TBL (A Framework for Task-Based Learning)

Voice note 1: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ih9iLWK_o_BW67SfsrEq2vLkR1hm9fEo/view?usp=sharing

In order to give an overview of Task-Based Learning (aprendizaje basado en tareas), Nunan (2014) departs from
curriculum design and its implications for English language methodology. Why? Because TBL is closely related to the
process approach to curriculum design.

The curriculum needs to specify four essential elements: aims and objectives, content, learning experiences, and
learning outcomes. The key questions are:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

These four questions equate to:

syllabus design concerned with specifying content and articulating this content in
terms of goals and objectives

methodology identifies, organizes, and sequences learning experiences

assessment and set out the means for determining whether the goals and
evaluation objectives have actually been achieved.

An increasing emphasis on the process approach to curriculum design was proposed by the British educator Lawrence
Stenhouse, who argued that the curriculum should articulate the processes and procedures for selecting content,
learning experiences, and evaluation instruments. In the field of ELT, this emphasis on procedures gave origin to TBTL
(Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning).

What is the relationship between CLT and TBL? CLT is the philosophical approach to language pedagogy (it addresses
the question why?); TBLT is a realization of this philosophy at the levels of syllabus design and methodology (it
addresses the question how?).

CLT is an umbrella term which covers a wide range of approaches

The Natural Approach

Cooperative Language Learning Content-Based Instruction

Task-Based Language Teaching CLIL

The post-methods era

TBL: a definition
Task-Based Language Learning and Teaching refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of
planning and instruction in language teaching. Willis & Willis (2007) present it as a logical development of CLT since it
draws on several principles that formed part of the communicative language teaching movement.

Key assumptions of TBL

 The focus is on process rather than product.
 Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning.
 Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and
tasks.
 Activities and tasks can be either:
a) those that learners might need to achieve in real life;
b) those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom
 Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.
 The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors:
a) previous experience of the learner
b) the complexity of the task,
c) the language required to undertake the task,
d) the degree of support available

Conceptualizing Tasks
Based on the key assumptions of TBL, authors define task in terms of its primary focus on meaning, cognitive activity,
authenticity, interaction and outcome.

Skehan: ‘Tasks…are activities which have meaning as the primary focus. Success in tasks is evaluated in terms
of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life use…’

Nunan: ‘…the communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending,
manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form (…)’ (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:224).

The point of departure for pedagogy (Nunan, 2014)

A synthetic approach to ELT is rooted in three language systems: the phonological, the lexical, and the
grammatical. These systems are analyzed and broken into their component
parts, which are then taught separately, one at a time.

An analytic approach to ELT begins with the learner. Analytical approaches include TBL, CLIL, and
Project-Based Instruction. Such approaches are organized in terms of the
purposes for which people are learning languages and the kinds of
language that are necessary to meet these purposes.

Learning through doing

In TBLT, the learner acquires language in carefully structured situations (preparation – task – language focus) whose
primary goal is the construction of meaning. These activities have an outcome, their completion is a priority, and
there is some sort of relationship to comparable real world activities.
Learners’ own experiences as a point of departure
Experiential learning theory provides the basic philosophical view of learning as part of personal growth. The goal is to
enable the learner to become increasingly self-directed and responsible for his or her own learning. This process
means a gradual shift of the initiative to the learner, encouraging him or her to bring in personal contributions and
experiences.

Focus on learning strategies

Sensitizing learners to the processes underlying their learning is particular important. Learners’ perceptions about
what they should contribute to task completion, their views about the nature and demands of the task, and their
perceptions of the situation in which the task takes place will all influence the task outcomes. In other words, if the
learners are at the centre of the process, teachers should equip them with the tools to become autonomous.

Task authenticity
There is thus an automatic link between the world of the classroom and the world beyond the classroom. The closer
the link between the pedagogical and the experiential worlds, the greater the task authenticity. Nunan (2014) makes
a distinction between real world tasks and pedagogical tasks. While real world tasks are the common things we do in
our everyday lives, pedagogical tasks are what learners do to activate and learn language skills. The author suggests
creating an inventory of real world tasks and turning them into pedagogical tasks so that “they involve the learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language to achieve a non-linguistic outcome” (p.
459). Jigsaw reading (jigsaw reading/listening, expressing opinions, searching for information, reading a menu and
deciding what to order, following instructions). The Group Guzmán et al. provide clear examples of such tasks. Though
not all of them are CLIL tasks, they can be considered authentic tasks and they are related to all the areas of the
curriculum. They have succeeded in creating a bank of tasks, activities and games that belong to children’s world of
experience.
Voice Note 2: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iiAupm9N4-XZWbtGrlC-cwppZFJ5xHA1/view?usp=sharing

Text authenticity
Text authenticity is the use of spoken and written material that has been produced for purposes of communication,
not for purposes of language teaching. The issue here is not whether authentic materials should be used but which
combination of authentic, simulated, and specially written materials will provide the learners with optimal learning
opportunities.

Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/criteria-identifying-tasks-

tbl

Will the activity engage learners' interest?

Is there a primary focus on meaning?
Is there a goal or an outcome?
Is success judged in terms of outcome?
Is completion a priority?
Does the activity relate to real world activities?'

For examples click the link to the article.

Six types of tasks for TBL https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/six-types-task-tbl

Listing/brainstorming
Ordering and sorting
Matching
Comparing (finding similarities and differences)
Problem solving
Sharing personal experiences and storytelling

For examples click the link to the article.

From priming tasks and target tasks to language focus and grammar
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/priming-tasks-target-tasks-language-focus-grammar

Jane Willis explains the TBL Framework using a textbook

“In many cases this will mean changing the order of the unit sections and doing the grammar sections later,
after you have done a set of tasks on the topic. It is really important to let learners do the tasks, expressing
their meanings as best they can with the language they have already acquired, even if they make mistakes.
Then, after the task sequence, use the Grammar sections to focus on form and help them build on what they
know. If they do the grammar first, they will be worrying about using the new forms and getting them right,
rather than focusing on what they want to mean. This will have a negative effect on their confidence. It takes
time to absorb grammar - it is rarely learnt quickly enough for learners to put to immediate use in
spontaneous interactive talk” (Willis, 2020).

Pre-task/Priming phase
Most textbook units start with some vocabulary building activities to introduce the words and phrases that are useful
for the new theme or topic. These can often be made into mini-tasks that are more engaging than just ‘listen and
repeat'. If there are pictures, use them for ‘Correct the teacher' / True or False games (teacher-led or with learners in
pairs or groups) or memory challenge tasks.

Task Cycle: Task - planning – report

In many of the tasks illustrated in my second article (https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/six-types-task-tbl),
the final instructions were "Now tell another pair your story / what you have done / Tell the class who you chose and
say your reasons". This is what is often called the Report stage. At this stage, because they are ‘going public' and
talking to a wider audience, learners naturally want to use their best language - they will feel the need to plan well,
use the right words, speak as fluently as they can and avoid mistakes. But most learners will need help to prepare for
this.

If you incorporate a Planning stage between the task and the report back stage, learners will have a chance to focus
on the language they want to use and improve it. They can check out words in a dictionary, and ask you to help them
say what they want to mean. They can even rehearse their report in pairs. So you as teacher will be acting as language
advisor, and learners will each be working at their own level, building on, improving and extending the language they
already have. Thus we achieve a learner-centred focus on language in the context of the task.

During the final Report phase, there is a simultaneous focus on fluency and accuracy, and the Planning stage helps
students to prepare for this.

Focus on Form: At the end of the task cycle

Now is the time to turn to the grammar sections in your textbook. Learners will now have experienced quite a lot of
this language in use, and the grammar exercises can often be done quickly as consolidation exercises. To save time,
start each exercise off in class and let them finish them at home working at their own pace. Some books have
grammar reference and/or review pages - use these as a basis for a grammar quiz prepared by learners at home.
Why not start with grammar?
It is very rare for learners to be exposed to a new form and, within the space of a single lesson incorporate it into their
spontaneous language productions. We all know from our experience as teachers that it takes a long time before
learners have spontaneous command of structures. Learning is a developmental process which is not subject to the
learner’s conscious control.
It takes time for language to develop. The first treatment of a new form or forms will not lead to mastery. It may aid
development in that the learner will be more likely to notice the new form in the future once it has been highlighted.
But the form will not become a part of the learners’ spontaneous repertoire until they have had time to assimilate it.
form should be subordinate to meaning and for this reason should come after rather than before a task(Willis &
Willlis, 2007, p. 16-19).
The get it right from the beginning approach (PPP) is based on the belief that it is possible to accumulate one
grammatical form after another, ensuring mastery of one before moving on to the next. Thus each stage of instruction
specifies one or two forms and seeks to help learners to master these before they move on (Lightbown and Spada,
2013).
In the get it right at the end approach (TBL) is based on the belief that what learners need most of all are exposure to
language and opportunities to use language meaningfully. Given this exposure, learners are highly creative problem-
solvers. They will develop a language system which works, even though they will make mistakes on the way. The
emphasis is primarily on meaning, but those who hold this position argue that there is a role for form-focused
instruction and correction. [By no means does this view disregard explicit language instruction.] (Willis & Willis, 2007,
pp. 30-33).

Voice Note 3: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1iieYbAOanfRyDl6ElysuFXf_vfZ310LL/view?usp=sharing

 PPP TBL
 Priming task in which learners see language at  Priming stage prepares learners for the task.
work.  A focus on meaning, in which participants are
 A focus on one or two forms , which are later to be concerned with communication.
incorporated in the performance of a  A focus on language in which learners pause in the
communicative activity. course of a meaning focused activity to think for
 This focus on form comes before learners engage in themselves how best to express what they want to
communicative activity. say, or a teacher takes part in the interaction and
 Teacher control of learner language in the early acts as a facilitator by rephrasing or clarifying
stages of the cycle and gradually relaxed. learner language.
 The success of the procedure is judged in terms of  A focus on form in which one or more lexical or
whether or not the learners produce the target grammatical forms are isolated and specified for
forms with an acceptable level of accuracy. study, or in which the teacher comments on student
language by drawing attention to problems
 Success is judged in terms of the outcome

(Willis & Willis, 2007, pp. 4-5)

Theory of Language:
Note: TBL is motivated primarily by a theory of learning (Constructivism) rather than by a theory of language.
However, several assumptions can be made about the underlying nature of language.

A functional perspective views language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. This theory emphasizes
the semantic and communicative dimension rather than merely the grammatical characteristics of language and leads
to the organization of content by categories of meaning and function.

An interactional perspective sees language as a vehicle for realization of interpersonal relations and for the
performance of social transactions between individuals. Learners achieve facility in using a language when their
attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages. (Richards and Rodgers, 2001:20, 21)

According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), an additional principle to outstand is that: tasks provide both input and
output processing necessary for language acquisition. While Steven Krashen claims that COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT is
the one necessary criterion for successful language acquisition, Swain maintains that COMPREHENSIBLE OUTPUT is
also critical, since plenty and suitable opportunities for productive use of language push forward interlanguage
development. As learners are engaged in communication, they experiment with language: they test their hypotheses,
express meaning, and adjust or rephrase syntax, lexis, and pronunciation. Grounded in SLA research on negotiation
and interaction, TBL emphasizes the role of the task in stimulating input-output practice and negotiation of meaning,
thus aiding acquisition.

You can see samples of TBL didactic sequences in this document created by the Dirección General de
Cultura y Educación de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Inglés: Material Complementario. Secuencias
Didácticas 2. URL: http://abc.gob.ar/primaria/sites/default/files/documentos/02_mcomp_ba_ingles.pdf

Practice: group work

1. Analyze the example of a TBL lesson in Appendix A. Label the stages. What principles underlie the lesson? What
questions would you like to ask?
2. Select a lesson from a coursebook and adapt it to the TBL framework.

Deadline: June 1st

Bibliography
Nunan, D. (2014). Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning. En: Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. & Snow, M. Teaching
English as a Second or Foreign Language. 4th ed. Cap. 29. Boston: National Geographic Learning/Heinle Cengage
Learning.
A set of interrelated articles in BBC website on Teaching English:
Frost, R. (2020) A Task-Based Approach. URL: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/a-task-based-approach
Willis, J. (2019) Criteria for identifying tasks for TBL. URL: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/criteria-
identifying-tasks-tbl
Willis, J. (2020) Six types of tasks for TBL. URL: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/six-types-task-tbl
Willis, J. (2019) From priming tasks and target tasks to language focus and grammar. URL:
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/priming-tasks-target-tasks-language-focus-grammar
Willis, J. (2019) Making time for tasks and still covering the syllabus. URL:
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/making-time-tasks-still-covering-syllabus

Complementary bibliography
Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. CUP.
Willis, D. and Willis, J. (2007). Doing Task-Based Teaching. OUP.
Willis, J. (1998). A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Longman.
Willis (1996: 167-168)