Financial Accounting and Analysis

(R20MBA03)

Course Instructor

Ms. N Durga Bhavani

Mr. Rajesh Babu
Dr. Gowsya Shaik

MBA I Year I Semester

AY: 2020-22
 FINANCIAL ACCOUINTING AND ANALYSIS

Course Aim/s:
 To provide the information that is needed for sound economic decision making.
 To provide information about firm’s performance to external parties such as investors,
creditors, bankers, researchers and Government Agencies.
Learning Outcome/s:
 To prepare, understand, interpret and analyze financial statements with confidence.
 To appreciate and use financial statements as means of business communication.
 To use the analytical techniques and arriving at conclusions from financial information
for the purpose of decision making.

Unit-I: Introduction to Accounting

Introduction to Accounting: Importance - Objectives – Principles. GAAP: Accounting Concepts
and Conventions. Accounting System: Double Entry System - Recording Business Transactions -
Classification of Accounts - Accounting Cycle - Users of Accounting Information.

Unit-II: The Accounting Process

Overview: Accounting Process. Books of Original Record: Journal - Ledger - Trial Balance
(Problems) - Classification of Capital and Revenue Expenses - Final Accounts with Adjustments
(Problems) - Cash Book and other Subsidiary books. (Only Theory)

Unit-III: Depreciation and Shares and Debentures

Depreciation: Concept - Methods of Depreciation: their impact on measurement of business
Accounting - Straight Line Method (Problems) - Written down Value Method (Problems).
Shares and Debentures: Entries for Issue of shares (Problems) - Forfeiture (Problems) - Issue of
shares at Discount and premium (Problems) - Issue and Redemption of Debentures. (Problems)

Unit-IV: Financial Analysis-I

Working Capital: Statement of Changes in Working Capital - Funds from Operations - Paid Cost
and Unpaid Costs. Financial Analysis: Introduction to Funds Flow Statement - Cash Flow
Statement vs. Funds Flow Statement - Preparation and Analysis of Cash Flow Statement
(Problems)

Unit-V: Financial Analysis-II

Financial Statement Analysis: Analysis and Interpretation of Financial Statements from Investor
and Company point of view - Horizontal Analysis and Vertical Analysis of Company Financial
Statements - Liquidity - Leverage - Solvency and Profitability Ratios. (Problems) Techniques:
Du Pont Chart - Window Dressing - Limitations of Financial Statements. Accounting Standards
(AS) Issued by ICAI-IFRS. Case Study on Financial Reporting & Analysis (FRAs).

REFERENCES:
 Dhanesh K. Khatri, Financial Accounting & Analysis, TMH, New Delhi.
 PK Jain and K. L. Narang, Financial Accounting & Analysis, Kalyani Publications.
 Narayana Swamy, Financial Accounting & Analysis, PHI.
 V. Rajasekharam, Financial Accounting & Analysis, Pearson Education, New Delhi.
 Ranjan Kumar Bal, Financial Accounting & Analysis, S. Chand, New Delhi.
 Maheswari, Financial Accounting, IBH.
 UNIT 1: INTODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING

INTRODUCTION

Accounting has rightly been termed as the language of the business. The basic function of a
language is to serve as a means of communication. Accounting also serves this function. It
communicates the results of business operations to various parties who have some stake in the
business viz., the proprietor, creditors, investors, Government and other agencies. Though
accounting is generally associated with business but it is not only business which makes use of
accounting. Persons like housewives, Government and other
individuals also make use of a accounting. For example, a housewife has to keep a record of the
money received and spent by her during a particular period. She can record her receipts of
money on one page of her "household diary" while payments for different items such as milk,
food, clothing, house, education etc. on some other page or pages of her diary in a chronological
order. Such a record will help her in knowing about:

(i) The sources from which she received cash and the purposes for which it was utilized.
(ii) Whether her receipts are more than her payments or vice-versa?
(iii) The balance of cash in hand or deficit, if any at the end of a period.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF ACCOUNTING

Accounting is as old as money itself. However, the act of accounting was not as developed as it
is today because in the early stages of civilization, the number of transactions to be recorded
were so small that each businessman was able to record and check for himself all his
transactions. Accounting was practiced in India twenty three centuries ago as is clear from the
book named "Arthashastra" written by Kautilya, King Chandragupta's minister. This book not
only relates to politics and economics, but also explain the art of proper keeping of accounts.

However, the modern system of accounting based on the principles of double entry system owes
it origin to Luco Pacioli who first published the principles of Double Entry System in 1494 at
Venice in Italy. Thus, the art of accounting has been practiced for centuries but it is only in the
late thirties that the study of the subject 'accounting' has been taken up seriously.

MEANING OF ACCOUNTING
The main purpose of accounting is to ascertain profit or loss during a specified period, to show
financial condition of the business on a particular date and to have control over the firm's
property. Such accounting records are required to be maintained to measure the income of the
business and communicate the information so that it may be used by managers, owners and other
interested parties. Accounting is a discipline which records, classifies, summarizes and interprets
financial information about the activities of a concern so that intelligent decisions can be made
about the concern. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has defined the
Financial Accounting as "the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in as significant
manner and in terms of money
transactions and events which in part, at least of a financial character, and interpreting the results
thereof". American Accounting Association defines accounting as "the process of identifying,
measuring, and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments and
decisions by users of the information.

From the above the following attributes of accounting emerge :

(i) Recording : It is concerned with the recording of financial transactions in an orderly manner,
soon after their occurrence In the proper books of accounts.

(ii) Classifying : It Is concerned with the systematic analysis of the recorded data so as to
accumulate the transactions of similar type at one place. This function is performed by
maintaining the ledger in which different accounts are opened to which related transactions are
posted.

(iii) Summarizing : It is concerned with the preparation and presentation of the classified data in
a manner useful to the users. This function involves the preparation of financial statements such
as Income Statement, Balance Sheet, Statement of Changes in Financial Position, Statement of
Cash Flow, Statement of Value Added.

(iv) Interpreting : Nowadays, the aforesaid three functions are performed by electronic data
processing devices and the accountant has to concentrate mainly on the interpretation aspects of
accounting. The accountants should interpret the statements in a manner useful to action. The
accountant should explain not only what has happened but also (a) why it happened, and (b)
what is likely to happen under specified conditions.

OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING

The following are the main objectives of accounting:

1. To keep systematic records : Accounting is done to keep a systematic record of financial
transactions. In the absence of accounting there would have been terrific burden on human
memory which in most cases would have been impossible to bear.

2. To protect business properties : Accounting provides protection to business properties from

unjustified and unwarranted use. This is possible on account of accounting supplying the
following information to the manager or the proprietor:
(i) The amount of the proprietor's funds invested in the business.
(ii) How much the business have to pay to others?
(iii) How much the business has to recover from others?
(iv) How much the business has in the form of (a) fixed assets, (b) cash in hand, (c) cash at bank,
(d) stock of raw materials, work-in-progress and finished goods?

Information about the above matters helps the proprietor in assuring that the funds of the
business are not necessarily kept idle or under-utilized.

3. To ascertain the operational profit or loss : Accounting helps in ascertaining the net profit
earned or loss suffered on account of carrying the business. This is done by keeping a proper
record of revenues and expense of a particular period. The Profit and Loss Account is prepared at
the end of a period and if the amount of revenue for the period is more than the expenditure
incurred in earning that revenue, there is said to be a profit. In case the expenditure exceeds the
revenue, there is said to be a loss. Profit and Loss Account will help the management, investors,
creditors, etc. in knowing whether the business has proved to be remunerative or not. In case it
has not proved to be remunerative or profitable, the cause of such a state of affairs will be
investigated and necessary remedial steps will be taken.
4. To ascertain the financial position of the business : The Profit and Loss Account gives the
amount of profit or loss made by the business during a particular period. However, it is not
enough. The businessman must know about his financial position i.e. where he stands ?, what he
owes and what he owns? This objective is served by the Balance Sheet or Position Statement.
The Balance Sheet is a statement of assets and liabilities of the business on a particular date. It
serves as barometer for ascertaining the financial health of the business.

5. To facilitate rational decision making : Accounting these days has taken upon itself the task
of collection, analysis and reporting of information at the required points of time to the required
levels of authority in order to facilitate rational decision-making. The American Accounting
Association has also stressed this point while defining the term accounting when it says that
accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to
permit informed judgements and decisions by users of the information. Of course, this is by no
means an easy task. However, the accounting bodies all over the world and particularly the
International Accounting Standards Committee, have been trying to grapple with this problem
and have achieved success in laying down some basic postulates on the basis of which the
accounting statements have to be prepared.

6. Information System : Accounting functions as an information system for collecting and

communicating economic information about the business enterprise. This information helps the
management in taking appropriate decisions. This function, as stated, is gaining tremendous
importance these days.

ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF ACCOUNTING

Accounting plays an important and useful role by developing the information for providing
answers to many questions faced by the users of accounting information :

(1) How good or bad is the financial condition of the business?

(2) Has the business activity resulted in a profit or loss ?
(3) How well the different departments of the business have performed in the past?
(4) Which activities or products have been profitable?
(5) Out of the existing products which should be discontinued and the production
of which commodities should be increased?
(6) Whether to buy a component from the market or to manufacture the same?
(7) Whether the cost of production is reasonable or excessive?
(8) What has been the impact of existing policies on the profitability of the business?
(9) What are the likely results of new policy decisions on future earning capacity of the business?
(10) In the light of past performance of the business how should it plan for future to ensure
desired results?

Above mentioned are few examples of the types of questions faced by the users of accounting
information. These can be satisfactorily answered with the help of suitable and necessary
information provided by accounting.

Besides, accounting is also useful in the following respects:

 a. Increased volume of business results in large number of transactions and no
businessman can remember everything. Accounting records obviate the necessity of
remembering various transactions.
b. Accounting records, prepared on the basis of uniform practices, will enable a business
to compare results of one period with another period.
c. Taxation authorities (both income tax and sales tax) are likely to believe the facts
contained in the set of accounting books if maintained according to generally
accepted accounting principles.
d. Accounting records, backed up by proper and authenticated vouchers, are good
evidence in a court of law.
e. If a business is to be sold as a going concern, then the values of different assets as
shown by the balance sheet helps in bargaining proper price for the business.

MEANING AND FEATURES OF ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES

For searching the goals of the accounting profession and for expanding knowledge in this field, a
logical and useful set of principles and procedures are to be developed. We know that while
driving our vehicles, follow a standard traffic rules. Without adhering traffic rules, there would
be much chaos on the road. Similarly, some principles apply to accounting.

Thus, the accounting profession cannot reach its goals in the absence of a set rules to guide the
efforts of accountants and auditors. The rules and principles of accounting are commonly
referred to as the conceptual framework of accounting.

Accounting principles have been defined by the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants as
“The body of doctrines commonly associated with the theory and procedure of accounting
serving as an explanation of current practices and as a guide for the selection of conventions or
procedures where alternatives exists. Rules governing the formation of accounting axioms and
the principles derived from them have arisen from common experience, historical precedent
statements by individuals and professional bodies and regulations of Governmental agencies”.
According to Hendriksen (1997), Accounting theory may be defined as logical reasoning in the
form of a set of broad principles that (i) provide a general frame of reference by which
accounting practice can be evaluated, and (ii) guide the development of new practices and
procedures. Theory may also be used to explain existing practices to obtain a better
understanding of them. But the most important goal of accounting theory should be to provide a
coherent set of logical principles that form the general frame of reference for the evaluation and
development of sound accounting practices.

The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has advocated the use of the
word” Principle” in the sense in which it means “rule of action”. It discuses the generally
accepted accounting principles as follows :

Financial statements are the product of a process in which a large volume of data about aspects
of the economic activities of an enterprise are accumulated, analysed and reported. This process
should be carried out in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. These
principles represent the most current consensus about how accounting information should be
recorded, what information should be disclosed, how it
should be disclosed, and which financial statement should be prepared. Thus, generally accepted
principles and standards provide a common financial language to enable informed users to read
and interpret financial statements.

Generally accepted accounting principles encompass the conventions, rules and procedures
necessary to define accepted accounting practice at a particular time....... generally accepted
accounting principles include not only broad guidelines of general application, but also detailed
practices and procedures (Source : AICPA Statement of the Accounting Principles Board No. 4,
“Basic Concepts and Accounting Principles underlying Financial Statements of Business
Enterprises “, October, 1970, pp 54-55)

According to ‘Dictionary of Accounting’ prepared by Prof. P.N. Abroal, “Accounting standards

refer to accounting rules and procedures which are relating to measurement, valuation and
disclosure prepared by such bodies as the Accounting Standards Committee (ASC) of a
particular country”. Thus, we may define Accounting Principles as those rules of action or
conduct which are adopted by the accountants universally while recording accounting
transactions. Accounting principles are man-made. They are accepted because they are believed
to be useful. The general acceptance of an accounting principle usually depends on how well it
meets the following three basic norms :
a) Usefulness b) Objectiveness, and c) Feasibility

GENERALLY ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES (GAAP): ACCOUNTING

CONCEPTS AND CONVENTIONS

.
GAAP: Balance Sheet

1. Separate Business Entity Concept. In accounting we make a distinction between business

and the owner. All the books of accounts records day to day financial transactions from the view
point of the business rather than from that of the owner. The proprietor is considered as a creditor
to the extent of the capital brought in business by him. For instance, when a person invests Rs.
10 lakh into a business, it will be treated that the business has borrowed that much money from
the owner and it will be shown as a ‘liability’ in the books of accounts of business. Similarly, if
the owner of a shop were to take cash from the cash box for meeting certain personal
expenditure, the accounts would show that cash had been reduced even though it does not make
any difference to the owner himself. Thus, in recording a transaction the important question is
how does it affects the business ? For example, if the owner puts cash into the business, he has a
claim against the business for capital brought in.

In so far as a limited company is concerned, this distinction can be easily maintained because a
company has a legal entity of its own. Like a natural person it can engage itself in economic
activities of buying, selling, producing, lending, borrowing and consuming of goods and
services. However, it is difficult to show this distinction in the case of sole proprietorship and
partnership. Nevertheless, accounting still maintains separation of business and owner. It may be
noted that it is only for accounting purpose that partnerships and sole proprietorship are treated
as separate from the owner (s), though law does not make such distinction. Infact, the business
entity concept is applied to make it possible for the owners to assess the performance of their
business and performance of those whose manage the enterprise. The managers are responsible
for the proper use of funds supplied by owners, banks and others.

2. Money Measurement Concept. In accounting, only those business transactions are recorded
which can be expressed in terms of money. In other words, a fact or transaction or happening
which cannot be expressed in terms of money is not recorded in the accounting books. As money
is accepted not only as a medium of exchange but also as a store of value, it has a very important
advantage since a number of assets and equities, which are otherwise different, can be measured
and expressed in terms of a common
denominator.

We must realise that this concept imposes two limitations. Firstly, there are several facts which
though very important to the business, cannot be recorded in the books of accounts because they
cannot be expressed in money terms. For example, general health condition of the Managing
Director of the company, working conditions in which a worker has to work, sales policy
pursued by the enterprise, quality of product introduced by the enterprise, though exert a great
influence on the productivity and profitability of the enterprise, are not recorded in the books.
Similarly, the fact that a strike is about to begin because employees are dissatisfied with the poor
working conditions in the factory will not be recorded even though this event is of great concern
to the business. You will agree that all these have a bearing on the future profitability of the
company.

Secondly, use of money implies that we assume stable or constant value of rupee. Taking this
assumption means that the changes in the money value in future dates are conveniently ignored.
For example, a piece of land purchased in 1990 for Rs. 2 lakh and another bought for the same
amount in 1998 are recorded at the same price, although the first purchased in 1990 may be
worth two times higher than the value recorded in the books because of rise in land values.
Infact, most accountants know fully well that purchasing power of rupee does change but very
few recognise this fact in accounting books and make allowance for changing price level.

3. Dual Aspect Concept. Financial accounting records all the transactions and events involving
financial element. Each of such transactions requires two aspects to be recorded. The recognition
of these two aspects of every transaction is known as a dual aspect analysis. According to this
concept every business transactions has dual effect. For example, if a firm sells goods of Rs.
10,000 this transaction involves two aspects. One aspect is the delivery of goods and the other
aspect is immediate receipt of cash (in the case of cash sales). Infact, the term ‘double entry’
book keeping has come into vogue because for every transaction two entries are made.
According to this system the total amount debited always equals the total amount credited. It
follows from ‘dual aspect concept’ that at any point in time owners’ equity and liabilities for any
accounting entity will be equal to assets owned by that entity. This idea is fundamental to
accounting and could be expressed as the following equalities:

Assets = Liabilities + Owners Equity ...............(1)

Owners Equity = Assets - Liabilities ...............(2)

The above relationship is known as the ‘Accounting Equation’. The term ‘Owners Equity’
denotes the resources supplied by the owners of the entity while the term ‘liabilities’ denotes the
claim of outside parties such as creditors, debenture-holders, bank against the assets of the
business. Assets are the resources owned by a business. The total of assets will be equal to total
of liabilities plus owners capital because all assets of the business are claimed by either owners
or outsiders.
4. Going Concern Concept. Accounting assumes that the business entity will continue to
operate for a long time in the future unless there is good evidence to the contrary. The enterprise
is viewed as a going concern, that is, as continuing in operations, at least in the foreseeable
future. In other words, there is neither the intention nor the necessity to liquidate the particular
business venture in the predictable future. Because of this assumption, the accountant while
valuing the assets do not take into account forced sale value of them. Infact, the assumption that
the business is not expected to be liquidated in the foreseeable future establishes the basis for
many of the valuations and allocations in accounting. For example, the accountant charges
depreciation of fixed assets values. It is this assumption which underlies the decision of investors
to commit capital to enterprise.

Only on the basis of this assumption can the accounting process remain stable and achieve the
objective of correctly reporting and recording on the capital invested, the efficiency of
management, and the position of the enterprise as a going concern. However, if the accountant
has good reasons to believe that the business, or some part of it is going to be liquidated or that it
will cease to operate (say within six-month or a year), then the resources could be reported at
their current values. If this concept is not followed, International Accounting Standard requires
the disclosure of the fact in the financial statements together with reasons.

5. Cost Concept. The term ‘assets’ denotes the resources land building, machinery etc. owned
by a business. The money values that are assigned to assets are derived from the cost concept.
According to this concept an asset is ordinarily entered on the accounting records at the price
paid to acquire it. For example, if a business buys a plant for Rs. 5 lakh the asset would be
recorded in the books at Rs. 5 lakh, even if its market value at that time happens to be Rs. 6 lakh.
Thus, assets are recorded at their original purchase price and this cost is the basis for all
subsequent accounting for the business. The assets shown in the financial statements do not
necessarily indicate their present market values. The term ‘book value’ is used for amount shown
in the accounting records.

The cost concept does not mean that all assets remain on the accounting records at their original
cost for all times to come. The asset may systematically be reduced in its value by charging
‘depreciation’, which will be discussed in detail in a subsequent lesson. Depreciation have the
effect of reducing profit of each period. The prime purpose of depreciation is to allocate the cost
of an asset over its useful life and not to adjust its cost.
However, a balance sheet based on this concept can be very misleading as it shows assets at cost
even when there are wide difference between their costs and market values. Despite this
limitation you will find that the cost concept meets all the three basic norms of relevance,
objectivity and feasibility.

GAAP: INCOME STATEMENT

1. Accounting Period Concept. This concept requires that the life of the business should be
divided into appropriate segments for studying the financial results shown by the enterprise after
each segment. Although the results of operations of a specific enterprise can be known precisely
only after the business has ceased to operate, its assets have been sold off and liabilities paid off,
the knowledge of the results periodically is also necessary. Those who are interested in the
operating results of business obviously cannot wait till the end. The requirements of these parties
force the businessman ‘to stop’ and ‘see back’ how things are going on. Thus, the accountant
must report for the changes in the wealth of a firm for short time periods. A year is the most
common interval on account of prevailing practice, tradition and government requirements.
Some firms adopt financial year of the government, some other calendar year. Although a twelve
month period is adopted for external reporting, a shorter span of interval, say one month or three
month is applied for internal reporting purposes. This concept poses difficulty for the process of
allocation of long term costs. All the revenues and all the cost relating to the year in operation
have to be taken into account while matching the earnings and the cost of those earnings for the
any accounting period. This holds good irrespective of whether or not they have been received in
cash or paid in cash. Despite the difficulties which stem from this concept, short term reports are
of vital importance to owners, management, creditors and other interested parties. Hence, the
accountants have no option but to resolve such difficulties.

2. The Matching concept. This concept is based on the accounting period concept. In reality we
match revenues and expenses during the accounting periods. Matching is the entire process of
periodic earnings measurement, often described as a process of matching expenses with
revenues. In other words, income made by the enterprise during a period can be measured only
when the revenue earned during a period is compared with the expenditure incurred for earning
that revenue. Broadly speaking revenue is the total amount realised from the sale of goods or
provision of services together with earnings from interest, dividend, and other items of income.

Expenses are cost incurred in connection with the earnings of revenues. Costs incurred do not
become expenses until the goods or services in question are exchanged. Cost is not synonymous
with expense since expense is sacrifice made, resource consumed in relation to revenues earned
during an accounting period. Only costs that have expired during an accounting period are
considered as expenses. For example, if a commission is paid in January, 2002, for services
enjoyed in November, 2001, that commission should be taken as the cost for services rendered in
November 2001. On account of this concept, adjustments are made for all prepaid expenses,
outstanding expenses, accrued income, etc, while preparing periodic reports.

3. Conservatism Concept. This concept requires that the accountants must follow the policy of
‘’playing safe” while recording business transactions and events. That is why, the accountant
follow the rule anticipate no profit but provide for all possible losses, while recording the
business events. This rule means that an accountant should record lowest possible value for
assets and revenues, and the highest possible value for liabilities and expenses. According to this
concept, revenues or gains should be recognised only when they are realised in the form of cash
or assets (i.e. debts) the ultimate cash realisation of which can be assessed with reasonable
certainty. Further, provision must be made for all known liabilities, expenses and losses,
Probable losses regarding all contingencies should also be provided for. ‘Valuing the stock in
trade at market price or cost price which ever is less’, ‘making the provision for doubtful debts
on debtors in anticipation of actual bad debts’, ‘adopting written down value method of
depreciation as against straight line method’, not providing for discount on creditors but
providing for discount on debtors’, are some of the examples of the application of the convention
of conservatism.

The principle of conservatism may also invite criticism if not applied cautiously. For example,
when the accountant create secret reserves, by creating excess provision for bad and doubtful
debts, depreciation, etc. The financial statements do not present a true and fair view of state of
affairs.

4. Realizations Concept. Realisation is technically understood as the process of converting non-

cash resources and rights into money. As accounting principle, it is used to identify precisely the
amount of revenue to be recognised and the amount of expense to be matched to such revenue
for the purpose of income measurement. According to realisation concept revenue is recognised
when sale is made. Sale is considered to be made at the point when the property in goods passes
to the buyer and he becomes legally liable to pay. This implies that revenue is generally realised
when goods are delivered or services are rendered. The rationale is that delivery validates a claim
against the customer. However, in case of long run construction contracts revenue is often
recognised on the basis of a proportionate or partial completion method. Similarly, in case of
long run installment sales contracts, revenue is regarded as realized only in proportion to the
actual cash collection. In fact, both these cases are the exceptions to
the notion that an exchange is needed to justify the realisation of revenue.

5. Consistency Concept. The convention of consistency requires that once a firm decided on
certain accounting policies and methods and has used these for some time, it should continue to
follow the same methods or procedures for all subsequent similar events and transactions.

6. Materiality. Materiality concept states that items of small significance need not be given strict
theoretically correct treatment. Infact, there are many events in business which are insignificant
in nature. The cost of recording and showing in financial statement such events may not be well
justified by the utility derived from that information. For example, an ordinary calculator costing
Rs. 100 may last for ten years.

However, the effort involved in allocating its cost over the ten year period is not worth the
benefit that can be derived from this operation. The cost incurred on calculator may be treated as
the expense of the period in which it is purchased. Similarly, when a statement of outstanding
debtors is prepared for sending to top management, figures may be rounded to the nearest ten or
hundred.

This convention will unnecessarily overburden an accountant with more details in case he is
unable to find an objective distinction between material and immaterial events. It should be
noted that an item material for one party may be immaterial for another. Actually, there are no
hard and fast rule to draw the line between material and immaterial events and hence, It is a
matter of judgement and common sense. Despite this limitation, It is necessary to disclose all
material information to make the financial statements clear and understandable. This is required
as per IAS-1 and also reiterated in IAS-5. As per IAS-1, materiality should govern the selection
and application of accounting policies.
Accrual Concept. It is generally accepted in accounting that the basis of reporting income is
accrual. Accrual concept makes a distinction between the receipt of cash and the right to receive
it, and the payment of cash and the legal obligation to pay it. This concept provides a guideline to
the accountant as to how he should treat the cash receipts and the right related thereto. Accrual
principle tries to evaluate every transaction in terms
of its impact on the owner’s equity. The essence of the accrual concept is that net income arises
from events that change the owner’s equity in a specified period and that these are not
necessarily the same as change in the cash position of the business. Thus it helps in proper
measurement of income.

Illustration 1

State with reasons whether the following events are transactions or

not to Mr. Nikhil, Proprietor, Delhi Computers

(i) Mr. Nikhil started business with capital (brought in cash)Rs. 40,000.
(ii) Paid salaries to staff Rs. 5,000.
(iii) Purchased machinery for Rs. 20,000 in cash.
(iv) Placed an order with Sen & Co. for goods for Rs. 5,000.
(v) Opened a Bank account by depositing Rs. 4,000.
(vi) Received pass book from bank.
(vii) Appointed Sohan as Manager on a salary of Rs. 4,000 per month.
(viii)Received interest from bank Rs. 500.
(ix) Received a price list from Lalit.

Solution :
Here, each event is to be considered from the view point of Mr.
Nikhil's business. Those events which will change the financial position of the
business of Mr. Nikhil, should be regarded as transaction.
(i) It is a transaction, because it changes the financial position of Mr. Nikhil's
business. Cash will increase by Rs. 40,000 and Capital will increase by Rs.
40,000.
(ii) It is a transaction, because it changes the financial position of Mr. Nikhil's
business. Cash will decrease by Rs. 5,000 and Salaries (expenses) will
increase by Rs. 5,000
(iii) It is a transaction, because it changes the financial position of Mr. Nikhil's
business. Machinery comes in and cash goes out.
(iv) It is not a transaction, because it does not change the financial position of
the business.
(v) It is a transaction, because it changes the financial position of the business.
Bank balance will increase by Rs. 4,000 and cash balance will decrease by
Rs. 4,000.
(vi) It is also not a transaction, because it does not change the financial position
of Mr. Nikhil.
(vii) It is also not a transaction, because it does not change the financial position
of Mr. Nikhil.
(viii) It is a transaction, because it changes the financial position of Mr. Nikhil's
business.
(ix) It is not a transaction, because it does not change the financial position of
the business of Mr. Nikhil.

ACCOUNTING EQUATION
Dual concept states that 'for every debit, there is a credit'. Every transaction should have two-
sided effect to the extent of same amount. This concept has resulted in accounting equation
which states that at any point of time assets of any entity must be equal (in monetary terms) to
the total of owner's equity and outsider's liabilities. In other words, accounting equation is a
statement of equality between the assets and the sources which finance the assets and is
expressed as :

Assets = Sources of Finance

Assets may be tangible e.g. land, building, plant, machinery, equipment, furniture, investments,
cash, bank, stock, debtors etc. or intangible e.g. patent rights, trade marks, goodwill etc.,

Sources include internal i.e. capital provided by the owner and external i.e. liabilities. Liabilities
are the obligations of the business to others/outsiders. The above equation gets expanded.

Assets = Liabilities + Capital

All transactions of a business can be referred to this equation :

Assets = Liabilities + Owner's equity

A = L + OE

To further explain the transaction of revenues, expenses, losses and gains, the equation can be
expanded thus :

Assets + Expenses = Liabilities + Revenue + Owner's equity

or
Assets = Liabilities + (Revenue – Expenses) + Owner's equity
Or
Assets = Liabilities + Owner's equity + Owner's equity (income) which ultimately becomes

Assets = Liabilities + Owner's equity

Let us consider the facts of the following case, step by step, to understand as to how the equation
remains true even in changed circumstances

Illustration 2
1. Commenced business with cash Rs. 50,000
2. Purchased goods for cash Rs. 20,000 and on credit Rs. 30,000
3. Sold goods for cash Rs. 40,000 costing Rs. 30,000
4. Rent paid Rs. 500
5. Bought furniture Rs. 5,000 on credit
6. Bought refrigerator for personal use Rs. 5,000

Solution :
1. Business receives cash Rs. 50,000 (asset) and it owes Rs. 50,000 to the
proprietor as his capital i.e. equity
Assets (=) Liabilities (+) Owner's equity
Cash Rs. 50,000 = Nil +Capital Rs. 50,000

(2) Purchased goods for cash Rs. 20,000 and on credit Rs. 30,000. Business
has acquired asset namely – goods worth Rs. 50,000 and another asset namely =
cash has decreased by Rs. 20,000 while liability– creditors have been created of
Rs. 30,000.
Assets (=) Liabilities (+) Owner's equity
Cash 30,000 + Goods 50,000
= Creditors 30,000 +Capital 50,000

(3) Sold goods for cash Rs. 40,000 costing Rs. 30,000
This transaction has resulted in decrease of goods by Rs. 30,000 and
increase in cash by Rs. 40,000 thus Increasing equity by Rs. 10,000
Assets (=) Liabilities (+) Owner's equity
Cash 70,000 + Goods 20,000 = Creditors 30,000 + Capital 60,000

CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS

Asset Accounts
• Land
• Buildings
• Equipment
• Prepaid expenses
• Trade receivables
• Bills receivables
• Cash
• Intangible assets like copy rights, goodwill, patent, etc.
• Marketable securities

Liability Accounts
• Bills payable
• Trade payables
• Unearned revenue
• Other short-term liabilities like wages payable, tax payable, interest payable, dividends
payable.
• Long-term liabilities like debentures loans from banks and other financial institutions,
long-term deposits.
Equity Account
• Share capital
• Retained earnings
• Revenues and expenses
• Drawings
• Dividends

Income- Expenditure Account

• Wages
• Rent
• Commission
• Interest paid
• Interest receive
• Sales revenue….etc..
• All expenses
• All income

Double-entry System

Assets: Debit increase in asset to asset account

Credit decrease in asset to asset account
Liabilities
& Equity: Credit increase in liability or equity to liability
or equity account
Debit decrease in liability or equity to liability
or equity account

Income & Expenditure: Debit all expenses

Credit all income
Therefore,

Assets = Liabilities + Capital + Revenues - Expenses – Drawings (or Dividends)

Assets Liabilities

Debit Credit Debit Credit

Increase Decrease Decrease Increase

(+) (-) (-) (+)
 Equity Income &
Expenditure
Debit Credit
Debit Credit
Decrease Increase
(-) (+) Expenses Income

ACCOUNTING CYCLE

INTRODUCTION
Any economic transaction or event of a business which can be expressed in monetary terms
should be recorded. Traditionally, accounting is a method of collecting, recording, classifying,
summarizing, presenting and interpreting financial data of an economic activity. The series of
business transactions occurs during the accounting period and its recording is referred to an
accounting process/ mechanism. An accounting process is a complete sequence of accounting
procedures which are repeated in the same order during each accounting period.

Therefore, accounting process involves the following steps :

i ) Identification of Transaction : In accounting, only financial transactions are recorded. A

financial transaction is an event which can be expressed in terms of money and which brings
change in the financial position of a business enterprise.

An event is an incident or a happening which may or may not bring any change in the financial
position of a business enterprise. Therefore, all transactions are events but all events are not
transactions. A transaction is a complete action, to an expected or possible future action. In every
transaction, there is movement of value from one source to another. For example, when goods
are purchased for cash, there is a movement of goods from the seller to the buyer and a
movement of cash from buyer to the seller. Transactions may be external (between a business
entity and a second party, e.g., goods sold on credit to Hari or internal (do not involve second
party, e.g., depreciation charged on the machinery).

ii) Recording the transaction : Journal is the first book of original entry in which all
transactions are recorded event-wise and date-wise and presents a historical record of all
monetary transactions. Journal may further be divided into sub-journals as well.

iii) Classifying : Accounting is the art of classifying business transactions. Classification means
statement setting out for a period where all the similar transactions relating to a person, a thing,
expense, or any other subject are grouped together under appropriate heads of accounts.

iv) Summarising : Summarising is the art of making the activities of the business enterprise as
classified in the ledger for the use of management or other user groups i.e. sundry debtors,
sundry creditors etc. Summarisation helps in the preparation of Profit and Loss Account and
Balance sheet for a particular financial year.
v) Analysis and Interpretation : The financial information or data is recorded in the books of
account must further be analysed and interpreted so to draw meaningful conclusions. Thus,
analysis of accounting information will help the management to assess in the performance of
business operation and forming future plans also.

vi) Presentation or reporting of financial information : The end users of accounting

statements must be benefited from analysis and interpretation of data as some of them are the
"share holders" and other one the "stake holders". Comparison of past and present statements and
reports, use of ratios and trend analysis are the different tools of analysis and interpretation.

From the above discussion one can conclude that accounting is an art which starts and includes
steps right from recording of business transactions of monetary character to the communicating
or reporting the results thereof to the various interested parties. For this purpose, the transactions
are classified into various accounts, the description of which follows in the next section.

USERS OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

The basic objective of accounting is to provide information which is useful for persons inside the
organisation and for persons or groups outside the organisation. Accounting is the discipline that
provides information on which external and internal users of the information may base decisions
that result in the allocation of economic resources in society.
I. External Users of Accounting Information : External users are those groups or persons who
are outside the organization for whom accounting function is performed. Following can be the
various external users of accounting information:

1. Investors, Those who are interested in investing money in an organization are interested in
knowing the financial health of the organization of know how safe the investment already made
is and how safe their proposed investment will be. To know the financial health, they need
accounting information which will help them in evaluating the past performance and future
prospects of the organisation. Thus, investors for their investment decisions are dependent upon
accounting information included in the financial statements. They can know the profitability and
the financial position of the organisation in which they are interested to make that investment by
making a study of the accounting information given in the financial statements of the
organisation.

2. Creditors. Creditors (i.e. supplier of goods and services on credit, bankers and other lenders of
money) want to know the financial position of a concern before giving loans or granting credit.
They want to be sure that the concern will not experience difficulty in making their payment in
time i.e. liquid position of the concern is satisfactory. To know the liquid position, they need
accounting information relating to current assets, quick assets and current liabilities which is
available in the financial statements.

3. Members of Non-profit Organisations. Members of non-profit organisations such as schools,

colleges, hospitals, clubs, charitable institutions etc. need accounting information to know how
their contributed funds are being utilised and to ascertain if the organisation deserves continued
support or support should be withdrawn keeping in view the bad performance depicted by the
accounting information and diverted to another organisation. In knowing the performance of
such organisations, criterion will not be the profit made but the main criterion will be the service
provided to the society.

4. Government. Central and State Governments are interested in the accounting information
because they want to know earnings or sales for a particular period for purposes of taxation.
Income tax returns are examples of financial reports which are prepared with information taken
directly from accounting records. Governments also needs accounting information for compiling
statistics concerning business which, in turn helps in compiling national accounts.

5. Consumers. Consumers need accounting information for establishing good accounting control
so that cost of production may be reduced with the resultant reduction of the prices of goods they
buy. Sometimes, prices for some goods are fixed by the Government, so it needs accounting
information to fix reasonable prices so that consumers and manufacturers are not exploited.
Prices are fixed keeping in view fair return to manufacturers on their investments shown in the
accounting records.

6. Research Scholars. Accounting information, being a mirror of the financial performance of a

business organisation, is of immense value to the research scholars who wants to make a study to
the financial operations of a particular firm. To make a study into the financial operations of a
particular firm, the research scholar needs detailed accounting information relating to purchases,
sales, expenses, cost of materials used, current assets, current liabilities, fixed assets, long term
liabilities and shareholders' funds which is available in the accounting records maintained by the
firm.

II of Accounting Information. Internal users of accounting information are those persons or

groups which are within the organisation.

Following are such internal users :

1. Owners. The owners provide funds for the operations of a business and they want to know
whether their funds are being properly used or not. They need accounting information to know
the profitability and the financial position of the concern in which they have invested their funds.
The financial statements prepared from time to time from accounting records depicts them the
profitability and the financial position.

2. Management. Management is the art of getting work done through others, the management
should ensure that the subordinates are doing work properly. Accounting information is an aid in
this respect because it helps a manager in appraising the performance of the subordinates. Actual
performance of the employees can be compared with the budgeted performance they were
expected to achieve and remedial action can be taken if the actual performance is not upto the
mark. Thus, accounting information provides "the eyes and ears to management".

The most important functions of management are planning and controlling. Preparation of
various budgets, such as sales budget, production budget, cash budget, capital expenditure
budget etc., is an important part of planning function and the starting point for the preparation of
the budgets is the accounting information for the previous year. Controlling is the function of
seeing that programmes laid down in various budgets are being actually achieved i.e. actual
performance ascertained from accounting is compared with the budgeted performance, enabling
the manager to exercise controlling case of weak performance. Accounting information is also
helpful to the management in fixing reasonable selling prices. In a competitive economy, a price
should be based on cost plus a reasonable rate of return. If a firm quotes a price which exceeds
cost plus a reasonable rate of return, it probably will not get the order. On the other hand, if the
firm quotes a price which is less than its cost, it will be given the order but will incur a loss on
account of price being lower than the cost. So, selling prices should always be fixed on the basis
of accounting data to get the reasonable margin of profit on sales.

3. Employees. Employees are interested in the financial position of a concern they serve
particularly when payment of bonus depends upon the size of the profits earned. They seek
accounting information to know that the bonus being paid to them is correct.
 UNIT 2: ACCOUNTING PROCESS

Specimen of Journal Entry

Date Particulars LF Debit ( ) Credit ( )

Ledger Folio: This column is meant to record the reference of the main book, i.e., ledger and is
not filled in when the transactions are recorded in the journal. The page number of the ledger in
which the accounts are appearing is indicated in this column, while the debits and credits are
posted on the ledger accounts.
Specimen of Ledger Entry
Dr Cr
Date Particulars JF ( ) Date Particulars JF ( )
To name of the account By name of the
to be credited account to be debited

A SPECIMEN OF TRADING ACCOUNT IS SHOWN BELOW

Trading account for the year ended ……………
Particulars Rs. Rs. Particulars Rs. Rs
To Opening stock Xxx By Sales Xxx
To purchases Xxx Less: Returns inwards (or)
Less: purchase returns Xxx Xxx Sales Returns Xxx Xxx

To Direct expenses: By closing stock* Xxx

Wages Xxx
Fuel & Power Xxx
Carriage inwards Xxx
Manufacturing Expenses Xxx
Royalty on production goods Xxx
Power Xxx
Coal water, Gas Xxx
Octroi Xxx
Import Duty Xxx
Customs Duty Xxx
Consumable stores Xxx
Foreman/Works Managers’
Salary Xxx By Gross loss c/d* Xxx
(transferred to profit and loss
Xxx A/c)

To Gross profit c/d*

(transferred to profit and loss
A/c)
 Xxx Xxx
* Balancing figure will be either gross profit or loss in Trading A/c
THE SPECIMEN OF BALANCE SHEET IS SHOWN BELOW
Balance Sheet As on.....................
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
Current Liabilities Liquid Assets
Sundry Creditors Cash in Hand
Bills Payable Cash at Bank
Bank Overdraft Floating Assets
Rent received in Advance Sundry Debtors
Outstanding Wages Investments
Pre. received in Advance Stock in Trade
Outstanding Expenses Prepaid Expenses
Reserve Fund Prepaid Insurance
Managers’ Comm. Due Commission Receivable
Long Term Liabilities Bills Receivable
Loan from Bank Accrued Interest
Debentures Fixed Assets
Fixed Liabilities Machinery
Capital Building
Add: Net Profit Furniture & Fixtures
Add: Interest on Capital Vehicles
Less: Drawing Loose Tools
Less: Interest on Drawings Intangible Assets
Less: Loss if any Goodwill
Patents
Copyright
Licenses
Trade Marks
Fictitious Assets
Preliminary Expenses
Advertisement
Underwriting Commission
Discount on Issue of Shares
Dis. on Issue of Debentures
Miscellaneous Expenses
Profit & Loss A/c

Total Total
 THE SPECIMEN OF PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT IS SHOWN BELOW
Profit and Loss Account
For the year ended
Particulars Rs. Particulars Rs.
o Gross loss b/d Xxx By Gross profit b/d Xxx
To Administration Expenses By Dividends received Xxx
Salaries Xxx By Interest received Xxx
Rent rates & taxes Xxx By Commission received Xxx
Printing & Stationery Xxx By Rent received Xxx
Postage and Telegrams Xxx By Profit on sale of assets Xxx
Telephone expenses Xxx By Sundry revenue receipts Xxx
Legal charges Xxx By Discount Xxx
Insurance Xxx By Income from Investments Xxx
Audit fees Xxx By Apprenticeship Premium Xxx
Directors fees Xxx By Miscellaneous Revenue Receipts Xxx
General expenses Xxx By Net loss transferred to capital A/c Xxx
Heating & Lighting Xxx (Bal. Fig)*
To Selling & Distribution Expenses
Showroom expenses Xxx
Advertising Xxx
Commission paid to salesmen Xxx
Bad debts Xxx
Provision for doubtful debts Xxx
Godown rent Xxx
Carriage outward Xxx
Upkeep of delivery vans Xxx
Bank Charges Xxx
Travellers’ Salaries, Expenses &
Commission Xxx
To Depreciation and Maintenance
Depreciation Xxx
Repairs & Maintenance Xxx
To Financial Expenses
Interest on borrowings Xxx
Discount allowed Xxx
Interest on Capital Xxx
Discount on Bills Xxx
To Extraordinary Expenses
To abnormal losses (not covered by
insurance) Xxx
Cash Defalcations Xxx
Loss on sale of assets Xxx
To Net profit transferred to capital A/c
(bal.fig)* Xxx
 Xxx Xxx
Note: *Either net profit or net loss is the balancing figure in P & L A/c
Practice Problems

Problem - 1: Journalise the following transactions in the books of ABC Ltd.

2013, Aug 1
Debit Balances: Cash in hand 8,000; Cash at bank 25,600; Stock of Goods 20,000;
Furniture 4,000; Building 10,000.
Trade Receivables (Debtors): Vijay 2,700; Anil 1,500; Ashwin 2,000; Anu 1,800; Madhu
100.
Trade Payables (Creditors): Anand 5,000; Imran & Co. 7,700; Balwanth 5,200; Rai
10,000.

Aug 2 Purchase machinery and payment by cheque 5,000

Aug 2 Goods worth 5,000 given as charity
Aug 3 Received 9,750 from Shyam in full settlement of his account for 10,000
Aug 4 Received a first and final dividend of 50 paise in the rupee from the official
receiver of Mr. Rajesh, who owed in 10,000
Aug 5 Sold to Mr. Mohan goods worth 10,000 less 3% cash discount and received
9,700 net on account by cheque
Aug 7 Bought from Raju & Co. Worth 15,000 at 10% trade discount and 2% cash
discount terms and paid them half the amount in cash
Aug 8 Paid 500 in cash as wages on installation of machine
Aug 9 Supplied goods costing 1,000 to Mr. Mohan issued invoice at 20% above cost
less 5% trade discount
Aug 11 Goods worth 2,000 were used by the proprietor for personal use
Aug 12 Goods uninsured worth 8,000 were destroyed by fire.
Aug 13 Received 2,646 from Vijay and allowed him discount 54
Aug 14 Bought 100 shares in Ajay & Co. Ltd @ 15 per share, brokerage paid 30
Aug 16 Goods worth 500 were damaged in transit: a claim was made on the railway
authorities for the same
Aug 17 Cash 5,292 paid to Anand and discount allowed by him 108
Aug 18 Received cash from the railway in full settlement of claim for damaged in transit
Aug 19 Anu is declared insolvent and a dividend of 50 paise in the rupee is received from
him in full settlement
Aug 20 Sold 40 shares of Ajay & Co. Ltd @ 18 per share, brokerage paid 15
Aug 20 Bought a Horse for 2,000 and a carriage for 1,000 for delivering to customer
Aug 21 One months’ interest on Rai @ 12% p.a. became due but could not be paid
Aug 22 Received from travelling salesman 3,000 for goods sold by him after deducting
his travelling expenses 150
Aug 23 Sold private car for 4,000 and bought a new one with the proceeds for business
plus 5,000 from office cash
Aug 29 Out of the goods worth 5,000 insured for 4,000, a part is burnt by fire, the loss
amounting to 400. The insurers admitted the claim for a proportionate loss and
paid cash
Aug 30 The horse bought on Aug 20 died, its carcase were sold 50
Aug 30 Sold goods worth 10,000 less 10% trade discount
Aug 30 Old furniture appearing in the books of 6,000 is exchanged for new furniture of
10,000. The old furniture has been valued at 4,000 for exchange purpose.

Problem – 2: The following Trial Balance has been prepared wrongly. You are asked to
prepare the Trial Balance correctly.

Name of the Account Debit Balance ( ) Credit Balance ( )

Cash in hand --- 2,000
Purchase Returns 4,000 ---
Wages 8,000 ---
Establishment Expenses 12,000 ---
Sales Returns --- 8,000
Capital 22,000
Carriage Outward --- 2,000
Discount Received 1,200 ---
Commission Earned 800 ---
Machinery --- 20,000
Stock --- 10,000
Debtors 8,000 ---
Creditors --- 12,000
Sales --- 44,000
Purchases 28,000 ---
Bank Overdraft 14,000 ---
Manufacturing Expenses --- 14,000
Loan from Vinod 14,000 ---
Carriage Inward 1,000 ---
Interest on Investments --- 1,000
Total 1,13,000 1,13,000
Problem 3: Journalise the following transactions for the month of January 2012, post them
into Ledger and prepare Trial Balance.

Jan 1 Started business with 1,00,000, paid into Bank 50,000

Jan 2 Bought Furniture for 9,000
Jan 4 Purchased goods from Mohan & Co. for 40,000 for cash
Jan 5 Sold goods for 17,000
Jan 7 Paid Telephone rent 4,000
Jan 8 Purchased goods for 10,000 from Ashok & Co.
Jan 10 Paid 1,000 for advertisement by cheque
Jan 11 Bought Machine equipment for 7,500 from Dharam & Co. On credit
Jan 12 Sold goods to Bedi & Co. for 29,000
Jan 14 Withdrew 3,500 from the Bank for private use
Jan 16 Sold goods to Omega & Co. for 6,500 for cash
Jan 25 Received cash from Bedi & Co. 28,500, discount allowed 500
Jan 26 Paid into bank 25,000
Jan 31 Issued cheque for 3,000 in favour of the landlord for rent
Jan 31 Paid salaries to staff 6,000
Jan 31 Paid cash 9,500 Ashok & Co. in full settlement of their account

Problem 4:. Journalise the following transactions in the books of Shankar & Co.
2013 Rs.
June 1 Started business with a capital of 60,000
June 2 Paid into bank 30,000
June 4 Purchased goods from Kamal on credit 10,000
June 6 Paid to Shiram 4,920
June 6 Discount allowed by him 80
June 8 Cash Sales 20,000
June 12 Sold to Hameed 5,000
June 15 Purchased goods from Bharat on credit 7,500
June 18 Paid Salaries 4,000
June 20 Received from Prem 2,480
June 20 Allowed him discount 20
June 25 Withdrew from bank for office use 5,000
June 28 Withdraw for personal use 1,000
June 30 Paid Hanif by cheque 3,000

Problem 5: Journalise the following transactions:

2013
June 1 Purchased goods worth Rs.300 from Vimal and Rs.500 from Kamal on credit.
June 3 Sale of goods worth Rs.1,000 to Balram and Rs.700 to Dhanram.
June 5 Cash of Rs.900 received from Ramasamy and Rs.800 from Krishnaswamy.
June 7 Paid Rs.800 to Pradeep and Rs.500 to Kuldeep
June 9 Withdrawn from bank Rs.600 for office use and Rs.300 for personal use
Problem 6: Journalise the following transactions: 2013
June 1 Karthik commenced business with Rs.20,000.
June 2 Paid into bank Rs.5,000.
June 3 Purchased Plant worth Rs.10,000 from Modi & Co.
June 4 Purchased goods worth Rs. 5,000 form Anwar.
June 6 Goods worth Rs.4,000 sold to Anbu
June 8 Sold goods worth Rs.2,000 for cash.
June 10 Goods returned by Anbu Rs.50.
June 15 Paid rent Rs.250.
June 18 Withdrawn from bank for office use Rs. 2,500
June 20 Paid Salaries Rs.1,800.
June 25 Withdrawn for personal use Rs.250
June 26 Goods returned to Anwar Rs.100.
June 27 Paid for office furniture Rs.1,500 by cheque.
June 28 Received Rs.3,900 cash from Anu and discount allowed Rs.50.
June 29 Paid Anwar on account Rs.4,800 and discount allowed by him Rs.100.

Problem 7: Journalise the following: year 2013

Apr. 1 Bought goods for cash Rs. 15,000
3 Sold goods for cash Rs. 19,000
5 Bought goods on credit from Perara Rs. 12,000
6 Sold goods on credit to Ravindar Rs. 16,000
8 Received from Ravindar Rs. 12,000
10 Paid to Perara Rs. 7,500
25 Bought furniture for cash Rs. 4,500

Problem 8: Journalize the following transactions in the books of Mr.Chandran:

2013
Apr. 1 Started business with cash Rs.40,000 and furniture Rs.10,000.
5 Paid tuition fee of the son Rs.1,000
8 Paid household expenses Rs.1,400.
10 Sold personal car for Rs.18,000 and the amount is brought into the business.
15 Withdrew goods for personal use Rs.2,000.
16 Sold goods to Navin on credit Rs.8,000.
18 Sold old typewriter Rs.1,000.
19 Purchase goods on credit from Ramesh Rs.20,000
20 Received interest on investment Rs.6,000.
22 Received commission from Manohar Rs.2,000.
23 Receive a cheque from Navin Rs.5,000.
25 Issued a cheque to Ramesh Rs.12,000
26 Received cash from Anand on account Rs.4,000
27 Paid cash to Bhagwan on account Rs.1,000.
28 Returned goods to Ramesh Rs.1,000.
29 Navin returned goods Rs.500.
30 Paid rent Rs.1,000. Paid salaries Rs.12,000.
Problem 9: Journalise the following transactions and Post them in relevant ledger
accounts:
2011 Rs.
Jan. 1. Bought from Das 1,000
Jan. 2. Sold to Sen 400
Jan. 3. Sold to Ramesh 250
Jan. 4. Purchased from Suresh 200
Jan. 5. Sales returns by Sen 50
Jan. 10. Bought from Shyam 600
Jan. 12. Returned to Suresh 100
Jan. 15. Sold to Roy 800
Jan. 16. Roy returned goods 200
Jan. 17. Sold goods to Ram 300
Jan. 19. Bough from Naresh 650
Jan. 21. Sold to Bhatanger 750
Jan. 22. Returned to Naresh 50
Jan. 25. Bought from Khatju 850
Jan. 27. Sold to Dheeran 260
Jan. 29. Returns from Bhatanger 100
Jan. 30. Dheeran Returned 60
Jan. 31. Returns to Khatju 150

Problem 10: From the following transactions, pass journal entries, prepare ledger accounts
and also prepare Trial Balance under (i) Balance method (ii) Total method.
Rs.
Anil started business with 8,000
Purchased furniture 1,000
Purchased goods 6,000
Sold goods 7,000
Purchased from Raja 4,000
Sold to Somu 5,000
Paid to Raja 2,500
Received from Somu 3,000
Paid rent 200
Received commission 100

Problem 11: A book-keeper submitted to you the following Trail Balance, which he has not
been able to agree. Rewrite the Trial Balance, correcting the mistakes committed by him.
Particulars Dr. (Rs.) Cr. (Rs.)
Capital --- 1,50,000
Drawings 32,500 ---
Stock (1-1-2010) 1,74,450 ---
Return inwards --- 5,540
Carriage inwards 12,400
Deposit with Anand Gupta --- 13,750
 Return outwards 8,400
Carriage outwards --- 7,250
Loan to Ashok @ 5% given on 1-1-10 --- 10,000
Interest on the above --- 250
Rent 8,200 ---
Rent outstanding 1,300 ---
Stock (31-12-2010) --- 1,87,920
Purchases 1,29,700 ---
Debtors 40,000 ---
Goodwill 17,300 ---
Creditors --- 30,000
Advertisement expenses 9,540 ---
Provision for doubtful debts --- 12,000
Bad debts 4,000 ---
Patents and patterns 5,000 ---
Cash 620 ---
Sales --- 2,79,140
Discount allowed --- 3,300
Wages 7,540 ---
Total 4,50,950 6,99,150

Problem 12: The following Trail balance has been prepared wrongly. You are asked to
prepare the Trail balance correctly.
Particulars Dr. (Rs.) Cr. (Rs.)
Capital 22,000 ---
Stock --- 10,000
Debtors 8,000 ---
Creditors --- 12,000
Machinery --- 20,000
Cash in hand --- 2,000
Bank overdraft 14,000 ---
Sales returns --- 8,000
Purchases returns 4,000 ---
Misc. expenses 12,000 ---
Sales --- 44,000
Purchases 26,000 ---
Wages 10,000 ---
Salaries --- 12,000
Prepaid insurances --- 200
Bills payable 10,800 ---
Outstanding salaries 1,400 ---
Total 1,08,200 1,08,200
 UNIT 3: DEPRECIATION AND SHARES & DEBETNTURE

Concept and Meaning of Depreciation

From sole proprietorship to large multi-national corporations, all businesses have to take the concept
of depreciation into account while carrying out their regular commercial ventures. Its principles
apply to accounting, auditing, costing and taxation. Before we go on to its nuances, it is pertinent to
understand the basic meaning of depreciation.

Meaning of Depreciation
The monetary values of all tangible assets tend to reduce gradually over time due to factors like
wear and tear. The meaning of depreciation, in very simple words, is the rate at which this value
drops. Hence, it compares an asset’s current value with its original cost at the time of acquisition or
purchase.
For example, let us consider a cloth manufacturing company that purchased a truck in 2010 for Rs.
50 lakh for the purpose of transportation of finished goods to its dealers. The truck’s value will
decrease each year with regular use over time. In order to determine the true reduced value of its
truck every year, the company will deduct, say, 10% of its worth. This is the meaning of
depreciation.
Depreciation applies to all tangible and generally fixed assets whose values decrease with time.
These include buildings, vehicles, machinery, office equipment, furniture, etc. Land, however, does
not come under this list because the value of land usually only increases; it reduces only during
adverse economic downturns.

Causes of Depreciation
The most important cause of depreciation is regular wear and tear, but it is certainly not the only
one. The following causes can reduce the value of an asset:
 Wearing out
 Consumption or other loss of value arising from usage
 Effluxion of time
 Obsolescence through technology
 Market changes

Purpose of Calculating Depreciation

Depreciation has wide-ranging implications in the field of accounting and taxation. Let us
understand why.
 Depreciation in accounting: The applicability of depreciation to accounting is based on
the matching principle, under which the cost of the asset is matched with the value it
generates during the course of its useful life. In order to determine their real cost, the values
of assets are reduced during every accounting year and are written off as expenses.
 Depreciation in taxation: Taxation laws allow depreciation to be deducted when tax
liabilities are calculated because the depreciated value of an asset is written off as an expense
under accounting. Consequently, under the Income Tax Act, 1961, assets can be depreciated
at the rates prescribed.

The main purposes of calculating depreciation are:

 Measuring income or loss generated from assets
 Determining the real value of assets
  Ascertaining true expenditure incurred in the production
 Availing tax benefits and deductions

Accounting of Depreciation
Since depreciation is charged directly against assets, the journal entry for the same involves
Depreciation A/c and the relevant Asset A/c. We have to debit Depreciation A/c because it is an
expense or loss, while we credit Asset A/c as its value diminishes.

Amount Amount
Date Particulars
(Dr) (Cr)

Depreciation A/c Dr XXX

To Asset A/c XXX

(Being asset depreciated by

Rs. XXX)

Sometimes, a provision may be made for accumulated depreciation, under which total depreciation
is calculated up to a specific date, instead of it being computed in each accounting year. The balance
sheet explains this as a deduction from gross fixed assets.

Calculation of Depreciation

There are four common methods of calculating depreciation of assets.

1] Straight Line Method

Straight line method is the simplest way to calculate depreciation. Under this mode, the amount of
value reduced from the original cost of the asset remains constant for every accounting year. For
example, if we assume the rate of depreciation for a car worth Rs. 10 lakhs to be constant at Rs.
25,000, then its value will reduce by Rs. 25,000 in every accounting year during the course of its
useful life.

2] Written down value method

Also known as Diminishing Balance Method. Under this method, the percentage rate of
depreciation remains fixed, but we have to reduce the asset’s value during every accounting year.
The Income Tax Act, 1961 has prescribed this method for calculation of depreciation.
ACCOUNTING OF SHARE CAPITAL

The capital of a company is contributed by a large number of persons known as shareholders. These
shareholders are issued shares of the company. The accounting of such transactions is special and
involves the share capital account.

Share capital means the capital of a company divided into “shares”. These shares are of a fixed
amount and are generally in multiples of 5 or 10. So share capital is basically the contributions made
by all the shareholders of a firm. Since a capital account cannot be opened for every single
shareholder, we club this amount in the share capital account.

From an accounting point of view, there are certain categories of share capital. They are as follows
1] Authorized Share Capital
Also known as Nominal or Registered Share Capital. It is the sum of money stated in the
Memorandum of Association as the share capital of the company. It is the maximum amount of
capital the company can raise by issuing shares
2] Issued Capital
This is the portion of the nominal capital which the company has issued for a subscription. This
amount of capital is either less than or equal to the nominal capital, it can never be more.
3] Subscribed Capital
This is the part of the issued capital that has been subscribed by the shareholders. It’s not necessary
that the whole of the issued capital will receive subscriptions, but at least 90% of issued capital
should be subscribed generally.
4] Called-up Capital
The company may not always call up the full amount of the nominal value of shares. The amount of
the subscribed capital called up from the shareholders is the called up capital, which is less or equal
to the subscribed capital.
5] Paid-up Capital
This is the amount paid for the shares subscribed. If the shareholder does not pay on call, it will fall
under “calls of arrears”. When all shareholders pay their full amounts paid up capital and subscribed
capital will be equal.
6] Reserve Capital
The capital reserved by a company, to be used in the event of winding up of the company.

Shares Issued at Par – Share Capital Account

On Application Money Received

Application of shares does not guarantee allotment of shares. Some applications will be rejected. So
when the application money is received we do not credit the share capital account. For the sake of
convenience, we open a new account- share application account.
This money collected on the application must be deposited in the bank account in a
Schedule Bank according to the Companies Act. This account is exclusively opened to deal with the
application money. The journal entry for this transaction in the books of the company is as follows,
Date Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Share Application A/c xxx

(Being share application amount received for ___

shares @ Rs ___ per share)

On Allotment of Shares
After the company receives minimum subscriptions, it may start allotting the shares. Once the
shares are allotted, the applicants now become stakeholders in the company, i.e. they get into
a contract with the company. Let us see the journal entries passed in the books of the company in
event of allotment.The first step is that the money received on the application for shares can now
finally be transferred to the Share Capital Account since now the allotment has been finalized.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Application A/c Dr xxx

To Share Capital A/c xxx

(Being Application money of ___ shares being

transferred to Share Capital A/c)

Then there may be the case that certain applications were rejected for any reasons. So the money
received on the application must now be refunded within the stipulated time frame. The entry for the
same will be,

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Application A/c Dr xxx

To Bank A/c xxx

 (Being Application money of ___ shares being
refunded)

If the allotment was done on pro-rata basis than the excess application money received must be
taken into account. But instead of refunding the money, it can simply be adjusted against the
allotment payment due on such allotted shares. Such an adjustment entry will be,

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Application A/c Dr xxx

To Share Allotment A/c xxx

(Being Application money of ___ shares being

adjusted against allotment)

Then the final entry of this stages will be the allotment money becoming due, and finally being paid
by the allottee. We will pass two entries for a better understanding of the process. But take note that
one combined entry can also be passed instead of two.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Allotment A/c Dr xxx

To Share Capital A/c xxx

(Being Allotment money becoming due)

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Share Allotment A/c xxx

 (Being allotment money received on __ shares)

On Calls
The instalments after the allotment are known as calls, i.e. first call, second call, final call etc. If the
shares are not fully paid up at the time of allotment, then several calls can be made until the shares
are fully paid up. However, no call can exceed 25% of the nominal value of shares, and there must
be at least one month between two calls.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Call A/c Dr xxx

To Share Capital A/c xxx

(Being call amount due)

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Share Call A/c xxx

(Being call amount received)

Calls in Arrears
Sometimes when the company makes a call, the shareholder is unable to pay the call money. In this
case, this stakeholder becomes in arrears, and it is called an unpaid call. The company may choose
to simply debit the amount from the paid-up capital in the balance sheet. But companies choose to
maintain a call-in-arrears account. The following entries are passed in the journal.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Calls in Arrears A/c Dr xxx

 To Share Call A/c xxx

(Being calls in arrears brought into the books)

Then there are certain times when the calls in arrears are paid by the shareholder. However, the
shareholder will have to pay an interest for the time delay.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Calls in Arrears A/c xxx

To Interest A/c xxx

(Being call in arrear paid with interest)

Calls in Advance
Then at times, shareholders pay more than the call amount. Such cases are called calls in advance.
The excess amount received is a liability for the company. The following entry is passed when such
advance is received and then is adjusted against the next call.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Calls in Advance A/c xxx

(Being amount received as calls in

advance)

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Calls in Advance A/c Dr xxx

 To Share Call A/c xxx

(Being calls in advance adjusted against call)

Shares Issued at Premium

When the company decides to issue shares at a price higher than the nominal value or face value we
call it shares issued at a premium. It is quite a common practice especially when the company has a
great track record and strong financial performances and standing in the market.
So say the face value of a share is Rs 100/- and the company issues it at Rs 110/-. The share is said
to have been issued at a 10% premium. The premium will not make a part of the Share Capital
account but will be reflected in a special account known as the Securities Premium Account.
Now, this amount of premium can be called up by the company at any given time, i.e. with any call.
The general norm is to collect the premium with either allotment or application money, rarely with
call money. The premium amount as we discussed is credited to the Securities Premium Account.
This account is found under the heading of Reserves and Surplus on the liabilities side of
the Balance Sheet.
Securities Premium Account
Now according to the Companies Act 2013, there are some laws about the utilization of the
Securities Premium Account. It states the specific purposes for which this balance may be used. So
the account can only be used for such specific purposes and no other purpose.
 To issue fully paid-up bonus shares to its existing shareholders. However, you cannot
exceed the limit of the unissued share capital of the company.
 Securities Premium Account can be used for writing off any preliminary expenses of the
company.
 To write off expenses of issue of shares and debentures, such as commission paid or
discount given on the issue of shares.
 The balance can also be used to provide for the premium that is payable on the redemption
of debentures or of preference shares of the company.
 And finally, it can be utilized by the company to buy back its own shares.

Accounting Treatment for Shares Issued At Premium

The accounting treatment for shares issued at a premium will differ slightly than those issued at par.
When Premium is received with Application money
If the premium amount is called and received with the application money we do not credit it directly
to the Securities Premium A/c. The application is received but it could be rejected as well, so we
wait until the application is accepted and finalized. The entries will be as follows

Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Share Application A/c xxx

(Being share application money received)

Particulars Amount Amount

Share Application A/c Dr xxx

To Share Capital A/c Xxx

To Share Premium A/c Xxx

(Being application money transferred)

When Premium is received with Allotment money

Sometimes the premium will be collected with the allotment money. In this case, the entries will be
as follows

Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

To Share Allotment A/c Xxx

(Being share allotment money received)

Particulars Amount Amount

Share Allotment A/c Dr xxx

To Share Capital A/c xxx

To Share Premium A/c xxx

(Being application money transferred)

One point to remember is if any advance money was received during the application, then such
money may be adjusted towards the share allotment account. However, first the advance should be
 adjusted against the nominal value of the shares, and if still balance is left then be adjusted against
the securities premium account.
Forfeiture of Shares
There are circumstances under which the shares of a stakeholder can be forfeited by the company
under the provisions of the law. So what is done with the forfeited shares? And how are the
previous accounting entries reversed? Let us take a look at the meaning and effect of forfeiture of
shares.
When shares are allotted to an applicant, he and the company enter into a contract automatically.
Then such an applicant is bound to pay the allotment money and all the various call monies till the
shares are fully paid up. But if the shareholder fails to pay any of the calls (one or more) on the
authorization of the board of Directors, the said shares can be forfeited. Forfeiture essentially means
cancellation.
Before such forfeiture is done a notice must be given to the shareholder. The notice must provide
the shareholder with a minimum of 14 days to make the payment due, or his shares will be forfeited.
Even after such notice if the shareholder does not pay, then the shares will be canceled.
When the said shares are forfeited the shareholder ceases to be a member of the company. He loses
all his rights and interests that a shareholder might enjoy. And once his name is removed from the
register of shareholders he also losses all the money he has already paid towards the share capital.
Such money will not be refunded.
Accounting Treatment for Forfeiture
When the shares have forfeited all entries regarding the issue of such shares have to be reversed. So
the following adjustments are made for forfeiture of shares
i. Share Capital – debited with total amounts called up
ii. Unpaid Call A/c (Allotment, First Call etc) – credited with the portion of the amount
called up but unpaid
iii. Share Forfeiture A/c – credited with the amount already paid by the defaulter

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Capital A/c Dr xxx

To Share Forfeiture A/c xxx

To Share Allotment/Call A/c xxx

(Being Shares being forfeited for non-payment)

Points to be noted:
 If the company maintains a Calls in Arrears account, then that account will be credited
with the unpaid portion of the amount instead of Share Allotment A/c or Share Call A/c.
 The balance in the Share Forfeiture A/c is shown under the Share Capital on the liabilities
side of the balance sheet. This account will remain till the said shares forfeited are reissued
by the company.
Forfeiture of Shares Issued at Premium
If the shares were initially issued at a premium then the forfeiture treatment changes a little. If at the
time of the forfeiture the entire amount of premium has already been received by the company, then
the entries remain the same, i.e. as if the shares were issued at par. Please note that the Share
Premium Account will not be debited in this case.
However, at the time when the shares are forfeited if the entire, or part of the share premium is
unpaid, certain adjustments must be made to Share Premium A/c. In such a case the Share Premium
A/c will be debited by the amount of premium not received. So if none of the premium is received,
the entry will be reversed completely. So both Share Capital account and Share Premium A/c (for
the amount not received) will be debited.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Capital A/c Dr xxx

Share Premium A/c Dr xxx

To Share Forfeiture A/c xxx

To Share Allotment/Call A/c xxx

(Being Shares being forfeited for non-payment)

Again a point to remember if the company maintains a calls-in-arrears account, then that account
will be credit instead of Share Allotment/Call A/c.
Forfeiture of Shares Issued at Discount
When the shares were initially issued at a discount and then forfeited, such a discount must be
written off. So an adjustment entry will be passed to give this effect. So the discount applicable on
the shares forfeited is written back by crediting the Discount on Issue A/c

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Capital A/c Dr xxx

To Discount on Share Issue A/c xxx

To Share Forfeiture A/c xxx

To Share Allotment/Call A/c xxx

 (Being Shares being forfeited for non-payment)

Reissue of Shares Forfeited

At times the directors of the company may decide to reissue the shares forfeited. The reissue can be
done at par, premium or discount. Generally, the shares will be reissued at a discount. The
maximum discount, however, will be restricted to the amount received on forfeiture of such shares
plus their original discount if any. This discount given will be written off from the Share Forfeiture
A/c.

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Bank A/c Dr xxx

Share Forfeiture A/c Dr xxx

To Share Capital A/c xxx

(Being forfeited shares reissued at discount)

And if there is any balance left in the Share Forfeiture A/c, such a balance represents a profit and
will be transferred to the Capital Reserve A/c

Date Particulars Amount Amount

Share Forfeiture A/c Dr xxx

To Capital Reserve A/c xxx

(Being balance transferred)

 ACCOUNTING FOR DEBENTRUES
A debenture is a document that acknowledges the debt. Debentures in accounting represent the
medium to long term instrument of debt that the large companies use to borrow money. The term
debenture is used interchangeably with terms bond, note, or loan stock.
The company issues the debentures under the seal of the company. The document of debenture
contains the information regarding the rate of interest, repayment amount, and also the time
when the company has to repay the debenture. The company can issue various types of
debentures. They can be convertible or non-convertible, redeemable or non-redeemable, etc.
The transactions related to the debentures are very important for the company. Therefore, the
company records these transactions in the books of the company. In this article, we will discuss
the treatment of debentures in accounting.

There are two things that we need to keep in mind while treating debentures in accounting
 Issue of debentures
 Terms of issue of debentures

ISSUE OF DEBENTURES
There are three methods for issuing debentures
 Issue of debenture for cash
 Issue of debenture for consideration other than cash
 Issue of debentures as collateral security

ISSUE OF DEBENTURES FOR CASH

The company can issue debentures at par, premium, or discount at the time of their issue. The
amount that is due on the debenture can be paid in installments, for instance, Application,
Allotments, and Calls. When the company issues the debenture at a premium, the amount of
premium is credited to Debenture Premium Account which is a capital profit. Further, the
company transfers the amount of Debenture premium Account to the capital reserve account.
In the same way, when the company issue debenture at discount the amount is debited to the
discount on issue of debentures account. The amount is shown on the asset side of the balance
sheet, under the head miscellaneous expenses, until written off.

DEBENTURES ISSUE AT PAR

ON RECEIPT OF APPLICATION MONEY

Bank A/c Dr.

To Debenture Application A/c

ON ALLOTMENT OF DEBENTURES
Debentures Application A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c

ON MAKING ALLOTMENT OR CALL

Debenture Allotment/Call A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c
ON RECEIPT OF MONEY
Bank A/c Dr
To Debenture Allotment/Call A/c

DEBENTURE ISSUE AT A PREMIUM

Debentures are issued at a premium means that the value of the debenture issued is more than its
face value.
Generally, the premium is collected at the time of allotment, other entries remain the same.
Therefore, the entry relating to the allotment will change. The new entry will be

WHEN ALLOTMENT MONEY IS DUE

Debenture Allotment A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c
To Debenture Premium A/c

WHEN MONEY RECEIVED

Bank A/c
To Debenture Allotment A/c

DEBENTURE ISSUE AT A DISCOUNT

The debenture is issued at a discount when the amount of debenture received is less than its face
value.
The discount on debenture is allowed at the time of allotment. Other entries remaining same the
new allotment entry is

WHEN ALLOTMENT MONEY IS DUE

Debenture Allotment A/c Dr
Discount on Issue of Debenture A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c

WHEN MONEY IS RECEIVED

Bank A/c Dr
To Debenture Allotment A/c

ISSUE OF DEBENTURES FOR CONSIDERATION OTHER THAN MONEY

Sometimes the company issues the debentures to vendors for assets. The company purchases the
assets from the vendor and issues the debentures as payment of purchase consideration.
The entries for this are as follows

FOR PURCHASING ASSETS

Assets A/c Dr
To Vendors A/c

FOR THE ISSUE OF DEBENTURES FOR CONSIDERATION OTHER THAN CASH

Vendor A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c
ISSUE OF DEBENTURES AS COLLATERAL SECURITY
A company sometimes issue debentures to serve as the collateral security for a loan or for bank
overdrafts. The collateral security comes into force only when the principal security fails to pay
the given loan. When the loan is paid, such debentures revert back to the company.
We can deal with the issue of debentures as collateral security in the following two ways

NO JOURNAL ENTRY
The company does not make any journal entry in its books of accounts regarding the issue of
debentures. Therefore, the only transaction that the company will record in its books will be of
loan against which the company issues these debentures. These loans will be shown as a liability.
Bank A/c Dr
To Loan A/c

WHEN THE COMPANY PASSES A JOURNAL ENTRY IN ITS BOOKS

ON TAKING LOAN
Bank A/c Dr
To Bank Loan A/c

ON THE ISSUE OF DEBENTURES AS COLLATERAL SECURITY

Debenture Suspense A/c Dr
To Debentures A/c

TERMS OF ISSUE OF DEBENTURE

The company can issue the debentures at par, premium, and discount. Further, the company can
also redeem or repay the debentures at par, premium or discount. The company specifies the
terms of redemption when the debentures are first issued.
There are six different scenarios of the term of issue of debentures. The entries passed for issue
of debentures for these different scenarios are:

DEBENTURES ISSUE AT PAR AND REDEEMABLE AT PAR

Bank A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c

DEBENTURES ISSUE AT PAR AND REDEEMABLE AT PREMIUM

Bank A/c Dr
Loss on Issue of Debenture A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c
To Premium on Redemption of Debenture A/c

DEBENTURES ISSUE AT PREMIUM AND REDEEMABLE AT PAR

Bank A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c
To Premium on Issue of Debenture A/c
DEBENTURES ISSUE AT PREMIUM AND REDEEMABLE AT PREMIUM
Bank A/c Dr
Loss on Issue of Debenture A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c
To Premium on Issue of Debenture A/c
To Premium on Redemption of Debenture A/c

DEBENTURES ISSUE AT DISCOUNT AND REDEEMABLE AT PAR

Bank A/c Dr
Discount on Issue of Debenture A/c Dr
To Debenture A/c

DEBENTURES ISSUE AT DISCOUNT AND REDEEMABLE AT PREMIUM

Bank A/c Dr
Discount on Issue of Debenture A/c Dr
Loss on Issue of Debenture A/c
To Debenture A/c
To Premium on Redemption of Debenture A/c
 UNIT 4: FINANCIAL ANALYSIS – I

FUND FLOW STATEMENT

What is Fund Flow Statement?

If a company needs to report its changes in net working capital, the company prepares a fund
flow statement. Fund flow statement isn’t a financial statement; rather it typically compares the
sources of funds and the application of funds.

Uses of Fund Flow Statement

 Firstly, through fund flow statement a company can compare between two balance sheets and
can see the differences between them.
 Secondly, fund flow statement helps a company see through where their money has been
spent (i.e. application of funds) and from where they have received the money (i.e. the
sources).
 Thirdly, fund flow statement helps a company see how much money it has received from
long-term funds raised by issues of shares, debentures, and sale of non-current assets and
how much funds are generated only from operations

Steps for Preparing Funds Flow Statement:

The steps involved in preparing the statement are as follows:

1. Determine the change (increase or decrease) in working capital.
2. Determine the adjustments account to be made to net income.
3. For each non-current account on the balance sheet, establish the increase or decrease in that
account. Analyze the change to decide whether it is a source (increase) or use (decrease) of
working capital.
4. Be sure the total of all sources including those from operations minus the total of all uses
equals the change found in working capital in Step 1.

General Rules for Preparing Funds Flow Statement:

The following general rules should be observed while preparing funds flow statement:
1. Increase in a current asset means increase (plus) in working capital.
2. Decrease in a current asset means decrease (minus) in working capital.
3. Increase in a current liability means decrease (minus) in working capital.
4. Decrease in a current liability means increase (plus) in working capital.
5. Increase in current asset and increase in current liability does not affect working capital.
6. Decrease in current asset and decrease in current liability does not affect working capital.
7. Changes in fixed (non-current) assets and fixed (non-current) liabilities affects working
capital.

Format of Funds Flow Statement

A funds flow statement can be prepared in statement form or ‘T’ form.

Schedule of Changes in Working Capital:

Many business enterprises prefer to prepare another statement, known as schedule of changes in
working capital, while preparing a funds flow statement, on a working capital basis. This
schedule of changes in working capital provides information concerning the changes in each
individual current assets and current liabilities accounts (items).
This schedule is a part of the funds flow statement and increase (decrease) in working capital
indicated by the schedule of changes in working capital will be equal to the amount of changes in
working capital as found by funds flow statement. The schedule of changes in working capital
can be prepared by comparing the current assets and current liabilities at two periods.

The format of schedule of changes in working capital is as follows:

 CASH FLOW STATEMENT

Statement of Cash flow is a statement in financial accounting which reports the details about the
cash generated and the cash outflow of the company during a particular accounting period under
consideration from the different activities i.e., operating activities, investing activities and
financing activities over the specific accounting period.

What is the Statement of Cash Flows?

Cash flow Statement is one of the top 3 Financial Statements that helps us understand the flow of
cash in the business and how it has moved in and out of the company in a particular period.
Statement of Cash Flow is subdivided into three categories
 Cash Flow from Operating Activities – It represents cash inflows/outflows from the
core business operations
 Cash Flow from Investment Activities – It represents cash inflows/outflows related to
investment in the business including Property, Plant and Equipment.
 Cash Flow from Financing Activities – It represents cash outflows/inflows related to
financing activities including debt and equity

Statement of Cash Flow

Cash flow from Operating Activities

It is the cash flow generated from the operation of the business. This cash flow is generated from
the principal revenue generation activities of the company. The primary components of this
statement of cash flow include accounts receivables, inventory, depreciation, and accounts
payable.
 Statement of Cash flows from operating activities for Samsung is cash flow from the
business of manufacturing and sale of Mobiles, TVs, refrigerators and other electronic
activities which are its mainstream operating activities and not the cash flow from some
sale of investments.
 Similarly, cash flows from operating activities of Coal India are the cash flows from
generation and sale of coal and not from the sale of the old computers lying in its office.
Generally net income (appearing in profit and loss account) is considered as primary source
of cash flow from operating activities and the same is adjusted with changes in current assets and
liabilities, non-cash expenses and other items associated with investing and financing activities
like dividend, interest on debentures, sale and purchase of assets, extraordinary income or
expenses, etc.

Cash flow from Investing Activities

Cash Flow from Investments represents the cash flows from the acquisition or disposal of
company long term investments such as investments in subsidiaries and associates, plant &
equipment, fixed assets.
If Coca Cola is planning to build a bottling plant in India with an investment of $ 10Mn, the cash
outflow of $10Mn is cash outflow from investment activities.

Cash flow from financing activities

It shows the cash inflows and outflows from transactions with providers of financing to the
company like banks, shareholders and promoters.
Some of the examples from the statement of cash flow from financing activities are,
 Proceeds from borrowings,
 Proceeds from issuance of the shares,
 Repayment of borrowings,
 Buyback of shares
 Interest on loans and borrowings
 Dividend paid on shares issued Etc
 UNIT 5: FINANCIAL ANALYSIS – II

 Analyzing the financial statements with the help of ratios is called ratio analysis. This is used to
determine the financial soundness of a business concern. RA is designed and presented by Alexander
wall in the year of 1909.
 The term ratios refer to the mathematical / arithmetical relationship between any two numericals or
inter related variables. Or established relationship between two items expressed in quantitative form.
 Ratios can be used in the form of Percentage, Proportion, fraction, Quotient and Rates of number of
items.

 Classification further grouped into Liquidity Ratios, Profitability Ratios, Turnover Ratios, Solvency
Ratios and over all Profitability Ratios.
 Liquidity Ratios or Short term solvency ratios

 Short-term Solvency Ratios attempt to measure the ability of a firm to meet its short-term financial
obligations.
 The term Liquidity means the extent of quick convertibility of assets in to money for paying obligation
of short term nature.
 Accordingly, liquidity ratios are useful in obtaining an indication of a firm’s ability to meet its current
liability of a firm; the following ratios are commonly used.

Current Assets Current Liabilities

Cash in hand Sundry Creditors

Cash at bank Bills Payable

Sundry Debtors Outstanding and Accrued Expenses

Bills Receivable Income tax payable

Marketable Securities Short term advances

Inventories: Unpaid or unclaimed dividend

Stock of raw materials Bank Overdraft

Stock of work in progress

Stock of finished goods

Turnover Ratios
 Turnover ratios may be also termed as efficiency as ratios or performance ratios or Activity
Ratios. Turnover means the number of times assets are converted or turned into sales. The
turnover ratios indicate the rate at which different assets are turned over.
 Types of Turnover Ratios
i) Inventory Turnover Ratios
ii) Debtor’s Turnover Ratio or Receivable Turnover Ratio (Debtor’s Velocity)

i. a) Debtors Collection Period Ratio

iii) Creditors Turnover Ratios or Payable Turnover Ratio
 ii. a) Debt Payment Period Ratio
iv) Working Capital Turnover Ratio
v) Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio
vi) Capital Turnover Ratio

Solvency Ratios
The term Solvency refers to the capacity of the business to meet its short term and long term
obligations. SR indicates the sound of financial position of a concern to carry on its business smoothly
and meet its all obligations. (Liquid and turnover ratios evaluate the short term solvency of the concern)

1) Debt Equity Ratio:

 Debt Equity Ratio is also called as internal – external equity ratio.
 This ratio is calculated to ascertain the firm’s obligations to creditors in relation to funds invested
by the owners.
 The ideal debt equity ratio is 1:1.
 This ratio also indicates all external liabilities to owner recorded claims.

Debt Equity Ratio = External equities / Internal equities

Debt Equity Ratio = Outsiders fund / Shareholders funds

Profitability Ratios
 Profitability Ratio: The term Profitability means the profit earning capacity of any activity PR is used
to measure the overall efficiency or performance of a business.

 GPR: Relationship between gross profit and net sales

GPR = (GP / NS) X 100

Net Sales = Cost of Sales + Operating Exp. + Non Operating Exp

Gross Profit = Net Sales – Cost of Goods Sold

 NPR: or Sales Margin Ratio or Profit Margin Ratio or Net Profit to Sales Ratio: Relationship between
NP and Sales. Indicates the overall efficiency in operating the business.

NP = (NP after tax / Net Sales) X 100

Price-Earnings Ratio (P/E Ratio):

 The Price-Earnings Ratio is calculated by dividing the current market price per share of the stock by
earnings per share (EPS). (Earnings per share are calculated by dividing net income by the number
of shares outstanding.)

Earning per share ratio:

 EPS measures the earning capacity of the concern from the owner’s point of view and it is helpful in
determining the price of the equity share in the market place and check the capacity of the concern
to pay dividend to its shareholders.

EPS = NP after tax and Preference dividend / No. of equity shares

1. The following financial data relate to Lakme, a cosmetic and toiletries company in the
Tata Group of Companies for the period ending on 31 March 20X6 and 20X7.

Lakme Financial Data for the year ending on 31 March

(Rs. In lakh)

Particulars 20X6 20X7

Revenue 6561 9773
Operating profit (EBDIT) 625 839
Depreciation 88 115
EBIT 537 724
Interest 216 376
Tax 0 65
PAT 321 283
Share Capital 316 316
Reserve and Surplus 1130 1264
Borrowings 1473 1530
Capital Employed 2919 3110
Gross Fixed Assets 1339 1589
Earnings per Share (EPS) 10.7 8.97
Dividend per share (DPS) 5.00 5.00

Comment on Lakme’s performance. Show computation to support your answer.

2. Tata Unisys is an integrated information technology company. Its products include mini
and micro processor based systems, software sets, serial printers and handlers. Following
 table contains financial highlights of the company for the year 20X5-20X6 and 20X6-
20X7. You are required to provide a critical evaluation of company’s performance.

Tata Unisys Financial Data for the year ending on 31 March

(Rs. In lakh)

Particulars 20X5-X6 20X6-X7

Profit and Loss Items
Net Sales 6448 8994
Raw Materials 1318 2011
Salaries and wages 814 1043
Power and fuel 50 75
Operating profit 1597 2226
Interest 73 91
Depreciation 308 488
Profit before tax (PBT) 1216 1647
Tax 465 635
PAT 751 1012
Balance Sheet Items
Share capital 438 613
Reserve and Surplus 2097 2813
Borrowings 553 998
Gross fixed assets 1819 2836
Additional Information
Dividend rate (%) 25 25
Bonus issue - 2.5
Market price -
High(Rs.) - 550
Low (Rs.) - 200
No. of shares (lakh) 43.8 61.3
Net Worth 2535 3426
Capital Employed 3088 4424
EBIT 1289 1738

3. The Hindustan Manufacturing Company is a leading producer and exporter of

engineering items such as steel, pipes, ingots, billets, etc. it has also recently added a
chemical plant and a paper plant as part of its diversification strategy. The company
started with a share capital of Rs.25 lakh in the early sixties, which has now increased to
Rs.225 lakh. The number of shares outstanding is 22.50 lakh. The average market price
(AMP) of the company’s share during 20X1-20X3 has been: RS.26.38 in 20X1, Rs.34.50
in 20X2 and Rs.29.25 in 20X3. The financial data for the company are given in the
following tables. Analysis the financial position of the company.
 Hindustan Manufacturing Company
Profit and Loss Account for the year ending on 31 March
(Rs. In lakh)

Particulars 20X1 20X2 20X3

Net sales 2338.90 2825.69 3717.23
(-)COGS (Depreciation included) 1929.04 2322.80 3053.66
Gross Profit 409.86 502.89 663.57
(-) Selling and Admin Exp 239.72 262.10 357.87
Operating Income 170.14 240.79 305.70
(+) Other Income 15.24 25.38 36.91
EBIT 185.38 266.17 342.61
(-) Interest 59.84 124.98 143.46
PBT 125.54 141.19 199.15
Tax 41.79 30.00 64.29
PAT 83.75 111.19 134.86
Dividend Distributed 33.75 39.38 45.00
Retained earnings 50.00 71.81 89.86

Hindustan Manufacturing Company

Statement of Cost of Goods Sold for the year ending on 31 March
(Rs. In lakh)

Particulars 20X1 20X2 20X3

Raw Material 1587.34 2019.54 2751.52
Direct labour 138.13 170.86 228.94
Depreciation 23.07 38.64 41.59
Other manufacturing exp 205.34 255.72 329.44
Total direct manufacturing exp. 1953.88 2484.76 3351.49
(+) Opening stock in process 57.09 85.74 150.55
2010.97 2570.50 3502.04
(-) closing stock in process 85.74 150.55 23.083
Cost of production 1925.23 2419.95 3271.21
(+) opening stock of finished goods 150.93 147.12 244.26
2076.16 2567.07 3515.47
(-) closing stock of finished goods 147.12 244.26 461.81
Cost of Goods Sold 1929.04 2322.81 3053.66
 Hindustan Manufacturing Company
Balance Sheet as on 31 March
(Rs. In lakh)

Particulars 20X1 20X2 20X3

A Net Worth
Share capital 225.00 225.00 225.00
Reserve 286.13 357.95 447.81
Total Net Worth 511.13 582.95 672.81
B Borrowings
Long-term: Debentures - 75.75 76.46
FDs 199.87 285.90 312.73
Long-term loan 199.87 361.65 389.19
Total Borrowings 642.79 1003.04 1229.06
C Capital Employed (A+B)+ Short-term loan 1153.92 1585.99 1901.87
D Current Liabilities
Short-term loan 442.92 641.39 838.87
Trade Payables 35.99 211.21 339.35
Provisions and others 22.87 270.97 376.53
Total current liabilities 701.78 1123.57 1555.75
D Fixed Assets
Gross block 653.49 841.64 921.55
(-) Depreciation 159.55 194.46 235.44
Other non-current assets 52.76 16.44 60.72
Net Fixed Assets 546.70 663.62 746.83
E Current Assets
Inventories:
Raw material 243.42 384.06 457.74
Stock in process 85.74 150.55 230.84
Finished goods 147.12 244.28 461.81
Inventories 476.28 778.89 1150.39
Debtors 253.16 340.61 483.18
Cash and bank balance 8.37 98.84 26.08
Others 128.27 186.21 211.27
Total Current Assets 866.08 1404.55 1870.92
F Net Current Asset
Limitations of financial statements
The limitations of financial statements are those factors that a user should be aware of before
relying on them to an excessive extent. Knowledge of these factors could result in a reduction of
invested funds in a business, or actions taken to investigate further. The following are all
limitations of financial statements.

Financial Statements Are Derived from Historical Costs

Transactions are initially recorded at their cost. This is a concern when reviewing the balance
sheet, where the values of assets and liabilities may change over time. Some items, such as
marketable securities, are altered to match changes in their market values, but other items, such
as fixed assets, do not change. Thus, the balance sheet could be misleading if a large part of the
amount presented is based on historical costs.

Financial Statements Are Not Adjusted for Inflation

If the inflation rate is relatively high, the amounts associated with assets and liabilities in the
balance sheet will appear inordinately low, since they are not being adjusted for inflation. This
mostly applies to long-term assets.

Financial Statements Do Not Contain Some Intangible Assets

Many intangible assets are not recorded as assets. Instead, any expenditures made to create an
intangible asset are immediately charged to expense. This policy can drastically underestimate
the value of a business, especially one that has spent a large amount to build up a brand image or
to develop new products. It is a particular problem for startup companies that have created
intellectual property, but which have so far generated minimal sales.

Financial Statements Only Cover a Specific Period of Time

A user of financial statements can gain an incorrect view of the financial results or cash flows of
a business by only looking at one reporting period. Any one period may vary from the normal
operating results of a business, perhaps due to a sudden spike in sales or seasonality effects. It is
better to view a large number of consecutive financial statements to gain a better view of
ongoing results.
Financial Statements May Not Be Comparable

If a user wants to compare the results of different companies, their financial statements are not
always comparable, because the entities use different accounting practices. These issues can be
located by examining the disclosures that accompany the financial statements.

Financial Statements Could be Wrong Due to Fraud

The management team of a company may deliberately skew the results presented. This situation
can arise when there is undue pressure to report excellent results, such as when a bonus plan calls
for payouts only if the reported sales level increases. One might suspect the presence of this issue
when the reported results spike to a level exceeding the industry norm, or well above a
company’s historical trend line of reported results.

Financial Statements Do Not Cover Non-Financial Issues

The financial statements do not address non-financial issues, such as the environmental
attentiveness of a company's operations, or how well it works with the local community. A
business reporting excellent financial results might be a failure in these other areas.

Financial Statements May Not Have Been Verified

If the financial statements have not been audited, this means that no one has examined the
accounting policies, practices, and controls of the issuer to ensure that it has created accurate
financial statements. An audit opinion that accompanies the financial statements is evidence of
such a review.

Financial Statements Have No Predictive Value

The information in a set of financial statements provides information about either historical
results or the financial status of a business as of a specific date. The statements do not necessarily
provide any value in predicting what will happen in the future. For example, a business could
report excellent results in one month, and no sales at all in the next month, because a contract on
which it was relying has ended.
Financial statements are normally quite useful documents, but it can pay to be aware of the
preceding issues before relying on them too much.

Accounting Standards (ASs)

AS 1 Disclosure of Accounting Policies

AS 2 Valuation of Inventories

AS 4 Contingencies and Events Occuring after the Balance Sheet Date

AS 5 Net Profit or Loss for the period,Prior Period Items and Changes in Accounting Policies

AS 6 Depreciation Accounting

AS 7 Construction Contracts (revised 2002)

AS 8 Accounting for Research and Development

AS 9 Revenue Recognition

AS 10 Accounting for Fixed Assets

AS 11 The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates (revised 2003),

AS 12 Accounting for Government Grants

AS 13 Accounting for Investments

AS 14 Accounting for Amalgamations

AS 15 (revised 2005) Employee Benefits

Limited Revision to Accounting Standard (AS) 15, Employee Benefits (revised 2005)

AS 15 (issued 1995)Accounting for Retirement Benefits in the Financial Statement of

Employers

AS 16 Borrowing Costs

AS 17 Segment Reporting

AS 18, Related Party Disclosures

AS 19 Leases

AS 20 Earnings Per Share

AS 21 Consolidated Financial Statements

AS 22 Accounting for Taxes on Income.

AS 23 Accounting for Investments in Associates in Consolidated Financial Statements

AS 24 Discontinuing Operations

AS 25 Interim Financial Reporting

AS 26 Intangible Assets

AS 27 Financial Reporting of Interests in Joint Ventures

AS 28 Impairment of Assets

AS 29 Provisions,Contingent` Liabilities and Contingent Assets