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Mathematics
Analysis and Approaches
For the IB Diploma
IBRAHIM WAZIR
TIM GARRY
Analysis and Approaches SL

Contents
Introduction

1 Number, algebra and function basics

2 Functions

3 Sequences and series

4 Exponential and logarithmic functions

5 Trigonometric functions and equations

6 Geometry and trigonometry

7 Statistics

8 Probability 1

9 Differential calculus 1

10 Differential calculus 2

11 Integral calculus

12 Probability 2

The mathematical exploration - Internal assessment

Theory of knowledge

Answers

Index
Statistics
7
 7 Statistics

Learning objectives
By the end of this chapter you should be familiar with...
• concepts of population, sample, random sample, and frequency
distribution of discrete and continuous data
• reliability of data sources and bias in sampling
• sampling techniques and their effectiveness
• interpretation of outliers
• presentation of data using frequency tables and diagrams and box-and-
whisker plots
• working with grouped data: mid-interval values, interval width, upper
and lower interval boundaries, and frequency histograms
• calculating and interpreting the mean, median, mode, quartiles, and
percentiles
• calculating and interpreting the range, interquartile range, variance, and
standard deviation
• calculating and interpreting cumulative frequency graphs and using them
to find the median, quartiles, and percentiles
• understanding and interpreting linear correlation of bivariate data
• working with linear regression.

Statistics are a part of everyday life, and you are likely to encounter them in one
form or another on a daily basis.
50 For example, the World Health Organization (WHO) collects and reports data
40 about worldwide population health on all 192 UN-member countries. Among the
Frequency

30 indicators reported is the health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE). This is based on

20 life expectancy at birth, but includes an adjustment for time spent in poor health.
10 It is most easily understood as the equivalent number of years in full health that
0 a newborn can expect to live, based on current rates of ill-health and mortality.
0 30 40 50 60 70 80
HALE According to WHO rankings, lost years due to disability are substantially higher
Figure 7.1  HALE data
in poorer countries. Several factors contribute to this trend, including injury,
blindness, paralysis, and the debilitating effects of tropical disease.
Of the 192 countries ranked by WHO, Japan has the highest healthy life
expectancy (75 years) and Sierra Leone has the lowest (29 years).
Reports like this are commonplace in business publications, newspapers,
magazines, and on the internet. There are some questions that come to mind
as we read such a report. How did the researchers collect the data? How can we
be sure that these results are reliable? What conclusions should be drawn from
this report? The increased frequency with which statistical techniques are used
in all fields, from business to agriculture to social and natural sciences, leads to
the need for statistical literacy – familiarity with the goals and methods of these
techniques – to be a part of any well-rounded educational programme.
Since statistical methods for summary and analysis provide us with powerful
tools for making sense out of the data we collect, in this chapter we will first

2
start by introducing two basic components of most statistical problems –
population and sample – and then delve into the methods of presenting and
making sense of data. This will include some basic techniques in descriptive
statistics – the branch of statistics concerned with describing sets of
measurements, both samples and populations.

7.1 Graphical tools

Once you have collected a set of measurements, how can you display this set
in a clear, understandable, and readable form? First, you must be able to define
what is meant by measurement or ‘data’ and to categorize the types of data you
are likely to encounter. We begin by introducing some definitions of the new
terms in the statistical language that you need to know.
In the language of statistics, one of the most basic
concepts is sampling. In most statistical problems, we
draw a specified number of measurements or data – a
sample – from a much larger body of measurements,
called the population. On the basis of our observation of
the data in the well-chosen sample, we try to describe or
predict the behaviour of the population.
A population is any entire collection of people, animals,
plants, or things from which we may collect data. It is the
entire group we are interested in, which we might wish to
describe or draw conclusions about.
In order to make generalizations about a population,
a sample is often studied. The sample should be
representative of the population. For each population
there are many possible samples. Population

For example, a study about the usage of resources in the

households of an EU country stated that:
‘… in the sample of 1674 households surveyed, the Sample
amount of water used by each washing cycle is given Figure 7.2  A sample is drawn from a population
in the following…, The average time for each cycle was
reported to be 42 minutes… . It was also discovered that
the amount of laundry done by a household every year is
related in some way to the household’s income…’
In this example, the population is households’ usage of water for washing,
the average time spent on laundry, income, etc. The sample is the set of
measurements of 1674 households that took part in the study. Notice that
the population and sample are the measurements and not the people! The
households are ‘experimental units’ or subjects in this study.

3
 7 Statistics

Height is a variable that A variable is a characteristic that might vary over time or for different objects
changes with time for under consideration. When a variable is measured, the set of measurements
an individual and from obtained is called the data about that variable.
person to person. If you
gather the heights of the When a large amount of data is collected it becomes difficult to see what it
students at your school,
the set of measurements
means. The statistician’s job is to summarize the data succinctly, bringing
you get is called a out the important characteristics of the numbers so that a clear and accurate
data set. picture emerges. There are several ways of summarizing and describing data,
including tables, graphs, and numerical measures.
In everyday life, the
terms ‘reliability’ and When looking at statistical results, we must be aware of how the data has been
‘validity’ are often used collected by assessing its reliability and validity.
interchangeably. In
statistics, however, these Reliability, or reproducibility, is another word for consistency. It refers to the
terms have specific
meanings relating to capacity of a test or method to produce the same result for two identical states or,
different properties more operationally, the closeness of the initial estimated values to the subsequent
of the statistical or estimated values. For example, if one person takes the same personality test
experimental method.
several times and always receives the same results, the test is reliable.
A test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. If the results of the
personality test claimed that a very shy person was in fact outgoing, the test
would be invalid.

Reliability and validity are independent of each other. A measurement may be valid but not
reliable, or reliable but not valid. Suppose your bathroom scale was reset to read 5 kg lighter than
the actual weight. The reading it gave would be reliable, as it would be the same every time, but it
would not be valid, since it would be lower than your correct weight.

Classification of variables
Numerical or categorical
Data can be classified into two main types: numerical (or quantitative) and
categorical (or qualitative) data.

Variable/Data

Quantitative or Qualitative or categorical

numerical (e.g., make of a
camera, opinions of
voters, gender)

Discrete Continuous
(e.g., number of (e.g., length,
children, houses, age, height,
accidents) weight, time)

Figure 7.3  Data classifications

4
Numerical, or quantitative, variables measure a numerical quantity or amount Examples of numerical
on each experimental unit. This type of data always yields a numerical data include yearly
response. income of company
presidents, heights of
There are two types of numerical data. students at school, time
taken for students to
• Discrete data can take only particular values. For example, if you are finish their lunch at
counting the number of students that take a particular class the values will school, and total score
received on exams.
all be integers. It makes no sense to have 0.5 students.
• Continuous data can take any value, subject to the accuracy with which you
can measure it. For example, the time it takes a student to travel from home
to school could potentially be measured to the nearest second, although it
might not be appropriate to measure to this level of accuracy.
There are two types of continuous variable.
• Interval variables can be measured along a continuum and the difference
between two values on the continuum is meaningful.
• Ratio variables are interval variables with the additional condition that a
value of 0 indicates that there is none of that variable. The name ratio reflects
the fact that you can use the ratio of the measurements. So, for example, a
distance of 20 m is twice as large as a distance of 10 m.

Temperature measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit is an example of an interval variable. The This pie chart shows
difference between 20 °C and 30 °C is the same as the difference between 30 °C and 40 °C, but a how students in a large
temperature of 40 °C is not twice as hot as a temperature of 20 °C, because 0 °C does not mean school are categorized
there is no temperature. into the IB Mathematics
However, temperature measured in Kelvin is a ratio variable, because 0 Kelvin (often called class they are taking.
absolute zero) indicates that there is no temperature whatsoever. A temperature of 100 Kelvin is This is an example of
twice as hot as 50 Kelvin. Other examples of ratio variables include height, mass, distance, and qualitative data. There
many more. are 230 students in the
Math AI/SL class, 180
students in the Math AA/
Categorical, or qualitative, variables measure a quality or characteristic of the SL class and 90 students
experimental unit. Categorical data yields a qualitative response, such as in the Math AA/HL class.
colour. The pie chart shows what
percentage of students
We often use pie charts to summarize categorical data or to display the different take each class.
values of a given variable (for example, percentage distribution). This type of Math
chart is a circle divided into a series of segments. Each segment represents a AA/HL
particular category. The ratio of the area of each segment to the area of the circle Math 18.0%
AI/SL
is the same as the ratio of the corresponding category to the total data set. Math
46.0%
AA/SL
Pie charts usually show the component parts of a whole. Often you will see a 36.0%
segment of the drawing separated from the rest of the pie in order to emphasize
an important piece of information.

Frequency distributions
After collecting data, you should try to organize it so that it can be read easily.
Methods for organizing data include ordered arrays and stem-and-leaf
diagrams – not required.

5
 7 Statistics

In its raw form, your data may be listed in the order you collected it:
24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38
Ordering the data in a ordered array, in either ascending or descending order,
makes it easier to spot patterns and to start to understand the data:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
Suppose a consumer organization is interested in studying weekly food and
living expenses of college students. A survey of 80 students yielded the data
shown in Table 7.1. Expenses are given to the nearest euro.

38 50 55 60 46 51 58 64 50 49 48 65 58 61 65 53
39 51 56 61 48 53 59 65 54 54 54 59 65 66 47 49
40 51 56 62 47 55 60 63 60 59 59 50 46 45 54 47
41 52 57 64 50 53 58 67 67 66 65 58 54 52 55 52
44 52 57 64 51 55 61 68 67 54 55 48 57 57 66 66
Table 7.1  Weekly food and living expenses of college students

In its raw form, it is difficult to find any patterns or draw conclusions from this
data. The first step in analysing data is to create a summary. This should show
the following information:
• What values of the variable have been measured?
• How often has each value occurred?
Such summaries can be done in many ways. The most useful are frequency
Consider a frequency
distributions and histograms. There are other methods of presenting data,
distribution for the living some of which we will discuss later.
expenses of 80 college
students. If the frequency A frequency distribution is a table used to organize data. The left column,
distribution contained called classes or groups, includes numerical intervals on the variable
the intervals ‘35–40’
being studied. The right column is a list of the frequencies, or number of
and ‘40–45’, to which of
these two classes would observations, for each class. Intervals are normally of equal size. They must
a person spending €40 cover the range of the sample observations and they must not overlap.
belong? More appropriate
intervals would be ‘35 or
more but less than 40’ Construction of a frequency distribution
and ‘40 or more but less
than 45’. There are some general rules for preparing frequency distributions that make it
If classes are described easier to summarize data and to communicate results.
with discrete limits
such as ‘30–34’, ‘35–39’, Rule 1:  Classes must be inclusive and non-overlapping. Each observation
then the boundaries are must belong to one, and only one, class interval. The boundaries, or endpoints,
midway between the
neighbouring endpoints. of each class must be clearly defined.
That is, the classes will
be considered as ‘29.5 Rule 2:  Determine k, the number of classes. Practice and experience are
or more but less than the best guidelines for deciding on the number of classes. In general, it is
34.5’, ‘34.5 or more but
reasonable to have between 5 and 10 classes, but this is not an absolute rule.
less than 39.5’, Here the
boundaries are 29.5, Practitioners use their judgement in these issues. If there are too few classes,
34.5, 39.5, and each class some characteristics of the distribution will be hidden. If there are too many,
width is 5..
some characteristics will be lost with the detail.

6
Rule 3:  Intervals should be the same width. The width is determined by the
formula
largest number 2 smallest number
interval width 5 _____________________________
​​ 
         ​​
number of intervals
Both the number of intervals and the interval width should be rounded up,
possibly to the next integer. The above formula can be used when there are no
natural ways of grouping the data. If this formula is used, the interval width is
generally rounded to a convenient integer for easy interpretation.

Example 7.1
Organize the data from Table 7.1 into a frequency distribution, using
appropriate class intervals.

Solution
Start by putting the data in ascending order.

38 39 40 41 44 45 46 46 47 47 47 48 48 48 49 49
50 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 53 54
54 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 57
58 58 58 58 59 59 59 59 60 60 60 61 61 61 62 63
64 64 64 65 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 67 68

With the data in order, we can immediately see that the smallest value is €38
and the largest value is €68. A reasonable grouping with nice round numbers Grouping the data in a
table, as in Example 7.1,
is ‘35 or more but less than 40’ and ‘40 or more but less than 45’, etc. This allows us to see some
gives a class width of 5. of its characteristics.
For example, we can
Living expenses (l  ) Number of students Percentage of students observe that there are
few students who spend
35 < l , 40  2   2.50 as little as €35 to €45,
40 < l , 45  3   3.75 while the majority of the
students spend more
…

than €45. Grouping the

data also causes some
65 < l , 70 13  16.25 loss of detail, as we
Total 80 100.00 cannot see from the table
what the real values in
Frequency and percentage frequency distributions of weekly expenses each class are.

In the table in Example 7.1, the class midpoint, also known as the mid-
interval value, can be used to represent the data in that interval. For example,
37.5 can represent the data in the first class, while 42.5 can represent the data in
the 40 to 45 class. This will be discussed in more detail later in the chapter. The
values at the ends of each class, such as 35 and 40, are known as the interval
boundaries.

7
 7 Statistics

Histograms
We can visualize a frequency distribution graphically using a histogram.
A histogram is a graph that consists of vertical bars constructed on a horizontal
line that is marked off with intervals for the variable being displayed. The
intervals correspond to the class intervals in a frequency distribution table.
The height of each bar is proportional to the number of observations in that
interval. The number of observations can also be displayed above the bars.

25
20
Frequency

15
Your GDC allows you
to draw histograms. 10
Different models 5
will have different
0
procedures. Here is a 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5
sample. Midpoints
y
Figure 7.4 Histogram for the data in Example 7.1

Figure 7.4 shows a histogram for the data in Example 7.1. By looking at the
x
histogram, it becomes visually clear that our previous observation is true. From
-34
1-VAR
the histogram we can also see that the distribution is not symmetric. You will
find out more about the shape of frequency distributions later in this chapter.

Cumulative and relative cumulative frequency distributions

A cumulative frequency distribution contains the total number of
observations whose values are less than the upper limit for each interval. It is
constructed by adding the frequencies of all the intervals up to and including
the present interval. A relative cumulative frequency distribution converts all
cumulative frequencies to cumulative percentages.
Table 7.2 shows a cumulative distribution and a relative cumulative distribution
for the data in Example 7.1.
Living No. of Cumulative number Percentage of Cumulative
expenses (l ) students of students students Percentage of
students
35 < l , 40 2 2 2.50 2.50
40 < l , 45 3 5 3.75 6.25
45 < l , 50 11 16 13.75 20.00
50 < l , 55 21 37 26.25 46.25
55 < l , 60 19 56 23.75 70.00
Notice how every 60 < l , 65 11 67 13.75 83.75
cumulative frequency is 65 < l , 70 13 80 16.25 100.00
added to the frequency in
Total 80 100.00
the next interval to give
you the next cumulative Table 7.2 Cumulative frequency and cumulative relative frequency distributions of weekly expenses
frequency. The same
is true for the relative As we will see later, cumulative frequencies and their graphs help in analysing
frequencies.. data given in group form.

8
Cumulative frequency graphs
A cumulative frequency graph, sometimes called a cumulative line graph
or an ogive, is a line that connects points that are the cumulative percentage
of observations below the upper limit of each class in a cumulative frequency
distribution. Figure 7.5 shows a cumulative frequency graph for the data in
Example 7.1.
80 100%
70
80%
60
50 60%
Cumulative
40
frequency
30 40%
20
20%
10
0 0%
40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Expenses (€)
Figure 7.5  Cumulative frequency graph for the data in Example 7.1

Notice how the height of each line at the upper boundary represents the
cumulative frequency for that interval. For example, at 50 the height is 16 and
at 60 it is 56.

Example 7.2
The WHO data discussed in the introduction is given here in raw form.
(a) Prepare a frequency table, starting with a lower class boundary of 20 and
a class interval of 5.
(b) Draw a histogram to represent the data.
(c) Draw a cumulative frequency graph to represent the data.

29 36 40 44 48 52 54 56 59 60 61 61 62 63 64 66 68 71 72 73 63 64 66 68
31 36 41 44 49 52 54 57 59 60 61 62 62 64 64 66 68 71 72 75 63 64 66 68
33 36 41 44 49 52 55 57 59 60 61 62 62 64 65 66 69 71 72 35 38 43 47 71
34 37 41 45 49 53 55 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 69 71 73 36 40 44 48 71
34 37 42 45 50 53 55 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 70 71 73 50 54 56 59 72
35 37 42 45 50 53 55 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 70 71 73 51 54 56 59 72
35 37 43 46 50 54 55 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 70 71 73 60 60 61 62 73
35 38 43 46 50 54 55 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 70 72 73 60 61 61 62 73

9
 7 Statistics

Solution
(a) First sort the data, then count every number in each class.
Life expectancy, l Number of Life expectancy Number of
countries countries
25 < l , 30  1 55 < l , 60 26
25 < l , 30 contains all
observations larger than 30 < l , 35  4 60 < l , 65 54
or equal to 25 but less 35 < l , 40 14 65 < l , 70 22
than 30.
40 < l , 45 14 70 < l , 75 27
45 < l , 50 11 75 < l , 80  1
50 < l , 55 18

(b) The histogram is shown

60
on the right. Since all
50
classes have equal width,

Frequency
40
the height and the area
30
give the same impression
20
about the frequency of
10
the class interval. For
0
example, the 60−65 class
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-70
70-75
75-80
contains almost twice as
many countries the Life expectancy (years)

55−60 class, and the heights of the bars in the histogram reflect this, as
do the areas. Similarly, the height of the 65−70 class is double that of the
45−50 class.
(c) In order to construct a cumulative frequency graph, we must first
construct a cumulative frequency table.
Life Number of Cumulative Life Number of Cumulative
expectancy countries number of expectancy countries number of
countries countries
25 < l , 30  1  1 55 < l , 60 26  88
30 < l , 35  4  5 60 < l , 65 54 142
35 < l , 40 14 19 65 < l , 70 22 164
40 < l , 45 14 33 70 < l , 75 27 191
45 < l , 50 11 44 75 < l , 80  1 192
50 < l , 55 18 62
Cumulative frequency

250
200
150
100
50
0
25-30
30-35
35-40
40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-70
70-75
75-80

Life expectancy (years)

10
 Sampling
Any study concerning populations needs data to be collected. Usually we do
not collect data from the entire population. For statistical studies, data from
samples is used. The method used to conduct a study is usually something like
this:
1. Specify the population of interest.
2. Choose an appropriate sampling method.
3. Collect the sample data.
4. Analyse the pertinent information in the sample.
5. Use the results of the sample analysis to make an inference about the
population.
6. Provide a measure of the inference’s reliability.

Reasons for sampling

Taking a sample instead of conducting a census offers several advantages. A census is a survey of
A sample can save money and time. If an eight-minute interview is being the entire population.

undertaken, conducting the interviews with a sample of 100 people rather than
with a population of 100 000 is obviously less expensive. In addition to the cost
savings, the significantly smaller number of interviews usually requires less
total time.
For given resources, the sample can broaden the scope of the study. With fixed
resources, more detailed information can be gathered by taking a sample than
by gathering information from the whole population. Concentrating on fewer
individuals or items, the study can be broadened in scope to allow for more
specialized questions.
Some research processes are destructive to the product or item being studied.
For example, if light bulbs are being tested to determine how long they burn or
if candy bars are being taste tested to determine whether the taste is acceptable,
the product is destroyed.
If accessing the entire population is impossible, using a sample is the only option.
If sampling is deemed to be appropriate, it must be decided how to select a A representative
sample is a sample
sample. Since the sample will be employed to draw conclusions about the entire that represents the
population, it is crucial that the sample is representative of that population. It characteristics of the
should reflect the relevant parameter of the population under consideration as population as closely as
possible.
closely as possible.

Random and non-random sampling

The two main types of sampling are random and non-random. In random
sampling, every unit of the population has the same probability of being
selected into the sample. Random sampling implies that chance enters into the
process of selection.

11
 7 Statistics

In non-random sampling, not every unit of the population has the same
probability of being selected into the sample.
Non-random sampling
methods are not Random sampling is also called probability sampling and non-random sampling
appropriate techniques is called non-probability sampling. Because every unit of the population is not
for gathering data to
be analysed by most of equally likely to be selected in non-random sampling, assigning a probability of
the statistical methods occurrence is impossible. The statistical methods presented and discussed in the
presented in this book. IB syllabus assume that the data comes from random samples.
However, several non-random sampling techniques are described in this
section, primarily to alert you to their characteristics and limitations.

Random sampling
We will discuss three basic random sampling techniques: simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, and systematic random sampling.
Sampling error occurs
when, by chance, Each technique offers advantages and disadvantages. Some techniques are
the sample does not simpler to use, some are less costly, and others show greater potential for
represent the population. reducing sampling error.

Generally, all samples selected from the same population will give different results because they
contain different elements of the population. Additionally, the results obtained from any one
sample will not be exactly the same as those obtained from a census. The difference between
a sample result and the result we would have obtained by conducting a census is called the
sampling error, assuming that the sample is random and no non-sampling error has been made.
The sampling error is the difference between the result obtained from a sample survey and the
result that would have been obtained if the whole population had been included in the survey.
Non-sampling errors can occur in both a sample survey and a census. Such errors occur because
of human mistakes and not chance.

Simple random sampling

The most elementary random sampling technique is simple random sampling.
A sampling frame is a Simple random sampling can be viewed as the basis for the other random
list of all the elements of
sampling techniques. With simple random sampling, each unit of the sampling
a population from which
a sample can be taken, frame is numbered from 1 to N (where N is the size of the population). Next, a
such as a register of all random number generator (or a table of random numbers) is used to select n
the students in a college.
items into the sample.

Example 7.3
The screenshot shows Suppose it has been decided to interview 20 students from a school of 659 to
the first five from a list form an understanding of their views of a new block-scheduling the school
of random numbers
generated by a GDC. wants to adopt.
Computer programs may
be more efficient.
To find a simple random sample, number the students from 001 (or simply 1)
to 659 and have a random generator choose 20 numbers. The students
RanInt#(1,659,20)
{217,100,191,518,252 allocated to the chosen numbers form the sample.

Stratified random sampling

In stratified random sampling, the population is divided into non-overlapping
subpopulations called strata. The researcher then carries out simple random

12
sampling on each of the subpopulations. The main reason for using stratified
random sampling is that it has the potential for reducing sampling error.
With stratified random sampling, the potential to match the sample closely
to the population is greater than it is with simple random sampling because
portions of the total sample are taken from different population subgroups.
However, stratified random sampling is generally more costly than simple
random sampling because each unit of the population must be assigned to a
stratum before the random selection process begins.
Strata selection is usually based on available information. Such information
may have been gleaned from previous censuses or surveys. The more different
the strata are, the greater the benefits of using stratification. Internally, a
stratum should be relatively homogeneous; externally, strata should contrast
with each other. The process is demonstrated in Example 7.4.

Example 7.4
In FM radio markets, ‘age of listener’ is an important determinant of the
type of programming used by a station.
The figure shows a stratification by age with three strata, based on the
assumption that age makes a difference in preference of programming. This
stratification assumes that listeners of 20 to 30 years of age tend to prefer
the same type of programming, which is different from that preferred by
listeners of 30 to 40 and 40 to 50 years of age. Within each age subgroup
(stratum), homogeneity or alikeness is present; between each pair of
subgroups, heterogeneity or difference, is present. An simple random
sample is taken from each stratum. Together, the samples constitute a
representative sample of the whole population.
An advantage of stratified
20–30 years old Representative sample random sampling is that,
stratum in addition to collecting
20–30 SRS information about the
entire population, we can
30–40 years old also compare different
30–40 SRS
stratum strata. In Example 7.4,
the information we get
40–50 SRS will also help us compare
40–50 years old the different age groups
stratum among each other.

Systematic random sampling

With systematic random sampling, every kth item is selected to produce a Unlike stratified random
sampling, systematic
sample of size n from a population of size N. The value of k, sometimes called sampling is not done
the sampling cycle, can be determined by the formula in an attempt to reduce
sampling error. Rather,
N
​k 5 __
​  n ​ ​ it is used because of its
convenience and relative
ease of administration.
If k is not an integer value, it should be rounded to the nearest integer.
13
 7 Statistics

Example 7.5
Given the data in Example 7.3, suppose we need to take a sample of 20
students using systematic sampling. First find k.
659
​   ​ ≈ 32​
​k 5 ____
20
From the list of 659 students, we randomly choose a starting number
between 1 and 32. This might be 11, for example. After that we choose every
32nd number: 43, 75, 107, … .

Systematic sampling has other advantages besides convenience. Because

systematic sampling is evenly distributed across the population, a knowledgeable
person can easily determine whether a sampling plan has been followed in a study.

Non-random sampling
Sampling techniques used to select elements from the population by any
mechanism that does not involve a random selection process are called non-
random sampling techniques. Because chance is not used to select items
from the samples, these techniques are non-probability techniques and are
not desirable for use in gathering data to be analysed by standard methods of
inferential statistics. Sampling error cannot be determined objectively for these
sampling techniques. Two non-random sampling techniques are presented
here: convenience sampling, and quota sampling.

Convenience sampling
In convenience sampling, elements for the sample are selected for the
convenience of the researcher. The researcher typically chooses elements that
are readily available, nearby, or willing to participate. The sample tends to be
less variable than the population because in many environments the extreme
elements of the population are not readily available. The researcher will select
more elements from the middle of the population. For example, a convenience
sample of homes for door-to-door interviews might include houses where
people are at home, houses with no dogs, houses near the street, first-floor
apartments, and houses with friendly people. In contrast, a random sample
would require the researcher to gather data only from houses and apartments
that have been selected randomly, no matter how inconvenient or unfriendly
the location. If a research firm is located in a mall, a convenience sample might
be selected by interviewing only shoppers who pass the shop and look friendly.

Quota sampling
Quota sampling appears to be similar to stratified random sampling at first
glance. However, instead of selecting a simple random sample from each
stratum, a non-random sampling method is used to gather data from one
stratum until the desired quota of samples is filled. Quotas are described by
setting the sizes of the samples to be obtained from the subgroups. Generally, a
quota is based on the proportions of the subclasses in the population.

14
For example, a company is test marketing a new soft drink and is interested
in how age groups react to it. An interviewer goes to a shopping mall and
interviews shoppers of age group 16–20, for example, until enough responses
are obtained to fill the quota. In quota sampling,
an interviewer starts
Quota sampling can be useful if no previous information is available for the by asking a few filter
population. For example, suppose we want to stratify the population into cars questions. If the
respondent represents
using different types of winter tyres but we do not have lists of users of the a subclass whose quota
‘Continental’ brand of tyres. Through quota sampling, we would proceed by has been filled, the
interviewing all car owners and casting out non-Continental users until the interviewer stops the
interview.
quota of Continental users is filled.
Quota sampling is less expensive than most random sampling techniques because
it is a technique of convenience. Another advantage of quota sampling is the speed
of data gathering. We do not have to call back or send out a second questionnaire
if we do not receive a response; we just move on to the next element.
The problem with quota sampling is that it is a non-random sampling
technique. Some researchers believe that a solution to this issue can be achieved
if the quota is filled by randomly selecting elements and discarding those not
from a stratum. This way quota sampling is essentially a version of stratified
random sampling. The object is to gain the benefits of stratification without the
high costs. However, it remains a non-probability sampling method.

Exercise 7.1
 1. Identify the experimental units, sensible population and sample on
which each of the following variables is measured. Then indicate
whether the variable is quantitative or qualitative.
(a) Gender of a student.
(b) Number of errors on a final exam for 10th grade students.
(c) Height of a newly born child.
(d) Eye colour for children aged less than 14.
(e) Amount of time it takes to travel to work.
(f) Rating of a country’s leader: excellent, good, fair, poor.
(g) Country of origin of students at international schools.

 2. State what you expect the shapes of the distributions of the following
variables to be: uniform, unimodal, bimodal, symmetric, etc. Explain why.
(a) Number of goals shot by football players during the last season.
(b) Weights of newborn babies in a major hospital during the course of
10 years.
(c) Number of countries visited by a student at an international school.
(d) Number of emails received by a high school student at your school
per week.

15
 7 Statistics

 3. Identify each variable as quantitative or qualitative.

(a) Amount of time to finish your extended essay.
(b) Number of students in each section of IB Maths SL.
(c) Rating of your textbook as excellent, good, satisfactory, terrible.
(d) Country of origin of each student in Maths SL courses.
 4. Identify each variable as discrete or continuous.
(a) Population of each country represented by SL students in your
session of the exam.
(b) Weight of IB Maths SL exams printed every May since 1976.
(c) Time it takes to mark an exam paper by an examiner.
(d) Number of customers served at a bank counter.
(e) Time it takes to finish a transaction at a bank counter.
(f) Amount of sugar used in preparing your favourite cake.
 5. Grade point averages (GPA) in several colleges are on a scale of 0–4.
Here are the GPAs of 45 students at a certain college.
1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.4

Draw a histogram, a relative frequency histogram, and a cumulative

frequency graph. Describe the data in two to three sentences.
 6. The following are the grades of an IB course with 40 students on a
100-point test. Use the graphical methods you have learned so far to
describe the grades.
61 62 93 94 91 92 86 87 55 56
63 64 86 87 82 83 76 77 57 58
94 95 89 90 67 68 62 63 72 73
87 88 68 69 65 66 75 76 84 85

 7. The length of time (in months) between repeated speeding violations of
50 young drivers are given in the table below.
 2.1  1.3  9.9  0.3 32.3  8.3  2.7  0.2  4.4  7.4
 9 18  1.6  2.4  3.9  2.4  6.6  1  2 14.1
14.7  5.8  8.2  8.2  7.4  1.4 16.7 24  9.6  8.7
19.2 26.7  1.2 18  3.3 11.4  4.3  3.5  6.9  1.6
 4.1  0.4 13.5  5.6  6.1 23.1  0.2 12.6 18.4  3.7

(a) Construct a histogram for the data.

(b) Would you describe the shape as symmetric?
(c) The law in this country requires that the driving licence be taken
away if the driver repeats the violation within a period of 10 months.
Use a cumulative frequency graph to estimate the fraction of drivers
who may lose their licence.

16
 8. To decide on the number of counters needed to be open during busy times
in a supermarket, the management collected data from 60 customers for
the time they spent waiting to be served. The times in minutes are given in
the following table.
3.6 0.7 5.2 0.6 1.3 0.3 1.8 2.2 1.1 0.4
1 1.2 0.7 1.3 0.7 1.6 2.5 0.3 1.7 0.8
0.3 1.2 0.2 0.9 1.9 1.2 0.8 2.1 2.3 1.1
0.8 1.7 1.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.9 1.8 2.8 1.8
0.4 0.5 1.1 1.1 0.8 4.5 1.6 0.5 1.3 1.9
0.6 0.6 3.1 3.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.4 1 1.4

(a) Construct a relative frequency histogram for the times.

(b) Construct a cumulative frequency graph and estimate the number
of customers who have to wait 2 minutes or more.

 9. The histogram below shows the number of days spent in hospital by
heart patients in a certain country’s hospitals in the 2015–2017 period.

1200
1000
Frequency

800
600
400
200
0
0 10 20 30
Number of days

(a) Describe the data in a few sentences.

(b) Draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data.
(c) What percentage of the patients stayed less than 6 days?

10. One of the authors

45
exercises on almost a
40
daily basis. He records
35
the length of time of
30
Frequency

his exercise on most

25
of the days. Here is
what he recorded 20

for 2017. 15
10
5
0
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Number of minutes

(a) What is the longest time he has spent doing his exercises?
(b) What percentage of the time did he exercise more than 30 minutes?
(c) Draw a cumulative frequency graph for his exercise time.

17
 7 Statistics

11. Radar devices are installed at several locations on a main highway.

Speeds, s, in km h21 of 400 cars travelling on that highway are measured
and summarised in the following table.
60 < s 75 < s 90 < s 105 < s 120 < s
Speed Over 135
, 75 , 90 , 105 , 120 , 135
Frequency 20 70 110 150 40 10

(a) Construct a frequency table for the data.

(b) Draw a histogram to illustrate the data.
(c) Draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data.
(d) The speed limit in this country is 130 km h21. Use your graph in (c) to
estimate the percentage of the drivers driving faster than this limit?

12. Electronic components used in the production of computers are

manufactured in a factory and their measures must be very accurate.
Here are the lengths of a sample of 400 such components.
Length, 5.00 < l 5.05 < l 5.10 < l 5.15 < l More
, 5.00
l (mm) , 5.05 , 5.10 , 5.15 , 5.20 than 5.20
Frequency 16 100 123 104 48 9

(a) Construct a cumulative relative frequency graph for the data.

(b) The components must have a length between 5.01 and 5.18 mm, and
any component with a length above 5.18 mm has to be scrapped.
Use your graph to estimate the percentage of components that must
be scrapped from this production facility.

13. The time, t, in seconds, that 300 customers wait at a supermarket

checkout are recorded in the table below.
60 < t 120 < t 180 < t 240 < t 300 < t
Time t , 60 t . 360
, 120 , 180 , 240 , 300 , 360
Frequency 12 15 42 105 66 45 15

(a) Draw a histogram of the data.

(b) Construct a cumulative frequency graph of the data.
(c) Use the cumulative frequency graph to estimate the waiting time
that is exceeded by 25% of the customers.

7.2 Measures of central tendency

When a data set is large, summary measures can help us to understand it. This
section presents several ways to summarize quantitative data by calculating a
measure of central tendency, also called a measure of location (a value that
is representative of a typical data item), and a measure of spread (a value that
indicates how well the typical value represents the data). These measures can be
used in addition to or instead of tables and graphs.
18
The farthest we can reduce a set of data, and still retain any information at all,
is to summarize the data with a single value. Measures of location do just that:
they try to capture with a single number what is typical of the data. What single
number is most representative of an entire list of numbers? We cannot say
without defining ‘representative’ more precisely.
We will study three common measures of location: the mean, the median, and
the mode. The mean, median, and mode are all ‘most representative’, but for
different, related notions of representativeness.
• The arithmetic mean is commonly called the average. It is the sum of the
data, divided by the number of data:
sum of data total
mean 5 _____________ 5 _____________
number of data number of data
• The median of a set of measurements is the value that falls in the middle
position when the data are sorted in ascending order. In a histogram, the
median is the value that divides the histogram into two equal areas.
• The mode of a set of data is the most common value among the data. It is
rare that several data coincide exactly, unless the variable is discrete, or the
measurements are reported with low precision.
When these measures are computed for a population they are called
parameters. When they are computed from a sample they are called statistics.

A statistic is a descriptive measure computed from a sample of data.

A parameter is a descriptive measure computed from an entire population of data.

Measures of central tendency provide information about a typical observation

in the data or locate the data set.

Mean, median, mode

The mean
The most common measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean, usually
referred to simply as the ‘mean’ or the ‘average.’

Example 7.6
The five closing prices of the NASDAQ Index for the first business week
in November 2007 are given below. This is a sample of size n 5 5 for the
closing prices from the entire population.
2794.83 2810.38 2795.18 2825.18 2748.76
Find the average closing price.

Solution
2794.83 1 2810.38 1 2795.18 1 2825.18 1 2748.76
Average 5 __________________________________________ 5 2794.87
5
Because this average was calculated from a sample, it is called the sample mean.

19
 7 Statistics

A second measure of central tendency is the median, which is the value in

the middle position when the measurements are ordered from smallest to
largest. The median of this data can only be calculated if we first sort them in
ascending order.
2748.76 2794.83 2795.18 2810.38 2825.18

The arithmetic mean or average of a set of n measurements is equal to the sum of the
measurements divided by n.
n
∑x i
_ i51 x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 ⋯ 1xn
The sample mean: x 5 ____ n 5
__________________
n , where n is the sample size.
This is a statistic. N
∑x i
i51 x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 ⋯ 1xN
The population mean: m 5 ____ 5 __________________, where N is the population size.
N N
This is a parameter.
It is important to observe that you_normally do not know the population mean, μ. It is usually
estimated with the sample mean, x.

The median
The median of a set of n measurements is the value that falls in the middle
position when the data are sorted in ascending order.
In Example 7.6 we calculated the sample median by finding the third measurement
to be in the middle position. If the number of measurements is even, the process is
slightly different.
Let us assume that you took six tests last term and that your marks were, in
ascending order,
52, 63, 74, 78, 80, 89.
When the data are arranged in order, there are two ‘middle’ observations, 74 and 78.
52 63 74 78 80 89

To find the median, choose a value halfway between the two middle
observations. This is done by calculating the mean of the two middle vales:
74 1 78
m 5 _______ 5 76
2
n11
The position of the median can be given by _____. If this number ends with a decimal, you need
2
to find the mean of the adjacent values.
In the NASDAQ Index case, we have five observations. The position of the median is then at
511
_____ 5 3.
2
611
In the marks example, the position of the median mark is at _____ 5 3.5, hence we find the mean
2
of the numbers at positions 3 and 4.

Although both the mean and median are good measures for the centre of a
distribution, the median is less sensitive to extreme values or outliers. For
example, the value 52 in the previous example is lower than all the other test
scores and is the only failing score. The median, 76, would not be affected by
20
Mathematics
Analysis and Approaches S TA N DA R D L E V E L

For the IB Diploma

Mathematics Analysis and Approaches for the Ibrahim Wazir taught Mathematics at
IB Diploma Standard Level is a comprehensive Vienna International School, the American
textbook covering the 2019 curriculum. International School in Vienna and at
The book also includes the following features: Webster University, Vienna. He has been
• written by an expert authoring team an IB Mathematics Assistant Examiner,
• additional integrated digital content including Chief Examiner and a member of the
GeoGebra applets created specifically for Curriculum Committee. He has also run
the course IB workshops for new and experienced
teachers. Ibrahim founded the International
• worked examples to help you tackle questions
Schools Math Teachers Foundation (ISMTF)
• practice questions to help you prepare for and inScholastics, an organisation that runs
the exam workshops for students and teachers in
• rich and wide-ranging chapter on Mathematics Vienna.
in Theory of Knowledge
• guidance on internal assessment Tim Garry has taught Mathematics from
middle school to university since 1984
and has been Head of Maths at three
international schools. He has been an
IB examiner for external and internal
assessment, a contributor to IB curriculum
reviews, a workshop leader, a member of
the HL Mathematics exam writing team
and he also edits an IB Maths website for
teachers. Tim frequently delivers workshops
and conference presentations and has co-
authored with Ibrahim two previous editions
of Mathematics SL and HL textbooks. He
currently teachers at the International
School of Aberdeen, Scotland.

www.pearsonbaccalaureate.com

SAMPLE