Semantics: the study of meaning in English.

The study of linguistic meaning of morphemes,

words, phrases & sentences.
Baby [+young], [-adult] => Young: Semantic properties (a component of meaning of a word)
+ / -: semantic features (the way how semantic properties present)
Semantic fields: The organization of related words and expression into a system which shows their
relationship to one another.
Denotation: that type of meaning which may be described in term of a set of semantic properties
which served to identify the particular concept associated with the word in question.
Conotation: the additional meaning that the word has beyond its denotative meaning. It shows
people emotions or attitude towards what the word refers to.
Referent: An object or entity
Variable reference: When the same linguistic expression refers to different referents, it has variable
reference.
Constant reference: When the same linguistic expression refers to one and the same referent, it has
constant reference.
Co-reference: When 2 or more linguistic expression have the same referent, it has co-reference.
Sense (sense of words, phrases, sentences): the sense of a word is its place in system of semantic
relationship with other expressions in the language.
One sentence can have different senses.
Every expression that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has reference. (any,
but, and, kick, hit...)
- In talking of _sense_, we deal with relationships inside the language.
- In talking of _reference_, we deal with the relationships between language and the world.
Referring expression: any expression used in an utterance to refer to sth or so, used with a particular
referent in mind.
Equative sentences: one which is used to assert the identity of the referents of 2 referring
expressions, i.e to assert that 2 referring expressions have the same referent.
Predicator: the predicator of a declarative sentence is the word which does not belong to any of the
referring expressions and which, of the remainder, makes the most specific contribution to the
meaning of the sentence.
Predicate: is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given sense) can function as a predicator
of a sentence.
The degree of a predicate is a number indicating the number of arguments it is normally
understood to have in simple sentence.
1. This object is a pitchfork. 
Referring expressions: This object, the predicator: pitchfork, the degree of the predicator: 1-place
predicate

2. Your marble is under my chair. 

Referring expressions (RE): your marble, my chair. The predicator: under, the degree of the
predicator: 2

3. Philip is handsome. 
Referring expressions (RE): Phillip, the predicator: handsome, the degree of the predicator: 1

Synonymy: the relation between 2 predicates that have the same sense.
In considering the sense of a word, we abstract away from any stylistic, social or dialectal
associations the word may have. We concentrate on what has been called the cognitive or
conceptual meaning of a word.
Synonymy is the relation between predicates, and not between words.
Hyponymy (thượng hạ vị): a sense relation between predicates such that the meaning of one
predicate (or phrase) in included in the meaning of the other.

hypernym = superordinate

Antonymy: oppositeness of meaning:

- Binary antonyms/complementary antonyms: The negation of one is the meaning of the
other (A = not B). True-false, pass-fail.
- Converses/relational antonyms: One predicate describes a relationship between 2 objects
and the other describes the same relationship when 2 objects are reversed. (If A is ... of B, then B is
... of A.)
Grandparent – grandchild, own – belong to, above - below
- Gradable antonyms: More of one is less of the other. Comparative, very/very much,
How/how much + Adj?) near – nearer, cheap – cheaper
Multiple incompatibility: the term of a given system are mutually incompatible, relation between 2
hyponyms.
Cat – dog, black – white, yellow – blue.
Homonymy (từ đồng âm khác nghĩa): A case of homonymy is one of an ambiguous word whose
different senses are far apart from each other and not obviously related to each other in any way
with respect to a native speaker’s intuition. Cases of homonymy seem very definitely to be matters
of mere accident or coincidence.
Homonyms: same sound same spelling. Can – can, tire – tire
Homophones sound the same but are often spelled/mean differently. Hour – our, I – eye,
heir – air, flower – flour

Homographs have the same spelling but do not necessarily sound the same (different
sound). Row – row, bow – bow, bear – bear

=> present
Q1. Let's wind up the kite string before the wind gets too wild. 
0/2
wind - wind : homographs

 
 Q2. There was a big row in the first row of the theatre. 
row - row: homographs

 
Q3. Why would anyone want to steal a truckload of steel? 
steal - steel: homophones

  
Q4. If the judges are fair, our rabbit will win a ribbon at the fair. 
fair - fair: homonyms

Polysemy (từ đa nghĩa): A case of polysemy is one where a word has several very closely related
senses. In other words, a native speaker of the language has clear intuitions that the different senses
are related to each other in some way.
Face(human, building), tail(coat, animal), mouth(human, river), foot(human, mountain)
Lexical ambiguity: Any ambiguity resulting from the ambiguity of a word is lexical ambiguity.
Anomaly: Semantic oddness (unsual), related to meaning of predicates in a sentence.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
P.132
(1) bark (of a dog vs of a tree) Homonymy
(2) fork (in a road [ngã ba] vs instrument for eating) Polysemy
(3) tail (of a coat vs of an animal) P
(4) steer (to guide vs young bull) H
(5) lip (of a jug [bình] vs of a person) P the edges of the opening part
(6) punch (blow with a fist vs kind of fruity alcoholic drink) H

P.133
(1) He hit a rock and falled; I will buy an electric guitar and become a rock star
(2) This wood is hard; Playing the violin is hard
(3) We will open a file for our overseas contracts; I sharpened the scissors with a file.

5/p.138

a high/low Gradable f legal/illegal Binary

b punch/slap Multiple incompatibilies g lessor/lessee Converses

c husband/wife Converses h expensive/cheap Gradable

d higher/lower Gradable i table/chair Multiple

e pregnant/not pregnant Binary j parent/offspring Converses

10, 11/p.138
a Climbing plants can look strange Structural

b Jane waited by the bank Lexical

c They are moving sidewalks Lexical

d The English history teacher knows a lot Structural

e The minister married my sister Lexical

f She’s selling synthetic /buffalo/ hides Structural

g The long drill was boring Lexical

h The boy saw the man with a telescope Structural

i He gave me a punch Lexical

j The grass was very expensive Lexical grass(lawn/ drug)

Non-literal meaning: Idioms, metaphor, metonomy.

Idioms: Multi-word phrases whose overall meanings are not derivable by combining the literal
senses of the individual word.
Selling like hot cakes: to be bought quickly and in large numbers
Hold your horse: wait, slow down
Over the hill: old, too old to do sth/ past one's prime
On cloud nine: extremely happy.
Pull your leg: deceive someone playfully; tease someone
Metaphor (ẩn dụ): A figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily designates one thing
to designate another, thus making an implicit comparison, as in “He’s a lion” => He is like a lion.
- Structural metaphor: Metaphor is the phenomenon where one conceptual domain is
structured in terms of another. (Lấy cái cụ thể, thứ mà con ng đã trả qua, quen thuộc để hình dung
cái trừu trượng)
Ex: Your claims are indefensible. Metaphor: ARGUMENT IS WAR
You’re wasting my time.
Can you give me a few minutes?
We are running out of time. => TIME IS MONEY.
HW: P 333-334, 335, 338, 339
(1) Metaphor: LIFE IS A JOURNEY
(a) John and Mary have come a long way together (b) Our lives have taken different paths
(c) I think she will go far in life (d) We have come to a crossroads in our life
(2) Metaphor: TIME IS MONEY
(a) Stop wasting my time (b) We can save time by taking this shortcut
(c) This delay will cost us at least two hour (d) She always spends too much time shoppin
(3) Metaphor: . IDEAS ARE MONEY
(a) Jane put in her two cents’ worth (b) John is rich in ideas
(c) That book is a treasure trove of ideas (d) Mary has a wealth of new ideas

(1) Metaphor: IDEAS ARE PEOPLE

(a) John’s theory gave birth to a new way of thinking about physics (b) He is the father of modern biology
(c) Fred’s brainchild was that the moon is uninhabitable (d) Her ideas spawned a number of new approaches in research
(e) That idea died off years ago
(2) Metaphor: IDEAS ARE PLANTS
(a) That idea died on the vine (b) His ideas have finally come to fruition
(c) That version of linguistics is an offshoot of an earlier theory
(d) Linguistics is a field with many branches (e) I’d like to plant a novel idea in your mind

- Orientational metaphors: lấy phương hướng để chỉ

Happy is up; Sad is down
I’m feeling up / I’m feeling down (I’m depressed)
Conscious is up; Unconscious is down
Get up, wake up
More is up; Less is down
The number of books printed each year is keep going up.
His income felt last year. / He is underage
(1) It’s eight o’clock, time to wake up
(2) John is at the peak of health
(3) Jane is on top of the situation
(4) The number of articles on semantics seems to keep going up
(5) The dean of the college occupies a lofty position in the university
(6) Jack does high-quality work
(7) That teacher always sets high standards

(1) CONSCIOUS IS UP. (2) HEALTH IS UP. (3) HAVING CONTROL/FORCE IS UP.
(4) MORE IS UP. (5) HIGH STATUS IS UP. (6) GOOD IS UP. (7) VIRTUE IS UP.

- Ontological metaphor: help structure our understanding of abstract concepts and

experiences, such as events, activities, emotions, ideas... in terms of our exp with actual physical
objects & substances in the real world.
Entity and substance metaphors: coi sth như vật hiện hữu ngoài đời thật
Container metaphors: coi sth như vật chứ
Personification
(1) John set out to seek his fame and fortune
(2) His fear of flying is getting better
(3) Mary has a lot of hostility toward her brother
(4) We thought that her suggestion was a bad idea
(5) His lack of moral fibre makes him weak
=> (1) Setting a goal (2) Referring (3) Quantifying (4) Identifying aspects (5) Identifying a cause

(1) There were many runners in the race

(2) Jack got into car racing as a young man
(3) John and Mary are in love
(4) The girl fell into a deep depression
=> (1) The race is construed as a container object. (2) The activity of car racing is construed as a substance container.
(3) The state of being in love is construed as a container. (4) The depression is construed as a container object.

(1) That theory explains everything you need to know about metaphor.
(2) I think that life has cheated me out of any hope of happiness.
(3) Cancer finally caught up with him. ===> Personification

Metonomy (hoán dụ): a kind of non-literal lang in which one entity is used to refer to another
entity that is associated with it some way. Ex: We need a good head for this project.
The part for the whole The face for the person
Producer for product Object for user
Controller for controlled Institution (tổ chức) for people responsible
The place for the institution The place for the event
(1) We enjoy watching Hitchcock more than Spielberg
(2) The Times asked a pertinent question at the news conference
(3) The White House refused to answer the question

=> (1) Hitchcock and Spielberg are used to represent the films they made.
(2) The Times is used to represent the reporter who works for the
newspaper. (3) The White House is used to refer to the spokesperson who
works there who actually refused to answer.
(1) Watergate was an important scandal in American politics
(2) The rancher needs some more hands during roundup time
(3) The buses are on strike today
(4) Hollywood keeps putting out mediocre movies
(5) The art collector bought an expensive Picasso
(6) Hitler conquered Poland in just a few days
(7) The Army needs many new soldiers
(8) She’s just another pretty face
=> (1) THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT (2) THE PART FOR THE WHOLE
(3) OBJECT USED FOR USER (4) THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION
(5) PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT (6) CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED
(7) INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE (8) THE FACE FOR THE PERSON
(1) The people let their hair down
(a) Literal sense: ..........................................................................................
Idiomatic sense: .....................................................................................
(b) Context for literal sense: .......................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense: .................................................................
(2) We hauled them over the coals
(a) Literal sense: ..........................................................................................
Idiomatic sense: .....................................................................................
(b) Context for literal sense: .......................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense: .................................................................
(3) He put his foot in his mouth
(a) Literal sense: ..........................................................................................
Idiomatic sense: .....................................................................................
(b) Context for literal sense: .......................................................................
Context for idiomatic sense: .................................................................
=> (1) (a) Literal sense: people with long hair physically let their hair hang down from an up (constrained) position to
fall around their shoulders.
Idiomatic sense: the people relaxed their inhibitions and behaved less
carefully.
(b) Context for literal sense: perhaps the people were getting ready to wash their hair.
Context for idiomatic sense: the people were in a relaxed mood at a party and behaved in a free and natural manner.
(2) Literal sense: we physically carried something over a pile of hot coals.
Idiomatic sense: we disciplined some people.
Context for literal sense: we had to carry something over actual hot coals, as in a burning building, in order to get it to
safety.
Context for idiomatic sense: we had to tell someone that they were behaving badly.
(3) Literal sense: he actually put one of his feet in his mouth.
Idiomatic sense: he said something inappropriate.
Context for literal sense: he could refer to a dog who is cleaning his feet by licking them.
Context for idiomatic sense: a person is saying things that are inappropriate.

Utterance: any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of
that person. (a sentence, a phrase, a word, a consequence of sentences)
Sentence: a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete thought.
Proposition: part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describe some
state of affairs.

Sense properties of sentences

1. Analytic sentence: An analytic sentence is one that necessarily true, as a result of the senses of
words in it.
2. Synthetic sentences: A synthetic sentence is one which may be either true or false, depending
on the way the world is.
3. Contradictions: A contradiction sentence is a sentence that is necessarily false, as a result of the
senses of words in it.
HW. 3-8/p103, AB/p.115, p.118, 9/p.118, 13-17/p.118,119
3 a All bachelors are unmarried Analytic c All bachelors are married Contradictions

b All bachelors are happy Synthetic

4 a All misers are stingy Analytic c All misers waste money Contradictions

b All misers are rich Synthetic d All misers are miserable Synthetic

5 a All carnivores eat meat Analytic b All mammals produce live young Analytic

6 a My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor Contradictions b This stool has a broken back Contradictions

7 a Kings are monarchs Analytic b Kings are male Analytic c Kings are fathers Synthetic

d George Washington was the first president Synthetic e Witches are wicked Synthetic
f My brother is an only child Contradictions g Puppies are human Contradictions
Alan's wife is a spinster.
Contradiction. Wife [+married], spinter [-married]

The blue whale is the biggest animal. *

Synthetic sentence. Because it may be true or false, depends on the earth's era.

The Earth is flat.

Synthetic. The sense of flat is not included in the sense of Earth.
Her ten-year-old son is a boy.
Analytic sentence. boy [+young,+male], 10-y/o [+young], son [+male].

Entailment: A propositon X entails a proposition Y if the truth of Y follow necessarily from the
truth of X.
Ex: John ate all the kippers (X) entails Someone ate something (Y).
John killed Bill (X) entails Bill died (Y).

Paraphrase: A sentence which express the same proposition as another sentence is a paraphrase of
that sentence.
Paraphrase is to sentences as synonymy as to predicates.
2 sentences may be said to be paraphrase of each other if and only if they have exactly the same set
of entailments.
A B
Henry was chewing a tulip Henry was chewing a flower
Denis got savaged by a sheep Denis got savaged by an animal
David stole a pound of beef David took a pound of beef

=> A entails B
A B
Henry chewed up all my tulips Henry chewed up all my flowers
All Denis’s sheep have foot-rot All Denis’s animals have foot-rot
Mary coloured all the square shapes purple Mary coloured all the rectangular shapes purple
The B sentences entail the A sentences. However, the entailment from B to A only holds when the set of things referred
to by the phrase including all actually exists. For example, All Denis’s animals have foot-rot entails - All Denis’s sheep
have foot-rot only if Denis actually has some sheep, i.e. if some of his animals are in fact sheep.
A B
John saw a big mouse John saw a big animal
A tall pygmy came in A tall person came in
We went in a small bus We went in a small vehicle
That was an expensive sandwich That was an expensive meal
=> There are no entailment relations between these sentences. Thus although a mouse is an animal, a big mouse is not
a big animal. The presence of gradable words upsets the normal relationship between hyponymy and entailment.

Paraphrase:
a I gave the book to my friend => I gave my friend the book.
b Your child took out the garbage => The garbage was taken out by your child.
c It is likely that Fred will win the race => It seems that Fred will win the race, Fred is likely to win the race.
d John is easy to please => John is amenable, It’s easy to please J.
e The sales clerk received the money from me => I gave the money to the sales clerk.
f Some students have a job => Some students get a career, Some students are employed.
Entailment
a John is a bachelor -> John is a man.
b John is a widower -> John is a man.
c Mary is divorced -> Mary used to get married.
d This is a tulip -> This is a flower.
Hyponymy and synonymy refer to relations between pairs of words, while entailment and paraphrase refer to relations
between pairs of sentences. => Hyponymy is to entailment as synonymy is to paraphrase.

Speech act: An action performed in saying sth. We can do things with words.
The action that a speaker accomplishes when using language in context.

Art of assertion: An act of assertion is carried out when a speaker utters a declarative sentence
(which can be either true of false), and undertaken a certain responsibility, or commitment, to the
hearer, that a particular state of affairs, or situation exists in the world.
The Descriptive Fallacy: The Descriptive Fallacy is the view that the sole purpose of making
assertions is to describe some state of affairs.
Performative: A performative utterance is one that actually describes that act that it performs (i.e
it performs some act and simultaneously [đồng thời] describes that act). (là utterance, explicit
performative)
Constative: A constative utterance is one which makes an assertion( i.e it is often the utterance of a
declarative sentence) but is NOT performative.
Performative verb: A performative verb is one which, (action verb) when used in a simple positive
present tense sentence, with a 1st person singular subject, can make the utterance of that sentence
performative.
Ex: I warn you that you will fail. => warn: performative verb

Approve, authorize, confess, deny, permit, quit, remind, sentence

Exceptions: Not all performative verb has 1st person singular subject.
Ex: You’re hereby forbidden to leave this room. => Passive

'I believe that you'll pass the exam' *

Constative utterance. Because believe is not an action verb.

'I promised to be back by 9 pm' 

Constative utterance. The verb is in past tense.

'You are authorized to sign this contract'

Performative utterance. Because it’s the passive form of “I authorize you to sign this contract”.
Authorize is a performative verb.

Performative test: Add “hereby”

Are the following performative verbs, or not?
(1) apologize Yes
(2) authorize Yes
(3) argue No
(4) condemn Yes
(5) squeal No
Think of three or more examples of performative verbs used in the formulae of conventionalized public and social
occasions.
................................................................................................................................................................................................
=> name (e.g. ‘I name this ship Titanic’); baptize; object (e.g. ‘I object, your Honour’); declare (e.g. ‘I declare this
bridge open’); plead (e.g. ‘I plead Not Guilty’)

(1) ‘You are hereby forbidden to leave this room’

(2) ‘All passengers on flight number forty-seven are requested to proceed to
gate ten’
(3) ‘I suggest that you see a psychiatrist as soon as possible’
(4) ‘This ship is called Titanic’
(5) ‘We thank you for the compliment you have paid us’
=> (1) exception, because performative, but with a 2nd person subject (2) exception, because performative but with 3rd
person plural subject (3) not an exception (suggest if performative verb) (4) not an exception, because not performative
(5) exception, because performative but with 1st person plural subject

Identify whether the following utterances are performative or constative. If an utterance is performative, describe the act
being performed, as well as the act being described.
a ‘I order you to pay the bill.’ => Performative utterance. Because by saying this, the speaker perform the act of
ordering.
b ‘I pronounce you man and wife.’
c ‘I promise to drop by tomorrow.’
d ‘The minister pronounced them man and wife.’ => Constative utterance. The verb is in the past, not perform an act at
the moment. Pronounce 2nd person singular subject.
e ‘I promised to drop by tomorrow.’
f ‘I sweep the floor every Tuesday.’ => Not performative utterance. It just the habit, not describes that act that it
performs.
g ‘I believe you were wrong.’

Identify which of the following is a performative verb and use it in asentence as a performative. Use the hereby test to
help you make your decision. Think of three additional performative verbs not listed here, and also use them
performatively in a sentence.
a declare e write
b warn f approve (‘to OK something’)
c think g remind
d promise h consider

e. write. Constative verb. You cannot write a letter everyday.

h. consider = think. Not performative. Not action verb, just mental
Identify which of the following utterances are performative. Also identify the utterances which are exceptions to the
conventions you mentioned in the answer to the previous question. Explain why they are exceptions.
a ‘Students are asked to keep noise to a minimum.’ => The active form: I ask you to... -> performative utterance.
b ‘You are hereby allowed to enter the vault.’
c ‘You must enter quietly.’
d ‘We apologize for our mistake.’
e ‘I admit that I made a mistake.’
f ‘The text was written by two authors.’
g ‘Wearing hats inside is forbidden.’ => The active form: I forbid you to wear hats inside. -> performative utterance.
1. Locution
2. illocution
3. Perlocution

Locution: A locutionary act is the saying of sth which is meaningful and can be understood. (noun)
( the literal sense of what you say) [nghĩa đen của câu]
Illocution: An illocutionary act is using an utterance to perform a function.
Perlocution: The perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying
sth. [người nghe xong sẽ làm gì]

dismissing
“shoot the snake”
- illocution: an act of order or advice, suggesting
- perlocution: shooting the snake
“Would u like a cup of coffee?”
- illocution: offering
- perlocution: The hearer say yes or no, nod the head
“After you”
- illocution: giving way
- perlocution: The hearer say thanks
“I’m awfully sorry I wasn’t at the meeting this morning.”
- per: The hearer accept the apology
“Can you shut the window?”
- Lo: The speaker is asking about the hearer’s ability to shut the window.
- ilo: requesting
- per: The hearer may stand up and shut the window./The hearer may refuse.
“Good night.”
-ilo: leavetaking
HW: p.270, 271, 272, 275, 276, 277, 283-284, 286
P.271 (1) Lady at ticket office in railway station: ‘I’d like a day return to Morecambe, please’
Sentence type: declarative Act: requesting or ordering
(2) Speaker at a meeting on a hot political issue: ‘Is it right to condone thuggery?’
Sentence type: interrogative Act: asserting (‘It is not right’)
(3) The Duke of Omnium, to his butler, who sees to his every need: ‘It’s cold in here, Hives’
Sentence type: declarative Act: ordering (‘close the window’)
(4) To companion on a country walk, while climbing a fence: ‘My skirt is
caught on the barbed wire’
Sentence type: declarative Act: requesting or ordering (‘Please help me’)
(5) Biology teacher: ‘Note that the female cell has two X-shaped
chromosomes’
Sentence type: imperative Act: asserting (‘The female cell has two X-shaped chromosomes’)
(6) Mother to child who is eating untidily: ‘Look at the mess you’ve made
under your chair’
Sentence type: imperative Act: asserting (‘You’ve made a mess’)

Pair of ilo:
(1) greeting – greeting Yes
(2) accusation – denial Yes
(3) greeting – denial No
(4) protest – apology Yes
(5) congratulation – apology No
(6) compliment – leavetaking No
Ilo or Per
(1) distracting someone P
(2) claiming I
(3) denying something I
(4) hurting someone P
(5) predicting something I
(6) mocking someone I

3 types of sentences: Declarative, imperative, interrogative.

Write down what you can say that perform the illocutions
Felicity conditions: The felicity conditions of an illocutionary act are conditions that must be
fulfilled in the situation in which the act is carried out if the act is to be said to be carried out
properly, or felicitously.
The Queen to a servant: “Open the window”
Felicitious: Proper
Sincerity condition: a particular subtype of felicity condition
A sincerity condition on an illocutionary act is a condition that must be fulfilled if the act is said to
be carried out sincerely, but failure to meet such a condition does not prevent the carrying out of the
act altogether.
Types of speech arts:
1. Representative 2. Directive
3. Commissive 4. Expressive
5. Declaration
1. Representative: describe a state of affairs in the world.
2. Directive: intend to get the hearer to carry out an action. Ex: (A to B): “Open the door”
3. Commissive: commits the speaker himself/herself to an future action. (người nói làm)
Ex: “I’ll give you a book”, “I promise...”
4. Expressive: indicates the speaker’s feeling/attitudes.
Ex: “What a nice dress you are wearing!” – the act of complimenting
5. Declaration: change the world by bringing out or altering the state of affairs its name.
Ex: “You’re fire” – the act of dismissing
Deixis: A deictic word (expression) is on which takes some element of its meaning from the
situation of the utterance in which it is used.
Person deixis: I, me, you, him them,...
Place/spatial deixis: here, there,...
Time/temporal deixis: now, then, tomorrow, next week,...

Distal
Presupposition: What a speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance.
Presupposition & Entailment
Ex: Mary’s brother brought three horses.
Entailment: Mary’s brother brought sth.
Presupposition: Mary has a brother.

Presupposition: I have a brother.

Types of Presupposition:
1. The existential presupposition

Ex: I lost my watch yesterday. => I had a watch.

My car is blue. => I have a car.

Ex: The American girl next door is having a party. => There is an American girl next door.
The King of Sweden has just left for France. => There is a King in Sweden.
2. The factive presupposition

Ex: I know that he is not here. => He is not here.

3. The non-factive presupposition

Ex: She dreamed that she was rich. => She was not rich.
We imagined that we were in Paris. => We were not in Paris.
He pretends to be ill. => He is not ill.
4. The lexical presupposition
 Ex: You’re late again. => You were late before.
He wants more popcorn. => He has had some popcorn.
He managed to open the door. => He tried to open the door.
Can you stop making that noise? => You are making noise.
He stopped smoking. => He used to smoke.
They started complaining. => They hadn’t complained before.
5. The structural presupposition

Ex: Where did you buy that book? => You bought that book.
When did he leave? => He left.
How did you know the defendant had bought a knife? => You knew the defendant
had bought a knife.
I don’t know why I’ve got an average mark. => I’ve got an average mark.
I wonder how he managed to get the job. => He managed to get the job.
6. The counter-factual presupposition

Ex: If I had enough money, I would buy a house. => I don’t have enough money.
1. You arrived late. => The structural presupposition
2. You stopped smoking. => The structural presupposition
3. He has a car. => The existential presupposition
4. You have had some tea. => The lexical presupposition
5. John used to poems/ J wrote poems before. => The lexical presupposition
6. You have had some beer. => The lexical presupposition
7. You beat you wife. => The lexical presupposition
8. You were going fast when you ran the red light. => The structural presupposition

The cooperative principle: The overriding social rule which speakers generally try to follow in
conversation. => “BE AS HELPFUL TO YOUR HEARER AS YOU CAN”
Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose of direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Conversational maxim:
1. The maxim of relevance / relation: keep to the topic of the conversation

=> B has flouted the maxim of relevance.

2. The maxim of quantity / informativeness:
Tell the hearer just what he needs to know, no more or no less.

=> B has flouted the maxim of quantity.

3. The maxim of quality / truth:
Make your contribution one that is true / what we say should be true

=> B has flouted the maxim of quality.

4. The maxim of manner / clarity:
Speak in a way that the hearer will understand (clear, avoid ambiguity) (too wordy)
 => B has flouted the maxim of manner
Conversational implicatures: conclusion drawn from utterances on particular occasions and not
from isolated sentences.
=> Implicature is a manner of utterance meaning

=> B has flouted the maxim of relevance.

=> Implicature: She didn’t like the party.

=> Implicature: No, I don’t.

HW: p.319, 321

=> Maxim of relevance

=> Implicature: It’s lunch time.

Maxim: quantity
Implicature: I haven’t tidied my room.

Maxim: manner
Implicature: The parent want the children to go to the
beach, but don’t want them to hear. ??
 Maxim: manner
Implicature: That was my stepfather.

Maxim: relevance
Implicature: No I’m not...

Maxim: relevance
Implicature: The dogs made his garden awful.

Politeness principle: Showing awareness of another person’s face.

P.321
(1) A: ‘Do you love me?’
B: ‘I’m quite fond of you’
=> Implicature: B does not love A.
(2) A: ‘Was there a fiddler at the bar last night?’
B: ‘There was a man scraping a bow across a violin’
=> Implicature: The fiddler at the bar was not very good.
(3) A: ‘Do you like my new carpet?’
B: ‘The wallpaper’s not bad’
=> Implicature: B does not like A’s new carpet.