CN-6112 - Advanced Data Communication

&
Networking

School of Computing and Informatics

M.Sc. Computer Science and Networking

Instructor

Dr. A. Senthil Kumar

 CHAPTER – I

Introduction to CN
&
ISO – OSI Reference Model
 CHAPTER – I

Introduction to Computer Networks: Definition, Basic

Concepts, Classification, Topology, Internet Components.

The OSI Network Reference Model: Layers in OSI:

Physical Layer, Data Link Layer, Network Layer, Transport

Layer, Session Layer, Presentation Layer, Application Layer.

Introduction to CN
 Computer Networks

Interconnection of two or more computers through a

transmission medium in order to Share resources such as data,

processor, memory, software services, printer etc.,

Sending and receiving message through communication medium is

known as Data Communication that consists of
Message / Sender / Receiver / Transmission medium / Protocol.
 Providing Resources in a Network

Networks of Many Sizes

 Components of a Network

There are three categories of network components:

• Devices
– Computers (work stations, laptops, file servers, web servers)
– Network printers / VoIP phones / TelePresence endpoint / Security cameras / Mobile handheld
devices
– Network Access Devices (switches, and wireless access points)
– Internetworking Devices (routers)
– Security Devices (firewalls)

• Network Media
Wireless / wired
• Services
– Network Services
 Reliable Network

Four basic characteristics that the underlying

Network architectures need to address in order to
meet user expectations:
– Fault Tolerance
– Scalability
– Quality of Service (QoS)
– Security
 Classification of Networks

• Networks are classified Based on

– Transmission Mode / Data Flow

– Time in Transmission Type

– Authentication

– Geographical location or Network Models

– Reliability
 Based on Transmission Mode / Data Flow
• Simplex
• Half - Duplex
• Full - Duplex

• Simplex - The communication is unidirectional

Ex. - Keyboards and traditional monitors

 Data Flow…
• Half-Duplex - The communication is bidirectional. In
this both station can send and receive but not at the
same time.

Ex. - Walkie-talkies…

• Full-Duplex - Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously

Ex. - The telephone network…

 Based on Time in Transmission Type
• Synchronous Transmission
 Both the sender and the receiver use the same time cycle for the
transmission.
 Send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps.

• Asynchronous Transmission
 Send one start bit at the beginning and one stop bit at the end of each byte.
 There may be a gap between each byte.
 Based on Authentication

• Peer to Peer Connection

 There are no dedicated servers.

 All the computers are equal and, therefore, are termed as peers.

• Server Based Connection

– Most networks have a dedicated server.

– A dedicated server is a computer on a network which functions as
a server, and cannot be used as a client or a workstation.
 Types:

Peer-to-Peer
Clients and Servers
Based on Geographical location or Network Models

• The type of a network is determined by its size.

• There are 3-types of network models they are

» Local - Area Networks (LAN)

» Metropolitan - Area Networks (MAN)

» Wide-Area Networks (WAN)

 Local - Area Networks (LAN)
• LANS are privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to few meters in size.

• LANS are distinguished based on

– Their size

– Their transmission technology

– Their topology

• LANS are restricted in size

• LANS consisting of a single cable to which all machines are

attached.

• LANS run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps.

 LAN…

• The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and star.

• Here it uses IEEE 802.3 popularly known as Ethernet.

 Metropolitan - Area Networks (MAN)
• MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN.

• It might cover a group of near by offices, may be either private

or public.

• A MAN just has one or two cables and does not have any
switching elements.

• IEEE 802.6 known as DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus)

which contains to unidirectional buses to which all the computers
are connected.
 MAN…

• It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.

 Wide – Area Networks (WAN)
• Spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.

• Collection of machines for running user applications, called hosts

or end user.

• The hosts are connected by communication subnet or subnet.

• The subnet carries message from host to host.

• For Communication aspect – Subnet
Application aspect - Hosts
WANs…
 Based on Reliability
• Connection-Oriented

 Establishes a session connection before data can be sent.

 This method is often called a "Reliable network service”.
 It can guarantee that data will arrive in the same order.
• Connection Less

 It does not require a session connection between sender and receiver for
data transfer.
 The sender simply starts sending packets to the destination.
 A connectionless network provides minimal services.
Circuit Switched Network
Packet-Switched Networks
 Topology
 The way in which a network is laid out physically. One or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes)
to one another.

 There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
 Mesh Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
• The link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
• Advantages:
• Eliminates traffic problems, privacy and security.
• Fault identification easy
• Duplex-mode
•Disadvantages:
• Cabling and number of IO ports required
• Expensive
 Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller called "Hub".
• The controller acts as an exchange.
• Advantages:
 Less expensive
 Robustness
 Active.
•Disadvantages:
 Dependency on one single point.
 More cabling is required .
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology is a multipoint .
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices.
• Nodes are connected by bus cable by drop line and taps.
• Advantages:
 Easy of installation
•Disadvantages:
 Difficult reconnection
 Addition of new devices require modification or replacement
of the backbone.
 Ring Topology
• Each device has a point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it.
• A signal is passed along a ring in one direction, from device to
device until it reaches its destination.
•Advantages:
 Easy to install and reconfigure
•Disadvantages;
 Unidirectional & break in a ring can disable the entire network
Hybrid Topology
A star backbone with three bus networks
 Networking impacts in our daily lives

• Networks Support the Way We Learn

• Networks Support the Way We Communicate

• Networks Support the Way We Work

• Networks Support the Way We Play

Network Security
 Security Threads

The most common external threats to networks

include:
– Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses
– Spyware and adware
– Zero-day attacks, also called zero-hour attacks
– Hacker attacks
– Denial of service attacks
– Data interception and theft
– Identity theft
 Security Solutions

Network security components often include:

– Antivirus and antispyware
– Firewall filtering
– Dedicated firewall systems
– Access control lists (ACL)
– Intrusion prevention systems (IPS)
– Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
 Components of Internet

A Network (or Internet) is formed using

• Hardware or Network Devices

• Network Software or Application

• Protocols.
 Hardware or Network Devices
• Hub
• Connects multiple computers or other network devices together
• no routing tables or intelligence on where to send information
• broadcasts all network data across each connection
• hubs can detect basic network errors, such as collisions, but having
all information broadcast to multiple ports is a security risk
• Repeater
• Regenerates or amplifies the data or signal.
• It is use to connect two networks that uses same technology and
protocol.
• Work in physical layer.
Hardware or Network Devices…

• Bridge

– It is used to connect fewer LANs.

– Associated with Physical and Data Link layer / has 2 or 4 ports
– Do not make any decission on signal pasing through it. Receives and
amplifies the signal.
– Conects two similar LANs
• Switch
• It is networking device. Used to create LANs,
• Learns which computer is connected to its port by using device IP address,
• Switching and Filtering is done by using MAC address
• Directly sends packets to appropriate device
• It works in Data Link Layer.
 Hub vs Switch
HUB SWITCH
While switch is operated on Data link layer of
Hub is operated on Physical layer of OSI model.
OSI Model.
While switch is a Unicast, multicast and
Hub is a broadcast type transmission.
broadcast type transmission.
Hub have 4/12 ports. While switch can have 24 to 48 ports.
While in switch, different ports have own
In hub, there is only one collision domain.
collision domain.
Hub is a half duplex transmission mode. While switch is a full duplex transmission mode.
In hub, Packet filtering is not provided. While in switch, Packet filtering is provided.
Hub cannot be used as a repeater. While switch can be used as a repeater.
Hub is not an intelligent device that sends While switch is an intelligent device that sends
message to all ports hence it is comparatively message to selected destination so it is
inexpensive. expensive.
Hub is simply old type of device and is not While switch is very sophisticated device and
generally used. widely used.
Hacking of systems attached to switch is little
Hacking of systems attached to hub is complex.
easy.
Hardware or Network Devices…
• Router
• It is a networking device that is used to connect two or more
different networks.
• It reads pkt header, & forwords to appropriate network using IP
address by refering IP table / Routing table.
• It works in Network Layer.
• Gateways
• Gateways make communication possible between systems that use
different communication protocols, data formatting structures,
languages and architectures.
• Gateways repackage data going from one system to another.
 Network Software or Application
• Two types of system are used
• Client System: User which access data from internet.
• Server System: Host data for users using HTML files.

• Software or Applications:
• Chat- IRC (Internet Relay Chat) - Live discussions.
• E-Commerce - Taking orders for products and services.
• E-mail - Exchanging electronic letters, messages, and small files.
• FTP - Transferring files between computers.
• Hosting - Making information available to others on the Internet.
• Search Engines.
 Protocol
• Protocols mean set of rules.
• It is a formal description of message formats and the rules
two or more machines has follow to exchange messages.
– Syntax - Structure or format of the data, meaning the order in
which they are presented.
– Semantics - The meaning of each section of bits.
– Timing - When data should be sent and how fast it can be sent.
ISO – OSI Reference Model
 THE OSI MODEL
• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was created by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), an
international standard-setting body.

• The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural

model for inter-computer communications.

• It was designed to be a reference model for describing the

functions of a communication system.

• The OSI model provides a framework for creating and

implementing networking standards and devices

• Describes how network applications on different computers can

communicate through the network media.

• The OSI model has seven layers

The OSI Model

In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model

was approved as an international standard for communications
architecture.

Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems

which conform to the reference model and associated standards.
 The ISO - OSI Reference Model
The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application programme located on
another network.

The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information

between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and
more manageable problems .

This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as

Layering.
Layered Tasks

• We use the concept of layers in our daily life.

• As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail.
• The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the
post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter in Postal Mail
ISO is the Organization.
OSI is the Model.
 Reference Models

The OSI Reference Model

 Data Encapsulation

Protocol Data Units (PDUs)

• Data
• Segment
• Packet
• Frame
• Bits
 Design Issues for the Layers
Addressing – Each layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and
receivers.

The rules of data transfer – simplex, half-duplex, full- duplex

Error Control – Error-correction and error-detection

Flow Control - The communication channels must preserve the order of

messages sent on them – disassembling, transmitting, and then
reassembling.

Multiplexing – Inconvenient or expensive to set up a connection for each

pair of communication process.

Routing – Multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be

chosen
 OSI: A Layered Network Model
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol
specification.

The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —

Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end
to end through the network.

The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation

and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward
services to the applications.

Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it

moves down the layers before network transit.
 Application Layer
• Enables user access to the network.

• Supports users to access application layer protocols

• Application layer interacts with application programs.

• Highest level of OSI model.

• User interfaces and support for services such as

– E-Mail (SMTP / POP3)

– File transfer and access (FTP)

– Remote log-in (Telnet / SSH )

– WWW (HTTP)
 Functions of Application layer
• File transfer, access, and management
(FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files
in a remote computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the
facility for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the
distributed database sources and is used to
provide that global information about various
objects.
Application Layer…

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 Presentation Layer

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information transmitted.

• Standard encoding to be used ''on the wire.''

• The presentation layer manages abstract data structures and

allows higher-level data structures (e.g., banking records),

to be defined and exchanged.

Presentation Layer Responsibilities
• Translation: The presentation layer at the sender changes the

information from its sender-dependent format into a common

format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the

common format into its receiver-dependent format.

• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able

to do privacy using Encryption & Decryption.

• Compression: Reduces the number of bits contained in the

information such as text, audio, and video.

Presentation Layer…

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
Session Layer

Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the

dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to
start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
This layer requests for a logical connection to be
established on an end-user’s request.
Any necessary log-on or password validation is also
handled by this layer.
 Session Layer Responsibilities
• Dialog Control:
• Session layer acts as a dialog controller
• Creates a dialog between two processes or
• It allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

• Synchronization:
• Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence.
• If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission
of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint.
• This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.
Session Layer…
Session Layer…

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
delivery of the entire message.

Transport Layer Responsibilities

• Flow Control: Like the data link layer, At this layer is performed
end to end data flow control.

• Error Control: Adds CRC (cyclic redundant check) code to

find errors. Error correction is usually achieved through
retransmission. Like the data link layer, At this layer is performed
process-to process rather than across a single link.
 Transport Layer Responsibilities
• Service-Point Addressing (port): transmit/ deliver a data to
correct service / application

• Segmentation and Reassembly: A message is divided into

transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the
message correctly.

• Connection control: The transport layer can be either

connectionless or connection oriented.
Transport Layer …
Transport Layer …

Fig. Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Example 1

Following Fig shows an example of transport layer

communication. Data coming from the upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the address of the sending process, and k is
the address of the receiving process).

Since the data size is larger than the network layer can
handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet retaining
the port addresses (j and k). Then in the network layer, network
addresses (A and P) are added to each packet.
Example 1…
Transport Layer …

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of

individual packets from the source host to the

destination host.

• The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.

• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous

networks (Internetworking).
 Network Layer Responsibilities
• Logical Addressing: Adds a header to the packet coming from the
upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the
sender and receiver.

• Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create

internetworks, the connecting devices (called Routers or Switches) route
or switch the packets to their final destination.

• Congestion Control: If there is traffic in one way of network for

transferring the data. Have to find another path using of congestion
control protocols
Network Layer…
Network Layer…

Fig. Source-to-destination delivery

Network Layer…

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
Data Link Layer

 The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw

transmission facility, to a reliable link.

 It makes the physical layer appear as an error-free to the upper

layer (Network Layer).

 It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input

data into Data Frames.

 Data Link Layer Responsibilities
• Framing: Divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into data units called Frames.
• Physical Addressing: Adds a header to the frame to define the sender
and/or receiver of the frame.
• Flow Control: Uses a flow control protocols to maintain same data
transfer rate between sender and the receiver.
• Error Control:
• Mechanisms to detect and correct the damaged or lost frames.
• Mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
• Error control is normally achieved through a trailer.
 Data Link Layer Responsibilities…
• Congestion Control: If too many packets are present in the subnet
at the same time, they will get in one another's way, forming
bottlenecks.
• Access Control:
• When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has
to send the data at any given time.
• Otherwise there is a chance of collision.
• For this purpose a special sub layer in the data link layer
known as Medium Access Sub layer will deal this one.
Data Link Layer…
Data Link Layer…

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Physical Layer

Provides physical interface for transmission of information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to

another on a physical communication medium.

Covers Mechanical, Electrical, Functional and Procedural aspects

for physical communication.

 Physical Layer Responsibilities
• Signaling / Representation of bits: type of the signal used for
transmitting the information. Ex. Sequence of 0s or 1s.

• Data rate: How many number of bits can be transferred per second.

• Line configuration: Defines how two or more devices connected

physically. Ex. Point-to-Point configuration - Dedicated link.
– Multipoint configuration – Shared link.
• Physical topology: defines the way the network devices are organized.
Ex. Mesh, Star, Ring, Hybrid topology.

• Transmission mode: Direction of transmission as Simplex, Half-

duplex, and Full-duplex.
Physical Layer…
Physical Layer…

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Summary of Layers
Summary of Layers…

Layer Protocol
Application HTTP, FTP, SMTP,TELNET
Presentation JPG, GIF, MPEG,

Session TCP 3-way Handshaking

Transport TCP, UDP

Network IP, IPX

Data Link Ethernet, Token Ring, HDLC

Physical X.21, RS-232, DS, DS3
Summary of Layers…

Layer Protocol Data Unit

Application Data
Presentation Data
Session Data
Transport Segment

Network Packet

Data Link Frame

Physical Bit