈ R
i=0
o P ( x ) =an x n+ an−a x n−1 +…+ a1 x+ a0 be a polynomial of degree n with the coefficients of a i.
 Let α , β ∈ Z :hcf ( α , β )=1
o (α and β are integers such that the highest common factor of α and β is 1)
 If βx +α ∨P(x) → β ∨an ∧α∨a 0
o ( βx +α ∈ P (x) then β divides a n and α divides a 0)
 Difference of two cubes
o x 3−a 3=( x−a)( x2 + ax+ a2)
 Sum of two cubes
o x 3+ a3=( x +a)(x 2−ax +a2 )

Solving Cubic Equations

 Cubic polynomial equations can be solved by first using an appropriate factorization technique.
o Extracting a simple common factor
o Using the factor theorem
o Polynomial division or equating coefficients
o Sum or difference of two cubes
o Using the quadratic formula

Point of Inflection
 Where a cubic goes from up to zero to up/down to zero to down
 The point on a graph where the gradient = 0
Families of Polynomials
Quadratics Advantages Disadvantages
Power law (turning point) form Axis of symmetry at (x = h) x-intercepts
y=a(x−h)2 +k Turning point at (h,k) y-intercepts
Factorised form x-intercepts at (p,0) and (q,0) Axis of symmetry
y=a(x− p)(x−q) Turning point
y-intercept
Expanded form (general form) y-intercept at (0,c) x-intercepts
y=a x2 +bx +c Axis of symmetry
Turning point

Cubics Advantages Disadvantages

Power law (inflection point) form Stationary point of inflection at (h,k) x-intercepts
y=a( x−h)3 +k y-intercept
Factorised form (intercept form) x-intercepts at (p,0), (q,0), (r,0) y-intercept
y=a ( x −p )( x−q ) ( x−r ) Turning points
Point of inflection
y=a ( x −p )2 (x−q)
Note: second form just means p and r
values are identical.
Expanded form (general form) y-intercept at (0,d) x-intercepts
3 2
y=a x +b x +cx +d Turning point
Point of inflection

Quartics Advantages Disadvantages

Power law (turning point) form Turning point at (h,k) x-intercepts
y=a(x−h)4 + k y-intercept
 Factorised form (intercept form) x-intercepts at (p,0), (q,0), (r,0), (s,0) y-intercept
y=a ( x −p )( x−q ) ( x−r ) ( x −s ) Turning points
Point of inflection
y=a ( x −p )2 (x−q)( x−r )
y=a ( x −p )3 ( x−q)
Note: second and third form mean
there are two or three values identical
to p.
Expanded form (general form) y-intercept at (0,e) x-intercepts
4 3 2
y=a x + b x + c x + dx+ e Turning point
Point of inflection

General Tips
 If a question has an unknown value but gives a remainder, use the remainder theorem (e.g. sub x-2 into P(2))
 Remember when using the cross method to write two bx values; don’t skip them
 If given a cubic function with two pairs of coordinates, use simultaneous equations to solve for a and b.

Trigonometry & Unit Circle

 The Unit Circle
o Radius of 1 unit
o Cartesian plane can be drawn through the origin of the circle
o Circle can be broken up into 4 quadrants – anticlockwise.
 Degrees & Radians
o Consider point P(x,y) on the unit circle
o Circumference of the unit circle is 2 π
o Angle θ can be expressed in degrees or radians.
o Measurement in radians = corresponding arc length
o 360 degrees = 2 π radians.
π
o Convert from degrees to radians: deg ¿
180
rad∗180
o Convert from radians to degrees:
π
 Defining Circular Functions
o Drawing a right-angled triangle at any point in the unit
circle to meet with P(x,y) will always have a hypotenuse
o = 1.
2π
o Period =
n
adj
o cosθ=
1
o adj=cosθ
opp
o sinθ=
1
o opp=sinθ
o Sine & Cosine Functions
 p ( x , y )=(± cosθ , ± sinθ)
o Tangent Functions
 Tangent lines form 90-degree angles
sinθ
 tanθ=
cosθ
 The Pythagorean Identity
 o If one value of sin(x), cos(x) or tan(x) is known, the other two can be found using the Pythagorean identity:
o sin2 x+ cos2 x=1
o Note: sin 2 x=¿ ¿
 Sketching Circular Functions
o y = asin(n(α-Ɛ)) + k
 a = amplitude
 n = period (2Pi/n)
 k = translation in y
 Ɛ = translation in x
 Dilation by d from x-axis
 Dilation by 1/n from y-axis
o y = acos(n(α-Ɛ)) + k
 a = amplitude
 n = period (2Pi/n)
 k = translation in y
 Ɛ = translation in x
 Dilation by d from x-axis
 Dilation by 1/n from y-axis
o Restrict the domain by using inequalities to avoid the general solution in Mathematica.
o Define a function f[x_] to find the starting, ending and x-intercept points (sub 0).
 Solving Trig Equations
o 2Cos(3x)-1 = 0, x [0, 2pi]
 Cos(3x) = ½ (use scalene triangle)
 Base angle = ACos (1/2) = Pi/3, 0 < 3x < 6Pi
 3x = Pi/3, 2Pi-Pi/3, 2Pi+Pi/3, 4Pi-Pi/3, 4Pi+Pi/3, 6Pi-Pi/3 *
 3x = Pi/3, 5Pi/3, 7Pi/3, 11Pi/3, 13Pi/3, 17Pi/3
 X = Pi/9, 5Pi/9, 7Pi/9, 11Pi/9, 13Pi/9, 17Pi/9 *
o y = 2Sin[3x]-2, find the x-intercepts between -Pi < x < 2Pi
 Amplitude = 2
 Range = [-4, 0]
 Period = 2Pi/n (n = 3), 2Pi/3
 Dilation by factor 2 from x axis
 Dilation by factor 1/3 from y-axis
 Translation 2 units down
 (x,y) -> (1/3x, 2y-2)
 2Sin[3x]-2 = 0
 Sin[3x] = 1
 ASin[1] = Pi/2
 3x = Pi/2, 5Pi/2, 9Pi/2, -3Pi/2
 x = -Pi/2, Pi/6, 5Pi/6, 3Pi/2
o y = 2Cos3[x-Pi/4]
 Dilation by factor 2 from x-axis
 Dilation by factor (1/n), 1/3 from the y-axis
 Translation Pi/4 to the right (3 on the outside does not change the translation)
 (x,y) -> (x/3 + Pi/4, 2y)
 Amplitude = 2
 Range = [-2,2]
 Period = 2Pi/3 (n = 3)
 2Cos3[x – Pi/4] = 0
 Cos3[x-Pi/4] = 0 (ACos[0])
 3(x – Pi/4) = Pi/2
 Solve[{cos [x ]=¿1 /2 , 0< x <2 Pi }] // This is how to solve in
Mathematica.

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 Remember your index laws.
 m 1
 n m n n m
√x =x =( x ) =¿
 f ( x )=ax , a>1
 Exponential functions have a horizontal asymptote.
1 x −x 1
 ( ) =n = x
n n
−1
1
a =√n a = n Remember that a negative rational index can be solved by finding the reciprocal of a radical.
n −1

√a
 Logarithmic functions are inverses of exponential functions (log is the opposite of index)
 To find the inverse exponential function (logarithmic function), swap x and y like you would in Unit 1 algebra.
 Where an exponential function has a horizontal asymptote, a logarithmic function has a vertical asymptote.
 You cannot have a logarithm of a negative number.
 a log n x=log n ax
 Index Laws and Solving Exponential Equations
o To solve an algebraic equation with different
exponents like 16x-3 and 42x, we must
equivocate the bases.
o 16x-3 = (42)x-3 = 42x-6
o Once the bases are equal, they cancel out and you solve the indices algebraically.
o 2x – 6 = 2x
o Sometimes there is no solution, so you can state “no sol” or something similar.
o Some exponential functions can be solved quadratically.
o Solve[expr == n, Reals] generally works in Mathematica. If not, try NSolve[], //N, Reduce[], etc.
 Logarithms
o Log[x] in writing implies base 10. This is different in Mathematica, keep in mind.
o Ln implies base e.
o power=log base number
o Log Laws
 1. log a mn=log a m+ log a n (Addition)
m
 2. log a =log a m−log a n (Subtraction)
n
1
 3. log a =−log a n (Inverse, chemistry!)
n
p
 4. log a m = p log a m (Scalar)
 5. log a a=1
o As is with indices, you need to make the logs to the same base.
o There are no log laws for dividing.
o When solving questions with an unknown base as x but a known exponent and the result is fractional, raise the
result to the lowest prime and express with a negative index and solve using algebra to remove the exponent
that is affecting x.
o Graphs
 1. Sub in x=0 to find the y-intercept. You don’t need to know the power.
 2. Solve for the exponent ‘x’ by using logarithms to find the x-intercept.
 3. Sub y=0 after finding out the exponent of ‘x’ to find the asymptote.
o Logarithmic and exponential graphs are inverses of each other, meaning that what you know about inverse
applies. (Asymptote swaps, intercepts swap, still flips over y=x line, left and right transformations become up
and down transformations)
o y = a^x
Swap x and y
x = a^y
y = log_a(x)

Calculus
 Rates of Change
 o Measurement of how much one quantity changes with respect to a change in another quantity.
o Very commonly, the second quantity is time, but other rates also exist.
o The rate of change is the vertical axis with respect to the horizontal axis being equivalent to the gradient.
o Often the rate of change is not constant, but the average rate of change can still be calculated.
o Two points are needed to find the average.
o Average rate of change
f ( b ) −f ( a)
 Average between two points.
b−a
 Secant – a line that connects two points on a graph and extends further.
 Chord – a line that connects only two points
 Tangent – line parallel to and touches only one point on a curve.
 Is precisely equal to the gradient of a secant line drawn on the graph between two points.
 As a final answer, the rate of change must be given in y/x (e.g. degrees/year, rotation/min)
o Instantaneous rate of change
 Equivalent to the gradient of a tangent line (derivative), which touches at exactly the point and is
parallel to the curve at that exact point.
 Draw a tangent line, and find the gradient of the
straight line.
o Direction of change
 Positive
 Negative
 Zero
 Stationary point
 The Derivative
o The gradient of the tangent (secant) line.
o Derivative of f is f’ and defined by:
f ( x +h )−f ( x)
 f ' ( x )=lim
h→ 0 h
o Limit Notation
 lim (Expression)
h→ n
 To solve, essentially substitute h = n, whatever that may be and simplify the expression.
 The Chain Rule
o Transform a function into a y= and u= function which are then chained together.
dy
∗du
o dy du (Leibniz notation)
=
dx dx
o ( f ∘ g ) ( x )=f ' ( g ( x ) ) g ' ( x ) where ( f ∘ g )( x )=f ( g ( x )) (Function notation)
'

o Find thederivative of y =(3 x +4)20

 Let u=3 x+ 4 then y =u20
du 3∧dy
 So = =20 u19
dx du
dy
∗du
 dy du
∴ =
dx dx
19
 ¿ 20 u ∗3
 ¿ 60(3 x +4 )19
 Approximating Gradient
o Differentiation – instantaneous rate of change of one quantity with respect to another.
o Substitute a point that Is given into the formula to find the first x 1y1 pair. (e.g. x=2)
o Then substitute a point arbitrarily close into the formula to find the next x 2y2 pair. (e.g. x=2.01)
o Then use m = y2 – y1 / x2 – x1 to approximate the gradient.
 Derivative (Gradient) First Principles
 o “Derivative” and “gradient” are the same thing.
y2 y1
o The general form of m= is:
x2 x1
f ( x+ h )−f ( x )

x +h−x
f ( x+ h )−f ( x )

h
dy
o A derivative is written as f '(x), ∨y'
dx
o To find the gradient, we must use an extremely small value that is arbitrarily close to x1y1.
o Then, a limit must be used which is what happens when h becomes 0.
f ( x +h )−f ( x)
o To do this, we must use f ' ( x )=lim
h→ 0 h
o 2
Find the derivative of y = x – 2 using first principles.
dy f ( x +h ) −f (x )
 =lim
dx h → 0 h
(x +h) −2−( x 2−2)
2

dy
=lim
dx h → 0 h
x + 2 xh+h 2−2−x 2 +2
2

dy
=lim
dx h → 0 h
2

dy 2 xh +h
=lim
dx h → 0 h
dy
 =lim 2 x+ h
dx h → 0
dy
 =2 x
dx
o What is the gradient of y = x2 – 2 at (2,2)?
 m=2(2)
 m=4 at (2,2 ) .
o Derivative of a stationary point is 0. Hence, stationary.
 Derivative from Rule
o Take the power, lower it by one and multiply the term by the
previous power. (e.g. 5x3 -> 15x2)
o This can by applied to polynomials too, just apply the same
rule to all other terms.
o Remember the derivative of a constant is 0. (e.g. dy/dx of 5 =
0; cancels out)
o Is a function differentiable?
 A function is only differentiable at x if a limit exists.
 That is, the gradient of the tangent to the left of x
approaches the same value as the gradient of the
points from the right.
 If the function is discontinuous (e.g. hybrid function
that is separated)
 If the function has a vertical tangent.
 If the function is not smooth.
o You may need to simplify or rewrite a function using positive
indices before differentiating.
1
 E.g. y=7 x 4 − 2
+7 → y =7 x 4−1 x−2+7
x
1
o Remember that roots are expressed as fractional indices (e.g.
√ x=x 2 )
 o “Find the gradient function/equation when…” means find the derivative.
 Tangents & Normals
o Tangent
 Straight line that touches the curve at an instant.
 Find the gradient (m) by derivatives
 Then sub a given point and the gradient into y-y1 = m(x-x1)
o Normal
 Perpendicular to the tangent
 Reciprocal of the gradient.
−1
 Gradient m, the normal has gradient
m
 Then sub into y-y1 = m(x-x1)
o E.g. Consider the curve y = 2x3 – 15x2 + 41x + 8. At what points on this curve is the tangent parallel to the line y
– 5x = 3?
 Rearrange the equation to get the gradient (m = 5)
 Find the derivative and make it equal to 5. (6x2 – 3x + 41 = 5)
 Move the 5 to the left side. (6x2 – 30x +36 = 0)
 Factorise using quadratics (6(x-3)(x-2), x = 2 or x = 3)
 To find the y-coordinates, substitute the found x values back into the original equations (2(2) 3 – 15(2)2
+ 41(2) + 8 = 46; (2,46). 2(3)3 – 15(3)2 + 41(3) + 8 = 50; (3,50)
o E.g. The curve y = x2 – 5x + 6 passes through the points P(1,2) and Q(4,2). The tangent to the curve at P
intersects the normal to the curve at Q at the point R. Calculate the coordinates of R.
 1. Find the equation to the tangent at point P.
 P’ = 2x – 5
 M = 2(1) – 5 = -3 [point P is at x = 1]
 Substitute into y-y1 = m(x-x1) to find the equation of the line.
 Y = -3x + 5
 2. Find the equation to the normal
 Q’ = 2x – 5 [gradient function is still the same, because it’s on the same curve]
 M = 2(4) – 5 = 3 [sub x = 4]
 Mn = -1/3 [negative reciprocal]
 Substitute into y-y1 = m(x-x1) to find the equation of the line.
 Y = -1/3x + 10/3
 3. Find the point at where the two lines intersect.
 Use simultaneous equations, set lines to equal.
 -3x + 5 = 1/3x + 10/3
 X = 5/8
 Sub x = 5/8 into one of the lines.
 Y = -3(5/8) + 5
 =25/8
 (5/8, 25/8)
 Stationary Points
o Find coordinates of a stationary point on any given curve
 Find the derivative and then set it to equal 0.
 Take the x-coordinate and sub back into y-y1 = m(x-x1)
o Determine the nature of a stationary point
 Maximum and minimum stationary points are also turning points.
 Local maximum – negative to positive (quadratic)
 Local minimum – positive to negative (quadratic)
 Point of inflection – gradient does not change on either side (cubic)
 Find a stationary point and substitute the x value back into the equation.
 Use the derivative to find whether or not the gradient is 0, positive or negative
 You can draw a sign graph to figure out if a curve is a maximum, minimum or inflection (i.e. / ----\ =
maximum, \_/ = minimum, /--/ = inflection)
 Optimisation Problems
o Looking for a maximum or minimum value that a function can take.
 o Drawing diagrams is highly beneficial.
o What quantity do you want to optimise?
 E.g. area
o What is the constraint?
 E.g. limited length of fencing (perimeter)
o 1. Read problem carefully. Identify the quantity to be optimised and the constraint.
o 2. Draw a diagram and label with variable and/or given quantities
o 3. Construct an equation with the variable to be optimised
 E.g. area = x * y
o 4. Construct a second equation (if needed) so that the first equation can be written in terms of one variable.
 E.g. 2x + y = 60m
y = 60 – 2x
Substitute y = 60 – 2x into the original equation
A = xy -> A = x(60-2x) = 60x-2x2
o 5. Find derivative
 dA/dx = 60-4x
o 6. Set derivative equal to zero and solve.
 60 – 4x = 0
x = 15
o 7. If there is a restricted domain, test the endpoints to see where the max/min is.
 Make sure to check that if there are multiple answers that they fit within the constraints of the
equation (e.g. don’t have a length that is longer than the shape, negative time, negative length, etc.)
 Indefinite Integrals
o Antidifferentiation (integration)
o The inverse process of differentiation.
o Raise the power, divide by the new power and add c.
o dy/dx = 2x -> y = x2 + c
o ∫ f ' ( x ) dx

o n ax n+ 1
∫ ax dx= n+1 +c
o Because there is an unknown constant, therefore it is called indefinite, or the general antiderivative.
5
o E.g. 15x4 = ∫ 15 x 4 dx= 155x 5
+c=3 x +c
o Remember to rearrange roots to fractional indices.
1 4 3
x 3
1 3 2 x2 1 4 2 2
o E.g. ∫ x + √ x dx= + +c = x + x + c
2 4 3 8 3
2
 Determine Specific Antiderivatives
o By being given enough information, the constant term ‘c’ can be found.
o If given a pair of coordinates, sub in y and x, then solve for ‘c’
o E.g. 5 = 2(2)3 – 7(2) + c
5 = 16 – 14 + c
c=3
y = 2x3 - 7x + 3
o If given a turning point, this is a stationary point, meaning that f’(x) = 0. This way, if you sub in the
value of x that gives a stationary point and 0, then a constant can be found.
o 1. Find the constant value first by substituting a stationary point into f’(x) = 0.
o 2. Antidifferentiate f’(x) and solve for c.
 Kinematics
o Particle moving in a straight line about a fixed-point O (origin)
o Position of the particle is given by x as a function of t (time). Also known as displacement.
 o Displacement has a sign associated with it.
o Distance is an absolute positive value.
o Velocity (displacement) with respect to time. (Velocity uses displacement and the sign tells the
direction)
o Speed is the magnitude of velocity. (Speed uses distance)
o Average velocity = x 2−x 1/t 2−t 1
dx
o Instantaneous velocity is v(t)=
dt
distance travelled
o Average speed =
time taken
o Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.
 Average acceleration = v2-v1 / t2-t1
dv d dx d 2 x
o Instantaneous acceleration a= =
dt dt dt( )
= 2
dt
 This is called the second derivative, also denoted by x’’(t).
o If the acceleration and velocity are in the same sign, the object is speeding up.
o If either the acceleration or the velocity are different signs to each other, the object is slowing down.
 If a question asks for the “rate”, always think derivative.
 If a question asks for when an object is stationary and what the position is at a time, substitute v(t) = 0. You
will find an answer where t = n seconds. Then substitute this value for t into the original equation to find the
position.