SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad – 501 301

LAB MANUAL

FOR

POWER SYSTEMS SIMULATION LAB

For

M.TECH EPE I– I SEMESTER &

2nd SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING 2017

1
 I Year – I Sem. M.Tech (EPE)

Code: 6X175 POWER SYSTEMS SIMULATION LAB

L T P C
- - 4 2

Conduct any 10 Experiments

1. Formation of Y-bus, Z-bus and Y bus formation using Sparsity technique.

2. Power flow study on a given power system network using Guass-Seidal method
for 5bus system, IEEE 14bus system and IEEE 30bus system.
3. A SIMULINK model for a single area load frequency problem and simulate with
and without controller.
4. Develop a program to solve swing equation.
5. a) Simulation of three Phases full converter using RL & E loads.
b) Simulation of Single Phase full converter using RL & E loads.
6. A simulink model for a two area load frequency problem and
Simulate with and without controller.
7. Simulation of 3-phase inverter with PWM controller.
8. Program for PID controller.
9. A simulink model for automatic voltage regulator with and without Controller.
10. Design a Lag compensator through SIMULINK.
11. Write a Machine language program for
i) to initialize port A as an input port in mode-0
ii) to initialize port A as an input port and port B as an output port in mode-0
iii) to initialize port C as output port in mode-0
iv) to initialize port C as an input port in mode-0 using 8255- PPI

2
 EXPERIMENT – I

Y-BUS AND Z-BUS FORMATION METHOD AND Y BUS FORMATION USING

SPARSITY TECHNIQUE.

3
4
Manual Calculations

5
 EXPERIMENT – 2

CONDUCT A POWER FLOW STUDY ON A GIVEN POWER SYSTEM

NETWORK USING GUASS-SEIDAL ITERATIVE METHOD FOR 5BUS,
IEEE 14BUS AND IEEE 30BUS SYSTEM.

AIM

MATLAB

GAUSES – SEIDEL ITERATIVE METHOD

In this method, voltages at all buses except at the slack bus are assumed. The voltage at
the slack bus is specified and remains fixed at that value. The (n-1) bus voltage relations.
 
1  Pi  jQ i n
Vi    Yik Vk 
Yii  Vi* k 1

 k 1 

i = 1,2,…..n; i  slack bus

are solved simultaneously for an improved solution. In order to accelerate the
convergence, all newly – computed values of bus voltages are substituted in above
equitation. The bus voltage equation of the (m+1)th iteration may then be written as
 
 i 1 n 
( m 1) 1  P i  jQ i ( m 1)
Vi 
Yii  V ( m )*
 Yik Vk   ( m)
Yik Vk 

 i k 1 k i1 
 k 1 

The method converges slowly because of the loose mathematical coupling between the
buses. The rate of convergence of the process can be increased by using acceleration
factors to the solution obtained after each iteration. A fixed acceleration factor  (1  
 2) is normally used each voltage change for.
S*
Vi   * i
Vi Yii
The use of the acceleration factor amounts to a linear extrapolation of V i. For a given
system, it is quite often found that a near – optimal choice of  exists is suggested in
literature over a range of operating conditions. Even though a complex value of  is
system in literature, it is more convenient to operate with real values given by
( m) (m)
Vi  i   Vi  i

Alternatively, different acceleration factors may be used for real and imaginary parts of
the voltage.

6
PROGRAM
Power Flow Study Using Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

%program to conduct a power flow studies using gauss siedal method

clc
y12 = 10-j*20;
y13 = 10-j*30;
y23 = 16-j*32;
y11 = y12+y13;
y22 = y12+y23;
y33 = y13+y23;
v1 = 1.05+j*0;
format long
iter = 0;
s2 = -4.0-j*2.5
p3 = 2;
v2 = 1+j*0;
vm3 = 1.04;
v3 = 1.04+j*0;
iter = iter+1;
e2 = v2;
e3 = v3;
v2 = (conj(s2)/conj(v2)+y12*v1+y23*v3)/(y12+y23);
dv2 = v2-e2;
q3 = -imag(conj(v3)*(y33*v3-y13*v1-y23*v2));
s3 = p3+j*q3
vc3 = (conj(s3)/conj(v3)+y13*v1+y23*v2)/(y13+y23);
vi3 = imag(vc3);
v23 = sqrt(vm3^2-vi3^2);
v3 = vc3+j*vi3;

7
dv3 = v3-e3;
format short
i12 = y12*(v1-v2);
i21 = -i12;
i13 = y13*(v1-v3);
i31 = -i13;
i23 = y23*(v2-v3);
i32 = -i23;
s12 = v1*conj(i12);
s21 = v2*conj(i21);
s13 = v1*conj(i13);
s31 = v1*conj(i31);
s23 = v2*conj(i23);
s32 = v3*conj(i32);
i1221 = [i12 i21];
i2332 = [i23 i32];
i1331 = [i13 i31];
s1221 = [s12 s21 s12+s13 s12+s21];
s1331 = [s13 s31 s31+s32 s13+s31];
s2332 = [s23 s32 s23+s21 s23+s32];
v1
v2
v3

OUTPUT:
s2 =-4.000000000000000 - 2.500000000000000i
s3 =2.000000000000000 + 1.160000000000002i
v1 =1.0500
v2 =0.9746 - 0.0423i
v3 =1.0378 - 0.0103i
s1221 = 1.6800 + 1.1388i -1.6053 - 0.9894i 2.1335 + 1.4136i 0.0747 + 0.1495i
s1331 = 0.4535 + 0.2747i -0.4535 - 0.2747i 1.6735 + 1.2729i 0
s2332 = -2.0467 - 1.3870i 2.1270 + 1.5476i -3.6520 - 2.3764i 0.0803 + 0.1606i

8
 EXPERIMENT – 3

DEVELOP A SIMULINK MODEL FOR A SINGLE AREA LOAD FREQUENCY

PROBLEM AND SIMULATE WITH AND WITH OUT CONTROLLER.

SIMULINK MODEL FOR SINGLE AREA LOAD FREQUENCY MODEL

USING PI CONTROLLER

9
10
11
 EXPERIMENT – 4

DEVELOP A PROGRAM TO SOLVE SWING EQUATION

AIM
DEVELOP A PROGRAM TO SOLVE SWING EQUATION

THEORY

12
13
PROGRAM

% PROGRAM TO SOLVE THE SWING EQUATION

clc
E=1.35;v=1.0;H=9.94;x=0.65;pm=.6;D=.138;fo=60;
pmax=E*v/x,do=asin(pm/pmax)
ps=pmax*cos(do)
wn=sqrt(pi*60/(H*ps))
z=D/2*sqrt(pi*60/(H*ps))
wd=wn*sqrt(1-z^2),fd=wd/(2*pi)
tau=1/(z*wn)
th=acos(z)
Ddo=10*pi/180;
t=0:.01:3;
Dd=Ddo/sqrt(1-z^2)*exp(-z*wn*t).*sin(wd*t+th);
d=(do+Dd)*180/pi;
Dw=-wn*Ddo/sqrt(1-z^2)*exp(-z*wn*t).*sin(wd*t);
f=fo+Dw/(2*pi);
subplot(2,1,1),plot(t,d),grid
xlabel('t sec'),ylabel('delta degree')

14
subplot(2,1,2),plot(t,f),grid
xlabel('t sec'),ylabel('frequency hz')
subplot(111)

15
 EXPERIMENT – 5
A)PSPICE SIMULATION OF THREE PHASES FULL CONVERTER USING RL &
E LOADS
B) PSPICE SIMULATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER SING RL & E
LOADS.

AIM
PSPICE simulation of three phases full converter using Rl & E loads PSPICE
simulation of single phase full converter sing Rl & E loads.

THEORY

Introduction to PSPICE

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE MODELS

PSPICE is a general-purpose circuit program that can be applied to simulate electrical,

Electronics and power electronics circuits. In order to simulate any circuit for calculating
and plotting the transient response for the given period, for determining Fourier series
coefficients and total harmonic distortion (THD) the following are to be specified For the
given circuit,
 Nodes
 Element values
 Circuit elements
 Element models
 Sources
 Output variables
 Types of analysis
 PSPICE output commands
 Format of circuit files
 Format of output files

There are a number of power semiconductor device models which are used in simulation
of power electronic circuit’s .Viz AC thyristor model, BJT model, MOSFET model,
IGBT model and Diode model.

AC THYRISTOR MODELS

The Thyristor model which is used in controlled rectifier circuits should exhibit the
following characteristics.
a) It should switch to the on state with the application of small positive gate voltage,
provided that the anode to cathode voltage is positive.
b) It should remain in the on state as long as the anode current flows.
c) It should switch to the off state when the anode current goes through zero in the
direction.
The switching action of the thyristor can be modeled by a voltage controlled switch and
polynomial current source which is shown fig. the turn-on process can be Explained by
the following steps.

16
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AC thyristor model

Ig Ia
Gate 1
+ Anode
3
G

Rg S1

5
4

VY
VX 0V
Vg

DT

2
cathod

RT G
F1

1. For a positive gate voltage Vg between node 3 and node 2, the gate current is
Ig=I(vx)=Vg/Rg.
2. The gate current Ig activates the current-controlled current source F1 and produces
Current of value Fg=P1Ig=P1*I(vx),such that F1=Fg+Fa.
3. The current source Fg produces a rapidly rising voltage Vr across resistance Rt.
4. As the voltage Vr increases above zero, the resistance Rs of the voltage controlled
Switch S1 decreases from Roff towards Ron.
5. As the switch resistance Rs decreases, the anode current Ia=I(vy) increases,
provided that the anode to cathode voltage is positive this increasing anode
current Ia produces a current Fa=P2Ia=p2*I(vy).this causes an increased value of
voltage Vr.
6. This then produces a regenerative condition with the switch rapidly being driven
into a low resistance (the on state).The switch remains on if the gate voltage Vg is
removed.
7. The anode current in continues to flow as long as it is positive and the switch
remains in the on state.
During turn -off, the gate current is off and Ig = 0.
i.e. Ig = 0 and Fg = 0, F1 = Fg+Fa = Fa.

The turn-off operation can be explained by the following steps:

1. As the anode current Ia goes negative the current F1 reverses provided that the
gate voltage Vg is no longer present.
2. With a negative F1 the capacitor CT discharges through the current source F1 and
the resistance RT.
3. With the fall of voltage VR to a low level, the resistance Rs switch S1 increases a
low(Ron) value to a high(Roff) this is again a regenerative condition with the
switch resistance being driven rapidly to an R off values as the voltage VR becomes
zero.

The model works well with a converter circuits in which the thyristor current falls to
zero itself (ex. Half-wave controlled rectifier and ac voltage controllers) but in full
wave converters with a continuous load current, the current of a thyristor is diverted
to another thyristor and the model may not give true output. This problem can be
remedied by adding diode Dt as shown in figure. The diode prevents the reverse
current flow through the thyristor resulting from the firing of another thyristor in the
circuit.
17
This thyristor model can be used as a sub circuit. The switch S1 is controlled by the
controlling voltage VR connected between nodes 6 and 2. The switch or diode
parameters can be adjusted to yield the desired on state drop of the thyristor. In the
following examples use the diode with parameters.
IS = 2.2E-15, BV=1200v, TT=0, CJO=0 and the switch parameters RON=0.0105,
ROFF=10E+5, VON=0.5v and VOFF=0v.

SUB CIRCUIT FOR AC THYRISTOR MODEL

.SUBCKT SCR 1 2 3 2
S1 1 5 6 2 SMOD
RG 3 4 50
VX 4 2 DC 0V
VY 5 7 DC 0V
DT 7 2 DMOD
RT 6 2 1
CT 6 2 1OUF
F1 2 6 POLY (2) VX VY 0 50 11
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH (RON=0.0105 ROFF=10E+5 VON=0.5V
VOFF=0V)
.MODEL DMOD D (IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200V TT=0 CJO=0)
.ENDS SCR

DC THYRISTOR MODEL

Diodes DT In thyristor commutation, resonant circuits are often used to reverse the
voltage on a capacitor and/or to force the current of a thyristor with zero. The diode
DT is used to prevent any negative current flow and to stop the circuit operation
when the current falls to zero. Switch ST is controlled by the gate voltage Vg
connected between nodes 3 and 4. To avoid the problems of an open node, the gate
voltage Vg is connected through a very high resistance Rg, say 10 MΩ. In practice
the gate voltage Vg is connected between the gate and cathode terminals.

To use this model effectively, one must know the appropriate on time of the
thyristor, because the gate or controlling voltage Vg must be applied for a
sufficient period, which is greater than or equal to the actual on time of the
thyristor. Specifically, if the device is expected to be turned off when the current
falls to zero, Vg must be applied until the current becomes zero. This thyristor,
which is modeled by a diode and a voltage controlled switch, can be used as a sub
circuit. The diode and switch parameters can be adjusted to yield the desired on-
state drop of the thyristor. In the following examples, we use the diode parameters
IS=2.2E-15, BV=1800V, TT=0, and CGO =0 and the switch parameter RON=0.01,
ROFF=10E+6,VON=10V, and VOFF=5V.Switch ST is controlled by the
controlling voltage Vg connected between nodes 3 and 4.

18
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Dc thyristor model

ST
DT
A
K
+

1 5 2 Rg

Vg
_

Sub circuit for switched dc thyristor model

.SUBCKT TMOD 1 2 3 4
DT 5 2 DMOD
ST 1 5 3 4 SMOD
.MODEL DMOD D (IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200V TT=0
CJO=0)
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH (RON=0.01 ROFF=10E+6 VON=10V
VOFF=5V)
.ENDS TMOD

19
 SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTER

To study the circuit and operation of a fully controlled converter with R and R-L loads.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

T1 T2

T/F
RL

AC

T2' T1'

Fig: 1-ph fully controlled converter

Single phase Experiments Block Diagram

1. Isolation Transformer :-To suit single phase 230V/50Hz supply load ratio 1:1,
KVA rating to suit the load ratings. Isolation of mains phase and neutral with
measurement circuit. Serves the purpose of di/dt protection of SCR’s and safe
measurement of wave forms by using oscilloscope. Isolation of Electric noise
with mains.
2. Power Circuit: Different power circuit configurations are possible using SCR’s
and diode modules.
1. Half wave Converter – 1 SCR.
2. Full wave Converter – 2 SCR’s.
3. Half Controlled converter – 2 SCR’s & 2 Diodes
4. Fully Controlled Converter – 4 SCR’s.
5. AC Phase Control – 2 SCR’s or 1 Traic.

3. Firing Circuit: Each SCR of the above Power Circuit to be triggered using
independently isolated output from single phase converter firing unit. Trigger
outputs phase sequence and variation to be checked before connecting to the
power circuit. Phase sequence to be compared with the power circuits phase
sequence.
4. Load: Load connection should include an ammeter and a current shunt for current
wave from measurements. Use freewheeling diodes wherever necessary.

Types of loads:-

(a) Resistance –‘R’

(b) Resistance and Inductive load ‘R’ & ‘L”
(c) Motor and Generator.
Note: Incase of DC motor control, field excitation is separate. Field supply is on
before giving armature supply. It should be off only after switch off the armature
supply.
20
 (d) Lamp load: Due to di/dt limitation of SCR’s and since the initial inrush current is
20 to 25 times more than the load current in lamp loads. This can be done only
with large safety factor.
Precaution: Initially input voltage low and firing angle at 1808 slowly increase
the voltage to the rated voltage and angle to 08.
Firing circuit: This unit generates four line synchronized isolated triggering pulse to fire
thyristors connected in single phase (1) Half wave (2) Full wave (3) Half controlled
Bridge (4) AC phase control power circuit.
The firing circuit is based on Ramp-comparator scheme. Isolation is provided by pulse
Transformer.

Power circuit This power circuit consists of four SCR’s connected as fully controlled
bridge converter. A free wheeling diode is provided to observe the effect of free wheeling
diode on inductive loads.
Each device in the unit is mounted on an appropriate heat sink and is protected by
snubber circuit. Short circuit protection is achieved using glass fuses. A circuit breaker is
provided in series with the input supply for overload protection and to switch ON/OFF
the power circuit.
The front panel consists of input and output terminals. The Gate and Cathode of each
SCR’s brought out on the front panel for firing pulse connection. Voltmeter and an
Ammeter is mounted on the front panel indicates the output voltage and current. A
separate full wave bridge rectifier is provided in the unit to get the DC supply for the
field of DC Shunt Motors. The power circuit schematic is printed on the front panel.

PARAMETERS AND OBSERVATIONS

1. Input Voltage wave form.

2. Output voltage waveform. (across the load)
3. Output current waveform.(through the shunt)
4. Voltage wave form across thyristors.(make this measurement only if isolations is
used)
5. Study of variation of voltage and current wave forms with the variation of firing
angle.
6. Study of effect of freewheeling diode in case of inductive loads.

21
22
23
24
THREE –PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE RECTIFIER

PROGRAM

A three –phase fully controlled bridge rectifier is fed from a star connected source
as shown in fig. The load resistance R=0.5Ω, inductance L=6.5mH and battery
voltage =10V. For delay angles 60°. Obtain various waveforms.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
4 I0

8
9
VY 10
is T1 T3 T5
14 +
1
+ +
AC 0V 8 9 +
+ _ Vg1 Vg3 10 R
_
Van AC + 4 Vg5
0 _ _ 6

Vbn 4 _
AC _
+ Is 4

Vcn L

11
13 _ 7
12

+ + T2
12 T6 + 11
T2
Vg4 Vg6 Vg2
_ _
_
1 2 3

*PSPICE Program for Three-phase Full-bridge converter

Van 14 0 SIN (0 325V 50HZ)
Vbn 2 0 SIN (0 325V 50HZ)
Vcn 3 0 SIN (0 325V 50HZ)
Vg1 8 4 PULSE (0V 10V 5MS 1NS 1NS
100US 20MS)
Vg2 11 3 PULSE (0V 10V 8.33MS INS INS
100US 20MS)
Vg3 9 4 PULSE (0V 10V 11.66MS INS INS
100US 20MS)
Vg4 12 1 PULSE (0V 10V 15MS INS INS 100US
20MS)
Vg5 10 4 PULSE (0V 10V 18.33MS INS INS
100US 20MS)
Vg6 13 2 PULSE (0V 10V 1.66MS INS INS
100US 20MS)
R 4 6 .5
VX 7 5 DC 10V
VY 14 1 DC 0V
XT1 1 4 8 4 SCR
XT2 5 3 11 3 SCR
XT3 2 4 9 4 SCR
XT4 5 1 12 1 SCR
XT5 3 4 10 4 SCR
XT6 5 2 13 2 SCR

25
.SUBCKT SCR 1 2 3 2
S1 1 5 6 2 SMOD
RG 3 4 50
VX 4 2 DC 0V
VY 5 7 DC 0V
DT 7 2 DMOD
RT 6 2 1
CT 6 2 10UF
F1 2 6 POLY (2) VX VY 0 50 11
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH (RON=0.0105 ROFF=10E+5
VON=0.5V VOFF=0V)
.MODEL DMOD D (IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200V TT=0 CJO=0)
.ENDS SCR
.TRAN 50US 100MS 50MS 50US
.PROBE
.END

26
SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER-PSPICE

PROGRAM

*SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER AND ANALYSIS

VS 10 0 SIN(0 325V 50HZ)
VG1 6 2 PULSE(0V 10V 2.5MS 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG2 7 0 PULSE(0V 10V 2.5MS 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG3 8 2 PULSE(0V 10V 12.5MS 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG4 9 1 PULSE(0V 10V 12.5MS 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
R 2 4 0.5
L 4 5 6.5MH
VX 5 3 DC 10V
VY 10 1 DC 0V
XT1 1 2 6 2 SCR
XT2 3 0 7 0 SCR
XT3 0 2 8 2 SCR
XT4 3 1 9 1 SCR
.SUBCKT SCR 1 2 3 2
S1 1 5 6 2 SMOD
RG 3 4 50
VX 4 2 DC 0V
VY 5 7 DC 0V
DT 7 2 DMOD
CT 6 2 10UF
RT 6 2 1
F1 2 6 POLY(2) VX VY 0 50 11
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH(RON=0.0105 ROFF=10E+5 VON=0.5V VOFF=0V)
.MODEL DMOD D(IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200V TT=0 CJO=0)
.ENDS SCR
.TRAN 50US 100MS 50MS
.PROBE
.END

27
THREE PHASE FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER-PSPICE

PROGRAM

*THREE PHASE FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER AND ANALYSIS

VAN 14 0 SIN(0 325V 50HZ)
VBN 2 0 SIN(0 325V 50HZ 0 0 -120DEG)
VCN 3 0 SIN(0 325V 50HZ 0 0 -240DEG)
VG1 8 4 PULSE(0V 10V 5000US 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG2 11 3 PULSE(0V 10V 8333.3US 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG3 9 4 PULSE(0V 10V 11666.33US 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG4 12 1 PULSE(0V 10V 15000US 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG5 10 4 PULSE(0V 10V 18332.4US 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
VG6 13 2 PULSE(0V 10V 1666.6US 1NS 1NS 100US 20MS)
R 4 6 0.5
L 6 7 6.5MH
VX 7 5 DC 10V
VY 14 1 DC 0V
XT1 1 4 8 4 SCR
XT2 5 3 11 3 SCR
XT3 2 4 9 4 SCR
XT4 5 1 12 1 SCR
XT5 3 4 10 4 SCR
XT6 5 2 13 2 SCR
.SUBCKT SCR 1 2 3 2
S1 1 5 6 2 SMOD
RG 3 4 50
VX 4 2 DC 0V
VY 5 7 DC 0V
DT 7 2 DMOD
CT 6 2 10UF
RT 6 2 1
F1 2 6 POLY(2) VX VY 0 50 11
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH(RON=0.0105 ROFF=10E+5 VON=0.5V VOFF=0V)
.MODEL DMOD D(IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200V TT=0 CJO=0)
.ENDS SCR
.TRAN 50US 100MS 50MS 50US
.PROBE
.END

28
 EXPERIMENT – 6

DEVELOP A SIMULINK MODEL FOR A TWO AREA LOAD FREQUENCY

PROBLEM AND SIMULATE WITH AND WITHOUT CONTROLLER
AIM: To develop a simulink model for a two area load frequency and simulate with and
without controller.
THEORY:
An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control
areas interconnected by means of tie-lines. Let us consider a two-area case connected by
a single tie-line. Control Area 2 Control Area 1 Tie Line 1-2 Fig 1.1 Two Area with Tie-
Line Connection The control objective is now to regulate the frequency of each area and
to simultaneously regulate the tie-line power as per inter-area power contracts. As in the
frequency, proportional plus integral controller will be installed so as to give steady state
error in tie-line power flow as compared to the contracted power.

FIG 1.1 TWO AREA WITH TIE LINE

Each control area can be represented by an equivalent turbine, generator and
governor system. Symbols with suffix 1 refer to area 1 and those with suffix 2 refer to
area 2. In an isolated control area case the incremental power (∆PG-∆PD) was accounted
for by the rate of increase of stored kinetic energy and increase in area load caused by
increase in frequency. Since a tie-line transports power in or out of an area, this must be
accounted for in the incremental power balance equation of each area. Power transported
out of area 1 is given by

Where, δ1, δ2 are power angles of equivalent machines of two areas.

For incremental changes in δ1 and δ2 , the incremental tie line power can be
expressed as

Since incremental power angles are integrals of incremental frequencies, we can

write above equation as follows
∆Ptie1= 2πT12 (∫∆f1 dt- ∫∆f2 dt)
Where ∆f1 and ∆f2 are incremental frequency changes of areas 1 and 2 respectively.
Similarly, the incremental tie-line power out of area 2 is given by
∆Ptie2= 2πT21 (∫∆f2 dt- ∫∆f1 dt)

The power balance equation for area 1 is given by

29
 The steady state tie line power error be made zero, another integral control loop
must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie-line power signal and feed it back to
the speed changer. This is accomplished by defining ACE as a linear combination of
incremental frequency and tie line power.
Thus, for control area 1
ACE1(s) =∆Ptie1+b1∆F1(s)
Similarly, for control area 2
ACE2(s) =∆Ptie2+b2∆F2(s
For the steady state error to be zero, the change in tie-line power and the
frequency of each area should be zero. This can be achieved by integration of ACEs in
the feedback loops of each area.

30
 PROCEDURE:
1. Enter the command window of the MAT LAB.
2. Create a new model by selecting File-New-Model.
3. Pick up the blocks from the simulink library browser and form a block diagram.
4. after forming the block diagram, save the block diagram.
5. Double click the scope and view the result.

SIMULING MODEL:
TWO AREA CONTROL WITH OUT CONTROLLER

31
TWO AREA CONTROL WITH CONTROLLER

32
 RESULT:
Modeling of two area load frequency with and without controllers was studied
and responses are simulated using simulation software.

33
 EXPERIMENT – 7

PSPICE SIMULATION OF 3-PHASE INVERTER WITH PWM CONTROLLER

AIM: To obtain the simulation of 3-phase inverter with PWM controller

THEORY:
A basic three phase inverter is a six step bridge inverter. It uses a minimum of six
thyristors for one cycle of 360° each step would be of 60° Interval for a six-step inverter.
This means that thyristor would be gated at regular interval of 60° in proper sequence so
that a 3-phase ac voltage is synthesized at output terminals of a six-step interval.
There are two possible patterns of gating thyristors. In one patterns of
gating thyristors. In one pattern each thyristor conduct for 180 and in other each thyristor
conducts for 120°
Circuit Diagram:

PROGRAM:
VS 1 0 DC 200V
VG1 5 2 PULSE (0V 10V 0US 1NS 1NS 0.5MS 1MS)
VG2 10 0 PULSE (0V 10V 166.6US 1NS 1NS 0.5MS 1MS)
VG3 6 3 PULSE (0V 10V 333.33US 1NS 1NS 0.5MS 1MS)
VG4 8 0 PULSE (0V 10V 500US 1NS 1NS 0.5MS 1MS)
VG5 7 4 PULSE (0V 10V 666.66US 1NS 1NS 0.5MS 1MS)
VG6 9 0 PULSE (0V 10V 833.33US 1NS 1NS 0.5MS 1MS)
R1 2 11 10
R2 3 11 10
R3 4 11 10

34
D1 2 1 DMOD
D2 0 4 DMOD
D3 3 1 DMOD
D4 0 2 DMOD
D5 4 1 DMOD
D6 0 3 DMOD
.MODEL DMOD D(IS=2.22E-50 BV=1200V IBV=13E-3)
*SUBCKT CALL FOR DC THYRISTOR*
XT1 1 2 5 2 SCR
XT2 4 0 10 0 SCR
XT3 1 3 6 3 SCR
XT4 2 0 8 0SCR
XT5 1 4 7 4 SCR
XT6 3 0 9 0 SCR
*SUBCKT FOR DC THYRISTOR*
.SUBCKT SCR 1 2 3 4
S1 1 5 3 4 SMOD
DT 5 2 DMOD
.MODEL SMOD VSWITCH(RON=0.01 ROFF=10E+6 VON=10V VOFF=0V)
.MODEL DMOD D(IS=2.2E-15 BV=1200V)
.ENDS SCR
.TRAN 5US 2.5MS 1.0MS 5US
.PROBE
.END

35
 EXPERIMENT – 8

PROGRAM FOR PID CONTROLLER

AIM :- TO DEVELOP A PROGRAM FOR PID CONTROLLER.

TOOLS REQUIRED :-
(1). latest matlab software.
THEORY :-
PID CONTROLLER :-
A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is a control
loop feedback mechanism(controller) commonly used in industrial control systems. A
PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the difference between a
desired setpoint and a measured process variable. The controller attempts to minimize the
error over time by adjustment of a control variable, such as the position of a control
valve, a damper, or the power supplied to a heating element, to a new value determined
by a weighted sum:

where  ,  , and  , all non-negative, denote the coefficients for

the proportional, integral, and derivativeterms, respectively (sometimes
denoted P, I, and D). In this model

 P accounts for present values of the error. For example, if the error is large and
positive, the control output will also be large and positive.
 I accounts for past values of the error. For example, if the current output is not
sufficiently strong, error will accumulate over time, and the controller will respond
by applying a stronger action.

36
 D accounts for possible future values of the error, based on its current rate of
change.

The basic idea behind a PID controller is to read a sensor, then compute the desired
actuator output by calculating proportional, integral, and derivative responses and
summing those three components to compute the output. 
Some applications may require using only one or two terms to provide the appropriate
system control. This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller
will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions.
PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement
noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its
target value.

Example: Temperature Control using a Digital PID controller

A typical PID temperature controller application could be to continuously vary a

regulator which can alter a process temperature. This may be a pulsed switching
device for electrical heaters or by opening and closing a gas valve. A heat only PID
temperature controller uses a reverse output action, i.e. more power is applied when
the temperature is below the setpoint and less power when above. PID control for
injection and extrusion applications often employ additional cooling control outputs
and usually require multiple controllers.

A PID controller (sometimes called a three term controller) reads the sensor signal,
normally from a thermocouple or RTD, and converts the measurement to
engineering units e.g. Degrees C. It then subtracts the measurement from a desired
setpoint to determine an error.

GRAPH :-

37
PROGRAM :-

clc
t=0:0.01:8;
for k=5:-0.2:2
for a=1.5:-0.2:0.5
num=k*[1+2*a+a^2]
den=[0 1 0]
sys1=tf(num,den);
num2=[0 0 0 1.2]
den2=[0.36 1.86 2.5 1]
sys2=tf(num2,den2);
sys3=sys1*sys2;
sys4=feedback(sys3,1)
y=step(sys2,t);
m=max(y);
if ((m>1.1)& (m<1.05))
plot(t,4)
grid
sol=[k,a,m]
break
end
end
end
sol=[k,a,m]
disp(‘the value of k:’)
disp(k)
38
disp(‘the value of a;’)
disp(a)
disp(‘the value of m:’)
disp(m)
plot(t,y)

39
 EXPERIMENT – 9

Develop a Simulink model for Automatic Voltage Regulator with and without
Controller

Aim: - To develop a simulink model for automatic voltage regulator with and without
controller.

Theory:-
The reactive stability of the AVR is increased by introducing a controller which would
add a zero to the AVR open loop transfer function one way to do add a rate feedback to
the control system. By proper adjustment of and a satisfactory response can be
obtained.
Second method is PID controller is used to improve the dynamic response as well as to
reduce the steady state error.
The derivative controller adds a finite zero to open loop transfer function and improves
the transient response. The integral controller adds a pole at origin and increases the
system type by one and reduces the steady state error due to a step function to zero. The
PID T.F is

Theoretical problem:
The stability time constant is Tf=0.04 sec and the derivative gain is adjusted to Kf=2
a) Obtain the step response and the time domain performance specifications.
b) Construct the simulink model and obtain the step response.

Steady state response is

40
Diagram:

AVR WITHOUT PID CONTROLLER

AVR WITH PID CONTROLLER

41
SIMULINK MODEL:

GRAPH:

42
GRAPH:

43
 Experiment-10

LAG COMPENSATOR

Aim: To design lag compensator.

MATLAB Program:
clc
k=input('Enter the value of k to meet the steady state required: ')
pos = input (“Enter the percentage overshoot: ‘);
n=[100*k]
d=poly([0 -36 -100]);
g=tf(n,d)
z=(-log(pos/100)/sqrt(pi^2+log(pos/100)^2));
pm=atan(2*z/sqrt(-2*z^2+sqrt(1+4*z^4)))*(1180/pi)+10;
w=0.01:0.1:100;
[n,p]=bode(g,w)
ph=-180+pm
for k=1:1:length(p)
if (p (k) -ph)<=0
m=p (k);
wf=w(k);
end
end
wh=wf/10;
w1=wh/m;
nc=[1 wh];
dc=[1 w1];
kc=w1/wh
gc=tf(kc*nc,dc);
gcg=gc*g;
s=tf([1 0},1);
sgcg=s*gcg;
sycq=minreal(sgcg);
kv=dcgain(sgcg);
t=feedback(gcg,1);
subplot(2,2,1)
step(t)
title('Close loop response of lag compensator');
subplot(2,2,2)
bode(g)
title('Bode Plot of compenstor');
subplot(2,2,4)

44
step(g)
title('Closed Compensator');

Model Graph:

Result: Lag compensator is designed in MATLAB for a model control

system and waveforms have been obtained.

45
 Experiment-11

INTRODUCTION TO 8255

THEORY:

46
47
EXPERIMENTS OF 8255 IN MODE-0
EXPERIMENT-1:
AIM: To initialize port A as an input port in mode -0
PROGRAM:
1000 BE 00 15 MOV SI,1500H
1003 BO 90 MOV AL,90
1005 E6 C6 OUT C6,AL

48
1007 E4 C0 IN AL,C0
1009 88 04 MOV[SI],AL
100B F4 HLT

EXPERIMENT-2:
AIM: To initialize port-A as an input port and port B as output port in mode-0.
PROGRAM:
1000 BO 90 MOV AL,90H
1002 E6 C6 OUT C6,AL
1004 E4 C0 IN AL,C0
1006 E6 C2 OUT C2,AL
1008 F4 HLT

EXPERIMENT-3:
AIM: To initialize port-C as output port in mode-0.
PROGRAM:
1000 BO 90 MOV AL, 90
1002 E6 C6 OUT C6,AL
1004 BO 80 MOV AL,80
1006 E6 C4 OUT C4,AL
1008 F4 HLT

49
SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad – 501 301

LAB MANUAL

FOR

POWER SYSTEMS LAB

For

M.TECH EPE I– II SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING 2017

I Year-II Sem.M.Tech(EPE)
Code:6X277 POWER SYSTEMS LAB
(Minimum of ten of the following to be conducted)
L T P C
_ _ 4 2

50
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Determination of Equivalent circuit of a 3‐winding transformer.

2. Determination of sequence impedances of a cylindrical rotor synchronous

machine.

3. Fault Analysis of a 3 phase Alternator, (LG, LL, LLG,LLLG faults).

4. Determination of Sub-transient reactance`s of Salient Pole Synchronous

Machine .

5. Determination of Positive, Negative and zero sequence reactance of 3 ph

Transformers.

6. IDMT Characteristics of Over Current Relay Make : EASUN Reyrolle ltd.,

7. Characteristics of Percentage biased of Static/Electro Magnetic differential

Relay

8. Characteristics of Static Relay UV/OV 7052B/7053B, Make : L&T ltd.,

9. Characteristics of Static Negative Sequence Relay 7055B. Make : ALSTOM ,

10. Performance and Testing of Generator/Transformer Protection System.

11. Performance and Testing of Transmission line Model 220KV/ 400Km .

12. Differential Protection on Single Phase Transformer.

51
Determination of Equivalent circuit of a 3‐winding t

1. ransformer.

Aim: i) To find the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the given three
phase three winding (Star Star Delta) transformer and
ii) Obtain the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
Apparatus:
Voltmeters: 0-300V, 0-600V
Ammeter :
Wattmeter: 0-600V, A, UPF 2Nos
Wattmeter: 0-300V, A, LPF 1No.
Note:
Subscripts 1,2 and 3 refer to primary, secondary and tertiary.
Theory:
For a 3 phase, star-star-tertiary transformer (secondary earthed), the following impedances
are defined with reference to the primary.
Z12 : Leakage impedance of the transformer, as measured from with the secondary(2) short
circuited and the tertiary(3) left open.
Z13: Leakage impedance of the transformer seen from the primary with the tertiary short
circuited and the secondary left open.
Z23: Leakage impedance as measured from the secondary with tertiary short circuited and
primary left open.
Now Z12 = Z1 +Z2 ----(1)
Z13=Z1+Z3 -----(2)
Z23 =Z2+Z3 ----(3)
Where Z1 =leakage impedance per phase of the primary winding
Z2’ = (N1/N2)2 Z2 is the leakage impedance of secondary referred to the primary by the square
of the turns ratio, ie (N1/N2).
Z3’ = (N1/N2)2 Z3 leakage impedance of the tertiary winding referred to the primary by (N 1/N2)2
From equations (1),(2) and (3), we obtain

Z1 = (Z12+ Z13 - Z23)/2 -----(4)

Z2’= (Z12+ Z23 - Z13)/2 ----(5)
Z3’ = (Z13+ Z23 - Z12 )/2 ---(6)

52
The leakage impedances, Z12, Z23 and Z13 can be obtained by short circuit test and the per
phase leakages impedances Z 1 Z2’ and Z3’ are obtained from eqs. (4),(5) and (6).
The equivalent circuit of the three winding transformer is shown below.

Procedure: Positive and negative sequence impedance (Z P and ZN)

1. Connect the transformer to the variable 3 phase supply as per figure1.
2. Vary the 3 phase auto transformer tap position, so that the rated current of the
transformers flows through the winding1.
3. Note the readings on the wattmeters, voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Calculate Z12 as given in the tabular column, which is given below.

V I W W P=W1+W Z12=(V/
cosØ=P/ V
1 2 2
I

R12= Z12 cosØ

X12= Z12 sinØ
5. Refer the figure2 and figure3 repeat steps 1 to 4 and find Z 23

llly R23 = Z23 cosØ

X23= Z23 sinØ
[Z12 is replaced by Z23 in the last (right most) column of the above table .
Zero sequence impedance (Z0)
6. Connect as per figure 4 and vary the output from the single phase autotransformer, so that
the rated current flows through the primary winding of the transformer, note the readings of W,
Vand I as given under steps 10 to 40 is used for calculations with the understanding that Z 12 is
replaced by Z0=V/3I
53
R0 = Z0cosØ
X0= Z0 sinØ
For the star star delta transformer with secondary earthed, Z 0 = Z23 .

The positive and negative sequence impedances for a transformer are equal and

ZP =ZN =Z1+Z2 between primary and secondary and ZP =ZN =Z1+Z3 between primary and
tertiary, as seen from the equivalent circuit.

Fig.1Circuit diagram to measure the impedances Z 12,Z23 and Z13 as defined for a three winding
three phase transformer( Star star Delta)

Fig2. Circuit Diagram to measure the impedance Z 23 for star star delta transformer

54
 Fig3. Circuit Diagram to measure the impedance Z 13 for star delta transformer

Fig-4 circuit diagram to find the Zero Phase Sequence impedance

(Star/star/delta transformer)

Introduction
Multi-winding power transformers and autotransformers are important components in
transmission and distribution power systems. They make possible the transfer of energy between
networks operating at various voltage levels, the interconnection of multiple shaft combined cycle
generating units to a power grid and the connection of reactive compensation resources to EHV
transmission networks, just to name a few applications. The modeling of these power system
components in the steady state analysis of electrical networks is critical since incorrect data for their
positive sequence winding leakage impedance, magnetizing admittance, off-nominal turn ratios,
number of tap positions, tap range or voltage control band may lead to erroneous results in the
verification of voltage and reactive power control schemes, and in the assessment of transmission
losses and system reliability.

55
The main objective of this article is to assist PSS®
E users with a guide for entering electrical transformer
data for the positive sequence model of the electrical network with a minimum of effort and minimizing
the potential for errors.
Notes and suggestions for entering each of the required model variables are given below, along with
an
example demonstrating the entry of the data for a three-winding voltage regulating transformer.
Model Data Requirements
The positive sequence network model used by PSS®
E for three-phase three-winding transformers or
autotransformers or three-phase banks of three identical single-phase three-winding transformers is
shown in Figure 1 below. The model includes the three equivalent leakage impedances of the
windings,
Z1= r1 +j x1, Z2 = r2 +j x2 and Z3 = r3 +j x3, and allows off-nominal taps to be represented on each of
the
windings. This model also allows the modeling of the transformer magnetizing admittance, Ym = Gh+e
-j
Bm, that is often neglected on the I-side (winding 1) of the transformer. One of the many features
found in PSS®
E is that the user does not have to calculate the between-windings leakage impedances,
magnetizing admittance, effective off-nominal transformer taps, tap steps or tap limits; these
calculations are performed within PSS®

56
Determination of sequence impedances of a cylindrical rotor
Synchronous Machine .

1. Aim: To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence of impedances or sequence
impedances of the given three phase alternator.

2. Apparatus:- Three phase alternator DC motor set

Ammeter (0 –2.5 A) -----MC
(0—10 A) -----MI
Wattmeter ( 10 A 75/150/600V)
Auto-Transformer ( 0—230V)

3. Theory: The positive, Negative and Zero sequence impedances of rotating machines are
generally different. The +ve sequence impedance of Synchronous generator is equal to the
Synchronous impedance of the machine. Experimental set up to conduct OCC and SCC is
made available. With the help of observations Synchronous impedance can be calculated.
The –ve sequence impedance is much less than +ve Sequence impedance. The zero
sequence impedance is a variable item and if its value is not given, it may be assumed to be
equal to the +ve sequence impedance. For Zero sequence impedance a separate model is
used to conduct of experiment.

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
(A) POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

57
(B) NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE:

58
DETERMINATION OF ZERO-SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE:

59
5. Procedure:-

I. POSITIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

1. Obtain the O.C.C of the Alternator by connecting the Alternator
As in fig .1.
2. Obtain the S.C.C of the Alternator by connecting the Alternator
as in fig .2.
3. Determine the stator resistance / phase by connecting as shown
in fig.3.
Zs = O.C voltage / S.C current (at a same value of field current)

II NEGATIVE SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE

1. Connect the Circuit as shown in the fig.4.

2. Run the machine at rated speed with low excitation to the field of the Alternator.
3. The lines B and C shorted and the meters are connected as Shown

Cos Ø = W/ (VI)
Z 2 = V/ ( √(3 I)

III ZERO SEQUENCY IMPEDANCE

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig. 5.

2. Three phase winding are connected in series.
3. Apply low voltage to the Armature, so that rated full load current flow in the series field
winding.
Z 0 = V ao / Iao = 3E/I
60
6. Readings and Tabular forms:
Si.No. E I P Zo Xo

7. Result:

8. Discussion Questions:
1. Define +ve, -ve, Zero sequence impedances.
2. Why are they different for Alternators?
3. Can we analyze an unbalanced system otherwise?
4. What is the effect on the value of zero sequence reactance if the synchronous machine is
rotated at synchronous speed during the above experiment?
5. Out of all the reactance of synchronous machine which one is lowest?
6. What is the typical value of zero sequence reactance in per unit per large rating salient
pole alternator?

61
 Fault Analysis of a 3 phase Alternator, (LG, LL, LLG,LLLG faults).

Aim: To determine the fault currents on an unloaded synchronous generator for

(a) Line to ground fault (L-G Fault)
(b) Line to Line fault (L-L fault)
(c) Double Line to ground fault (LL-G Fault)

Apparatus Required:
Ammeter (0-10A) MI -- 1 No
Ammeter (0-2A) MC -- 1 No
Voltmeter (0-500V) -- 1 No

Procedure:
(a) L-G Fault:

1) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram for a line to ground fault on phase A .
2) Calculate the determinate value of the fault current from impedances
(+,-, Zero sequences).
3) Run the generator rated speed.
4) Increase the field current of excitation so that terminal voltage is constant value.
5) Close the switch to create the L-G fault on Phase A.
6) Note the current and voltage in the ammeter and voltmeter.
7) Open the switch and remove the L-G fault on phase A.
8) Reduce the excitation and open the field circuit switch and switch of the prime mover.

(b) L-L fault:

(1) Repeat the steps 1 to 6 for L-L and L-G faults.

(2) Connect the respective circuit in step 1.
(3) Generator is excited its a certain voltage as mention in step 2 of the procedure.

Note: This voltage must be such that it does not cause the rated current of the machine to be
exceeded.

62
Circuit diagram for L-G fault:

S.No. I in Amps Ef in Volts

Ia =3Ef/Z1+Z2+Z0 ------------------------------ (1)

Where Ia is fault current

Ef is the voltage to which the machine is excited
Z1+Z2+Z0 are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of the machine.

Verify the theoretical value calculated by using equation 1 with the actual value noted by the
ammeter.

63
(b) Circuit diagram for Line to line fault (L-L

fault):

S.No. I in Amps Ef in Volts

Ia1 = Ef/Z1+Z2
Ib = a2Ia1+aIa2; Ia2 = -Ia1 Where a2 = (-0.5-j0.866)
a= (-0.5+j0.866)
Fault current calculated which must be verified
with the actual value.

(C) Circuit Diagram for Double

line to ground fault (LL-G fault):

64
 S.No. I in Amps Ef in Volts

Calculations:
Va1 = Va2=Va0=Ef-Ia1Z1
Ia1 = Ef/Z1+(Z2xZ0/Z2+Z0)
Ia2 = -Va2/Z2 ; Ia0= -Va0/Z0
Ib = a2Ia1+a Ia2+Ia0

Where a2 =(-0.5+j0.866) ; a=(-0.5+l0.866)

In = 3 Ia0 = Ib+IC

Ic = - Ib=aIa1-a2Ia1

3. Determination of Sub-transient reactance`s of Salient Pole

Synchronous Machine .

1. AIM: To conduct the slip test on three phase alternator and to predetermine the
Regulation.

2. APPARATUS:

65
Ammeter (0-10A, MI) - 1 No
Voltmeter (0-60V, MI) - 1 No
Rheostat (40 Ώ, 5A) - 1 No
3 – Ø Variac (0-440 V, 15A)- 1No
Tachometer (0-9999rpm) - 1 No
3. THEORY:
The direct axis and quadrature axis reactance of a salient pole generator are found by doing
the slip test. The phasor diagram of the alternator is then obtained after finding the d-axis
reactance drop and q-axis reactance drop for a known current and power factor. The
generated emf is determined from the phasor diagram and is used to find the regulation.
Formulae:
1. Armature resistance R a = 1.25R dc. Where R dc is the resistance with DC supply.
2. Quadrature axis impedance per phase Zq = Vmin / Imax in ohms.
3. Direct axis Impedance per phase Zd = V max / I min ohms.
4. Direct axis reactance per phase Xd = √(Z d2 – R a2) in ohms.
5. Quadrature axis reactance per phase Xq =√( Zq 2 - R a2) in ohms.
6. Percentage regulation = ((E-V ) / V) × 100.

4. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

5. PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connections as per the 4.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.
2. Give the supply by closing the DPST switch.
3. Start the motor to run at the synchronous speed by varying the motor.
Field rheostat at the same time cheek whether alternator field has been opened or not.
4. Apply 5% of the rated phase voltage to the armature of the alternator by adjusting
the autotransformer.
5. To obtain the slip and maximum oscillations of pointers, the speed is reduced
slightly below synchronous speed.
6. Maximum current, minimum current, maximum voltage and minimum voltage are
noted.
66
7. Find out direct and quadrature axis impedances.
8. Find out the armature resistance per phase for the alternator by connecting as per the
4.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.
9. Draw the vector diagram and calculate the regulation.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The motor rheostat should be kept in the minimum resistance position.
2. The alternator field rheostat should be kept open through the experiment.
3. The direction of rotation of the prime mover and the alternator run as a motor should be the
same.
4. Initially all the switches are kept open.
6. READINGS AND TABULAR FORM

TO FIND DIRECT AXIS IMPEDANCE

Speed of the alternator:
Applied voltage to the stator (5% of rated voltage):

Minimum current Maximum Direct axis Direct axis

S.No. per phase voltage per Impedance reactance
(Imin) phase (Vmax) Zd Xd
Amperes Volts ohms ohms

67
 TO FIND QUADRATURE AXIS IMPEDANCE

Minimum Quadrature Quadrature

Maximum current
voltage per axis axis
S.No. per phase
phase Impedance reactance
(Imax)
(Vmin) Zq Xq
Amperes Volts ohms ohms

TO FINDOUT THE ARMATURE RESISTANCE

ARMATURE RESISTANCE DETERMINATION:

S.No V I Rdc= V/I

68
Ra = 1.25 x Rdc

69
7. RESULTS:

8. DISCUSSION:

1. Why is a salient pole machine said to be ‘stiffer’ than a cylindrical machine?

2. Give in detail the construction of a salient pole machine.
3. For which type of prime mover is a salient pole machine suitable?
4. Sketch the power angle characteristics of a salient pole machine.
5. What is reluctance power?

5. Determination of Positive, Negative and zero sequence reactance of

3 ph Transformers.

1. Aim: -
To determine the Positive, Negative and Zero sequence (sequence impedance) of the given
three phase transformer

2. Apparatus: -
Ammeter -------- 0 – 5 A MI ----- 01
70
 Voltmeter --------- 0 – 60 MI ----- 01
3. Theory:
Since Transformers have the same impedance with reversed phase rotation, their +ve and –
ve sequence impedances are equal. This value being equal to the impedance of the
Transformer. However, Zero sequence impedance depends upon the Earth connection. If
there is a through Circuit for the earth current, zero sequence impedance will be equal to the
+ve sequence impedance otherwise it will be infinite. Lab experiment is planned to find out
sequence impedances by creation of faults at secondary suitably and measure impedances.
Proper care is taken to ensure readings would not damage the equipment.

1. Circuit Diagram:

5. Procedure: -
 Connect the given three phase transformer as shown in the circuit
Diagram 1
 After short-circuiting the low voltage side adjusts the voltage on high
voltage side with the help of the autotransformer such that the rated
current flows in the windings.
 Note down the voltage and current.
 From these readings determine the transformer positive sequence
Impedance which is also equal to negative sequence impedance.
 Determine the zero sequence impedance of the transformer by
making connections as shown in the 4. Circuit Diagram 2.

71
 Note down the voltage and current.

V
Z1 
3I
Z 2  Z1
V
Z0 
3I

6. Readings and Tabular form:

7. Result:

Discussion Questions:
1. Define Sequence Impedances.
2. Explain symmetrical components method.
3. Why +ve, -ve sequence impedances same for a transformer?

72
 6. IDMT Characteristics of Over Current Relay Make : EASUN

Reyrolle.

1. Aim: To study the Operation of an Non- Directional electromechanical type over current (I D M T
relay) and plot the inverse time current characteristics.

2. Apparatus:
Non-Directional Over current relay --1 no
Time Totalizer --1 no
Fault creation Panel --1 no
Digital Ammeter --1 no

3. Theory:

IDMT relay is inverse definite minimum time relay. It is one in which Time of operation is
inversely proportional to magnitude of fault current near pickup value and becomes substantially
constant slightly above the pickup value of the Relay. This is achieved by using a core of the Electro
Magnet which gets saturated for currents slightly greater than the pickup current. Fault current and
measure relay operation time is used to conduct the experiment. Values recorded for various TSMs
and PSMs. Characteristics studied with the help of a graph and correlated with theory.
This relay consists of Induction disc unit with an operation indicator and in some cases an
instantaneous high set unit all assembled are in standard frame. Type disc shaft carried silver rod
moving contacts which complete the auxiliary unit circuit through the fixed contract. Permanent
magnet is used to control the disc speed. The setting is adjusted by the movement of the back stop
which is controlled by the rotating a KNUR LED molded disc at the base of graduated time multiplier.

4. Circuit Diagram:

73
5. Procedure:-
1. Switch ON the MCB.
2. Initially rotor switch should be in OFF position.
3. Now set the described fault current by using the current source. For that switch ON the rotor
switch and move the current till the described fault current is indicated in the ammeter.
4. Now move the rotor switch is OFF position and press the green button. Note down the time in
seconds after relay operated.
5. Repeat the same procedure for various T.S.M and P.S.M
74
 6. Plot the graph between time take for relay to operate Vs P.S.M for various T.S.M.

Precautions:-
 Disc must be stationary before applying fault current.
 TSM setting must be changed with due care.

6. Readings and Tabular forms:-

PSM = TSM =
SNO. Fault Current Time of
operation
.

Expected graphs:

7. Result:

8. Discussion questions:
1. Why CT is required in this experiment?
2. Can we design the experiment without Current Injection Unit?
3. What is TSM & PSM and why different TSM & PSM?
4. Identify different terminals of the relay and explain their use. Write them in your record.

75
 7. Characteristics of Percentage biased of Static/Electro Magnetic
differential Relay.

1. Aim: - To study the differential protection scheme for a Three phase transformer with
Unequal turn’s ratio

2. Apparatus:-
Three phase transformer, Current transformer, Three phase variac,
Suitable ammeters and over current relay

3. Theory:
A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities. From this definition the Differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say
I1 and I2. The two or more actuating quantities should be same.
Ex: Current / Current.
The Relay responds to vector difference between I1 & I2 which includes magnitude and/Or
Phase angle difference. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The protection zone
is exactly determined by Location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by suitable
connection of CTs or PTs secondaries. Most differential relays are Current Differential relays
in which vector Difference between current entering the winding & current leaving the winding
is used for relay operation. Differential protection is used for protection of Generators,
Transformers etc. Internal fault is created using switch and relay operation observed for
various TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be studied.

4. Circuit Diagram:

5. Procedure:-

 Make the connections as shown in fig. 1.

76
 Apply the rated voltage by using three single phase autotransformer and apply balance
load by using rotatory switch.
 Select the transformation ratio 2:1 and the C.T. ratios of 5:1 and 10:1 Set PSM of the
relay equal to 0.5.
 Without applying fault, note down different meter readings.
 By applying load observe whether the relay is operating of not.
 Now close the switch S so as to create an internal fault.
 Note the various ammeter readings when relay operates.
 Create internal fault at different loads and note the various meter readings.
 Now create an external fault and observe whether the relay operates Or not, note the
various meter readings.

6. Readings and Tabular form

OBSERVATION: - Internal Fault

S.No. fault Current Secondary Fault Time of

Primary (A) Current (A) Current operation
(A)
R Y B R

7. Result

8. Discussion Question
1. Why identical CTs are required in this scheme.
2. How would you take into account CT imbalances?

3. What do you understand by internal fault?

77
 8. Characteristics of Static Relay UV/OV 7052B/7053B, Make : L&T
ltd.,

Aim:
To study the operation of Microprocessor Based type under voltage relay and hence to
obtain inverse time/voltage characteristics.

Apparatus Required:

Microprocessor Based Under voltage relay ----- 1No

Auto Transformer ----- 1No
Voltmeter (0-600V)MI ----- 1No
Timer ----- 1No
Connecting Wire
Theory:
Over Voltage/Under Voltage Relay is an electronic microcontroller based single-phase
voltage relay. It is suitable for over voltage/under voltage protection schemes in LV, MV and
HV power distribution systems. It is also suitable for over voltage protection of AC circuits,
capacitors, machines such as generators, synchronous motor and under voltage protection of
AC circuits, Induction motors, automatic change over schemes etc.
The microcontroller-based design offers a wide range of Trip-Time characteristics, under
voltage or over voltage mode and PT rating (110V, 240V, 415V), which can all be selected in
the field at the time of commissioning. It accepts very wide auxiliary supply range.
Relay is designed for flush mounting. It is very compact in size, which results in saving of
panel space. Its draw-out construction makes installation and maintenance very easy.

Circuit Diagram:

78
Procedure:
(1) Switch on the MCB
(2) Initially Rotary switch should be in OFF position
(3) Now to set the desired fault voltage we will be using voltage source.
For that switch ON the Rotary switch marked as voltage set and move the voltage source till
the desired fault voltage is indicated on the voltmeter, it is quit possible that while adjusting the
fault voltage the Relay might trip for that you have to RESET the RELAY by pressing the red
button provided on the relay denoted by (RELAY RESET) for resetting the relay the Rotary
switch must be brought in OFF position.
(4) Now the desire Fault voltage is SET and Relay RESET. Now move
the Toggle Switch on OFF position and press the green push button and timer counting will
start and counting will STOP once the relay is operated. Note down the time in seconds.
(5) Now for various T.M.S (Time Multiplier Setting) and Voltage setting
the time taken by the relay to operate at various fault voltage may be note down.

Tabular Column

S.No. T.M.S Voltage Setting Applied Operating Time

Voltage

Graph
Plot the graph operating time Vs applied voltage.

Setting of Fault voltage Level:

Vs = 1-(0.05+∑a) Vn,

Where,
Vs = Pick up setting in volts

79
 Vn = PT rating 110V
a = weight of the switch in ON position

Note: In Under voltage mode, continuing with above example, the pick up setting becomes
Vs=(1-0.30) =70% of Vn. For 110 volts Vn, the pick up voltage becomes 77 volts. If Vn=415,
then pick up voltage becomes 290.5 volts. Where voltages below this set value, relay picks up
and trips according to selected trip time characteristics.
The trip time will depend upon:
a) Trip time characteristic selected and magnitude of fault in case of Inverse Trip Time
Characteristics.
b) Define Time in case of Definite Time Characteristics.

Time Multiplier Settling:

This feature offers various operations of Trip Time for a selected Trip Time
Characteristic. The Time Multiplication Factor can be set from 0.1 to 1.6 in steps of 0.1 using
the last block of four DIP switches shown in Diagram. This means in case of Inverse Trip Time
Characteristics. Relay offers 16 parallel curves corresponding to each Time Multiplier Setting
as shown in Figure and in case of Definite Trip Time mode, the trip time can be set 100msec
to 160 secs.
The method of setting this switch is similar to one explained in previous pages.
Trip time T is given by formula

T = K (0.1+∑t) where
T = Trip time in seconds.
K = Constant depending on Trip Time Characteristic selected

Normal Inverse (3.5 secs) in OV mode when fault is 2Vs

Normal Inverse (5.7 secs) in UV mode when fault is 0.5Vs.
1.0 Definite Time (1.0 sec)
10.0 Definite Time (10 sec)
100.0 Definite Time (100 sec)

t=weight of the switches in ON position

Result:

80
9. Characteristics of Static Negative Sequence Relay 7055B. Make :
Alstom.

Aim: To check the operation of the Negative Sequence Relay

Apparatus Required:
Armature AC traced Type Electro Mechanical Negative Phase Sequence Relay – 1
Variac Single phase -- 3
Resistive Load (Balanced and Unbalanced) (3 Phase) -- 1
Transformer 1.5KVA,3Ø Star/Delta -- 1

Theory:
The relay should be pick-up when the operating current is reached the negative phase
sequence current is given by I 2=0.6 In, Where In is operating current of relay, the relay
operate for the calculate value of I 2 ( Negative Phase sequence current) at this value of I 2 the
correspondent value of In is obtained from as given above.

The current to be injected is given by I= I2

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Adjust the auto transformer tap position 240V/Phase.
3. Apply the Balanced load secondary winding of the transformer.
4. Note down the all meters readings.
5. Now set the voltage R-phase at 140V,Y-phase 270V, B-phase at 110V.
6. Note down the all meters readings and % of negative phase sequence.
7. Set the Voltage Normal value of 240V/ phase, apply the unbalanced load Y and B-phase
only.
8. Note down all meters readings and % of negative sequence trip.
9. Same procedure can do for R and Y-phase also.
10. Plot the graph between % Negative sequence Vs Unbalanced current or voltage.

81
Circuit Diagram

Tabulation;

Sl.n (v) (v) (v) ( I2) ( I2) ( I2) % of

o R phase Y phase B phase R phase Y phase B phase Negativ
seconda Seconda Seconda Seconda Seconda Seconda e
ry ry ry ry ry ry Sequen
ce
Trip

Sample Graph

% of Negative
Sequence Trip

10. Performance and Testing of Generator/Transformer Protection

System.
82
 Over current and Earth fault operation of a 3 Phase Alternator/Generator/Transformer.
Aim:
To find the fault currents of the given alternator for overloads and earth faults, the alternator
protected by two over current and one earth fault relays.
Apparatus:
Alternator with prime mover, 2 over current relays earth fault relays, ammeters(3),current
transformer(3), connecting wires, Single pole switch(3), three phase load, three phase
contactor.
Procedure:
a) Connect the circuit diagram as given in figure 1.
b) Run the alternator at its synchronous speed by using its prime mover.
c) Switch on the DC supply to the field conductor.
d) Adjust the excitation of the alternator till the rated voltage is generated under open circuit
(no-load connections).
e) Close TPST switch S1 to connect to the resistive 3 phase load.
f) Close the knife switches on the 3 phase local to gradually load the generator.
g) Inverse the load current by closing more no. of switches till the alternator is overloaded.
h) When alternator reaches rated load current observe the tripping of contactor c by one over
current relay and note the respective ammeter currents. The alarm lamp will glow.
i) Reduce the load to normal values and close the contactor C, after resetting the alarm by
operating switch R.
j) Close any one of the switch EF1 to create an earth fault. Observe the tripping of the
alternator by contactor C and note the ammeter currents (A1,A2 and A3).
k) Step j can be repeated by closing EF2 and EF3,(to create earth faults on other phases).
l) Switch off DC supply to the field and switch off the prime movers.

83
 Note: 1. Prime mover of alternator not shown.
2. DC Motor with associated starter may be used as prime mover for the alternator shown
in circuit diagram.
3. Field rheostat not included

3 phase Transformer Protection system

Aim:
To determine characteristics of 2 Over-current and one-earth fault relay (combination)

Apparatus Required:
Ammeter (0-10A) MI -- 03 Nos
Ammeter (0-2A) MI -- 01 No
Voltmeter (0-600V) MI -- 01 No
Digital time totalizer -- 01 No

Circuit Diagram:

84
Procedure:
(i) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
(ii) Switch-on supply; apply the rated voltage (400V) to the transformer.
(iii) Switch-on the load 1, note down the various meter reading.
(iv) Now create the fault by increasing load (over current R,Y and B Phase) . Note
down the various meters reading.
(v) Absorb the relay trip or Not.
(vi) Create the earth fault between R-phase and ground, note down various meter
reading and note down the TSM, PSM and operating time of the over-current earth
fault relay.
Tabular Column:
S.No Voltage Current (R) Current (Y) Current(B) Earth Operating
Fault time

85
 Performance and Testing of Transmission line Model.

1. Aim:-
 To determine Efficiency and Regulation of 3 phase Transmission
model With Resistive load .
 To observe Ferranti effect.
 Open conductor operation and measurement of Voltages and
Currents.

2. Apparatus:-
Voltmeter (o - 600v) MI -------2 Nos
Ammeter (0 – 10 A ) MI -------2 Nos
Watt meter (UPF, 5A, 600V) ------- 4 Nos

3. Theory:
The transmission line constants are uniformly distributed over
the entire length for a short line and these constants are called lumped
constants. If the length of the transmission line is more than 200 km
serious errors are introduced in the performance calculations. Hence a
equivalent T or pie network is determined to represent the line
accurately by assuming suitable values of lumped constants.

4. Circuit Diagram:

5. Procedure: - (For finding Efficiency and Regulation)

1. Make the connection as per the 4. Circuit Diagram.
2. Switch ON supply and adjust rated voltage, note down voltage,
Current and power at sending end and receiving end at no load.
3. Repeat step 2 at different loads of (A) Resistive load (B) inductive load

86
6. Readings and Tabular forms :

FOR RESISTIVE LOAD

Vs Ws Vr Ir Wr Regulation Efficiency

Sample calculations:

% Efficiency = W receiving * 100

W sending
% Regulation = V No –VL * 100
V NO
Where V N O = Voltage at receiving end at no load.
V L = Voltage at receiving end at particular
load.

Precaution: -
Keep the voltage at sending end constant through out the experiment.

7. Results:

8. Discussion questions:
1.Can we simulate Nominal – II and Nominal T- Models and measure
Regulation and Efficiency?
2.What are the reasons for Ferranti Effect?
3.How faults are classified?

87
 DETERMINATION A, B, C, D CONSTANTS OF MEDIUM LINE AND CIRCLE
DIAGRAM

1. Aim: To determine ABCD constants of 3 phase transmission line with

a) Distributed Connection
b) Nominal – T connection

2. Apparatus:
a) For Open Circuit Test:
i) p.f. meter – 10A, 150/300/600V (0.5-1-0.5)
ii) Voltmeter - (0-300V) MI
iii) Ammeter - (0-1A) MI

b) For Short Circuit Test

i) Wattmeter - 10A, 75V, UPF
ii) Voltmeter - (0-30V) MI
iii) Ammeter - (0-10A) MI
3. Theory: If a transmission line is erected, the constants are measured by conducting the OC &
SC tests at the two ends of the line.

Using equations
Vs = AVr + BIr
Is = CVr + DIr

Impedance measurement on the SE side: SE impedance with RE open circuit is

Vs A
Zso = — = — (Ir=0)
Is C
SE impedance with RE short circuited,
Vs B
Zss = — = — (Vr=0)
Is D
Measurement of impedance on RE side
Using equations
Vr = DVs — BIs
Ir = — CVs + AIs
While performing test, the current leaves the Network
Is -= — Is , Ir = — Ir
Vr = DVs — BIs
— Ir = — CVs — AIs
Ir = CVs + AIs
RE impedance with SE open circuited, Zro
Vr D
Zro = — = — (Is=0)
Ir C
RE impedance with SE short circuited, Z rs
Vr B
Zrs = — = — (Vs=0)
Ir A

88
 D B 1
Zro — Zrs = — − — = —
C A AC

Zso
----------- = A2
Zro - Zrs

Zso
A = √ ----------------
(Zro — Zrs)

B
Zrs= -----
A
B = Zrs . A

Zso
B = Zrs √ ------------
(Zro – Zrs)

A A 1 Z so
Zso = ----- C = ----- = --- √ -----------
C Zso Zso (Zro – Zrs)

D
Zro = ----
C
D = C.Zro
Zro Zso
= ----- √ ---------- (Zro = Zso)
Zso (Zro – Zrs)
D=A

89
4. Circuit Diagram:

10A, 150/300/600v (0-1A) MI

Is p.f A
A B

1Φ-variac
Supply Vr,(Ir=0)
V (0-300V) MI
C D
Fig-1 (OC test on SE side)
10A, 75v. UPF (0-10A) MI
A
M L A B

1Φ-variac C V
Supply Vr=0
V (0-30v) MI
C D
Fig-2 (SC test on SE)

A B A pf

(
0
C D
-
DDD 3
0
0
v
(0-1A) MI ) V (0-300v) MI
(0-1A) MI p.f M
I Is
V

(
1Φvariac V (0-300v) MI Supply 0
Fig-3 (OC test on RE side) -
(0-10A) MI 10A, 75v. UPF 3
A L M 0
0 A B
v
)
M
V C I 1Φ-variac
Vs=0 V (0-30v) MI
Supply
C D

Fig-4 (SC test on RE side)

5. Procedure:
O.C. & S.C. tests on SE side:
90
 2. Connect the circuit as per fig.(1) for O.C. test on SE.
3. Set 230V on Voltmeter using variac and note V s, Is and p.f. meter reading.
4. Connect the circuit as per fig (2) for S.C. test on SE.
5. Set 8A on Ammeter and note Vs, Is and wattmeter readings.

O.C. & SC tests of RE side

1. Connect the circuit as per fig (3) for O.C test on RE.
2. Set 230V in Voltmeter & note Vr, Ir & p.f meter reading.
3. Connect the circuit as per fig (4) for SC test on RE.
4. Set 8A in Ammeter & note Vr, Ir & Wattmeter reading.

6. Readings and Tabular forms

O.C. & S.C. tests on SE side:
Test Vs Is p.f / Wattmeter reading

O.C (Ir=0) 230

S.C (Vr=0) 8A

O.C. & SC tests of RE side

Test Vr Ir p.f / Wattmeter

reading

O.C (Is=0) 230

S.C (Vs=0) 8A

Calculations:
Vs
Zso = -------- (Ir = 0)
Is

Vs
Zss = --- (Vr = 0)
Is
Vr
Zro = --- (Is= 0)
Ir
Vr
91
Zrs = --- (Vs= 0)
Ir
Zso
A = √ ----------
(Zro – Zrs)
Zso
B = Zrs √ ----------
(Zro – Zrs)
1 Zso
C = --- √ ----------
Zso (Zro – Zrs)
D=A
Note: Same 5. Procedure is repeated for Nominal – T Connection.
Result:
8. Discussion questions:
1. What are A,B,C,D constants?
2. Prove AD-BC = 1

Power transmission line :

Electric-power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power

plants to electrical substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local wiring
between high-voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power
distribution.

Most transmission lines use high-voltage three-phase alternating current (AC), although single

phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems.High-voltage direct-current (HVDC)
technology is used for greater efficiency in very long distances (typically hundreds of miles
(kilometres), or in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km). HVDC links are
also used to stabilize against control problems in large power distribution networks where sudden
new loads or blackouts in one part of a network can otherwise result in synchronization problems
and cascading failures.

Diagram of an electric power system; transmission system is in blue

92
Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in long-
distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground
power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is
sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.

A key limitation in the distribution of electric power is that, with minor exceptions, electrical energy
cannot be stored, and therefore must be generated as needed. A sophisticated control system is
required to ensure electric generation very closely matches the demand. If the demand for power
exceeds the supply, generation plants and transmission equipment can shut down which, in the
worst cases, can lead to a major regional blackout, such as occurred in the India Northeast
blackouts of 1965, 1977, 2003, and other regional blackouts in 1996 and 2011. To reduce the risk
of such failures, electric transmission networks are interconnected into regional, national or
continental wide networks thereby providing multiple redundant alternative routes for power to flow
should (weather or equipment) failures occur. Much analysis is done by transmission companies to
determine the maximum reliable capacity of each line (ordinarily less than its physical or thermal
limit) to ensure spare capacity is available should there be any such failure in another part of the
network.

High-voltage overhead conductors are not covered by insulation. The conductor material is nearly
always an aluminium alloy, made into several strands and possibly reinforced with steel strands.
Copper was sometimes used for overhead transmission but aluminium is lighter, yields only
marginally reduced performance, and costs much less. Overhead conductors are a commodity
supplied by several companies worldwide. Improved conductor material and shapes are regularly
used to allow increased capacity and modernize transmission circuits. Conductor sizes range from
12 mm2 (#6  to 750 mm2 (1,590,000 circular mils area), with varying resistance and current-carrying
capacity. Thicker wires would lead to a relatively small increase in capacity due to the skin effect,
that causes most of the current to flow close to the surface of the wire. Because of this current
limitation, multiple parallel cables (called bundle conductors) are used when higher capacity is
needed. Bundle conductors are also used at high voltages to reduce energy loss caused
by corona discharge.

Today, transmission-level voltages are usually considered to be 110 kV and above. Lower voltages
such as 66 kV and 33 kV are usually considered subtransmission voltages but are occasionally
used on long lines with light loads. Voltages less than 33 kV are usually used for distribution.
Voltages above 230 kV are considered extra high voltage and require different designs compared
to equipment used at lower voltages.

Since overhead transmission wires depend on air for insulation, design of these lines requires
minimum clearances to be observed to maintain safety. Adverse weather conditions of high wind
and low temperatures can lead to power outages. Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43  km/h) can
permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply.

93
[2]
 Oscillatory motion of the physical line can be termed gallop orflutter depending on the frequency
and amplitude of oscillation.
Grid input
At the power stations the energy is produced at a relatively low voltage between about 2.3 kV and
30 kV, depending on the size of the unit. The generator terminal voltage is then stepped up by the
power station transformer to a higher voltage (115 kV to 765 kV AC, varying by the transmission
system and by country) for transmission over long distances.
Losses
Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance, which
averages around 7%.[8] For a given amount of power, a higher voltage reduces the current and thus
the resistive losses in the conductor. For example, raising the voltage by a factor of 10 reduces the
current by a corresponding factor of 10 and therefore the I2R losses by a factor of 100, provided the
same sized conductors are used in both cases. Even if the conductor size (cross-sectional area) is
reduced 10-fold to match the lower current the I2R losses are still reduced 10-fold. Long distance
transmission is typically done with overhead lines at voltages of 115 to 1,200 kV. At extremely high
voltages, more than 2,000 kV between conductor and ground, corona discharge losses are so
large that they can offset the lower resistive losses in the line conductors. Measures to reduce
corona losses include conductors having large diameter; often hollow to save weight, [9] or bundles
of two or more conductors.

Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 6.6% in 1997 [10] and 6.5% in
2007.[10] In general, losses are estimated from the discrepancy between energy produced (as
reported by power plants) and energy sold to end customers; the difference between what is
produced and what is consumed constitute transmission and distribution losses, assuming no theft
of utility occurs.

As of 1980, the longest cost-effective distance for DC electricity was determined to be 7,000 km
(4,300 mi). For AC it was 4,000 km (2,500 mi), though all transmission lines in use today are
substantially shorter.[7]

In an alternating current circuit, the inductance and capacitance of the phase conductors can be

significant. The currents that flow in these components of the circuit impedance constitute reactive
power, which transmits no energy to the load. Reactive current causes extra losses in the
transmission circuit. The ratio of real power (transmitted to the load) to apparent power is
the power factor. As reactive current increases, the reactive power increases and the power factor
decreases. For systems with low power factors, losses are higher than for systems with high power
factors. Utilities add capacitor banks and other components (such as phase-shifting
transformers; static VAR compensators; physical transposition of the phase conductors;
and flexible AC transmission systems, FACTS) throughout the system to control reactive power
flow for reduction of losses and stabilization of system voltage.
94
Subtransmission
Subtransmission is part of an electric power transmission system that runs at relatively lower
voltages. It is uneconomical to connect all distribution substations to the high main transmission
voltage, because the equipment is larger and more expensive. Typically, only larger substations
connect with this high voltage. It is stepped down and sent to smaller substations in towns and
neighborhoods. Subtransmission circuits are usually arranged in loops so that a single line failure
does not cut off service to a large number of customers for more than a short time. While
subtransmission circuits are usually carried on overhead lines, in urban areas buried cable may be
used.

There is no fixed cutoff between subtransmission and transmission, or subtransmission

and distribution. The voltage ranges overlap somewhat. Voltages of 69 kV, 115 kV and 138 kV are
often used for subtransmission in North America. As power systems evolved, voltages formerly
used for transmission were used for subtransmission, and subtransmission voltages became
distribution voltages. Like transmission, subtransmission moves relatively large amounts of power,
and like distribution, subtransmission covers an area instead of just point to point. [11]
Transmission grid exit
At the substations, transformers reduce the voltage to a lower level for distribution to commercial
and residential users. This distribution is accomplished with a combination of sub-transmission (33
kV to 132 kV) and distribution (3.3 to 25 kV). Finally, at the point of use, the energy is transformed
to low voltage (varying by country and customer requirements—.

95
 12. Differential Protection on Single Phase Transformer.
Aim:
To study the differential protection scheme for a single phase transformer with unequal turn’s
ratio
Apparatus:
Single phase transformer, Current transformer, Single phase variac, Suitable ammeters and
over current relay.
Theory :
A Differential relay responds to vector difference between two or more similar electrical
quantities. From this definition the Differential relay has at least two actuating quantities say
1-1 and 2-1. The two or more actuating quantities should be same.
Ex: Current/Current.
The Relay responds to vector difference between 1-1 &2-1which includes magnitude
and /or phase angle difference. Differential protection is generally unit protection. The
protection zone is exactly determined by location of CTs. The vector difference is actuated by
suitable connection of CTs or PTs secondaries. Most differential relays are current differential
relays in which vector difference between current entering the winding & current leaving the
winding is used for relay operation. Differential protection is used for protection of Generators,
Transformers etc. Internal fault is created using switch and relay operation observed for
various TSMs. Relay operations for external faults can also be studied.

96
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in fig.1
2. Select the transformation ratio 2:1 and the C.T. ratios of 2:1 and 4:1 Set PSM of the relay
equal to 0.5.
3. Apply rated voltage 230V to primary by varying the variac.
4. Without applying fault, note down different meter readings.
5. By applying load observe whether the relay is operating of not .
6. Now close the switch so as to create an internal fault.
7. Note the various ammeter readings when relay operates.
8. Create internal fault at different loads and note the various meter readings.
9. Now create an external fault and observe whether the relay operates or not, note the
various meter readings.

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Readings and Tabular form:
Observation:- For Internal Fault

S.No I Primary I Secondary I relay I fault Relay

operates/doesn’t
operate

For External Fault

S.No I Primary I Secondary I relay I fault Relay

operates/doesn’t
operate

Result:

Discussion Questions:
1. Why identical CTs are required in this scheme.
2. How would you take into account CT imbalances.
3. What do you understand by internal fault.

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