THE DOCTRINE OF ULTRA VIRES AND

JUDICIAL REVIEW OF
ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION
An earlier version of this Article was published in the Bar Association Law Journal
of Sri Lanka, Volume XVII, 2011.

Chamila S. Talagala
Introduction

The proposition that an administrative authority must act within the

powers conferred upon it by the legislature may well be considered the

foundation of Administrative Law. The primary purpose of

administrative law, therefore, is to keep the powers of government

within their legal bounds, so as to protect the citizens against their

abuse.1

The juristic basis, on which courts exercise judicial review whenever

there is an allegation of administrative authorities acting outside their

conferred powers, is commonly referred to as the “doctrine of ultra

vires”. ‘Ultra Vires’ is a Latin phrase which simply means “beyond

powers” or “without powers”. However, the courts, with the view of

curtailing abuse of power by administrative authorities and providing

relief for the parties thereby affected, have developed ‘Ultra Vires’ as a

firm doctrine of law, by extending and refining its scope 2 to embrace

various types of abuse of power committed by administrative

authorities.

The purpose of this article is to examine the theoretical basis of the

doctrine of ultra vires, its expansion and, the jurisprudential

arguments made in favour of the usage of the doctrine as the central

1 H.W.R. Wade & C.F. Forsyth, Administrative Law, [10th ed.] Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009 at p.4.
2 Ibid., at p.30.

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foundation of judicial review of administrative action and the counter

arguments made with regard to such usage. This article will proceed

to analyse the Administrative law in the United Kingdom and Sri

Lanka.

The Ultra Vires Doctrine

The doctrine of ultra vires is said to have originated in Company law

as a means of safeguarding the interests of the shareholders of

companies.

In the past, it was a mandatory legal requirement for companies to

have what is called a “Memorandum” which invariably included an

object clause. This object clause reflected the object/s for which the

company was formed. The company was always required to perform

its activities within the purview of the objects clause included in the

Memorandum. Any action which was outside the purview of the

objects clause was ultra vires and, therefore, invalid. The aforesaid

principle which was firmly established by the House of Lords in the

decision of Ashbury Railway Carriage and Iron Company Ltd v. Riche

3was later borrowed in to Administrative law as the courts found it

difficult to question the power of the legislature due to the application

3 [1875] LR 7 HL.

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of principles such as separation of powers and parliamentary

sovereignty. 4

The doctrine of ultra vires as used in Administrative law implies that

discretionary powers must be exercised for the purpose for which they

were granted. At the inception, the application of the doctrine was

designed exclusively to ensure that administrative authorities do not

exceed or abuse their legal powers. If they did so, the courts declared

such acts ultra vires and therefore, invalid.

Administrative power is generally derived from legislation. Legislation

confer power on administrative authorities for specified purposes,

sometimes, laying down the procedure to be followed in respect of

exercise of such power. More often than not, these legislation stipulate

the limits of such conferred power. If an administrative authority acts

without power, in excess of power or abuses power, such act/s are

liable to be rendered invalid on the ground of substantive ultra vires.

When an administrative authority acts in contravention of mandatory

rules stipulated in the legislation or does not comply with the

principles of natural justice, such acts are liable to be rendered invalid

on the ground of procedural ultra vires.

The aforesaid traditional ultra vires model is based on the assumption

that judicial review is legitimated on the ground that the courts are

4 See, S.A. de Smith, Judicial Review of Administrative Action, [4th ed.] London:
Stevens, 1980.

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applying the intent of the legislature. In this regard Wade and Forsyth

observe, in relation to the constitutional framework of the United

Kingdom, that:

“Having no written constitution on which he can fall back, the

judge must in every case be able to demonstrate that he is

carrying out the will of Parliament as expressed in the statute

conferring the power. He is on safe ground only where he can

show that the offending act is outside the power. The only way in

which he can do this, in the absence of an express provision, is

by finding an implied term or condition in the Act, violation of

which then entails the condemnation of ultra vires.”5

[Emphasis added]

Thus, the general presumption is that the legislature, when conferring

powers on administrative authorities, does not intend that those

authorities should exceed or abuse that power. As, Lord Acton once

said;

“Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”.

Therefore, the presumed intention of the legislature discards the

notion of absolute power conferred on administrative authorities. As

such, courts may impute certain safeguards against abuse of power in

5 H.W.R. Wade & C.F. Forsyth, Administrative Law, [10th ed.] Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009 at p.31.

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to the legislation which have conferred powers on administrative

authorities, even in the absence of specific provisions to that effect.

The courts validate such imputation on the ground that, it is a general

principle embodied in the broad notion of rule of law that legislature is

not expected to incorporate such safeguards expressly in every piece

legislation that is enacted.6 Thus, the implied safeguards are taken as

part and parcel of the legislation in concern, and violation of any such

safeguard would render the whole action of the administrative

authority unlawful.

It could be seen, therefore, that the doctrine of ultra vires has been

gradually but, steadily extended by courts, to cover not only those

orders or decisions made in excess of power, but also to cover

numerous other heads of judicial review, such as, failure to observe

rules of natural justice, irregular delegation of powers, breach of

jurisdictional conditions, unreasonableness, irrelevant considerations,

improper motives, and such other inconsistencies that can be

considered as amounting to ultra vires. Wade and Forsyth observe

thus;

“The technique by which the courts have extended the judicial

control of powers is that of stretching the doctrine of ultra vires.

………. They can readily find implied limitations in Acts of

Parliament, as they do when they hold that the exercise of a

6 H.W.R. Wade, Administrative Law, [5th ed.] Oxford: Clarendon, 1982 at p.38.

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 statutory power to revoke a license is void unless done in

accordance with the principles of natural justice. For this purpose

they have only one weapon, the doctrine of ultra vires”7

[Emphasis added]

In the GCHQ Case, 8 Lord Diplock enumerated a new threefold

classification of grounds of judicial review, any one of which would

render an administrative decision and/or action in concern, ultra

vires. These grounds are; illegality, irrationality and procedural

impropriety. Later judicial decisions have incorporated a fourth

ground to Lord Diplock’s classification, namely; proportionality.9

What Lord Diplock meant by “Illegality” as a ground of judicial review

was that the decision-maker must understand correctly the law that

regulates his decision-making and must give effect to it. His Lordship

explained the term “Irrationality” by succinctly referring it to

“unreasonableness” in Wednesbury Case.10 By “Procedural

Impropriety” His Lordship sought to include those heads of judicial

review, which uphold procedural standards to which administrative

decision-makers must, in certain circumstances, adhere.

7 H.W.R. Wade & C.F. Forsyth, Administrative Law, [10th ed.] Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009 at p.31.
8 Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374.
9 See, R v Secretary of State for Home Department ex. p. Brind [1991] AC 696, where
the House of Lords rejected the test of proportionality, but did not rule it out for the
future.
10Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd. v. Wednesbury Corporation [1948] 1 KB
223.

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In view of this new classification of the doctrine of ultra vires, Galligan

observes that the doctrine has been extended and developed to mean

“acting beyond principles of good administration”.11 Accordingly, when

administrative authorities breach principles of good administration,

incorporated in the extended doctrine of ultra vires, courts would be

entitled to exercise juridical review and grant relief to the affected

parties of such breach.

Criticism of the Ultra Vires Doctrine

Sceptical comments on the long established doctrine of ultra vires

have been made by critics who justly observe that the restraints

implied into legislation have in reality been largely created by the

judges on their own initiative and owe little to any perceptible

legislative intention.12 Wade and Forsyth observe:

“Eminent judges, writing extra-judicially, have described the

doctrine as a ‘fairy tale’ and a ‘fig-leaf’ serving to provide a

façade of constitutional decency, with lip-service to the sovereign

Parliament, while being out of touch with reality. The reality, it is

argued, is that the judges are fulfilling the duties of their

constitutional position, acting in their own right independently of

Parliament, adjusting the balance of forces in the constitution,

11 See, D. J. Galligan “Judicial Review and the Textbook Writers” [1982] 2 OJLS 257.
12H.W.R. Wade & C.F. Forsyth, Administrative Law, [10th ed.] Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009 at p.33.

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 and asserting their little to promote fairness and justice in

government under the rule of law.”13

[Emphasis added.]

Advocates of common law model of legality, such as, Dawn Oliver,14 S.

A. de Smith, Lord Woolf, Jeffrey Jowell,15 Sir John Laws,16 P. Craig,17

D Dyzenhaus18 and N. Bamforth,19 have challenged the presumption

of intention of the legislature used in the doctrine of ultra vires and

have argued that the doctrine as articulated as at present is

indeterminate, unrealistic, beset by internal tensions, and unable to

explain the application of public law principles to those bodies which

did not derive their power from legislation.20

1. The Indeterminacy of the Ultra Vires Doctrine

The fact that the ultra vires doctrine is indeterminate can be

exemplified by its application to judicial review of jurisdictional

13H.W.R. Wade & C.F. Forsyth, Administrative Law, [10th ed.] Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009 at p.33.
14See, Dawn Oliver “Is the Ultra Vires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review?” [1987] PL
543.
15See, S. A. de Smith, Lord Woolf and J. Jowell, Judicial Review of Administrative
Action, [5th ed.] London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1995.
16 See, Sir John Laws, “Illegality: The Problem of Jurisdiction” in M. Suppertone and
J. Goudie [Eds.] Judicial Review, [2nd ed.] London: Butterworths, 1997.
17See, P. Craig, “Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial Review” [1998] 57
Cambridge Law Journal 63.
18See, D. Dyzenhaus, “Reuniting the Brain: The Democratic Basis of Judicial
Review” [1998] 9 PLR 98.
19See, N. Bamforth, “Politics, Ultra Vires and Institutional Interdependence”, A
Paper presented at the Cambridge Conference on the Foundations of Judicial
Review, May 22, 1999.
20 P. Craig “Competing Models of Judicial Review” [1999] PL 428.

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 issues presented in cases such as R v. Boltan,21 Brittain v.

Kinnaird,22 Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation

Commission,23 and R. v. Lord President of the Privy Council, ex. P.

Page.24 The English Courts have adopted a number of different

approaches to define jurisdictional error.

As Craig25 points out, there are three main approaches which

can be detected within the court’s jurisprudence under which

all relevant errors of law are open to challenge. They are; [i]

limited review, [ii] the collateral fact doctrine and, [iii] the

modern test of extensive review. The ultra vires doctrine does

not provide any guidance as such, to which these standards of

review ought to be applied.

2. The Lack of reality of the Ultra Vires Doctrine

The criticism that ultra vires doctrine does not accord with

reality can be exemplified by considering the various controls,

which the courts have imposed on the exercise of discretion.

The approach has been to legitimate these controls by reference

21 [1841] 1 QB 66.
22 [1819] 1 B & B 432.
23 [1969] 2 AC 147.
24 [1993] 2 AC 682.
25P. Craig, “Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial review” [1998] 57
Cambridge LJ 63 at pp.66-67.

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to the intention of the legislature. There are two main problems

with this rationalisation of judicial behaviour.

Firstly, the legislation, which is in issue in a particular case, will

often not provide any detailed guidance to courts as to the

application of these controls on discretion. Thus, courts will

have to make their own judgement on such matters, referring

that it is what the legislature has intended when enacting the

legislation in concern. The argument is made that it would be

unrealistic to impute the intention of the legislature by courts,

where the legislature has not actually made provisions as to its

intention.

Secondly, the approach to legitimate various judicial controls by

reference intention of the legislature makes little sense, if any,

when the development of various means of controls across the

time is considered. The developments that have taken place

such as, changes in judicial attitudes towards fundamental

rights, the recognition of the doctrine of legitimate expectation,

and the possible inclusion of proportionality as a head of

judicial review, cannot plausibly be explained by reference to

legislative intent.

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 As Dawn Oliver26 logically points out, the presumption drawn by

courts that the legislature has not intended an administrative

authority to act outside its powers as laid down in the case of

Ridge v Baldwin, 27 becomes, rebuttable, when the legislation

conferring power on the administrative authority has clearly

intended to the contrary.28 This is plainly evident in relation to

cases on ouster clauses, even though courts have shown

reluctance to allow legislation to override the said presumption.

In such situations, the employment of the ultra vires doctrine

would certainly be unrealistic.

3. Tensions within the Ultra Vires Doctrine

The criticism that ultra vires doctrine is beset by internal

tensions is more apparent in the context of legislative

provisions, which seek to exclude the jurisdiction of courts from

judicial review by preclusive or ouster clauses. Given the

rationale for judicial review that the courts are implementing

the legislative intention, this leads to a difficulty where the

legislature has clearly stated that it does not wish the courts to

intervene with the decisions/actions of administrative

authorities.

26See, Dawn Oliver “Is the Ultra Vires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review?” [1987] PL
543.
27 [1964] AC 40.
28See for instance, Congreve v. Home Office [1976] QB 629; R. v. Hillingdon London
Borough Council, ex. p. Royco Homes Ltd. [1974] QB 720.

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 It can be observed, however, that the courts have used a

number of interpretative techniques to limit the effect of

preclusive or ouster clauses. For instance, in Anisminic Ltd. v.

Foreign Compensation Commission, 29 the court held that the

relevant provision in the legislation did not serve to protect

decisions which were nullities. Thus, it becomes apparent that

courts while legitimating judicial review by employing the ultra

vires doctrine, which gives precedence to the intention of the

legislature, are using various means to exclude the expressed

intention of the legislature, by giving preference to the presumed

intention. This approach of the courts is conflicting per se.

4. The Ultra Vires Doctrine and the Scope of Public Law

In the modern arena of public law, courts have expanded the

principles of judicial review to cover actions of bodies which are

not public bodies in the traditional meaning of the term. For

instance, trade associations, trade unions and corporations with

de facto monopoly, which do not derive their powers from a

specific legislation or from the prerogative, have been subjected

to the same principles as are applied to public bodies in strict

sense.30

29 [1969] 2 AC 147.
30See, P. Craig, “Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial Review” [1998] 57
Cambridge LJ 63.

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 Since, in the modern context, a considerable part of activities of

the government is carried out by bodies having de facto or

common law powers, Dawn Oliver31 argues that it is not

possible to analyse the exercise of such powers as being

subjected to express or implied terms imposed by the donor of

the powers; i. e. legislature. Thus, these bodies do not lend

themselves to the language of ultra vires.

Dawn Oliver further argues that although the doctrine of ultra

vires may be readily applied to bodies which derive their

existence and authority from legislation, it would be less easy to

apply the doctrine to bodies which do not derive their existence

and authority from legislation. Oliver also submits that the

doctrine is hard to apply in judicial review of royal prerogative.

This fact had been implicitly recognised by courts until the

decision in GCHQ Case.32

Owing to the aforesaid considerations the critiques of the ultra vires

doctrine submit that the doctrine can no longer be regarded as the

vehicle through which the courts effectuate the will of the legislature

and that the modern notion of judicial review has moved away from

31See, Dawn Oliver “Is the Ultra Vires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review?” [1987] PL
543.
32 Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374.

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the ultra vires rule to a concern for the protection of individuals and

control of power.33

Defences to Criticisms

Christopher Forsyth while conceding that the ultra vires doctrine

cannot explain all instances, in which courts exercise judicial review,

submits however, that the ultra vires doctrine based on legislative

intent should retain its central position so far as decisions made

under statutory powers are concerned.34 Craig argues that this

contention does little service to a rational system of public law due to

several reasons.35 One is that the dividing line between bodies, which

do and do not derive their power from legislation, is difficult to draw.

In addition, the question arises as to whether if common law can be

regarded as the legitimate basis for controls on bodies which do not

depend on legislation for their powers, why cannot it be so regarded

for bodies which derive power from legislation?

The Dangers of the Abandonment of the Doctrine of Ultra Vires

One of the primary arguments advanced by Forsyth is that if the

doctrine of ultra vires is abandoned the courts will be unable to

33See, Dawn Oliver “Is the Ultra Vires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review?” [1987] PL
543.
34 C. Forsyth, “Of Fig Leaves and Fairy Tales: The Ultra Vires Doctrine, The
Sovereignty of Parliament and Judicial Review” [1996] 55 Cambridge LJ 122 at
pp.129-133.
35P. Craig, “Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial Review” [1998] 57
Cambridge LJ 63 at p.71.

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circumvent ouster clauses in the manner in which they have done in

cases such as Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission. 36

This argument is based on the decision of the South African Court in

UDF Case,37 where the Court rejected the ultra vires doctrine as the

basis of judicial review and reasoned that ouster clause should be

protected. Forsyth contends that if the ultra vires doctrine is

abandoned, the same result as in the decision of UDF Case38could

occur and such reasoning could be applied even if the ground of

challenge is illegality, irrationality or procedural impropriety. In

Forsyth’s words judicial review would be “eviscerated” and this would

be “the inevitable consequence of abandoning ultra vires”, even

though it is not the intended consequence.

Craig accedes to the Forsyth’s view on the consequence of abandoning

the doctrine, limited only to that particular case. However, according

to Craig, Forsyth has mistaken in contending that this is the

“inevitable” consequence of abandoning ultra vires.39 He argues that

common law created doctrines and principles will include established

heads of judicial review as well as other relevant principles of public

law. Thus, a clause which would purport to exclude the inherent

powers of the courts could be restrictively construed to overcome the

36 [1969] 2 AC 147.
37 1988 (4) SA 830.
38 1988 (4) SA 830.
39P. Craig, “Ultra Vires and the Foundations of Judicial Review” [1998] 57
Cambridge LJ 63 at p.72.

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issue of necessarily interpreting an ouster clause in the manner it was

interpreted in the UDF Case.40

It is discernible that Forsyth seeks to argue that the rejection of the

ultra vires doctrine based on legislative intent as the justification of

judicial review means that the limits on powers of administrative

authorities would inevitably alter. However, as Craig points out, this

would not be so. Thus, the live issue in this context would be to

ascertain whether such limits are derived from legislative intent or

more honestly from judicial creation through the process of common

law.

Modified Ultra Vires Doctrine

Supporters of the ultra vires doctrine, notably, Christopher Forsyth41

and Mark Elliot42 in their responses to the arguments levelled against

the doctrine, have conceded that the legislature will rarely have any

specific intent as to the content of the rules, which make up judicial

review. However, they maintain that the doctrine of ultra vires must

still be the central principle of judicial review on the argument that

legislative intent must be found in order to vindicate judicial review,

40 1988 (4) SA 830.

41See, C. Forsyth, “Of Fig Leaves and Fairy Tales: The Ultra Vires Doctrine, The
Sovereignty of Parliament and Judicial Review” [1996] 55 Cambridge LJ 122.
42 See, M. Elliot, “The Demise of Parliamentary Sovereignty? The Implications for
Justifying Judicial Review” [1999] 115 LQR 119; M. Elliot, “The Ultra Vires Doctrine
in a Constitutional Setting: Still the Central Principle of Administrative Law” [1999]
58 Cambridge LJ 129.

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and the abandonment of the ultra vires doctrine would entail strong

challenges to parliamentary sovereignty and would also involve the

exercise untrammelled power by the courts. They further maintain

that legislative intent can be founded to legitimate the exercise of

judicial power.

In consideration of the aforesaid, Forsyth and Elliot have put

forwarded a modified doctrine of ultra vires, which is concerned with

the general intention of the legislature as opposed to a specific intent.

According to this modified doctrine, it is presumed that the legislature

is deemed to have intended that its legislation conforms to the basic

principles of fairness and justice, which operate in a constitutional

democracy. The power is delegated to courts in order to fashion the

application of these basic principles in accordance with the rule of

law, since, the legislature itself cannot realistically workout the

precise ramifications of these basic principles. At the same time, the

legitimacy of the courts to impose the controls on bodies, which do not

derive their powers from legislation, is also recognised by the doctrine.

The modified doctrine of ultra vires is able to overcome many of the

problems associated with the traditional ultra vires doctrine and give a

fair response to the criticisms levelled against the traditional doctrine.

This is because the reasoning underlying the modified ultra vires

doctrine is very much similar to the reasoning underlying the common

law model. The idea of general legislative intent in the modified

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doctrine gives the courts freedom and flexibility to read between the

lines of the concepts such as rationality, fairness etc. which, in turn,

would unlock the doors for the courts to develop the scope of judicial

review as they seem fit.

Despite the plus points of the modified doctrine of ultra vires vis-à-vis

the traditional doctrine of ultra vires, the modified doctrine too has

been criticised by many academics due to various reasons. Paul Craig

argues that there is no warrant for the claim that general legislative

intent in the modern doctrine can be regarded as the foundation of

judicial review, in terms of the substance of review itself. According to

Craig, as long as the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty is retained,

the modified doctrine fails in its logical foundation. He maintains that

grounds of judicial review as laid down by courts over the past three

hundred years were based on the common model, and that it

continues to provide a fitting picture of the true relationship between

courts and the legislature.43 Jeffery Jowell also prefers the common

law justification of judicial review subject to the final modification that

judicial review by no means should be unbounded and exercised

allowing the judiciary the freedom to impose unconstrained

standards.44

43 P. Craig “Competing Models of Judicial Review”[1999] PL 428 at p.447.

44J. Jowell, “Of Vires and Vacuums: The Constitutional Context of Judicial Review”
[1999] PL 448 at p.459.

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Judicial Review of Administrative Action in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, judicial review of administrative action is exercisable

broadly on two sets of criteria:

[1] Writ Jurisdiction under Articles 140 & 154 [P] [4] [b] of the

Constitution;

[2] Fundamental Rights Jurisdiction under the procedure laid

down in Article 126 read with Article 17 of the Constitution.

Writ Jurisdiction

Article 140 of the Constitution provides that:

“Subject to the provisions of the Constitution, the Court of Appeal

shall have full power and authority to inspect examine the

records of any Court of First Instance or tribunal or other

institution, and grant and issue, according to law, orders in the

nature of writs of certiorari, prohibition, procedendo. mandamus

and quo warranto against the judge of any Court of First Instance

or tribunal or other institution or any other person: Provided that

Parliament may by law provide that in any such category of

cases as may be specified in such law, the jurisdiction conferred

on the Court of Appeal by the preceding provisions of this Article

shall be exercised by the Supreme Court and not by the Court of

Appeal.”

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 [Emphasis added]

Article 154 [P] [4] [b] of the Constitution provides that:

“Every such High Court shall have jurisdiction to issue, according

to law

[b] order in the nature of writs of certiorari,

prohibition, procedendo, mandamus and quo

warranto against any person exercising, within

the Province, any power under

(i) any law; or

(ii) any statutes made by the

Provincial Council established for

that Province.”

[Emphasis added]

Thus, Article 140 of the Constitution confers writ jurisdiction on the

Court of Appeal. Article 154 P] [4] [b] of the Constitution confers a

limited writ jurisdiction on the Provincial High Courts. In Weragama v.

Eksath Lanka Kamkaru Samithiya and Others,45 the Supreme Court

held that the writ jurisdiction of the Provincial High Court is confined

only to circumstances involving exercise of powers under a law or a

45 [1994] 1 SLR 293.

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statute covered by a matter in the Provincial Council List of the

Constitution.

It is pertinent to note that, even though the emergence of the writ

jurisdiction has been viewed essentially as a development of the

English common law, the Constitution of Sri Lanka, in the present

day, explicitly recognises the same. In this regard Dr. Jayantha de

Almeida Gunaratne observes that:46

“Given the historical and constitutional ties Sri Lanka has had

with England, our Appellate Courts have proceeded on the basis

of similar thinking. Both before and after Independence, our

Appellate Courts have held that, writs of Certiorari, Mandamus

and Prohibition are issued according to English Law. Even after

the country acquired Republican status in 1972 with the

promulgation of the first Republican Constitution followed by the

second Republican Constitution in 1978 both the Court of Appeal

and the Supreme Court have taken a similar stance.

Although, where appropriate, being guided by English precedents

bearing persuasive value cannot be faulted, departure from

English precedents may also be warranted, taking in to

consideration the significance of the Constitution of Sri Lanka

46J. de. A. Gunaratna, “New Vistas for Judicial Review in the Sphere of Employment
and Other Contractual Relationships” [2005] Sri Lanka LCL Rev. 3.

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 [and relevant provisions contained therein] where sovereignty

resides in people”.47

[Emphasis added]

The writ jurisdiction in Sri Lanka is a constitutional remedy.

Constitution being the supreme law of the land, the provisions of the

Constitution will prevail over any other ordinary law. In Atapattu v.

Peoples Bank,48 His Lordship Justice Mark Fernando observed that:

“While generally a Constitutional provision, being the higher

norm, must prevail over statutory provision, there are some

constitutional provisions which enable pre-Constitution written

law to continue to apply. The first is Article 16(1), which is

inapplicable here, because that deals only with inconsistency

with fundamental rights. The second is Article 168(1), which

provides:

"Unless Parliament otherwise provides, all laws, written laws

and unwritten laws, in force immediately before the Constitution,

shall, mutatis mutandis, and except as otherwise expressly

provided in the Constitution, continue in force."49

[Emphasis added]

47J. de. A. Gunaratna, “New Vistas for Judicial Review in the Sphere of Employment
and Other Contractual Relationships” [2005] Sri Lanka LCL Rev. at pp.3-4.
48 [1997] 1 SLR 208.
49 [1997] 1 SLR 208 at 221.

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However, His Lordship concluded that where there is a conflict

between an ouster clause and Article 140 of the Constitution, the

latter must prevail over the former.

“Articles 17 and 126 constitute "express provision", because they

directly confer jurisdiction; although they make no specific

mention of the ouster clause in section 8, the language used is

broad enough to confer an unfettered jurisdiction. The position is

the same in regard to Article 140: the language used is broad

enough to give the Court of Appeal authority to review, even on

grounds excluded by the ouster clause.

But there is one difference between those Articles and Article 140.

Article 140 (unlike Article 126) is "subject to the provisions of the

Constitution". Is that enough to reverse the position, so as to

make article 140 subject to the written laws which Article 168(1)

keeps in force? Apart from any other consideration, if it became

necessary to decide which was to prevail - an ouster clause in an

ordinary law or a Constitutional provision conferring writ

jurisdiction on a Superior Court, "subject to the provisions of the

Constitution" - I would unhesitatingly hold that the latter prevails,

because the presumption must always be in favour of a

jurisdiction which enhances the protection of the Rule of Law, and

against an ouster clause which tends to undermine it [see also

Jailabdeen v. Danina Umma (1962) 64 N.L.R. 419]. But no such

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 presumption is needed, because it is clear that the phrase

"subject to the provisions of the Constitution" was necessary to

avoid conflicts between Article 140 and other Constitutional

provisions - such as Article 80(3), 120, 124, 125, and 126(3). That

phrase refers only to contrary provisions in the Constitution itself,

and does not extend to provisions of other written laws, which

are kept alive by Article 168(1) ". 50

[Emphasis added]

Similarly in Sirisena Cooray v. Tissa Dias Bandaranaike,51 the

Supreme Court observed that the writ jurisdiction of the Superior

Courts conferred by the Constitution cannot be restricted by

provisions of ordinary legislation containing ouster clauses and that

the writ jurisdiction conferred by Article 140 is unfettered.

Fundamental Rights Jurisdiction

Judicial review of administrative action can also take place by means

of fundamental rights applications under the Constitution. Article 126

of the Constitution read together with Article 17 entitles a person to

invoke the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in respect of

infringement or imminent infringement of fundamental rights

enshrined in Chapter III of the Constitution, if such infringement or

50 [1997] 1 SLR 208 at 222-223.

51 [1999] 1 SLR 1.

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imminent infringement has occurred as a result of executive or

administrative action.

It is pertinent to note that Sri Lankan Courts have interchangeably

used principles in Administrative law jurisprudence in fundamental

rights jurisprudence, which has substantially enriched the scope of

judicial review in Sri Lanka. This is implicit in the observation of the

Supreme Court in W. A. C. Perera v. Prof. Daya Edrisinghe,52 that:

“The fact that by entrenching the fundamental rights in the

Constitution the scope of the writs has become enlarged is implicit

in Article 126(3), which recognises that a claim for relief by way

of writ may also involve an allegation of the infringement of a

fundamental right.” 53

[Emphasis added]

Dr. Gunaratna states that the aforesaid judicial pronouncement must

be regarded as a major jurisprudential advance, in that, it has

brought into focus the significance of the phrase “orders in the nature

of writs” in Article 140 of the Constitution, in the context of a

Constitution that vests sovereignty in the people as opposed to

“prerogative writs” known to English law.54 It has also signified a

52 [1995] 1 SLR 148.

53 [1995] 1 SLR 148 at 156.
54J. de. A. Gunaratna, “Judicial Response to the Concept of Sovereign Power of the
People” in S. Marsoof and N. Wigneswaran [Eds.], In Pursuit of Justice, Corde Et
Amino With Heart and Soul, A Collection of Legal Essays in Memory of K. C.
Kamalasabayson, P. C., Colombo: Kamalasabayson Foundation, 2008 at p.204.

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welcome departure from the traditional vires based judicial review of

administrative action to a right based system of review.55

In Heather Mundy v. Central Environmental Authority and Others,56His

Lordship Justice Mark Fernando observed that:

“The jurisdiction conferred by Article 140, however, is not

confined to "prerogative" writs, or "extraordinary remedies", but

extends - "subject to the provisions of the Constitution" - to "orders

in the nature of" writs of Certiorari, etc. Taken in the context of

our Constitutional principles and provisions, these "orders"

constitute one of the principal safeguards against excess and

abuse of executive power: mandating the judiciary to defend the

Sovereignty of the People enshrined in Article 3 against

infringement or encroachment by the Executive, with no trace of

any deference due to the Crown and its agents. 57

[Emphasis added]

His Lordship Justice Fernando further remarked that the Supreme

Court in Sri Lanka itself has long recognized and applied the "public

trust" doctrine which proclaims that powers vested in public

authorities are not absolute or unfettered, but are held in trust for the

public, to be exercised for the purposes for which they have been

55 S. Marsoof, “The Expanding Canvass of Judicial Review” [2005] XI BALJ 18.

56 SC Appeal 58/2003, SC Minutes of 20th January 2004.
57 Ibid.

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conferred, and that their exercise is subject to judicial review by

reference to those purposes.58 His Lordship also noted that the

executive power in Sri Lanka is necessarily subject to the fundamental

rights in general, and to Article 12(1) in particular which guarantees

equality before the law and the equal protection of the law. Therefore,

administrative acts and decisions contrary to the "public trust"

doctrine and/or violative of fundamental rights would be in excess or

abuse of power, and therefore void or voidable.

As His Lordship has observed, the powers of review and relief of the

Supreme Court in Sri Lanka under its writ jurisdiction would not be

confined to the old "prerogative" writs as in the case of English Courts.

The Constitutional principles recognised by the Supreme Court of Sri

Lanka such as, the “public trust’ doctrine together with the provisions

in the Constitution relating to fundamental rights and the jurisdiction

of the Supreme Court in relation to violations of fundamental rights,

have shrunk the area of administrative discretion and immunity, and

have correspondingly expanded the nature and scope of the public

duties amenable to Mandamus and the categories of wrongful acts

and decisions subject to Certiorari and Prohibition, as well as the

scope of judicial review and relief.59

58 de Silva v Atukorale [1993] 1 SLR 283 at 296-297, Jayawardene v Wijayatilake

[2001] 1 SLR 132 at 149 & 159 & Bandara v Premachandra [1994] 1 SLR 301 at
312.
59 Heather Mundy v. Central Environmental Authority and Others SC Appeal
58/2003, SC Minutes of 20th January 2004.

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Conclusion

Judicial review, at fundamental level, is concerned with public

accountability. It seeks to ensure that public power is exercised

according to certain well-established norms and principles. The

modern ultra vires doctrine caters to this requirement.

It is also equally important that judicial standards do not become a

fetter on progressive administrative decision-making. As Lord

Scarman once cautioned: 60

“Judicial review is a great weapon in the hands of the judges; but

the judges must observe the constitutional limits set by our

parliamentary system on their exercise of this beneficent

power”.61

[Emphasis added]

Abandonment of the ultra vires doctrine would give the judges more

flexibility and freedom in using their judicial discretion. In fact, it is

the said judicial flexibility and freedom that is used by advocates in

support of resorting to the common law model of judicial review.

However, it needs to be noted that in a constitutional democracy, the

rationale that administrative discretion should never be unfettered,

60See, R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex. p. Nottinghamshire County

Council [1986] 1 AC 240.
61R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment, ex. p. Nottinghamshire County Council
[1986] 1 AC 240 at 250-251.

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should equally be applicable to judicial discretion, as well. As Wade

has very correctly pointed out:

“A citizen is entitled to live under the rule of law and not under

the rule of discretion.”62

[Emphasis added]

The modern ultra vires doctrine could be perceived as a mechanism

that seeks to maintain a delicate balance between retaining judicial

discretion and accountability at the same time. The doctrine employs

established norms and principles of good administration as the

yardstick of judicial review. This would undoubtedly confer discretion

on judges as to determine what are the norms and principles of good

administration. Yet, such discretion would always be controlled by the

generally accepted standards.

In Sri Lanka the basis of judicial review and the nature of

administrative remedies available have been constitutionally

recognised. Thus, the writ jurisdiction conferred on the superior

courts cannot be considered as a prerogative remedy anymore. The

Supreme Court has in many cases recognised ensuring the rule of law

as a fundamental requirement of the Constitution. Moreover, the

scope of judicial review has largely been enlarged owing to the

fundamental rights jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the link

62 H.W.R. Wade, Administrative Law, [5th ed.] Oxford: Clarendon, 1982 at p.315.

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created by Article 126 (3) of the Constitution, between the writ

jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal and the fundamental rights

jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Therefore, a tide of departure from

the traditional vires based judicial review of administrative action to a

right based system of review is evident in Sri Lanka, especially after

the promulgation of the present Constitution.

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