Morphology

Analytical languages
ISOMORPHIC FEATURES
Allomorphic features
Synthetic language
Morphemes
An inflectional morpheme
A derivational morpheme
Noun
Singularia Tantum
Pluralia Tantum
The category of number of nouns
Lexico-grammatical classes of nouns in English and Ukrainian
Grammatical characteristics of a noun
Morphological structure of the noun
The indefinite article
Functions and the use of the definite article
FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO ARTICLE
An adjective
Semantic classification of adjectives
Grammatical category of adjectives
Relative and qualitative adjectives
SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ENGLISH ADJECTIVES
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
Grammatical meaning 
Order of adjectives
Adverb
Verb
Linking verbs
Auxiliary Verbs
Modal
Notional verbs
The category of number
The Category of Tense
Passive
Irregular
Morphological structure of the verbs
Particle
Genetive
Morphological structure of adjectives
Morphological structure of adverbs
Morphological structure of pronouns

Morphology- the study of the form and structure of words.

Analytical languages are the languages, whose grammatical and word-forming
meanings are mostly expressed by analytical means.
Analytical features of the languages are as follows:
1)morphologically indeclinable words and analytical (compound) forms and
constructions;
2)comparatively few grammatical inflections (case inflections in nouns,adjectives
and pronouns, and personal inflections in verbs);
3)a sparing use of sound alterations to denote grammatical forms;
4)a wide use of prepositions to denote relations between objects and to connect
words in the sentence;
5)a prominent use of word order to denote grammatical relations: a more or less
fixed word order.
It is a common statement that modern English is an analytical language, as
distinct from modern
Ukrainian,which is synthetic one. Nowadays this statement is modified, and it
sounds as follows: English is “mainly analytical” and Ukrainian is “mainly
synthetic”.
ISOMORPHIC FEATURES ARE COMMON FEATURES IN LANGUAGES
UNDER CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS. ISOMORPHIC IN ENGLISH AND
UKRAINIAN ARE,FOR EXAMPLE, THE CATEGORIES OF NUMBER, PERSON,
TENSE, AS WELL AS PARTS OF SPEECH,THE EXISTENCE OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF SENTENCES ETC.
Allomorphic features are those observed in one language and missing in the
other.
Synthetic language is any language in which syntactic relations within
sentences are expressed by inflection (the change in the form of a word that
indicates distinctions of tense, person, gender, number, mood, voice, and case) or
by agglutination (word formation by means of morpheme, or word unit,
clustering).
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. They are commonly
classified as either free morphemes, which can occur as separate words or bound
morphemes, which can't stand alone as words. For example, the morpheme “s”
may carry the meaning of plurality, the morpheme “un” - something opposite.
A derivational morpheme is one that is added to a root to form a new word that
differs, usually, in its part-of-speech classification. In English, prefixes are usually
derivational morphemes that change the meaning but not the part-of-speech
classification, whereas suffixes are usually derivational morphemes that change the
part-of-speech classification but not the meaning.
An inflectional morpheme indicates certain grammatical properties associated
with nouns and verbs, such as gender, number, case, and tense.
In English, the inflectional morphemes are all suffixes. The suffix –s, which
indicates either possession or plurality in nouns, is an inflectional morpheme; the
past tense suffix – ed, which added to verbs, is another. Inflectional morphemes are
used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a
comparative or possessive form.
A noun is a word that functions as the name of not only names of living beings (e.
g. boy, girl, bird) and lifeless things (e. g. table, chair, book), but also names of
abstract notions, i. e. qualities, states, actions (kindness, strength, sleep, fear,
conversation, fight).
The category of number.
Singular number is used when the noun refers to one item.
Plural number is used when the noun refers to more than one item. We add s or
es (productive) and when we change the word somehow (non-productive)
Countable nouns have both singular and plural forms.
Uncountable nouns and mass nouns do not normally
have a plural form.
Collective nouns (group words)
Some nouns refer to groups of people (e.g. audience, committee, government,
team).
Countable nouns
Some nouns refer to things which, in English, are treated as separate items which
can be counted. These are called countable nouns. Countable nouns can be
singular or plural. They can be used with a/an and with numbers and many other
determiners (e.g. these, a few):
Lexico-grammatical classes of nouns in English and Ukrainian.
Semantic classification
Common:
 concrete (hat, heart, дім, капелюх),
 abstract (joy, news, інформація, знання),
 collective (family, cattle, екіпаж, міліція),
 names of materials (air, sugar, борошно, вугілля),
 class nouns (bird, furniture, квітка, ссавець).
Proper:
 names of people (American, Michael, німець, Семен),
 family names (Smith, Сидорчук),
 geographical names (London, Київ),
 names of companies, newspapers, journals (Hoover, The Times, “Рудь”,
“Урядовий кур’єр”).
Pluralia Tantum. Though only nouns and some pronouns have this category in
English. The term “productive” means that new nouns appearing in English form
the plural with the help of the suffix –s. Completely allomorphic is also the
formation of plural number by root vowel interchange in English (non-productive
way): tooth–teeth, foot–feet.
Some English nouns have zero plural: deer, salmon. There are borrowed noun
inflexions: medium - media, criterion – criteria. or countable nouns the category of
number is a variable feature category, or relative, since countable English nouns
have both singular and plural correlative forms (table – tables).
Singularia Tantum. The grammatical meaning of the singular is traditionally
defined in a simplified way as “one”, and the meaning of the plural – as “many
(more than one)”. This is true for the bulk of the nouns, namely those denoting
simple countable objects (table – tables). But the noun in the singular can denote
not only “one discrete separate object”, but also substances (water), abstract
notions (love), units of measure (hour) and other referents.
Grammatical characteristics of a noun
The category of number
They distinguish the plural and the singular number in the languages compared.
Though only nouns and some pronouns have this category in English. In Ukrainian
this category is characteristic of nouns, adjectives, ordinal numerals, all pronouns
except reflexive.
The main way of plural forming is inner flexion. Sometimes there is an alternation
in the stem: wife–wives,друг–друзі.
Completely allomorphic is also the formation of plural number by root vowel
interchange in English:tooth–teeth,foot–feet.
Some English nouns have zero plural: deer, salmon. There are borrowed noun
inflexions: medium - media, criterion – criteria.

The category of case

It unites all nouns (except foreign words), pronouns, adjectives, numerals in
Ukrainian. While in English only animate Nouns possess the category of case. The
number of cases also proves allomorphism: 2 in English, 7 in Ukrainian.
In English ‘s can be joined not only to one morpheme, but also to the whole word-
combination or sentence: This is a girl I met yesterday’s mother.
This category is expressed in English by the opposition of the form in -'s [-z, -s,
-iz], usually called the "possessive" case, or more traditionally, the "genitive" case,
to the unfeatured form of the noun, usually called the "common" case.
1. Possessive genitive, e.g.:
- Mrs. Johnson’s passport — Mrs- Johnson has a passport.
2. Subjective genitive, indicating the doer of the action, e.g.: 
- the people's choice —» The people chose.
3. Genitive of source, denoting such relationships as authorship and origin. Cf.:
- the general's letter —> The general wrote a letter.
- Australia's exports —» The exports that come from Australia.
4. Objective genitive, indicating the object of the action, e.g.: 
Kennedy's assassination —> Somebody assassinated Kennedy.
5. Temporal genitive, denoting a period of time, e.g.:
- ten days' absence —> The absence lasted ten days.
6. Equational genitive, establishing the identity of the referent, e.g.:
- a mile's distance ~+ The distance is a mile.
7. Genitive of destination, e.g.:
- a women’s college —»• a college for women.

The category of gender

English lacks grammatical category of gender, though there exists a conceptual

category of gender. Most often biological sex is not differentiated: teacher, friend.
If you want to emphasize the biological sex you should use lexical means,
sometimes the differences are displayed with the help of lexical means: bull –
cows, boy friend – girl friend, he-wolf – she-wolf, Tom-cat, Sally-cat or by means
of word forming suffixes: -ess (for feminine) lioness, tigress; -er (for masculine) –
widow – widower.
All Ukrainian nouns, except pluralia tantum, belong to one of three genders
(masculine, feminine, neutral).
Morphological structure of the noun
1.Nouns denoting living beings (and some nouns denoting lifeless things) have two
case forms: the common case and the genitive case.
It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern
English for it is hardly ever expressed by means of grammatical forms.
There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in Modern English, the suffix -
ess, expressing feminine gender. It is not widely used.
Gender, i. e. the distinction of nouns into masculine, feminine and neuter.
Very often personal or possessive pronouns indicate the gender of the noun.
2. Nouns that can be counted have two numbers: singular and plural (e. g.
singular: a girl, plural: girls).
According to their morphological composition we distinguish simple, derivative
and compound nouns.
1. Simple nouns are nouns which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They are
indecomposable: chair, table, room, map, fish, work.
2. Derivative nouns are nouns that have derivative elements (prefixes or suffixes or
both): reader, sailor, blackness, childhood, misconduct, inexperience.
Productive noun-forming suffixes are:
Productive noun-forming suffixes are:
-er: reader, teacher, worker
-ist: communist, telegraphist,
dramatist
-ess: heiress, hostess, actress
-ness: carelessness, madness,
blackness
-ism: socialism, nationalism,
Imperialism
Unproductive suffixes are:
-hood: childhood, manhood
-dom: freedom
-ship: friendship, relationship
-merit: development
-ance: importance
-ence: dependence
-ty: cruelty
-ity: generosity
3. Compound nouns are nouns built from two or more stems. Compound nouns
often have one stress. The meaning of a compound often differs from the meanings
of its elements.
The main types of compound nouns are as follows:
(a) noun-stem + noun-stem: appletree, snowball;
(b) adjective-stem + noun-stem: blackbird, bluebell;
(c) verb-stem + noun-stem: pickpocket; the stem of a gerund or of a participle may
be the first component of a compound noun: dining-room, reading-hall, dancing-
girl.
The indefinite article is used in the following functions: classifying, generic,
numerical, introductory, quantifying.
Classifying
In this function the article serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects
of the same kind. The article has the meaning of the indefinite pronoun some. The
noun preceded by the indefinite article in it classifying function may be
accompanied by premodifying and postmodifying descriptive attributes.
Somewhere a telephone began to ring. He was a man who travelled a lot.
Generic (any,every)
In this function the indefinite article implies that what is said about one
representative of the class (a thing, animal or a person) can also be said about other
representatives of this class.The indefinite article in its generic function has the
meaning of any, every. In this function the indefinite article is used in proverbs and
sentences expressing some general truth. A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines. A
friend in need is a friend indeed.
Numerical
In this function the indefinite article preserves its original meaning of the cardinal
numeral one.
The idea of oneness is evident with nouns denoting time, distance, measure. I
won’t say a word.
The introductory function
Before sharing some information about the object, we need to introduce it to the
hearer. Fairy tales can be used as ideal illustrations of the use of the indefinite
article in its introductory function. Once upon a time there lived an old man. He
had a wife and a daughter. He lived in a small house.
The quantifying function
The indefinite article developed from the numeral “one”. The meaning of
“oneness” is still preserved when the article is used with nouns denoting measure,
like “a minute”, “a year” or “a pound”.
We use a/an with expressions of quantityand frequency:
a half, a couple, a million, €2 a kilo (= per kilo), 50 kman hour (= in an hour),
twice a week
We do not use an indefinite article with plural nouns or uncountable nouns:
She was wearing blue shoes. (plural noun)
She has short, blonde hair. (uncount noun)
Functions and the use of the definite article
FUNCTIONS OF THE ZERO ARTICLE
The zero article combines with uncountable nouns and countable nouns in the
plural.
The zero article can change the meaning of the word. When used with the zero
article, the noun loses its general grammatical meaning of thingness to a certain
degree and acquires the meaning of qualitativeness. For example, the nouns “day”
and “night” used with the zero article stand for “light” and “darkness” rather than
time units.

The major function of a definite article is toemphasize the noun it is placed

before. Itspecifies a noun that could be an object, aperson, a place, or a thing. It
comes before anoun or a noun phrase, and also before asuperlative adjective, to
point out the noun.

An adjective is a part of speech which describes, identifies, or quantifies a noun or

a pronoun.
Semantic classification
Gradable and non-gradable:
 gradable (estimated quantitatively, or measured): very tall, quite tall, tall
enough, etc.;
 non-gradable (cannot be measured): wooden – * very wooden.
Gradable adjectives:
 stative (not a developing process): John is very tall. vs.*John is being very
tall today;
  dynamic (developing properties): John is very careful today vs. John is being
careful today (emphatic).
Non-gradable adjectives:
 relative adjectives express the property of an entity related to some other
entity: wooden is related to wood, chemical to chemistry, etc.;
intensifying adjectives:
 clear, definite, outright, plain, pure, real, sheer, sure, true, complete, great,
firm, absolute, close, perfect: sheer curiosity, utter astonishment.
restrictive adjectives:
 restrict the noun to a particular member of the class (chief, exact, main,
particular, precise, principal, sole, specific): main problem, principal goal.
 adjectives which can be used attributively and predicatively (usu. gradable):
an interesting book vs. the book is interesting;
 adjectives which can be used attributively only (intensifying and restrictive):
a complete fool vs. the fool is complete;
 adjectives which can be used predicatively only (temporary properties): She
is being very clever today vs. She is a very clever girl.
Adjectives are divided into simple, derivative and compound.
1. Simple adjectives are adjectives, which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They
are indecomposable: e.g. good, red, black etc.
2. Derivative adjectives are adjectives, which have derivative elements, suffixes or
prefixes or both: beautiful, foolish, hopeless, unkind, unimportant etc.
3. Compound adjectives are adjectives built from two or more stems.
What are the Different Kinds of Adjectives?
1. Descriptive Adjectives
2.Adjectives of Number or Adjectives of Quantity
3. Demonstrative Adjectives
4. Possessive Adjectives
5. Interrogative Adjectives
Among the different kinds of adjectives, descriptive adjectives are probably the most
common ones. They simply say something about the quality or the kind of the noun or
pronoun they’re referring to.
Adjectives of Number or Adjectives of Quantity
As the name suggests, this kind of adjective answers the question, “How many?” or
“How much?”
Demonstrative adjectives point out pronouns and nouns, and always come before the
words they are referring to. I used to buy this kind of shirts.
Possessive Adjectives
Obviously, this kind of adjectives shows ownership or possession. Aside from that,
possessive adjectives always come before the noun. Trisha sold his dog.
Interrogative adjectives ask questions and are always followed by a noun.
Examples:
What movie are you watching?
ACCORDING TO THEIR MEANING AND GRAMMATICAL
CHARACTERISTICS ADJECTIVES FALL UNDER TWO CLASSES:
 Qualitative adjectives. They denote qualities of a substance directly as size,
shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualities of general estimation:
little, large, high, soft, hard, warm, white, blue, pink, strong, hold, beautiful,
important, necessary, etc. –
 Relative adjectives. They denote qualities of a substance through their relation
to: materials: silken, woollen, wooden, etc.; place: Italian, Asian, etc.; time:
monthly, weekly, etc.; some action: preparatory, rotatory, etc.
GRAMMATICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE
ADJECTIVES
1. MOST QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES HAVE DEGREES OF
COMPARISON: big — bigger — (the) biggest;
2. QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES HAVE CERTAIN TYPICAL SUFFIXES,
SUCH AS:
 ful: careful, beautiful, etc.; - -
 less: careless, worthless, etc.; - -
 ous: dangerous, adventurous, etc.; - -
 ent: convenient, excellent, etc.; - -
 able: comfortable, reliable, etc.; - -
 y: silvery, watery, etc.; - -
 ish: whitish, shortish, etc.
3. FROM MOST OF QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES ADVERBS CAN BE
FORMED BY THE SUFFIX -LY: graceful — gracefully;
4. MOST QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVES CAN BE USED AS ATTRIBUTES
AND PREDICATIVES: How lovely the little river is, with its dark, changing
wavelets! (attributes)-Adjective is written before a noun and describes it. But
you’re nearly as old as I am! (predicative)- When an adjective isn`t combined
with a noun like a phrase
GRAMMATICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RELATIVE ADJECTIVES
1. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES HAVE NO DEGREES OF COMPARISON.
2. ADJECTIVES HAVE CERTAIN TYPICAL SUFFIXES, SUCH AS:
-en: wooden, woollen, etc.; - -an: Italian, Ukrainian, etc.; - -ist: socialist,
materialist, etc.; - -ic: synthetic, historic, etc.; - -ical: analytical, musical, etc.
3. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES DO NOT FORM ADVERBS WITH THE SUFFIX
-LY.
But if they develop a figurative meaning, adverbs can be formed. Wooden can
mean: - made of wood; - not showing enough natural expression, emotion or
movement: She speaks her lines rather woodenly.
3. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES ARE CHIEFLY USED AS ATTRIBUTES:
she was a fair example of the middle American class… (attribute)
SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ENGLISH ADJECTIVES
1. SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES ARE ADJECTIVES WHICH HAVE
ACQUIRED SOME OR ALL OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NOUN,
BUT THEIR ADJECTIVAL ORIGIN IS STILL GENERALLY FELT.
Substantivized adjectives are divided into two groups:
 Wholly substantivized adjectives; -
 Partially substantivized adjectives.

WHOLLY SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES:

Wholly substantivized adjectives have all the characteristics of nouns: -
 they have the plural form; -
 they have the genitive case; -
 they are associated with articles.
They have become nouns: a native, the natives, a native’s hut.
Some wholly substantivized adjectives have only the plural form: eatables,
valuables, ancients, sweets, greens, etc.

PARTIALLY SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES:

Partially substantivized adjectives acquire only some of the characteristics of the
noun. They are used with the definite article.
Partially substantivized adjectives denote: -
 a whole class: the rich, the poor, the unemployed, etc.; -
 abstract notions: the good, the evil, the beautiful, the singular, the plural, the
future, the present, the past, etc.

2. SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES DENOTING NATIONALITIES FALL

UNDER WHOLLY AND PARTIALLY SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES:
 Wholly substantivized adjectives are: a Russian — Russians, a German
— Germans, etc.; -
 Partially substantivized adjectives are: the English, the French, the
Chinese, etc.
There are only three degrees or levels of adjectives (also known as degrees of
comparison) namely, positive, comparative, and superlative.
1.When you talk about or describe only a single person, place, or thing, you should
use the positive degree.
2. If on the other hand, you are comparing two persons, places, or things, it is
appropriate to use the comparative degree of the word. Normally, you will need to
add “-er” to transform the word into its comparative form or add the word “more.”
Also, the word “than” should be added after the adjective in the comparative degree.3.
Lastly, if you are comparing more than two things, the superlative form of the
adjectives should be used and the word “the” should be added before the adjective. In
order to transform the adjective into its superlative form, you just have to add the
suffix “-est” or the word “most.”
Grammatical meaning is the meaning conveyed in a sentence by word order and
other grammatical signals. Also called structural meaning. Linguists distinguish
grammatical meaning from lexical meaning (or denotation)--that is, the dictionary
meaning of an individual word.
Order of adjectives

An adverb is a part of speech used to describe a verb, adjective, clause, or another

adverb. It simply tells the readers how, where, when, or the degree at which
something was done.
As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
- simple adverbs
- derivative adverbs
- compound adverbs
- composite adverbs
• Simple adverbs are devoid of affixes and consist of a root-stem: enough, back,
here, there, then, quite, well, rather, too.
• Derivative adverbs are formed by means of suffixes. The most productive adverb-
forming suffix added to adjectives is -ly. For example: slowly, widely,
beautifully, heavily, easily, lazily, differently, simply, etc.
• Compound adverbs are made up of two stems: anywhere, anyway, anyhow,
sometimes, somehow, nowhere, clockwise, likewise, longwise.
• Composite adverbs include prepositional phrases like at a loss, at work, by
name, by chance, by train, in debt, in a hurry, in turn.

There are five main types of adverbs, each answering a different question. They
include:
• adverbs of manner (how something happens) - angrily, hungrily, beautifully;
• adverbs of time (when does something happen) - yesterday, tomorrow, next
week;
• adverbs of place and direction (where something happens) - here, there,
nowhere;
• adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (how much does something
happen) - almost, so, very;
adverbs of repetition or frequency (how often something happens) - always, never,
often.
A Verb is a word that denotes Action or State / Condition or Possession of the
subject in the sentence. A verb describes what is done by the subject, or what is
done to the subject, or simply what the subject is. It is the most important part of
speech and the tense of the verb changes the tense of the entire sentence.
It has the following grammatical categories:
- person
- aspect
- number
- voice
- tense
- mood
These categories may be expressed by means of affixes, inflexions (change of the
route vowel) and by form words. According to the functional verbs perform in the
sentence; they can form finite (особові) and non-finite forms. The finite form can
be used as the predicate of the sentence. The non-finite can’t be used as the
predicate of the sentence, they are called “verbals” (Participle I, II, Infinitive,
Gerund).
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs connect the subject of a sentence with information about itself.
Linking verbs often express states of being. Here’s an example: “The
sky became dark.” In this case, became is the linking verb because it connects the
description (dark) back to the subject (sky). Other examples of linking verbs
include appear, remain, and to be.
Auxiliary Verbs
Sometimes lexical verbs receive help from other verbs. Auxiliary verbs (or helping
verbs) help main verbs to express degrees of time and mood.
Auxiliary verbs are classified into Primary auxiliaries and Modal Auxiliaries
Primary Auxiliaries:
These are ‘Be-forms’, ‘Have-forms’ and ‘Do-forms’
Be-forms:
 Am, is, are, was, were, will be, shall be, can be, may be etc are called Be-
form auxiliaries
Have-forms:
 Have, has, had. will have shall have can have may have etc. are called Have-
form auxiliaries.
Do-forms:
 Do, Does, Did are called Do-form auxiliaries.
Modal Auxiliaries
These are used to express different moods like ability, possibility, obligation,
advice, wish etc. They are:
 Will, shall, can,may, would, should, could, might, must, have to, had to ,
ought to etc.
Notional verbs (смысловые глаголы) and functional (служебные) (semi
functional - полуслужебные) verbs. Notional verbs have full nominative value:
they are independent in the expression of the process (to read, to work etc).
Functional and semi functional verbs have partial (частичные) nominative
value: they are depended on other words in the denotation of the process (must).
Functional and semi functional verbs are further subdivided into a number of
groups:
Auxiliary (вспомогательные) are used to build analytical grammatical forms
of notional verbs. For example, have done, will write etc.
Link verbs (глагол связки) connect the nominative part of the predicate
(или по другому the predicative – именная часть сказуемого) with the
subject. For example, He is a student, He grew pale (он побледнел). The semi
functional link verbs should be distinguished (должны быть выделены) from
homonymous notional verbs. For example, The flower grew quickly.
Modal verbs denote various attitudes of the subject towards the action or
process. For example, ability (can), obligation (must), permission (may),
advisability (should) etc.

The verbal category of person and number.

The category of person

This category has very few forms of expression in the modem English verb. These
forms are: the -s ending in the 3rd person singular of the Present Indefinite tense. The
ending differentiates the 3rd person from the 1st and the 2nd. Besides there are
different forms of the verb to be (is, am). The third way of expressing the category of
person is the use of auxiliary verbs for different persons (shall, will, should, would-
Future, Future in the Past, conditional mood). Though the category of person has
very few forms of expression it is not disappearing and is widely used.

The category of number

The category of number shows whether the process is associated with one doer or
with more than one doer.
This category has the following forms of expression:
a) The verb to be in the present indefinite tense has for the plural the form are, and
for the past indefinite tense plural were.
b) The verb to have for the plural in the present indefinite tense has the form have.
All English verbs with the exception of defective ones have the-.s ending in the 3rd
person singular of the present indefinite tense and have no ending in the 3rd person
plural of the same tense.
The ending -s- in the 3rd person singular expresses two grammatics categories: The
category of person and number and as they are used with the verbs to he and to have
which are widely used as notional, semi-notion, auxiliaries, etc. these categories are
found in modern English nearly in a: sentence.
Some verbs - modals - do not distinguish number at all.

The Category of Tense- is a grammatical category which in the system of

grammatical forms expresses the relation of an action to real. In other words tense as a
grammatical category serves to express the time of an action in reference to moment
of speech.. Accordingly there are three grammatical tenses: Present, Past, and
Future
The difference between the lexical and grammatical expression of time lies in the
following facts:
1)Lexically it is possible to name any definite moment of the period time. The
grammatical meaning of tense is an abstraction from all the to particular tenses:
Present, Past, and Future.
2)Lexically any period of time is named directly (today, tomorrow, yesterday)
whereas the grammatical indication of time is of an indirect character; That means
that it is not time which is indicated by a verb, but an action the may either coincide
with the moment of speech or precede it or follow it.
English verbal system has three tenses and each of them may appear either in
the common aspect or in the continuous aspect. Accordingly we have six tense-
aspect forms
Present, Past, and Future Tenses of the Common Aspect
The Common aspect represents an action as more general, more abstract character
referring to the present, past or future time (hence the term indefinite is not quite
happy in connection with past indefinite and future indefinite).
M.A.Ganshina and N.M.Vasilevskaya luckily call these tenses present (or past or
future) tense of the common aspect.
Present, Past, and Future Tenses of the Continuous Aspect
The continuous aspect shows a concrete action in its development at a given moment,
i.e. it expresses an action going on (continuing) at a given moment present, past, or
future or regularly repeated within a given period of time present, past or future.
The formation and use of the passive voice.

 We do not know who the agent is: 'I don’t know who did it, but my pet rabbit has
been let out.'
 When people in general are the agents: 'All the Beatles records can be borrowed
from the central library.
 When the agent has already been mentioned: 'In the nextsession of parliament
new laws will be introduced aimed at stopping domestic violence.'
 When it is not important to know who the agent is: 'Do you want a lift?' 'No
thanks, I’m being collected
 When it is obvious to the listener or reader who the agent is: I had been
instructed to remove all the ash trays.
Regular and Irregular Main Verbs
In English, the general rule for writing the past and past participle forms of the verb is
to add ‘ed’ or ‘d’ to the verb. The verbs whose past and past participle tenses of the
verb conform to this rule are known as regular verbs. For example,
The past and past participle forms of Raise are “raised” and “raised”. It is a regular
verb. Similarly, Cook, Walk, laugh etc.
Irregular verbs are those that do not follow this rule and have different words for past
and past participle tenses. For example,
 Go (Past and Past participle are ‘went’ and ‘gone’)
 Do (Did- Done)
 Become (became- become)
 Bring (Brought- brought)

According to the morphological structure verbs can be divided into:

- simple ;
- derivative (rewrite, undo) ;
- compound (day-dream, brain-beat) ;
- composite (give up, sit down).
The basic forms of the verb are:
- the infinitive ;
- the past indefinite ;
- the participle II
speak – spoke – spoken.
Particle is a word or a part of a word that has a grammatical purpose but often
has little or no meaning:
In the sentence "I tidied up the room", the adverb "up" is a particle.

The category of case. Ways of expressing case meanings in English.

Case is a morphological category which has a distinct syntactic significance, as it

denotes relations, of nouns towards other words in the sentence.
This category is expressed in English by the opposition of the form in -'s [-z, -s, -iz],
usually called the "possessive" case, or more traditionally, the "genitive" case, to the
unfeatured form of the noun, usually called the "common" case.
1. Possessive genitive, e.g.:
- Mrs. Johnson’s passport — Mrs- Johnson has a passport.
2. Subjective genitive, indicating the doer of the action, e.g.: 
- the people's choice —» The people chose.
3. Genitive of source, denoting such relationships as authorship and origin. Cf.:
- the general's letter —> The general wrote a letter.
- Australia's exports —» The exports that come from Australia.
4. Objective genitive, indicating the object of the action, e.g.: 
Kennedy's assassination —> Somebody assassinated Kennedy.
5. Temporal genitive, denoting a period of time, e.g.:
- ten days' absence —> The absence lasted ten days.
6. Equational genitive, establishing the identity of the referent, e.g.:
- a mile's distance ~+ The distance is a mile.
7. Genitive of destination, e.g.:
- a women’s college —»• a college for women.

Adjectives are divided into simple, derivative and compound.

1. Simple adjectives are adjectives, which have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They
are indecomposable: e.g. good, red, black etc.
2. Derivative adjectives are adjectives, which have derivative elements, suffixes or
prefixes or both: beautiful, foolish, hopeless, unkind, unimportant etc.
3. Compound adjectives are adjectives built from two or more stems.
Morphological Properties
- some typically adjectival suffixes: -able (unaccountable), -ous (envious), -ive
(extensive), -ish (foolish)
- suffixes shared with another class:
(a) N + -en = ADJ (wooden) x ADJ + + -en = V (moisten)
(b) -ing = ADJ (interesting, amusing, striking) = present participle V
(c) -ed = ADJ (tired, complicated, surprised) = past participle V
- some ADJ derived from irregular V x different from the verbal participles: ADJ
drunken x V drunk; ADJ shaven x V shaved; etc.
- many ADJ not formed by derivation: proud, rude, large, soft, mild, shallow, etc.
- ADJ morphologically most closely resemble ADV
- many ADV not formed by derivation: then, often, soon, here, there, etc.
- both ADJ and ADV: long, fast, late, near, etc.
- most frequent adverbial suffix –ly shared with ADJ: ADV obviously x ADJ lonely,
cowardly, friendly, etc.
- both ADJ and ADV suffixed –ly: kindly, early, weekly, daily, likely, etc.
Morphological structure of adverbs
According to morphological structure adverbs are classified into
1) simple, 2) derivative, 3) compound, 4) composite.
• Simple adverbs are devoid of affixes and consist of a root-stem: enough, back,
here, there, then, quite, well, rather, too.
• Derivative adverbs are formed by means of suffixes. The most productive adverb-
forming suffix added to adjectives is -ly. For example: slowly, widely,
beautifully, heavily, easily, lazily, differently, simply, etc.
• Compound adverbs are made up of two stems: anywhere, anyway, anyhow,
sometimes, somehow, nowhere, clockwise, likewise, longwise.
• Composite adverbs include prepositional phrases like at a loss, at work, by
name, by chance, by train, in debt, in a hurry, in turn.

Morphological structure of pronouns

There is no uniformity of morphological and syntactical characteristics in the groups
of pronouns. Some pronouns have the grammatical categories of person, gender,
case, and number. The categories of person and gender (in the third person singular)
exist only in personal, and possessive pronouns.
Pronouns as well as nouns have two cases but whereas some pronouns (e. g., personal
pronouns and the relative and interrogative who) have the nominative and objective
cases, others (e. g. indefinite pronouns such as somebody, reciprocal pronouns such
as one another, negative pronouns such as nobody) have the common and genitive
cases.
The category of number is found in demonstrative pronouns (this and that) and the
defining pronoun other.
Many pronouns are characterised by double syntactical use (they may be used as
subject, predicative, object, and at the same time as attribute). Here belong
demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, etc.