Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation or AM as it is often called, is a form of modulation used for radio transmissions
for broadcasting and two way radio communication applications.

Although one of the earliest used forms of modulation it is still used today, mainly for long, medium
and short wave broadcasting and for some aeronautical point to point communications.

One of the key reasons for the use of amplitude modulation was its ease of use. The system simply
required the carrier amplitude to be modulated, but more usefully the detector required in the
receiver could be a simple diode based circuit. This meant that AM radios did not need complicated
demodulators and costs were reduced - a key requirement for widespread use of radio technology,
especially in the early days of radio when ICs were not available.

Amplitude modulation history

The first amplitude modulated signal was transmitted in 1901 by a Canadian engineer named
Reginald Fessenden. He took a continuous spark transmission and placed a carbon microphone in
the antenna lead.

The sound waves impacting on the microphone varied its resistance and in turn this varied the
intensity of the transmission. Although very crude, signals were audible over a distance of a few
hundred metres, although there was a rasping sound caused by the spark.

With the introduction of continuous sine wave signals, transmissions improved significantly, and AM
soon became the standard for voice transmissions. Nowadays, amplitude modulation, AM is used for
audio broadcasting on the long medium and short wave bands, and for two way radio
communication at VHF for aircraft.

However as there now are more efficient and convenient methods of modulating a signal, its use is
declining, although it will still be very many years before it is no longer used.

Amplitude modulation applications

Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications. Even though it is not as widely used as it
was in previous years in its basic format it can nevertheless still be found.

 Broadcast transmissions:   AM is still widely used for broadcasting on the long, medium
and short wave bands. It is simple to demodulate and this means that radio receivers capable of
demodulating amplitude modulation are cheap and simple to manufacture. Nevertheless many
people are moving to high quality forms of transmission like frequency modulation, FM or digital
transmissions.
 Air band radio:   VHF transmissions for many airborne applications still use AM. . It is used
for ground to air radio communications as well as two way radio links for ground staff as well
 Single sideband:   Amplitude modulation in the form of single sideband is still used for HF
radio links. Using a lower bandwidth and providing more effective use of the transmitted
power this form of modulation is still used for many point to point HF links.
  Quadrature amplitude modulation:   AM is widely used for the transmission of data in
everything from short range wireless links such as Wi-Fi to cellular telecommunications and
much more. Effectively it is formed by having two carriers 90° out of phase.
These form some of the main uses of amplitude modulation. However in its basic form, this form of
modulation is being used less as a result of its inefficient use of both spectrum and power.

What is amplitude modulation?

In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for two way radio
communication, it must be modulated or changed in some way. Although there are a number of
ways in which a radio signal may be modulated, one of the easiest is to change its amplitude in line
with variations of the sound.

In this way the amplitude of the radio frequency signal varies in line with the instantaneous value of
the intensity of the modulation. This means that the radio frequency signal has a representation of
the sound wave superimposed in it.

In view of the way the basic signal "carries" the sound or modulation, the radio frequency signal is
often termed the "carrier"

Amplitude Modulation, AM

From the diagram, it can be seen that the envelope of the signal follows the contours of the
modulating signal.

Amplitude demodulation
Amplitude modulation, AM, is one of the most straightforward ways of modulating a radio signal or
carrier. It can be achieved in a number of ways, but the simplest uses a single diode rectifier circuit.
Other methods of demodulating an AM signal use synchronous techniques and provide much lower
levels of distortion and improved reception where selective fading is present.

One of the main reasons for the popularity of amplitude modulation has been the simplicity of the
demodulation. It enables costs to be kept low - a significant advantage in producing vast quantities
of very low cost AM radios.

One of the main reasons for the popularity of amplitude modulation has been the simplicity of the
demodulation. It enables costs to be kept low - a significant advantage in producing vast quantities
of very low cost AM radios.

Amplitude Modulation Theory & Equations

Amplitude modulation and its sidebands can be easily
explained using trigonometrical equations which reveal how
the sidebands are generated
The basic theory and equations behind amplitude modulation are relatively straightforward and can
be handled using straightforward trigonometric calculations and manipulation.

Essentially an amplitude modulated wave consists of a radio frequency carrier - a sine wave at one
frequency, typically in the radio frequency portion of the spectrum. A modulating wave, which in
theory could be another sine wave, typically at a lower audio frequency is superimposed upon the
carrier.

The two signals are multiplied together and the theory shows how they interact to create the carrier
and two sidebands.

The equations for the simple example of the a single tone used for modulation can be expanded to
show how the signal will appear of a typical sound consisting of many frequencies is used to
modulated the carrier.

The amplitude modulation theory is expanded below using standard equations

Amplitude modulation theory & equations
It is possible to look at the theory of the generation of an amplitude modulated signal in four steps:
1. Carrier signal
2. Modulating signal
3. Overall modulated signal for a single tone
4. Expansion to cover a typical audio signal
These steps will be covered in greater details below:

    1.   Carrier signal equations

Looking at the theory, it is possible to describe the carrier in terms of a sine wave as follows:

C(t) = C sin(ωc + φ)

wc
Where: carrier frequency in Hertz is equal to , C is the carrier amplitude
2π
    φ is the phase of the signal at the start of the reference time. Both C and φ can be omitted to
simplify the equation by changing C to "1" and φ to "0".

    2.   Modulating signal equations

The modulating waveform can either be a single tone. This can be represented by a cosine
waveform, or the modulating waveform could be a wide variety of frequencies - these can be
represented by a series of cosine waveforms added together in a linear fashion.

For the initial look at how the signal is formed, it is easiest to look at the equation for a simple single
tone waveform and then expand the concept to cover the more normal case. Take a single tone
waveform:

m(t) = M sin(ωm + φ)

Where: modulating signal frequency in Hertz is equal to ωm / 2 π

    M is the carrier amplitude
    φ is the phase of the signal at the start of the reference time
Both C and φ can be omitted to simplify the equation by changing C to "1" and φ to "0".

It is worth noting that normally the modulating signal frequency is well below that of the carrier
frequency.

    3.   Overall modulated signal for a single tone

The equation for the overall modulated signal is obtained by multiplying the carrier and the
modulating signal together.

y(t) = [A + m(t)].c(t)
The constant A is required as it represents the amplitude of the waveform.

Substituting in the individual relationships for the carrier and modulating signal, the overall signal
becomes:

y(t) = [A + Mcos(ωmt+φ].sin(ωct)

The trigonometry can then be expanded out to give an equation that includes the components of the
signal:

[Math Processing Error]y(t) = A.sin(ωct)+A M2[sin((ωc+ωm)t+φ)]+A M2[sin((ωc-ωm)t-φ)]

In this theory, three terms can be seen which represent the carrier, and upper and lower sidebands:

Carrier:     A . sin (ωc t)

Upper sideband:     A . M/2 [ sin ((ωc + ωm) t + φ)
Lower sideband:     A . M/2 [ sin ((ωc - ωm) t - φ)

Note also that the sidebands are separated from the carrier by a frequency equal to that of the tone.

It can be seen that for a case where there is 100% modulation, i.e. M = 1, and where the carrier is
not suppressed, i.e. A = 1, then the sidebands have half the value of the carrier, i.e. a quarter of the
power each.

    4.   Expansion to cover a typical audio signal

With the basic concept of modulation and the resultant sidebands established, the same principles
can be applied to the more complicated cases of modulation using speech, music or other audio
sounds.
Theory can be used to break down a sound into a series of sinusoidal signals. These are linearly
added to each other to form the audio spectrum of the modulating signal.

The spectrum of the modulating signal extends out either side from the carrier, one sideband is the
mirror of the other, with the lowest frequencies closest to the carrier, and highest furthest away.

Sidebands on an amplitude modulated carrier when modulated

with an audio signal containing many frequencies
It can be seen that the audio signal covers a band of frequencies either side of the main carrier. The
theory and equations show that furthest extent of the sidebands from the carrier corresponds to the
highest frequency of the modulating tone for the amplitude modulated signal.

Seeing a little of the theory and mathematics behind amplitude modulation gives a better
understanding of how it works. This can then be applied to use this type of mode to its best, whether
as amplitude modulation, single sideband, or even giving abetter understanding of how QAM
operates. Understanding how the modulating waveform not only generates undulations of the
envelope, but also generates sidebands, etc enables the basic concepts behind AM to be
understood.

Amplitude Modulation, AM: Bandwidth Spectrum & Sidebands

The spectrum of an amplitude modulated is related to the
sidebands that are generated and hence to the bandwidth
The bandwidth of an amplitude modulated signal is of importance for many reasons.

The amplitude modulation, AM bandwidth is important when designing filters to receive the signals,
determining the channel spacing, and for a number of other reasons.

The spectrum and bandwidth of a amplitude modulated signal are determined by the sidebands that
are generated when amplitude modulation is applied to the carrier.

Amplitude modulation sidebands

When a carrier is modulated in any way, further signals are created either side of the steady carrier.
These sidebands carry the actual modulation information.

The amplitude modulation sidebands are generated above and below the main carrier. To see how
this happens, take the example of a carrier on a frequency of 1 MHz which is modulated by a steady
tone of 1 kHz.
The process of modulating a carrier is exactly the same as mixing two signals together, and as a
result both sum and difference frequencies are produced. Therefore when a tone of 1 kHz is mixed
with a carrier of 1 MHz, a "sum" frequency is produced at 1 MHz + 1 kHz, and a difference frequency
is produced at 1 MHz - 1 kHz, i.e. 1 kHz above and below the carrier.

Spectrum arising from carrier modulated by 1 kHz tone

If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that encountered with speech of music, these
comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with frequencies over a band of
frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier, these spectra are seen above and below the
carrier.

Amplitude Modulation Spectrum

Amplitude modulation, AM bandwidth

It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz, then the top
spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words the bandwidth occupied by
the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to modulated the carrier, i.e.
it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be carried.
Amplitude Modulation Spectrum & Signal Bandwidth

It can be seen that limiting the top frequency of the modulating signal limits the overall bandwidth of
the amplitude modulated signal. For audio transmissions, like broadcast transmissions, the overall
bandwidth of the signal is dependent upon the highest frequencies to be transmitted.

Broadcast channel spacing varies according to the band used and also the area within the world
where the transmission comes from. On the Long waveband broadcast in ITU region 1 (Europe,
Africa, and northern and central Asia), the channel spacing is 9 kHz, for the medium wave broadcast
band the channel spacing in ITU regions 1 and 3 is 9 kHz spacing, and in ITU region 2 (Americas) it
is 10kHz.

To achieve these channel spacings, the audio spectrum must be limited. If no interference was to be
caused to stations on adjacent channels this would severely limit the top audio frequency. On the
short wave bands it would be half 5 kHz, i.e. 2.5 kHz. This would clearly not allow sufficient quality
for broadcasting and therefore the bandwidth of the signals is a little higher than this and some
interference is caused. Similarly on the medium and long wave bands the bandwidth of the AM
signal is often higher than half the channel spacing. Interference is managed by not allowing stations
in close proximity to occupy adjacent channels.

Typical AM channel and signal bandwidths

Some of the main uses of amplitude modulation these days are for broadcasting and for aeronautical
communications. The channel spacing varies according to application, frequency and locations.
 TYPICAL AM CHANNEL AND SIGNAL BANDWIDTHS
 

APPLICATIONS / DESCRIPTION CHANNEL SPACING (KHZ) THEORETICAL MAXIMUM

AUDIO BANDWIDTH (KHZ)

Long / medium wave broadcasting outside Region 2 (Americas) 9 4.5

Medium wave broadcasting in Region 2 (Americas) 10 5

Short wave broadcasting 5  

The audio bandwidth theoretical limits for amplitude modulated broadcast stations appears far more
limited than occurs in reality. Audio bandwidth figures of up to 6 kHz are not uncommon - generally
adjacent channels are not allocated so that signals spreading into adjacent channels can be
accommodated. This is fine for broadcasting on bands such as the medium wave band during the
day, but at night when signals travel further as a result of ionospheric propagation, more interference
is experienced.

For the short wave bands interference levels are often high - some broadcast stations have
experimented and used single sideband with full carrier. This effectively reduces (halves) the
bandwidth of the overall signal for a given audio bandwidth. For this to provide gains within a
channelized band plan, all stations need to adopt the same plan.

Aeronautical communications often use amplitude modulation. Channel bandwidths of 25kHz and
8.33 kHz are standard dependent upon the aircraft and location. Audio can be tailored to suit the
channel spacing as a typical communications audio bandwidth of 300 Hz to around 3 kHz can be
adopted.

The bandwidth of amplitude modulation can be seen to be twice that of the highest audio signal to
be carried. This makes in relatively poor in terms of spectral efficiency, but nevertheless AM is still
used for some applications in view of its simplicity, especially in terms of demodulation.

Amplitude Modulation, AM Index & Modulation Depth

Modulation Index and Modulation Depth are key issues for
the effectiveness of amplitude modulated, AM signals
It is possible to vary the level of modulation applied to an amplitude modulated signal. This is an
important factor for broadcast and two way radio communications applications.

If little modulation is applied then the audio (assuming it us an audio transmission) will be difficult to
hear. However if too much is applied, distortion can result and signals will not be easy to listen to
and interference will increase and this could affect users on nearby frequencies or channels.

As a result of this it is necessary to have a way of defining the level of modulation applied to an
amplitude modulated signal, and monitoring the level.Two figures are used for this, namely the
amplitude modulation, AM modulation index, and the modulation depth. Both are related, but they
have slightly different meanings.
AM modulation index basics
The term, Modulation Index, is used for a number of forms of modulation, including AM, and
obviously for the different types of modulation, there are different methods of obtaining the index.

It is useful to define the modulation index for amplitude modulation.

Amplitude Modulation Index definition:

The modulation index of an amplitude modulated signal is defined as the measure or extent of
amplitude variation about an un-modulated carrier.

In other words the amplitude modulation index describes the amount by which the modulated carrier
envelope varies about the static level.

This can be expressed in mathematical terms as below:

Modulation Index, m=M/A Modulation Index, m=MA

Where:
    A = the carrier amplitude.
    M = the modulation amplitude and is the peak change in the RF amplitude from its un-modulated
value.
Using the equation above it can be seen that a modulation index of 0.75 means that the signal will
increase by a factor of 0.75 and decrease to 0.25 of its original level.

A modulation index of 1 is the maximum level of modulation that can normally be applied and occurs
when the envelope increases by a factor of 1, i.e. twice the steady state value, and falls to zero.

AM modulation depth basics

The amplitude modulation AM modulation depth figure is complementary to the modulation index.

Typically the modulation depth is the amplitude modulation index expressed as a percentage.

In this way an AM modulation index of 0.75 would be expressed as a modulation depth of 75%.

In reality the terms AM modulation index and the AM modulation depth are often used
interchangeably, so there are often no hard and fast rules regarding their use.

AM modulation index examples

It is helpful to see some examples of amplitude modulated waveforms with different levels of
modulation index.

The most widely seen modulation level is for a signal that has 100% modulation. Under these
circumstances the signal level falls to zero and rises to twice the value with no modulation. In this
case the voltage rises to a maximum of twice the normal level – this means that the power will be
four times that of the quiescent value, i.e. 22 the value of the no modulation level.
Amplitude modulated signal with 100% modulation

If less than 100% modulation is applied, then the carrier will not fall to zero, no will it rise to twice the
level, but the deviation will be less than this from the quiescent level. The diagram below shows a
level of 50% modulation, but the principle holds good for any value between 0 and 100% modulation.

Amplitude modulated signal with 50% modulation

Levels greater than 100% modulation

If the level of modulation is raised up above a modulation index of 1, i.e. more than 100% modulation
this causes what is termed over-modulation.

The carrier experiences 180° phase reversals where the carrier level would try to go below the zero
point. These phase reversals give rise to additional sidebands resulting from the phase reversals
(phase modulation). These sideband caused by the phase reversal extend out, in theory to infinity.
This can cause serious interference to other users if not filtered.
Amplitude modulation signal with more than 100% modulation

Broadcast stations using amplitude modulation take measures to ensure that the carriers or signals
for their transmissions never become over modulated. The transmitters incorporate limiters to
prevent more than 100% modulation.

They also normally incorporate automatic audio gain controls to keep the audio levels such that near
100% modulation levels are achieved for most of the time. In this way the signal sounds clearer and
stronger when demodulated. The audio processor may also clip the audio if it becomes very close to
the 100% modulation level. This will ensure that the carrier is not over-modulated.

if an audio clipper is used, then this will need to be followed by an audio filter as clipping introduces
audio harmonics which may fall outside the permitted audio bandwidth for the transmission - if the
audio went un-filtered, then the high audio frequencies would cause the overall transmitted signal to
have a wide bandwidth as the bandwidth of an amplitude modulated signal is twice that of the
highest audio frequency.

Many stations use very sophisticated audio processors to provide the maximum level of audio on the
carrier, to provide the "loudest" audio without over modulating the carrier.

Monitoring modulation level

For any transmitting station using amplitude modulation, it is necessary to ensure that the signal is
not over-modulated. This is particularly important for AM broadcast stations where there will be strict
limits on the levels of interference that are generated. If the modulation levels are too high, then the
signal may be over-modulated and interference caused.

Regulators will take a dim view of high levels of interference, and users will also suffer.

Even though audio limiters will be incorporated, it is still necessary to be able to monitor the set-up
and ensure that everything is working correctly.

For applications where AM is used for two way radio communications, the walkie-talkie's are most
likely to have been set within manufacture, or the design will intrinsically limit the modulation level
and continuous monitoring will not be needed. Even the base radio communications equipment is
unlikely to need and setting or calibration. As power levels are lower the issues are not as crucial as
for broadcasting.
There are several methods that can be used to ensure that the transmitter is operating correctly:

 Oscilloscope:   Using an oscilloscope it is possible to monitor the output signal. Especially

in the case of high power transmitters, the connection can be made via a special coupler that will
sample the outgoing signal, but at a much reduced level for the oscilloscope. An easy way to
obtain a sample is to wind a pickup loop and connect it to the the vertical input of the
oscilloscope.

Depending on the location of the oscilloscope and the signal levels present, a short antenna with
a tuned circuit may be used. This approach works well int he vicinity of the transmitter where
radiation levels will be relatively high.

  The envelope can then be monitored to ensure that it does cross the zero signal line - this is
where the phase reversals occur which give rise to wide-band interference noise.
 Spectrum analyzer:   Using a spectrum analyzer to monitor the modulation index / depth,
the analyzer will sample the signal and display its spectrum on the display. The analyzer will be
able to see the signal and monitor whether any components fall outside the allotted bandwidth for
the signal.

Real time spectrum analyzers will be better at monitoring any transient effects, although they are
considerably more costly.
 Modulation meter:   For continual monitoring, it is much easier to use a modulation meter.
These meters provide an indication of the modulation index or modulation depth on a numerical
display. They will not provide as much information, but are often quite adequate for ongoing
monitoring.
These different methods can be used as appropriate to monitor continuously or from time to time as
appropriate.

The modulation index and modulation depth figures are widely used when describing the modulation
applied to an amplitude modulated signal. Too little and the signal will not appear to have sufficiently
loud audio. Too mucAmplitude modulation, AM was the first form of modulation to be used for voice
and audio broadcasting. It has advantages of simplicity, but it does not offer the levels of efficiency
provided by many other forms of modulation.

Amplitude efficiency levels fall behind other types of modulation in terms of both spectrum usage
and power utilisation.

It was its relative simplicity that enabled it to be used in the early days of wireless communications,
but nowadays, other forms of modulation offer much greater levels of efficiency and effectiveness.

AM power efficiency
The power efficiency of amplitude modulation is very low. To see why this is the case, it is necessary
to look at the composition of the radio signal and the relative power levels of its constituents: the
carrier and the two sidebands.

When a radio frequency signal is modulated by an audio signal the envelope will vary. The level of
modulation can be increased to a level where the envelope rises to twice the un-modulated level and
then falls to zero. This is called 100% modulation as it is the maximum amount that can be applied.

If the level of modulation is increased beyond the 100% level, then distortion will arise because the
envelope cannot fall below zero.
 Amplitude modulated signal with 100%
modulation

Even with 100% modulation, i.e. modulation index of 1.0, the power utilisation is very poor.

When the carrier is modulated sidebands appear at either side of the carrier in its frequency
spectrum. Each sideband contains the information about the audio modulation. To look at how the
signal is made up and the relative powers take the simplified case where the 1 kHz tone is
modulating the carrier. In this case two signals will be found 1 kHz either side of the main carrier.

Sideband levels for 100% modulated AM signal

When the carrier is fully modulated i.e. 100% the amplitude of the modulation is equal to half that of
the main carrier, i.e. the sum of the powers of the sidebands is equal to half that of the carrier. This
means that each sideband is just a quarter of the total power. In other words for a transmitter with a
100 watt carrier, the total sideband power would be 50 watts and each individual sideband would be
25 watts. During the modulation process the carrier power remains constant. It is only needed as a
reference during the demodulation process. This means that the sideband power is the useful
section of the signal, and this corresponds to (50 / 150) x 100%, or only 33% of the total power
transmitted.

Amplitude modulation spectrum efficiency

The spectral efficiency of amplitude modulation is also poor. With pressure on radio spectrum
increasing, spectral efficiency is a factor that is of growing importance in areas where the spectrum
is required.

To see why the spectral efficiency of amplitude is poor, take the example where an audio signal is
applied to the carrier. Under these conditions the audio spreads out either side of the carrier - the
audio spectrum being reflected either side of the carrier as shown below.

Bandwidth of amplitude modulated signal

Accordingly the sidebands spread out either side of the carrier as shown and the total bandwidth
used is equal to twice the top frequency of the audio or other signal that is modulated onto the
transmitted signal. With pressure on the radio spectrum, and other forms of modulation able to
achieve far higher levels of spectrum efficiency, amplitude modulation is one of the lowest in this
respect.

As a result of its poor efficiency levels, the use of amplitude modulation is dwindling. Its current main
uses are for broadcasting on the long, medium and short wave bands as well as some short range
use for aircraft communications.

AM broadcasting usage is falling as better forms of broadcasting re available, both with frequency
modulation and with digital formats. AM offers low levels of efficiency as well as a low tolerance to
interference. Accordingly its use will continue to fallh and the signal will create interference well
beyond the channel on which it is operating.

Accordingly the sidebands spread out either side of the carrier as shown and the total bandwidth
used is equal to twice the top frequency of the audio or other signal that is modulated onto the
transmitted signal. With pressure on the radio spectrum, and other forms of modulation able to
achieve far higher levels of spectrum efficiency, amplitude modulation is one of the lowest in this
respect.

As a result of its poor efficiency levels, the use of amplitude modulation is dwindling. Its current main
uses are for broadcasting on the long, medium and short wave bands as well as some short range
use for aircraft communications.

AM broadcasting usage is falling as better forms of broadcasting re available, both with frequency
modulation and with digital formats. AM offers low levels of efficiency as well as a low tolerance to
interference. Accordingly its use will continue to fall.

AM Demodulation: Amplitude
Modulation Detection
One essential element of using amplitude modulated signals
is the process of demodulation or detection.
Demodulation is a key process in the reception of any amplitude modulated signals whether used for
broadcast or two way radio communication systems.

Demodulation is the process by which the original information bearing signal, i.e. the modulation is
extracted from the incoming overall received signal.

The process of demodulation for signals using amplitude modulation can be achieved in a number of
different techniques, each of which has its own advantage.

The demodulator is the circuit, or for a software defined radio, the software that is used to recover
the information content from the overall incoming modulated signal.
AM demodulators are found in many items of radio equipment: broadcast receivers, professional
radio communication equipment, walkie talkies - AM is still used for air-band radio communications.

Detection or demodulation
The terms detection and demodulation are often used when referring to the overall demodulation
process. Essentially the terms describe the same process, and the same circuits.

As the name indicates the demodulation process is the opposite of modulation, where a signal such
as an audio signal is applied to a carrier.

In the demodulation process the audio or other signal carried by amplitude variations on the carrier
is extracted from the overall signal to appear at the output.

As the most common use for amplitude modulation is for audio applications, the most common
output is the audio. This may be broadcast entertainment for broadcast reception, and for two way
radio communications, it is often used for land communications for aeronautical associated
applications - often within walkie talkies.

AM amplitude modulation demodulation principle

Terms like diode detector, synchronous detector and product detector are widely used. But the term
demodulation tends to be used more widely when referring to the process of extracting the
modulation from the signal.

The term detection is the older term dating back to the early days of radio. The term demodulation is
probably more accurate in that it refers to the process of demodulation, i.e. extracting the modulation
from the signal.

AM demodulation techniques
There are a number of techniques that can be used to demodulate AM signals. Different types are
used in different applications to suit their performance and cost.

 Diode rectifier envelope detector:   This form of detector is the simplest form, only
requiring a single diode and a couple of other low cost components. The performance is
adequate for low cost AM broadcast radios, but it does not meet the standards of other forms of
 demodulation.

 Circuit of an envelope detector as used in an AM radio receiver.It has a high level of

distortion, and performs badly under conditions of selective fading such as those experienced on
the medium and short wave bands.

That said the diode detector has been in use for many years. It was widely used for domestic and
professional valve or tube radios, and when semiconductors replaced valves, simple diode
detectors were very easy to implement. For more modern radios using integrated circuits, other
forms of AM detector or AM demodulator are easier to implement.

 Product detector:   It is possible to demodulate amplitude modulated signals with a receiver

that incorporates a product detector of mixer and a local beat frequency oscillator or carrier
injection oscillator. In its basic form, the local oscillator is not synchronised to the incoming signal
carrier.

Normally a product detector is used for the reception of single sideband - a derivative of AM. To
demodulate SSB, a circuit known as a product detector is used. Single sideband is a form of
amplitude modulation where the carrier and one sideband is removed leaving only one sideband.

To reconstitute the signal, an oscillator known as a beat frequency oscillator or carrier insertion
oscillator is used to replace the carrier of the AM that has been removed and the combination is
mixed in a mixer - this produces the product of the two signals, which results in the original
modulating signal being produced.

The circuit can also be used for listening to Morse code signals. Here is is used to produce a beat
between the intermittent carrier so that the Morse code can be heard.

For demodulating AM, the the receiver is tuned so that there is a zero beat between the carrier of
the AM and beat frequency oscillator. The demodulated audio then appears at the output of the
product detector. For this system to operate correctly, the receiver must maintain its frequency
such that the BFO frequency is exactly the same as that of the incoming carrier otherwise an
annoying beat note will be continually heard.
 Synchronous detection:   The synchronous detector or demodulator is effectively a
development of the product detector circuit and it therefore provides the optimum performance for
the demodulation of AM signals. It uses many more components than a simple diode detector,
but in view of the uptake of integrated circuit technology, it is very easy to incorporate this form of
demodulator into many radio receivers for almost zero incremental cost.

The synchronous AM demodulator uses a mixer or product detector with a local oscillator signal.
 The local oscillator signal is synchronised to the incoming signal carrier so that it produces no
beat note with the incoming carrier. The sidebands of the AM signal are then demodulated to
provide the required audio signal.

In view of its much superior performance and the ease of incorporating it into ICs, this form of
demodulator is used in many AM broadcast receivers as well as professional AM based radio
communications equipment and walkie talkies, etc.

These three forms of circuit are the most commonly used methods and circuits for demodulating
amplitude modulated, AM signals.

AM demodulators are used within any piece of radio equipment that is used for AM broadcast
reception or radio communications systems that use amplitude modulation. Although amplitude
modulation is not as widely used as it was many years ago, it is still used for broadcasting on the
Long, Medium and Short Wave bands.

Possibly its greatest use for professional radio communications is for aeronautical radio
communications. Here it is widely used for ground communications and walkie talkies are widely
used. each of these different forms of radio communication will require for their to be an AM
demodulator.

Diode Detector: AM Diode Envelope Demodulator

The diode detector is the simplest form of detector or
demodulator used for AM demodulation – it detects the AM
signal envelope.
The diode detector is the simplest and most basic form of amplitude modulation, AM signal detector
and it detects the envelope of the AM signal.

The AM diode detector can be built from just a diode and a few other components and as a result it
is a very low cost circuit block within an overall receiver. In the early days of radio, these signal
detectors were made using discrete components, but modern radios will use integrated circuits with
inbuilt detectors.

As a result of its cost and convenience, the AM diode envelope detector has been widely used for
many years in transistor portable radios.

Although its simplicity has been the main reason for its widespread use, its performance is not as
good as other types of AM detector / demodulator, particularly with respect to the distortion levels.

Not only is the basic AM diode signal detector used for AM envelope detection, but is also widely
used n RF circuits in general for signal level detection.
AM diode detector basics
The AM diode detector is an envelope detector – it provides an output of the envelope of the signal.
As such the diode detector or demodulator is able to provide an output proportional to the amplitude
of the envelope of the amplitude modulated signal.

Typical transistor radio using a diode envelope detector

As the name implies, the main component within the AM diode detector is a semiconductor diode,
although in the days of valve / tube technology, diodes using this form of technology were also used.

The signal diode detector consists of two main elements to the circuit:

 Diode / rectifier:   The diode in the detector serves to that enhances one half of the received
signal over the other. In many instances Schottky diodes are used for this form of detector,
because signal levels may be low, and Schottky diodes have a much lower turn on voltage
(typically around 0.2 V) than standard silicon diodes (typically around 0.7 or 0.7 V).
 Low pass filter:   The low pass filter is required to remove the high frequency elements that
remain within the signal after detection / demodulation. The filter usually consists of a very simple
RC network but in some cases It can be provided simply by relying on the limited frequency
response of the circuitry following the rectifier. As the capacitor in the circuit stores the voltage,
the output voltage reflects the peak of the waveform. Sometimes these circuits are used as peak
detectors.

When selecting the value of the capacitor used int he circuit, it should be large enough to hold the
peak of the RF waveform, but not so large that it attenuates any modulation on the signal, i.e. it
should act as a filter for the RF carrier and not the audio modulation.
Circuit of an envelope detector as used in an AM radio receiver.
The circuit typically has a relatively high source impedance. When linking the circuit to a following
stage of the circuit, care should be taken not to land the detector too much otherwise the operation
will be impaired.

Normally a resistor is placed across the capacitor - this may either be the load of the next stage, a
volume control, or resistor in the circuit. This level of this should be determined by calculating the
time constant of the capacitor and the load. This should be between the RF signal and audio
modulation so that the RF is satisfactorily removed, but the audio modulation is left untouched.

It is worth noting in this circuit that the secondary of the transformer provides a DC return to ground.
Sometimes when the AM signal detector is used using a capacitor connection tot he previous stage,
then a resistor or choke (inductor) to ground must be used at the input so that a DC return path is
provided. If not the circuit will not operate correctly.

Capacitor coupled envelope signal detector showing resistor providing DC return path.
The value of the resistor on the input providing the DC return path is normally critical, but it can help
provide the require match without absorbing too much signal.

AM diode detection process

In rectifying the RF signal, the AM diode detector provides an output equivalent to the envelope of
one half of the signal, i.e. it is an envelope detector.

In view of the operation of the diode detector, it may sometimes be referred to as an envelope
detector.

The incoming amplitude modulated RF signal consists of a waveform of both positive and negative
going voltages as shown. Any audio transducer would not respond to this.

AM diode envelope detection process.

The diode envelope detector rectifies the waveform leaving only the positive or negative half of the
waveform.

The high frequency element of this is then filtered out, typically using a capacitor which forms the low
pass filter and effectively ‘fills in’ the high frequency elements, leaving a waveform to which a
transducer like a pair of earphones or a loudspeaker could respond to and convert into sound
waves.

Impedance matching
It is often necessary for diode envelope detectors used in various circuits to be matched to an
impedance of 50Ω.

The basic circuit consisting of the diode, load resistor and the smoothing capacitor will never present
a good match to 50Ω. If the detector diode is in its on state, the circuit will appear to be less than
50Ω.

To overcome this issue it is normal practice to use an impedance transformer to ensure that the
optimum match is achieved and the best overall circuit performance is achieved.

Advantages and disadvantages of a diode

envelope detector
The AM diode envelope detector has been successfully used for many years.

Envelope detector advantages:

 Low cost:   The diode detector only requires the use of a few low cost components. This
made it ideal for use in transistor (and valve / vacuum tube ) radios using discrete components.
 Simplicity:   Using very few components, the Diode AM detector was easy to implement. It
was reliable and did not require any setup.
Envelope detector disadvantages:
 Distortion:   As the diode detector is non-linear it introduces distortion onto the detected
audio signal.
 Selective fading:   One of the issues often experienced on the short and medium
wavebands where the AM transmissions are located is that of selective fading. The diode
envelope detector is not able to combat the effects of this in the way that some other detectors
are able, and as a result, distortion occurs when selective fading occurs.
 Sensitivity:   The diode detector is not as sensitive as some other types. If silicon diodes are
used, these have a turn on voltage of around 0.6 volts as a result, germanium or Schottky diodes
are used which have a lower turn on voltage of around 0.2 to 0.3 volts. Even with the use of the
Schottky diode, the diode envelope detector still suffers from a poor level of sensitivity
The AM diode envelope detector has been available for many years. It has been widely used.
Although amplitude modulation is used less these days, and other forms of AM detector can be
easily incorporated into integrated circuits, the simple diode detector still has some advantages.
Synchronous AM Detector / Demodulator
The synchronous AM detector or demodulator provides improved
performance over the simple diode detector, but needs more
components.
Synchronous AM demodulation provides some significant improvements over the simple diode
detector.

The improvement in performance of synchronous detectors requires the use of additional

components and sophistication and in turn this increases the cost. As a result synchronous detectors
are generally only used in high performance receivers where cost is less of an issue.

Today, with the widespread use of integrated circuits, it is easy to incorporate the components for a
synchronous detector in an IC at little additional cost. However earlier low cost AM broadcast radios
tended to be made from discrete components where the additional circuitry for a synchronous
detector would have added significant cost and therefore they were rarely used.

What is AM synchronous demodulation?

The simplest form of detection for an amplitude modulated signal utilises a simple diode rectifier. To
achieve improved performance a form of demodulation known as synchronous demodulation can be
used.

When looking at the synchronous demodulation of an AM signal, it is first useful to look at the
spectrum of an amplitude modulated signal. It can be seen that it comprises a carrier with the two
sidebands carrying the audio or other information spreading out either side. These two sidebands
are reflections of each other. The aim of the demodulation process is to extract the information
contained within the sidebands with as little distortion as possible.

Amplitude Modulation Spectrum

For synchronous demodulation, a mixer is used. The incoming signal is fed into the signal input of
the mixer, and a local oscillator signal on the same frequency as the carrier of the incoming signal is
fed into the other. This mixing process converts the carrier to a 0Hz signal and the sidebands to their
base band frequency band, i.e. it reconstitutes the audio.

As the carrier has a frequency of 0Hz, it appears as a DC voltage on the output - the DC level will
depend on the phase between the carrier and the local oscillator. The sidebands of the AM signal
will appear relative to zero frequency, i.e. as the original audio or other modulating signal.
Synchronous demodulation
Advantages of synchronous AM detection
At the expense of additional components and cost, the synchronous AM demodulator provides a
number of advantages in terms of performance.

 Reduced effects of selective fading:   For HF communications, and in particular

broadcasting, a particular annoyance is the fading that occurs. In some circumstances this can
affect different sections of the bandwidth of an AM signal differently.

It is possible for the level of the carrier to fade by ten to fifteen dB relative to the sidebands, and
this makes envelope detection difficult and it gives rise to significant levels of distortion. As
synchronous demodulation techniques generate their own carrier, the effects of selective fading
are considerably reduced making for a much better listening experience.
 Reduce levels of distortion:   The diode AM demodulator provides very high levels of
distortion. Synchronous AM demodulation offers much lower levels of distortion and as a result
provides a much better rendering of the original modulation. Distortion arises from many factors
including the turn on voltage required for the diode in an envelope detector, selective fading as
mentioned above and poor tuning.
 Signal level:   When diode detectors are used it is necessary to have a sufficient level of
signal present to overcome the diode forward bias. For synchronous detectors this is not an issue
because the mixer used within the detector can operate down to very low levels.
 Improved signal to noise ratio:   In view of the use of synchronous methods, the circuit is
able to provide an improvement in sensitivity.

Types of synchronous detector

Although all synchronous detectors or synchronous demodulators use the same basic concept of
using a local oscillator on the same frequency as the incoming carrier, and using this mix with the
incoming signal to extract the audio, there are several methods of achieving this.
 Filter method:   This method of providing synchronous detection is probably the most
obvious. It entails using a narrow band filter to extract the carrier and then using this to mix with
the overall signal.

This method requires the receiver to be tuned to exactly the required frequency to enable the
carrier to pass through the narrow band filter. Fortunately receiver stability is not an issue these
 days and once tuned, it should remain on the required frequency, but tuning is critical for this
method and it is not particularly successful.
 Phase locked loop:   Phase locked loops are particularly useful in many RF applications.
This form of synchronous detector uses a phase locked loop with a narrow loop filter to lock on to
the carrier and replicate a signal on exactly the same frequency. This signal is then used as the
local oscillator signal to mix with the incoming AM signal to extract the audio.

This form of synchronous detector works well and the approach has been used in many radio
receivers.
 Limiting amplifier:   Another method of creating a synchronous detector is to use a limiting
amplifier to generate the carrier. Some of the signal is taken from the IF amplifier chain of the
receiver and applied to a circuit with a very high gain. The amplifier will limit and when an AM
signal is present this will remove any amplitude variation, i.e. the modulation, and leave only the
carrier.

High gain limiting amplifier synchronous detector

 This is a very elegant method of creating a synchronous detector and one that is not only
simple but works effectively, not requiring complex filters or even a phase locked loop.

The circuit arrangement for the limiting amplifier form of synchronous detector comprises the
normal IF amplifier chain. The output from the IF amplifier is applied to a mixer. The output from
the IF amplifier is also applied to a limiting amplifier, and the output from this is applied to the
local oscillator input of the mixer. The output is then the recovered audio that can be amplifier by
an audio amplifier in the normal way.

Whatever method of synchronous detection is used, it provides some significant advantages over a
diode envelope detector in terms of reduced distortion, increased immunity to selective fading, and
low signal performance.

AM Modulator: Amplitude Modulation

Specific AM modulators are often needed for the transmission
of amplitude modulation. A variety of circuits can be used to
generate the amplitude variations needed.
Transmitters that transmit amplitude modulated signals require an AM modulator circuit to produce
the required signal.

There are many ways in which amplitude modulation can be generated and a variety of circuits that
can be used.
In early AM transmitters the amplitude modulator circuit was a key element of the transmitter. Today
with software processes and multi-mode transmitters, the amplitude modulator is likely be contained
within an overall modulator circuit that is able to provide a number of different types of modulation.

Nevertheless many transmitters still require AM modulators and the concepts and theory behind
them is still relevant.

Many AM modulators were used with valve transmitters – AM was widely used for many
communications applications when thermionic valve or vacuum tube technology was used.
Accordingly many of the circuits that were developed were for use with these devices. However the
principles are the same for both valve and semiconductor technologies.

High and low level AM modulators

AM modulators may be classed as either high or low level dependent upon their level in the overall
signal chain.

 High level modulator:   A high level modulator is defined as one that modulates a high
power section of the circuit, typically the final RF amplifier. It has the advantage that linear
amplifiers are not required for the RF amplification stages after AM modulation has been applied.
The drawback is that high power audio amplifiers are needed. For broadcast transmitters where
very high power levels are used, class D or class E amplifiers may be employed for the audio
output.
 Low level modulator:   A low level AM modulator would be one where the modulation is
applied to low power stage of the transmitter, typically in the RF generation stages, or via the
digital signal processing areas. The drawback of this approach is that linear amplification is
required for the RF stages.

Anode or plate modulator

This form of AM modulator arrangement required a high power audio amplifier to provide audio to
the anode or plate of the vacuum tube / thermionic valve.

In this way the audio modulates the voltage supplied to the final amplifier, and the level of the output
signal is modulated in line with the audio. This form of modulation is referred to as high-level
modulation, and the audio power level must be 50% of that of the RF amplifier to provide 100%
modulation.

Typically a transformer is used to enable the output of the audio amplifier to drive the anode voltage
of the final power amplifier within the transmitter. The audio transformer is placed in into the line
connecting the anode circuit to the supply. In this way it modulates the anode voltage.

By applying the modulation to the final RF amplifier it meant that all the RF amplifiers could be driven
in Class C, making the RF chain more efficient. If the audio was applied to earlier amplifiers, the later
ones would all need to be linear.

Semiconductor devices, both bipolar transistors and FETs can be used in the same configuration as
well.

Heising or constant-current AM modulator

This form of AM modulator is very similar in many respects to the ordinary plate modulation using a
traditional transformer. This type of AM modulator is also known as a choke modulator because of
the fact that it uses a choke rather than a transformer.

In the modulator circuit, the RF amplifier anode or plate voltage is fed through a choke. The anode
for the audio amplifier is also fed via the same choke and as a result the audio amplifier valve / tube
diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio
range.

Although cheaper because audio chokes are cheaper than audio transformers, this type of AM
modulator circuit has a comparatively low power efficiency.

Grid modulator
Another method of creating an AM modulator is to apply the audio to the grid of the final (or other)
amplifier. This has the advantage that a much lower level of modulation is required.

In this type of AM modulator, the input signals including the RF as well as the AF and the DC bias
are applied to the grid of the amplifier, which will be running in Class C.

The modulating AF acts on top of the existing DC bias and varies the level of voltage applied to the
grid. This changes the operating point for the RF which runs in class C.

The overall effect of the system is to superimpose or modulate the audio onto the RF signal.

Grid based AM modulators were not as successful as anode based ones because unless carefully
designed, the distortion levels of grid modulators could be much higher.

Single Sideband Modulation, SSB

Single sideband, SSB, modulation is used in many voice
applications. It is used for HF communications, but forms
have been used for analogue TV broadcasting.
Single sideband modulation is widely used in the HF portion, or short wave portion of the radio
spectrum for two way radio communication. There are many users of single sideband modulation.
Many users requiring two way radio communication will use single sideband and they range from
marine applications, generally HF point to point transmissions, military as well as radio amateurs or
radio hams.

Single sideband modulation or SSB is derived from amplitude modulation (AM) and SSB modulation
overcomes a number of the disadvantages of AM.

Single sideband modulation is normally used for voice transmission, but technically it can be used
for many other applications where two way radio communication using analogue signals is required.

As a result of its widespread use there are many items of radio communication equipment designed
to use single sideband radio including: SSB receiver, SSB transmitter and SSB transceiver
equipments.

What is single sideband modulation?

Single sideband, SSB modulation is basically a derivative of amplitude modulation, AM. By removing
some of the components of the ordinary AM signal it is possible to significantly improve its efficiency.

It is possible to see how an AM signal can be improved by looking at the spectrum of the signal.
When a steady state carrier is modulated with an audio signal, for example a tone of 1 kHz, then two
smaller signals are seen at frequencies 1 kHz above and below the main carrier.

If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that encountered with speech of music, these
comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with frequencies over a band of
frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier, these spectra are seen above and below the
carrier.

Single sideband modulation

It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz, then the top
spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words the bandwidth occupied by
the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to modulated the carrier, i.e.
it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be carried.

Amplitude modulation is very inefficient from two points. The first is that it occupies twice the
bandwidth of the maximum audio frequency, and the second is that it is inefficient in terms of the
power used. The carrier is a steady state signal and in itself carries no information, only providing a
reference for the demodulation process. Single sideband modulation improves the efficiency of the
transmission by removing some unnecessary elements. In the first instance, the carrier is removed -
it can be re-introduced in the receiver, and secondly one sideband is removed - both sidebands are
mirror images of one another and the carry the same information. This leaves only one sideband -
hence the name Single SideBand / SSB.

SSB receiver
While signals that use single sideband modulation are more efficient for two way radio
communication and more effective than ordinary AM, they do require an increased level of
complexity in the receiver. As SSB modulation has the carrier removed, this needs to be re-
introduced in the receiver to be able to reconstitute the original audio. This is achieved using an
internal oscillator called a Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) or Carrier Insertion Oscillator (CIO). This
generates a carrier signal that can be mixed with the incoming SSB signal, thereby enabling the
required audio to be recovered in the detector.

Typically the SSB detector itself uses a mixer circuit to combine the SSB modulation and the BFO
signals. This circuit is often called a product detector because (like any RF mixer) the output is the
product of the two inputs.

It is necessary to introduce the carrier using the BFO / CIO on the same frequency relative to the
SSB signal as the original carrier. Any deviation from this will cause the pitch of the recovered audio
to change. Whilst errors of up to about 100 Hz are acceptable for communications applications
including amateur radio, if music is to be transmitted the carrier must be reintroduced on exactly the
correct frequency. This can be accomplished by transmitting a small amount of carrier, and using
circuitry in the receiver to lock onto this.

Single sideband power measurement

It is often necessary to define the output power of a single sideband transmitter or single sideband
transmission. For example it is necessary to know the power of a transmitter used for two way radio
communication to enable its effectiveness to be judged for particular applications.

Power measurement for an SSB signal is not as easy as it is for many other types of transmission
because the actual output power is dependent upon the level of the modulating signal. To overcome
this a measure known as the peak envelope power (PEP) is used. This takes the power of the RF
envelope of the transmission and uses the peak level of the signal at any instant and it includes any
components that may be present. Obviously this includes the sideband being used, but it also
includes any residual carrier that may be transmitted.

The level of the peak envelope power may be stated in Watts, or nowadays figures quoted in dBW
or dBm may be used. These are simply the power levels relative to 1 Watt or 1 milliwatt respectively.
As an example a signal of 10 watts peak envelope power is 10 dB above a 1 Watt signal and
therefore it has a power of 10 dBW. Similar logic can be used to determine powers in dBm.

Single sideband modulation variants

There are many variants of single sideband modulation that are used, and there are several different
abbreviations for them. These are explained below.

 LSB:   This stands for Lower Sideband. This form of single sideband modulation is formed
when the lower sideband only of the original signal is transmitted. Typically this is used by radio
amateurs or radio hams on their allocations below 9 MHz.
 USB:   This stands for Upper Sideband. This form of single sideband modulation is formed
when the upper sideband only of the original signal is transmitted. Typically this form of SSB
modulation is used by professional users on all frequencies and by radio amateurs or radio hams
on their allocations above 9 MHz.
 DSB:   This is Double Sideband and it is a form of modulation where an AM signal is taken
and the carrier is removed to leave the two sidebands. Although easy to generate, it does not
give any improvements in spectrum efficiency and it is also not particularly easy to resolve.
Accordingly it is rarely used.
 SSB SC:   This stands for Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier. It is the form of SSB
modulation where the carrier is removed completely as opposed to SSB reduced carrier where
some of the carrier is left.
 VSB:   This stands for Vestigial Sideband. It is a form is signal where one sideband is
completely present, and the other sideband that has been only partly cut off or suppressed. It is
widely used for analogue television transmissions. It comes in useful because the baseband
video signal is wide (typically 6 MHz). To transmit this using AM would require a bandwidth of 12
MHz. To reduce the amount of spectrum used, one sideband is transmitted fully, whereas only
the lower frequencies of the other are transmitted. The high frequencies can be later enhanced
using filters.
 SSB reduced carrier :   In this form of SSB modulation one sideband is present along with
a small amount of the carrier. For some applications, a small amount of carrier is kept. This may
be used to provide a reference signal for accurate demodulation.

SSB advantages
Single sideband modulation is often compared to AM, of which it is a derivative. It has several
advantages for two way radio communication that more than outweigh the additional complexity
required in the SSB receiver and SSB transmitter required for its reception and transmission.

1. As the carrier is not transmitted, this enables a 50% reduction in transmitter power level for
the same level of information carrying signal. [NB for an AM transmission using 100%
modulation, half of the power is used in the carrier and a total of half the power in the two
sideband - each sideband has a quarter of the power.]
2. As only one sideband is transmitted there is a further reduction in transmitter power.
3. As only one sideband is transmitted the receiver bandwidth can be reduced by half. This
improves the signal to noise ratio by a factor of two, i.e. 3 dB, because the narrower bandwidth
used will allow through less noise and interference.
The summary of this is that SSB modulation offers a far more effective solution for two way radio
communication because it provides a significant improvement in efficiency.

Summary
Single sideband modulation, SSB is the main modulation format used for analogue voice
transmission for two way radio communication on the HF portion of the radio spectrum. Its efficiency
in terms of spectrum and power when compared to other modes means that for many years it has
been the most effective option to use. Now some forms of digital voice transmission are being used,
but it is unlikely that single sideband will be ousted for many years as the main format used on these
bands.

Single Sideband Modulation, SSB Demodulation

SSB demodulation is a key to its successful use and
application.
SSB, single sideband is easily demodulated, but requires a little more circuitry than is needed for a basic AM
envelope detector.

To demodulate SSB transmissions a beat frequency oscillator or carrier insertion oscillator is used along with a
mixer or product detector.

SSB demodulation basics

As described in previous pages, single sideband is a form of amplitude modulation where the carrier and one
sideband have been suppressed or reduced in level.
 Single sideband modulation

In order to demodulate single sideband, SSB, it is necessary to reintroduce the carrier. To achieve this two
main elements are required:

 Local oscillator:   The local oscillator signal is needed to provide the locally produced carrier signal to
re-introduce into the signal. When used in conjunction with SSB demodulation the local oscillator may be
referred to by other names:

o Beat frequency oscillator, BFO:   This term dates back to the time when a local oscillator was
used to produce a beat note when used with Morse code. The same type of oscillator was used for
SSB demodulation and the term persisted.
o Carrier insertion oscillator, CIO:   This name is very self explanatory and indicates it is used to
re-insert the carrier. It is a more correct term than BFO, but not was widely used.
 Mixer:   The mixer is used to mix the local oscillator signal and the incoming single sideband
signal together. The output from the mixer is the demodulated audio signal.

o Product detector:   This term emanates from the fact that the output is a product of the
inputs – exactly what is required for SSB demodulation. Producing a product or multiplication of the
value of the inputs is the function of a mixer, but the term product detector was used in the early days
of the use of SSB, and has remained in use, although it is less widely used than it was previously.

Single sideband demodulation circuitry

Receiving SSB
When receiving SSB it is necessary to have a basic understanding of how a receiver works. Most radio
receivers that will be used to receive SSB modulation will be of the superheterodyne type. Here the incoming
signals are converted down to a fixed intermediate frequency. It is at this stage where the BFO signal is mixed
with the incoming SSB signals.
How to set CIO / BFO to demodulate single sideband SSB

It is necessary to set the BFO to the correct frequency to receive the form of SSB, either LSB or USB, that is
expected. Many radio receivers will have a switch to select this, other receivers will have a BFO pitch control
which effectively controls the frequency. The BFO needs to be positioned to be in the correct position for
when the signal is in the centre of the receiver passband. This typically means that it will be on the side of the
passband of the receiver. To position the BFO, tune the SSB signal in for the optimum strength, i.e. ensure it is
in the centre of the passband, and then adjust the BFO frequency for the correct pitch of the signal. Once this
has been done, then the main tuning control of the receiver can be used, and once a signal is audible with the
correct pitch, then it is also in the centre of the receiver passband.

Tuning an SSB signal with the BFO set is quite easy. First set the receiver to the SSB position or the BFO to
ON, and then if there is a separate switch set the LSB / USB switch to the format that is expected and then
gradually tune the receiver. Adjust the main tuning control so that the pitch is correct, and the signal should be
comprehensible. If it is not possible to distinguish the sounds, then set the LSB / USB switch to the other
position and re-adjust the main tuning control if necessary to return the signal to the correct pitch, at which
point the signal should be understandable..

With a little practice it should be possible to easily tune in SSB signals.

Radio Technology
Radio is now a key part of everyday life - everything from
broadcast radio to mobile communications and much
more . . .
Radio technology and radio frequency design or RF design are key to the operation of many items
like radios, mobile phones, Wi-Fi routers and many other radio based devices.

Understanding the building blocks used and the techniques adopted enables RF design,
maintenance and usage to be undertaken effectively.
What is Frequency Modulation, FM
Frequency modulation, FM, is used in many applications from broadcasting to communications
and offers several advantages over other modes.

While changing the amplitude of a radio signal is the most obvious method to modulate it, it is
by no means the only way. It is also possible to change the frequency of a signal to give
frequency modulation or FM. Frequency modulation is widely used on frequencies above 30
MHz, and it is particularly well known for its use for VHF FM broadcasting. Although it may not
be quite as straightforward as amplitude modulation, nevertheless frequency modulation, FM,
offers some distinct advantages. It is able to provide near interference free reception, and it
was for this reason that it was adopted for the VHF sound broadcasts. These transmissions
could offer high fidelity audio, and for this reason, frequency modulation is far more popular
than the older transmissions on the long, medium and short wave bands. In addition to its
widespread use for high quality audio broadcasts, FM is also used for a variety of two way radio
communication systems. Whether for fixed or mobile radio communication systems, or for use
in portable applications, FM is widely used at VHF and above.

A low cost FM broadcast radio

What is frequency modulation, FM?

To generate a frequency modulated signal, the frequency of the radio carrier is changed in line
with the amplitude of the incoming audio signal.
Frequency Modulation, FM

When the audio signal is modulated onto the radio frequency carrier, the new radio frequency
signal moves up and down in frequency. The amount by which the signal moves up and down is
important. It is known as the deviation and is normally quoted as the number of kilohertz
deviation. As an example the signal may have a deviation of plus and minus 3 kHz, i.e. ±3 kHz. In
this case the carrier is made to move up and down by 3 kHz.

Broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency spectrum between 88.5 and 108 MHz
use large values of deviation, typically ±75 kHz. This is known as wide-band FM (WBFM). These
signals are capable of supporting high quality transmissions, but occupy a large amount of
bandwidth. Usually 200 kHz is allowed for each wide-band FM transmission. For
communications purposes less bandwidth is used. Narrow band FM (NBFM) often uses
deviation figures of around ±3 kHz.

It is narrow band FM that is typically used for two-way radio communication applications.
Having a narrower band it is not able to provide the high quality of the wideband transmissions,
but this is not needed for applications such as mobile radio communication.
Typical small FM handheld radio communications transceiver

Frequency demodulation

As with any form of modulation, it is necessary to be able to successfully demodulate it and

recover the original signal. The FM demodulator may be called a variety of names including FM
demodulator, FM detector or an FM discriminator. There are a number of different types of FM
demodulator, but all of them enable the frequency variations of the incoming signal to be
converted into amplitude variations on the output. These are typically fed into an audio
amplifier, or possibly a digital interface if data is being passed over the system.

FM modulators

There is a variety of different methods that can be used to generate frequency modulated
signals.

 Varactor diode oscillator:   This method simply requires the use of a varactor diode
placed within the tuned circuit of an oscillator circuit. It is even possible to use a varactor
diode within a crystal oscillator circuit. Typically when crystal oscillators a re used the signal
needs to be multiplied in frequency, and only narrow band FM is attainable.
 Phase locked loop:   Phase locked loops provide an excellent method of generating
frequency modulation. It is often necessary to manage the constraints within the loop
carefully but once done it provides and excellent solution.
Frequency modulation advantages & disadvantages

As with any form of modulation there are several advantages and disadvantages to its use.
These need to be considered before making any decision or choice about its use:

Advantages of frequency modulation, FM:

 Resilience to noise:   One particular advantage of frequency modulation is its resilience
to signal level variations. The modulation is carried only as variations in frequency. This
 means that any signal level variations will not affect the audio output, provided that the
signal does not fall to a level where the receiver cannot cope. As a result this makes FM ideal
for mobile radio communication applications including more general two-way radio
communication or portable applications where signal levels are likely to vary considerably.
The other advantage of FM is its resilience to noise and interference. It is for this reason that
FM is used for high quality broadcast transmissions.
 Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of the transmitter:   Another advantage
of frequency modulation is associated with the transmitters. It is possible to apply the
modulation to a low power stage of the transmitter, and it is not necessary to use a linear
form of amplification to increase the power level of the signal to its final value.
 It is possible to use efficient RF amplifiers with frequency modulated signals:   It is
possible to use non-linear RF amplifiers to amplify FM signals in a transmitter and these are
more efficient than the linear ones required for signals with any amplitude variations (e.g.
AM and SSB). This means that for a given power output, less battery power is required and
this makes the use of FM more viable for portable two-way radio applications.
DISAdvantages of frequency modulation, FM:
 FM has poorer spectral efficiency than some other modulation formats:   Some phase
modulation and quadrature amplitude modulation formats have a higher spectral efficiency
for data transmission than frequency shift keying, a form of frequency modulation. As a
result, most data transmission system use PSK and QAM.
 Requires more complicated demodulator:   One of the minor disadvantages of
frequency modulation is that the demodulator is a little more complicated, and hence
slightly more expensive than the very simple diode detectors used for AM. However this is
much less of an issue these days because many radio integrated circuits incorporate a built
in frequency demodulator .
 Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency:   Some phase modulation and
quadrature amplitude modulation formats have a higher spectral efficiency for data
transmission that frequency shift keying, a form of frequency modulation. As a result, most
data transmission system use PSK and QAM.
 Sidebands extend to infinity either side:   The sidebands for an FM transmission
theoretically extend out to infinity. They are normally significant for wideband frequency
modulation transmissions, although small for narrow band FM. To limit the bandwidth of the
transmission, filters are often used, and these introduce some distortion of the signal.
Normally this is not too much of an issue although care has to be taken to include these
filters for wideband FM and to ensure they are properly designed.
How FM was introduced

In the early days of radio, static was a major issue and the way everyone tried to reduce the
effects of static was to reduce the bandwidth - in this way less noise was picked up by the
receiver.

An American engineer named Edwin Armstrong was investigating this issue and whether
frequency modulation, rather than amplitude modulation might provide an advantage.
Around 1928, Armstrong started to develop the concept of using FM, and rather than reducing
the bandwidth, he increased it. Many did not go along with Armstrong's ideas for a variety of
reasons. He approached RCA, and although they were impressed, they was focussing upon
television and did not want to divert any resource onto a new form of broadcasting. After many
difficulties along the way, Armstrong launched his own radio station in 1939 to demonstrate the
effectiveness of FM. To accommodate this and other stations following on the FCC allocated a
band of frequencies between 42 and 50 MHz. Others soon followed, but after the war, the FCC
in the USA, changed the allocated frequency band to the one we know today between 88 and
108 MHz. Although there was some initial pain because a few hundred thousand radios had
been sold, the band was accepted globally and it is the VHF FM band we know today.

With FM established as a medium for high quality broadcasting, it quickly developed. In

addition to this a form of narrow band FM became popular for VHF and UHF mobile
communications. The nature of FM meant that signal strength variations did not affect the
operation nearly as much as if it had been an AM signal.

Modulation index & deviation ratio

When using a frequency modulated signal it is very helpful to have a measure of what is
effectively the level of the modulation.

This is useful in defining parameters like whether the signal is a narrow band or a wide band
frequency modulated signal. It is also very useful in ensuring that all transmitters or receivers in
a system are set to accommodate a standardised level of modulation as it affects parameters
like the receiver bandwidth, channel spacing and the like. To define the level of modulation,
figures known as the modulation index and deviation ratio are used.

FM bandwidth

One of the key elements of an FM signal is its bandwidth. With any frequency modulated signal,
sidebands extend out either side. These actually extend out to infinity, but the intensity of them
falls away. Fortunately it is possible to limit the bandwidth of an FM signal without affecting its
quality unduly.

Frequency modulation is widely used in many areas of radio technology including broadcasting
and areas of two way radio communication. In these applications its particular advantages can
be used to good effect.

Whilst other forms of modulation are being used in many areas, FM still offers the highest
quality for broadcasting and many advantages for other forms of communication as well.
Frequency Modulation, FM Modulation Index & Deviation Ratio
The Modulation Index and Deviation Ratio are two key parameters for any FM, frequency
modulation signal whether used for broadcasting or two way radio communications.

Two key parameters of any frequency modulated signal are the modulation index and the
deviation ratio. They are widely used when looking at frequency modulated signals and their
characteristics. These two parameters describe some of the basic characteristics of a given FM
signal - the modulation index providing a measure of what is effectively the level of modulation
and the deviation ratio a measure of the deviation relative to the modulating frequency.

These two figures are key when planning and designing radio communications systems and
broadcast transmitters, etc - they define some of the basic parameters of the frequency
modulated signal, impacting the sideband levels and the bandwidth required for the signal.

It is important for everything from large FM broadcast transmitters down to small two way
radios or walkie talkies.

Frequency modulation index

The frequency modulation index is the equivalent of the modulation index for AM , but
obviously related to FM. In view of the differences between the two forms of modulation, the
FM modulation index is measured in a different way. The FM modulation index is equal to the
ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency.

Frequency deviation
m=
Modulation frequency

From the formula and definition of the modulation index, it can be seen that there is no term
that includes the carrier frequency and this means that it is totally independent of the carrier
frequency. To give an example of the FM modulation index, take the example where a signal
has a deviation of ±5kHz, and the modulating frequency is 1kHz, then the modulation index for
this particular instance is 5 / 1 = 5.

Similarly, if the deviation is ±10 kHz and the modulating frequency is s kHz, then this also has a
deviation ratio of 5. As normal audio has a variety of different frequencies contained within the
audio sound, the deviation ratio is normally calculated using the maximum audio frequency and
maximum deviation. This figure will then be used to determine the bandwidth and other
characteristics of the signal.

FM deviation ratio

One of the issues with the modulation index is that it will vary according to the instantaneous
values of deviation and modulating frequency.

On typical audio transmissions, both the frequency deviation and modulating frequency will
vary. The frequency deviation will vary according to the level of the audio at that moment. Also
the modulating frequency will vary as normal audio consists of a variety of frequencies, which
vary to give the speech or music, etc.

For many applications it is more useful to have a figure for the maximum permissible values.

Accordingly the FM deviation ratio can be defined as: the ratio of the maximum carrier
frequency deviation to the highest audio modulating frequency.

max frequency deviation

m=
max modulation frequency

One common example of the FM deviation ratio can be seen by taking the figures for a typical
FM broadcast station. Fir these stations the maximum frequency deviation is ±75 kHz, and the
maximum audio frequency for the modulation is 15 kHz.

Using the formula above, this means that the deviation ratio is 75 / 15 = 5.

FM bandwidth & modulation index.

Frequency modulation is used in a variety of applications. Different levels of deviation are used
in different applications. For broadcast FM transmissions the aim is to be able to transmit high
quality audio and to achieve this high levels of deviation are used and the bandwidth is wide.
For communications purposes, quality is not the issue, but bandwidth is more important.
Accordingly deviation levels are less and the bandwidth is much smaller.

The bandwidth of the FM signal is particularly important because it needs to be wide enough to
carry the information correctly, whilst also not occupying to much spectrum. If the bandwidth is
too wide, then it can spread outside the required channel and cause interference with other
users on other channels.

As spectrum usage increases as more wireless and general radio applications increase
(everything from short range wireless communications to traditional voice two way radio
communications, data links and many more), the need to manage the frequency spectrum and
ensure that transmissions tay within their allotted bandwidths becomes more important.

There are two main classifications for frequency modulated signals and these can be related to
the modulation index and deviation ratio.

 Wideband FM:   Wideband FM is typical used for signals where the FM modulation
index is above about 0.5. For these signals the sidebands beyond the first two terms are not
insignificant. Broadcast FM stations use wide-band FM which enables them to transmit high
quality audio, as well as other facilities like stereo, and other facilities like RDS, etc.

The wide bandwidth of wide band FM is enables high quality broadcast transmissions to be
made, combining a wide frequency response with low noise levels. Once the signal is
 sufficiently strong, the audio signal to noise ratio is very good.

Sometimes high fidelity FM tuners may use a wide-band filter for strong signals to ensure
the optimum fidelity and performance. Here the quieting effect of the strong signal will
allow for wide-band reception and the full audio bandwidth. For for lower strength signals
they may switch to a narrower filter to reduce the noise level, although this will result in the
audio bandwidth being reduced. However on balance the narrower bandwidth will give a
more pleasing sound when the received signal is low.
 Narrowband FM:   Narrow band FM, NBFM, is used for signals where the deviation is
small enough that the terms in the Bessel function is small and the main sidebands are those
appearing at ± modulation frequency. The sidebands further out are negligible.

For NBFM, the FM modulation index must be less than 0.5, although a figure of 0.2 is often
used. For NBFM the audio or data bandwidth is small, but this is acceptable for this type of
communication.

Narrowband FM is widely used for two way radio communications. Although digital
technologies are taking over, NBFM is still widely used and very effective. Many two way
radios or walkie talkies use NBFM, especially those which conform to the licence-free
standards like PMR446 and FRS radio communications systems.

Many two way radio communications walkie talkies like these PMR446 radios use
narrowband

FMNBFM is ideal for the low cost radio communication systems, especially those that use
small walkie talkies because it can be implemented with a minimum of amount of circuitry,
most of which is low cost. Although digital technology is becoming much cheaper, narrow
band FM is still very cost effective. These small walkie talkies or other transmitter receivers
providing radio communications, normally have a limited audio bandwidtth. This is normal
for radio communication systems because high fidelity is not needed - maximum
intelligibility is needed along with limited RF bandwidth. The limited audio bandwidth helps
reduce the modulation index, and hence the bandwidth occupied by the transmission.
Often the distinction between narrow-band FM and wide-band FM in terms of the modulation
index is somewhat arbitrary. However, most FM signals are either wide-band for high fidelity or
narrow-band for radio communications where bandwidth restrictions are important. There is
normally little in between.

The modulation index and deviation ratio both have important places within the design of
broadcast and radio communication systems. The figures define the level of modulation and
hence many of the properties of the frequency modulated signal. Accordingly they are
important when using FM.

Frequency Modulation, FM Sidebands & Bandwidth

The bandwidth of a frequency modulated, FM signal depends on a variety of factors including
the level and frequency of the modulation, and their levels are important for broadcast and
radio communication applications.

The bandwidth, sideband formation and spectrum of a frequency modulated signal are not as
straightforward as they are for an amplitude modulated signal. Nevertheless the sidebands and
bandwidth of the FM signal are still very important and used within the planning, design and
even the maintenance of radio broadcast and radio communication systems. Using a well know
rule called Carson's Rule it is possible to provide a good estimate of the bandwidth of an FM
signal. This estimate is sufficiently good for virtually all requirements and as a result Carson's
rule is widely used.

Knowing the levels of the sidebands and the signal bandwidth is very important for broadcast
transmitters and receivers as well as those sued for radio communication applications.

Frequency modulation sidebands

The modulation of any carrier in any way produces sidebands. For amplitude modulated signals,
the way in which these sidebands are created and their bandwidth and amplitude are quite
straightforward. The situation for frequency modulated signals is rather different.

The FM sidebands are dependent on both the level of deviation and the frequency of the
modulation. In fact the total spectrum for a frequency modulated signal consists of the carrier
plus an infinite number of sidebands spreading out on either side of the carrier at integral
multiples of the modulating frequency.

From the diagram it can be seen that the values for the levels of the sidebands rise and fall with
varying values of deviation and modulating frequency.
Frequency modulation sideband levels

It may also be helpful to have some tabulated values - from this it can be seen that for a
modulation index of 2.41, the carrier falls to zero, and all the power is contained within the
sidebands.

It can also be seen that for low levels of modulation index, the only sidebands that have any
significant levels of power within them are the first, and possibly the second sidebands.

RELATIVE AMPLITUDES OF FM SIDEBANDS FOR DIFFERENT MODULATION INDICES

 

  RELATIVE SIDEBAND AMPLITUDE

MOD 0 1 2 3 4 5
INDEX

0.00 1.00

0.25 0.98 0.12

0.5 0.94 0.24 0.03

1.0 0.77 0.44 0.11 0.02

2.0 0.22 0.58 0.35 0.13 0.03

2.41 0.00 0.52 0.43 0.20 0.06 0.02

In theory the sidebands of a frequency modulated signal extent out for ever. Fortunately
outside the main signal area itself, the level of the sidebands falls away and for practical
systems filtering all but removes them without any main detriment to the signal.
For small values of modulation index, when using narrow-band FM, NBFM, radio
communication systems, the signal consists of the carrier and the two sidebands spaced at the
modulation frequency either side of the carrier. The sidebands further out are minimal and can
be ignored. On a spectrum analyzer the signal looks very much like the spectrum of an AM
signal. The difference is that the lower sideband is out of phase by 180°.

As the level of the modulation index is increased other sidebands at twice the modulation
frequency start to appear. Further increases in modulation index result in the level of other
sidebands increasing in level.

Carson's Rule for FM bandwidth

The bandwidth of an FM signal is not as straightforward to calculate as that of an AM signal. A

very useful rule of thumb used by many engineers to determine the bandwidth of an FM signal
for radio broadcast and radio communications systems is known as Carson's Rule. This rule
states that 98% of the signal power is contained within a bandwidth equal to the deviation
frequency, plus the modulation frequency doubled. Carson's Rule can be expressed simply as a
formula:

[BT=2(Δf+fm)

Where:
 Δf = deviation
BT = total bandwidth (for 98% power)
 fm = modulating frequency
To take the example of a typical broadcast FM signal that has a deviation of ±75kHz and a
maximum modulation frequency of 15 kHz, the bandwidth of 98% of the power approximates
to 2 (75 + 15) = 180kHz. To provide conveniently spaced channels 200 kHz is allowed for each
station. The rule is also very useful when determining the bandwidth of many two way radio
communications systems. These use narrow band FM, and it is particularly important that the
sidebands do not cause interference to adjacent channels that may be occupied by other users.

Equations & calculation for FM sideband levels

Whilst it is very useful to have an understanding of the broad principles of the generation of
sidebands within an FM signal, it is sometimes necessary to determine the levels
mathematically. The calculations are not nearly as simple as they are for amplitude modulated
signals and they involve some long equations. It is for this reason that rules like Carson's rule
are so useful as they provide workable approximations that are simple and straightforward to
calculate, whist being sufficiently accurate for most radio communications applications.

The sideband levels can be calculated for a carrier modulated by a single sine wave using Bessel
functions of the first kind as a function of modulation index. The basic Bessel function equation
is described below:
Where:
    α is an arbitrary complex number
In terms of the format of the equation, α and -α produce the same differential equation, but it
is conventional to define different Bessel functions for these two values in such a way that the
Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of α.

Solving the Bessel equations to determine the levels of the individual sidebands can be quite
complicated, but is ideal for solution using a computer.

By manipulating the mathematics, it is possible to solve the basic Bessel function equation and
express it in the format:

The way the series has expanded shows how the various sidebands are generated and how they
extend out to infinity.

Summary of frequency modulation bandwidth & sidebands

Frequency modulation is still in widespread use, both for broadcasting and for two way radio
communications. As a result, a knowledge of the signal bandwidth and the way in which the
sidebands are produced is useful for these systems.

It is worth summarising some of the highlight points about frequency modulation sidebands,
FM spectrum & bandwidth.

 The bandwidth of a frequency modulated signal varies with both deviation and
modulating frequency.
 Increasing modulating frequency increases the frequency separation between
sidebands.
 Increasing modulating frequency for a given level of deviation reduces modulation
index. As a result, it reduces the number of sidebands with significant amplitude. This has
the result of reducing the bandwidth.
 The frequency modulation bandwidth increases with modulation frequency but it is not
directly proportional to it.
Frequency modulation bandwidth is a key issue as it is very important to ensure that these
transmissions stay within their allocated channel. Accordingly FM signals need to be carefully
tailored to ensure all the significant sidebands remain within the channel allocation.

Frequency Modulation, FM Detection, Demodulation, Discrimination

In order to use the modulation on an FM signal, it is necessary to extract the modulation, i.e.
demodulate or detect the signal.

FM demodulation is also called FM detection and sometimes the phrase "FM discrimination" is
used, although this term tends to be used with older circuits and technology.

FM demodulation is a key process in the reception of a frequency modulated signal. Once the
signal has been received, filtered and amplified, it is necessary to recover the original
modulation from the carrier. It is this process that is called demodulation or detection.

FM demodulator circuits are found in any receiver that uses FM: broadcast receivers, two way
radios like walkie talkies and handheld radios that use FM, and any receiver where frequency
modulation is used.

FM demodulation basics

In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of FM
demodulator or detector.

This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes the modulation from the signal to
output only the modulation that had been applied at the transmitter.

FM demodulation principle

In order to be able to demodulate FM it is necessary for the radio receiver to convert the
frequency variations into voltage variations - it is a frequency to voltage converter. When the
carrier frequency deviates to the lower end of the frequency range over which it deviates a
lower voltage may be produced, then as it deviates higher in frequency, a higher voltage is
produced.
Although it is easier to think of lower frequencies producing lower voltages, there is no need for
this to be the case, it could be the other way around.

One of the chief requirements for the FM demodulator is that it should have a response that is
as linear as possible over the required bandwidth. In other words a shift of a given frequency
produces the same output change wherever it may be found on the curve. If the response is not
linear, then distortion will be introduced.

A further requirement for the FM demodulator is that it should not be sensitive to amplitude
variations. As the modulation is carried by only the frequency deviation, no amplitude
sensitivity is wanted. Any amplitude signal is likely to be noise, and by making the receiver
insensitive to amplitude variations, the signal to noise ratio can be improved.

The resilience to noise is a major factor in providing low noise FM reception for applications like
high fidelity audio broadcasts. It also means that for mobile radio, or handheld radio
communications, the effects of signal level variations and fading due to movement is reduced.

If an FM demodulator is sensitive to amplitude variations as well as frequency variations, then

the demodulator can be preceded a limiting amplifier stage. This stage runs into saturation
when a signal of sufficient strength is present. By running in saturation, the amplitude
variations are removed.

Frequency demodulator S response curve

The response that is normally seen for an FM demodulator / FM detector is known as an "S"
curve for obvious reasons. There is a linear portion at the centre of the response curve and
towards the edge the response becomes very distorted.

As can be anticipated, the detector response curve cannot remain linear over a huge range of
frequencies. Instead it should be sufficiently wide to accommodate the width of the deviation
of the signal and a bit more to provide additional margin.

Types of FM demodulator

There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were more
popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the PLL based
detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they lend
themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily and they do not require
many, if any adjustments.

To improve the noise performance of the FM receiver, typically the IF stage may operate such
that the IF amplifier is driven into limiting. This removes the amplitude variations, that will
result in noise, and only allows through the frequency variations.

There main types of FM demodulator found in broadcast receivers, radio communication

systems two way radios or walkie talkies / handheld radios, etc, are outlined below:

 Slope detection:   This is a very simple form of FM demodulation and it relies on the
selectivity of the receiver itself to provide the demodulation. It is not particularly effective
and is not used except when the receiver does not have an FM capability.

This form of FM detection has very many limitations: the selectivity curve of the radio will
not be at all linear and distortion will arise; the receiver will be sensitive to amplitude
variations, etc.

 Ratio detector:   This type of detector was one that was widely used when discrete
components were used in transistor radios. The ratio detector required the use of a
transformer that had a third winding to produce an additional signal which was phase
shifted for the demodulation process. The ratio detector used two diodes along with a few
resistors and capacitors. Although it performed well, the ratio FM detector was an expensive
form of detector in view of the transformer it used. As all wound components are more
expensive than resistors and capacitors, these FM demodulators were expensive to make
and after the introduction of integrated circuit technology where different circuits could be
used, the ratio detector was rarely used. Nevertheless, in its day it performed well.

 Foster Seeley FM :   In the days when radio used discrete components, this was the
other main contender for the FM demodulator in radios. The Foster Seeley FM demodulator
was very similar in many respects for the ratio detector. However instead of using a third
winding on the transformer, it used a separate choke. Like the Ratio detector the Foster
Seeley detector fell out of widespread use when integrated circuits were introduced as other
forms of FM demodulator were far easier to implement with ICs and their performance as
superior.
 Phase locked loop demodulator:   It is possible to use a phase locked loop to
demodulate FM. The PLL FM detector provides excellent performance and does not require
many, if any adjustments in manufacture. The other advantage of the PLL FM demodulator is
 that it is easily incorporated within an integrated circuit, and can therefore be added with
very little incremental cost to an overall receiver chip, and hence the radio receiver.

The phase locked loop or PLL FM demodulator operated because the loop was set to track
the instantaneous frequency of the incoming FM signal. To keep the loop in lock, the voltage
controlled oscillator within the loop needed to track the frequency of the incoming signal.
The tune voltage for the VCO varied in line with the instantaneous frequency of the signal,
and hence provided the demodulated output of the audio or other modulation signal.

 Quadrature detector:   The quadrature FM detector is now widely used in FM radio ICs.
It is easy to implement and provides excellent levels of performance. The quadrature .
coincidence form of FM demodulator is very easily incorporated into an integrated circuit
and can be added with virtually no additional cost. This makes it a very attractive option for
modern receiver designs. Many integrated circuits that are designed to provide the
functionality of a compete receiver or an IF strip, incorporate a quadrature detector/
coincidence detector, and therefore FM demodulation can be added at virtually no cost to
the final receiver.

These FM demodulators are used in different applications. The different types of FM

demodulator provide designers with a choice of approaches dependent upon the application:
broadcast, two way radio communications including walkie talkies and handheld radios, high
specification communications receivers and the like.

Although the PLL FM detector and the quadrature detectors are most widely used, along with
phase locked loop based circuits. The Foster Seeley and ratio FM detectors are still used on
some occasions, but they are normally only found in older radios using discrete components.

FM Slope Detector / Demodulator

One of the easiest methods of demodulating / detecting FM frequency modulation is to use the
slope of a tuned circuit: simple but not very effective.

FM slope detection is a concept that can used be recover the modulation from an FM signal. It
is simple because it can be used with virtually any radio even if it is not equipped , with an FM
capability. It simply uses the selectivity of the radio, or the slope of a tuned circuit.

Whilst FM slope detection is very simple it is not particularly effective and therefore is not
normally used. However the basic concept is useful to understand before moving on to look at
much more effective methods of FM detection or demodulation. .

FM slope detector basics

Slope detection is the very simplest form of frequency modulation, FM demodulation. An FM
slope detector consists of a tuned circuit where the centre frequency is tuned to a frequency
slightly offset from the carrier of the signal. In this way the frequency modulated signal sits on
the slope of the response curve, giving rise to the name of FM slope detector.

As the frequency of the signals varies up and down in frequency according to its modulation, so
the signal moves up and down the slope of the tuned circuit response curve. This causes the
amplitude of the signal to vary in line with the frequency variations. In fact at this point the
signal has both frequency and amplitude variations.

FM slope detection concept

It can be seen from the diagram that changes in the slope of the filter, reflect into the linearity
of the demodulation process. The linearity is very dependent not only on the filter slope as it
falls away, but also the tuning of the receiver - it is necessary to tune the receiver off frequency
and to a pint where the filter characteristic is relatively linear.

The final stage in the process is to demodulate the amplitude modulation and this can be
achieved using a simple diode circuit. One of the most obvious disadvantages of this simple
approach is the fact that both amplitude and frequency variations in the incoming signal appear
at the output. However the amplitude variations can be removed by placing a limiter before the
detector.

A variety of FM slope detector circuits may be used, but the one below shows one possible
circuit with the applicable waveforms. The input signal is a frequency modulated signal. It is
applied to the tuned transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination) which is offset from the centre
carrier frequency. This converts the incoming signal from just FM to one that has amplitude
modulation superimposed upon the signal.

FM slope detector circuit showing the signal waveforms

This amplitude signal is applied to a simple diode detector circuit, D1. Here the diode provides
the rectification, while C3 removes any unwanted high frequency components, and R1 provides
a load.

FM slope detection advantages & disadvantages

The FM slope detector is not widely used. However the concept is useful to understand as its
effects may arise in some circuits.

Advantages of FM slope detectors

 Simple - can be used to provide FM demodulation when only an AM detector is present.
 Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages of FM slope detectors
 Not linear as the output is dependent upon the curve of a filter.
 Not particularly effective as it requires the signal to be centred on the falling response of
a filter. This means that the signal cannot be received at its maximum signal strength.
 Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated and this means that much
higher levels of noise and interference are experienced.
From the list of FM slope detector advantages and disadvantages, it can quickly be seen that
this form of FM demodulation has many drawbacks. As a result, any radio receiver equipped for
frequency modulation reception will include a much better FM detector / demodulator circuit
that will provide much higher levels of performance.

FM Ratio Detector: FM ratio discriminator

The ratio frequency modulation detector is an easily used form of FM demodulator very
appropriate for discrete components.

The ratio FM detector, discriminator or demodulator was widely used for demodulation of
frequency modulation for radio receivers that typically used discrete components. Now with
radios using integrated circuits other forms of FM demodulator are more applicable.

When used, the frequency modulation ratio detector was able to provide good levels of
performance with limited number of components.

The FM ratio detector may also be called an FM ratio demodulator or even an FM ratio
discriminator.

Typical transistor radio that uses a ratio FM detector

FM ratio detector basics

The two main types of FM detector or demodulator that were used in circuits using discrete
components were the ratio detector and the Foster-Seeley FM detector.

Both types were widely used, but the FM ratio detector was the more common because it
offered a better level of amplitude modulation rejection of amplitude modulation. This enabled
the circuit to provide a greater level of noise immunity as most noise is amplitude noise. It also
enabled the FM detector to operate more effectively even with with lower levels of limiting in
the preceding IF stages of the receiver.

FM ratio detector circuit

The operation of the ratio detector centres around a frequency sensitive phase shift network
with a transformer and the diodes that are effectively in series with one another. When a
steady carrier is applied to the circuit the diodes act to produce a steady voltage across the
resistors R1 and R2, and the capacitor C3 charges up as a result.

The transformer enables the circuit to detect changes in the frequency of the incoming signal. It
has three windings. The primary and secondary act in the normal way to produce a signal at the
output. The third winding is un-tuned and the coupling between the primary and the third
winding is very tight, and this means that the phasing between signals in these two windings is
the same.

The primary and secondary windings are tuned and lightly coupled. This means that there is a
phase difference of 90° between the signals in these windings at the centre frequency. If the
signal moves away from the centre frequency the phase difference will change. In turn the
phase difference between the secondary and third windings also varies. When this occurs the
voltage will subtract from one side of the secondary and add to the other causing an imbalance
across the resistors R1 and R2. As a result this causes a current to flow in the third winding and
the modulation to appear at the output.

Ratio detector advantages & disadvantages

As with any circuit there are a number of advantages and disadvantages to be considered when
choosing between several options.

Advantages of the ratio FM detector

 Simple to construct using discrete components.
 Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
 Provides a good level of immunity to amplitude noise .
 Ratio detector has wider bandwidth than Foster Seeley discriminator.
Disadvantages of the FM ratio detector
 High cost of transformer.
 Typically lends itself to use in only circuits using discrete components and not integrated
within an IC.
 Only 50% output of the Foster-Seeley discriminator
 Higher distortion level than Foster-Seeley discriminator.
As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the FM ratio detector is not widely used these
days as most radios - even low cost ones use integrated circuits. The ratio detector performs
well, but the high cost of the transformer as well as the fact that there are other circuits and
approaches that better lend themselves to use in integrated circuits means that this circuit is
not widely used today.

Foster Seeley Discriminator: FM detector / demodulator

The Foster Seeley FM discriminator, detector or demodulator enabled audio to be recovered
from frequency modulated signals using a relatively simple circuit .

The Foster Seeley circuit is probably most commonly called the Foster Seeley discriminator. This
is really a hang-over from early days of FM, and today the terms detector or probably better
demodulator would probably be used.

The Foster Seeley discriminator circuit is characterised by the transformer, choke and diodes
used within the circuit that forms the basis of its operation.

This FM demodulator circuit was invented by Dudley E. Foster and Stuart William Seeley in
1936. Although it was originally intended as a circuit to provide automatic frequency control, it
was more widely used as an FM demodulator, whilst also being able to provide a voltage for
automatic frequency control.
The Foster Seeley circuit was widely used until the 1970s when ICs using other techniques that
were more easily integrated became widely available.

The circuit was widely used for all forms of radio communications applications from
broadcasting to two way radio communications.

Foster-Seeley FM discriminator basics

The Foster Seeley detector or as it is sometimes described the Foster Seeley discriminator is
quite similar to the ratio detector at a first look. It has an RF transformer and a pair of diodes,
but there is no third winding - instead a choke is used.

FM Foster Seeley discriminator / detector circuit

In many respects the Foster Seeley FM demodulator resembles the circuit of a full wave bridge
rectifier - the format that uses a centre tapped transformer, but additional components are
added to give it a frequency sensitive aspect.

The basic operation of the circuit can be explained by looking at the instances when the
instantaneous input equals the carrier frequency, the two halves of the tuned transformer
circuit produce the same rectified voltage and the output is zero. If the frequency of the input
changes, the balance between the two halves of the transformer secondary changes, and the
result is a voltage proportional to the frequency deviation of the carrier.

Looking in more detail at the circuit, the Foster-Seeley circuit operates using a phase difference
between signals. To obtain the different phased signals a connection is made to the primary
side of the transformer using a capacitor, and this is taken to the centre tap of the transformer.
This gives a signal that is 90° out of phase.

When an un-modulated carrier is applied at the centre frequency, both diodes conduct, to
produce equal and opposite voltages across their respective load resistors. These voltages
cancel each one another out at the output so that no voltage is present. As the carrier moves
off to one side of the centre frequency the balance condition is destroyed, and one diode
conducts more than the other. This results in the voltage across one of the resistors being
larger than the other, and a resulting voltage at the output corresponding to the modulation on
the incoming signal.

The choke is required in the circuit to ensure that no RF signals appear at the output. The
capacitors C1 and C2 provide a similar filtering function.

Both the ratio detector and Foster-Seeley detectors are expensive to manufacture. Any wound
components like the RF transformers are expensive to manufacture when compared with
integrated circuits produced in vast numbers. As a result the Foster Seeley discriminator as well
as the ratio detector circuits are rarely used in modern radio receivers as FM demodulators.

Foster Seeley circuit for frequency control

Prior to the introduction of very stable local oscillators within superhet radios - the universal
format for radios receiving FM, local oscillators had a tendency to drift. Drift was a major factor
in domestic radio receivers, although it was present in all radios.

When receiving FM signals the drift meant that the incoming FM signal might drift away from
being at the centre of the FM detector slope onto the non-linear portions. This meant that the
signal would become distorted.

To overcome this, radio receivers would incorporate a facility known as automatic frequency
control was implemented. Using this, the DC offset from the FM demodulator is used to tune
the receiver local oscillator to bring it back on frequency.

FM demodulator curve produces

A DC offset is produced when the centre frequency of the carrier is not on the centre of the
demodulator curve. By filtering off the audio, only a DC component remains. Typically a long
time constant RC combination is used to achieve this. The time constant of this RC network can
be quite long as the drift of the oscillator occurs gradually over a period of seconds, and it must
also be longer than that of the lowest frequency of the audio.

AFC circuitry for a superheterodyne radio reciever

The filtered voltage is applied to a varactor diode within the local oscillator such that it causes
the local oscillator to remain on tune for the FM signal being received. In this way the receiver
can operate so that the signal being received is demodulated within the linear region of the FM
demodulator.

Essentially the effect of the AFC circuitry is to create a form of negative feedback loop that
seeks to keep the centre of the FM signal at the centre of the FM demodulation S curve. It is
essentially a frequency locked loop.

Most radios used for FM reception that have free running local oscillators incorporate an
automatic frequency control, AFC circuit. It uses only a few components and it provides for a
significant improvement in the performance of the receiver, enabling the FM signal to be
demodulated with minimum distortion despite the drift of the local oscillator signal.

Prior to the widespread introduction of frequency synthesizers, AFC was not always used in
radios such as walkie talkies and handhelds radios aimed at for two way radio communications
applications as they tended to use crystal controlled oscillators and these did not drift to any
major degree. Hence there was less requirement for an AFC.

Foster-Seeley detector advantages & disadvantages

As with any circuit there are a number of advantages and disadvantages to be considered when
choosing between the various techniques available for FM demodulation.

Advantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:

 Offers good level of performance and reasonable linearity.
 Simple to construct using discrete components.
 Provides higher output than the ratio detector
 Provides a more linear output, i.e. lower distortion than the ratio detector
Disadvantages of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator:
 Does not easily lend itself to being incorporated within an integrated circuit.
 High cost of transformer.
 Narrower bandwidth than the ratio detector
 The circuit is sensitive to both frequency and amplitude and therefore needs a limiter
before it to remove amplitude variations and hence amplitude noise.
Like all circuits, the Foster Seeley FM detector has its own advantages and disadvantages. By
understanding these it is possible to mitigate the disadvantages and utilise the advantages to
give the best performance.

As a result of its advantages and disadvantages the Foster Seeley detector or discriminator is
not widely used these days. Its main use was within radios constructed using discrete
components whether for broadcast, or radio communications including walkie talkies / hand
held radio for two way radio communications applications.

PLL FM demodulator: phase locked loop FM detector

Phase locked loops, PLLs are ideal for demodulating frequency modulation, FM being easy to
incorporate in ICs and providing a linear output.

Phase locked loop, PLL FM detectors can easily be made from the variety of phase locked loop
integrated circuits that are available, and as a result, PLL FM demodulators are found in many
types of radio equipment ranging from broadcast receivers to high performance
communications equipment.

The PLL technology started to be used when integrated circuits took over for many radio
functions. The PLL could easily be integrated into the radio IC by simply adding a little extra
circuitry to the IC. This added very little cost and only required a few external components -
normally just resistors and capacitors which are cheap.

The PLL technology eliminates the costly RF transformers needed for circuits like the ratio FM
detector and the Foster Seeley circuit. Typically a phase locked loop FM demodulator does not
require the use of an inductor, let alone a transformer which is even more costly to
manufacture.

PLL FM demodulation basics

The way in which a phase locked loop, PLL FM demodulator works is relatively straightforward.
It requires no changes to the basic phase locked loop, itself, utilising the basic operation of the
loop to provide the required output.

Note on the Phase Locked Loop, PLL:

The phase locked loop, PLL is a very useful RF building block. The PLL uses the concept of
minimising the difference in phase between two signals: a reference signal and a local oscillator
to replicate the reference signal frequency. Using this concept it is possible to use PLLs for many
applications from frequency synthesizers to FM demodulators, and signal reconstitution.

PLL Phase locked Loop FM demodulator

To look at the operation of the PLL FM demodulator take the condition where no modulation is
applied and the carrier is in the centre position of the pass-band the voltage on the tune line to
the VCO is set to the mid position.

However if the carrier deviates in frequency, the loop will try to keep the loop in lock. For this
to happen the VCO frequency must follow the incoming signal, and in turn for this to occur the
tune line voltage must vary.

Monitoring the tune line shows that the variations in voltage correspond to the modulation
applied to the signal. By amplifying the variations in voltage on the tune line it is possible to
generate the demodulated signal.

Although no basic changes to the phase locked loop are required for it to be able to
demodulate FM, a buffer amplifier is typically provided from the tune line to prevent the tune
line being loaded by other sections of the receiver. It provides a lower output impedance and as
a result, this prevents loading from the audio amplifier from upsetting the lop in any way.
PLL Phase locked Loop FM demodulator with buffered output

There are many different ICs that enable FM to be demodulated. One of the most popular has
been the 565 that has been around for many years in a variety of forms. Even though the circuit
is quite old, it performs well, and often little will be gained by going to other chips.

PLL FM demodulator performance

The PLL FM demodulator is normally considered a relatively high performance form of FM

demodulator or detector. Accordingly they are used in many FM receiver applications.

The PLL FM demodulator has a number of key advantages:

 Linearity:   One of the advantages of the PLL FM demodulator is its high degree of
linearity. This is governed by the voltage to frequency characteristic of the VCO within the
phase locked loop. Normally the phase locked loop will be able to operate over a wide
bandwidth - normally this is much wider than the bandwidth of the FM signal or even the IF
stages of the FM receiver. As the frequency deviation of the incoming FM signal covers only
a small portion of the PLL bandwidth the overall conversion is very linear. The VCO voltage
to frequency curve is the main determining factor and this can be made to be very linear for
the range needed for FM demodulation. Distortion levels for PLL FM demodulators are
normally very low and are typically of the order of a tenth of a percent. This makes the PLL
FM demodulator a very good option for high fidelity tuners as well as for many other
applications including radio communications, etc.
 Insensitive to amplitude noise:   In general the phase locked loop FM demodulator is
very insensitive to amplitude noise. As the phase locked loop will track the frequency of the
incoming signal, it provides a relatively high degree of AM noise immunity. Obviously it can
help if the IF amplifier of the radio is run into saturation such that the signal level is limited
and noise is removed, but even on its own the PLL FM demodulator provides good noise
immunity.
 Ease of incorporation into ICs:   Phase locked loops are very easy to implement in an
integrated circuit. PLLs have long been available as ICs and this has meant that the
technology is easy to implement. Also the PLL FM demodulator blocks are available for IC
 designers, and therefore many radio IF amplifier ICs have demodulators for AM and FM built
in. Often the FM demodulator can be a phase locked loop demodulator.
 Manufacturing costs:   As the phase locked loop FM demodulator lends itself to
integrated circuit technology, only a few external components are required to complete the
FM demodulator. One particular advantage is that often no inductor is required for the VCO
circuit. As inductors are relatively expensive components, this can considerably reduce
overall component costs and make this approach very attractive for large scale manufacture.
These facts make the PLL FM demodulator particularly attractive for modern applications.

PLL FM demodulator design considerations

When designing a phase locked loop system for use as an FM demodulator, one of the key
considerations is the loop filter. This must be chosen to be sufficiently wide that it is able to
follow the anticipated variations of the frequency modulated signal. Accordingly the loop
response time should be short when compared to the anticipated shortest time scale of the
variations of the signal being demodulated. A further design consideration is the linearity of the
VCO. This should be designed for the voltage to frequency curve to be as linear as possible over
the signal range that will be encountered, i.e. the centre frequency plus and minus the
maximum deviation anticipated. In general the PLL VCO linearity is not a major problem for
average systems, but some attention may be required to ensure the linearity is sufficiently good
for hi-fi systems.

Phase locked loop FM demodulators are used in many radio receivers both domestic and professional
for the demodulation of FM signals. The PLL FM demodulator provides a very attractive option in many
instances, offering exceedingly low levels of distortion, and the ability to be incorporated into integrated
circuit technology.

Quadrature FM Demodulator / Detector Tutorial

The quadrature FM detector or demodulator is used in many FM radios and receivers.

The FM quadrature demodulator and its relation the coincidence detector or demodulator
provide another form of FM detector circuit that is used in many areas, being easily
incorporated into integrated circuits.

The quadrature detector required the use of very few components, but does require a coil.
However as the inductor is only a coil and not a transformer the cost impact can be
accommodated for many radio receiver designs.

In terms of its performance, the quadrature detector and its relation the coincidence detector
offer a high level of performance with excellent linearity.

FM quadrature demodulator basics

The circuit for the quadrature demodulator is quite straightforward consisting of a mixer, a
resistor, two capacitors and an inductor. There is also a low pass filter to follow the mixer, but
this also can be quite straightforward.

The incoming signal is split into two components. The first enters the mixer directly, but the
second is phase shifted. The phase shift is 90° for the carrier, but the deviation on the carrier
will cause the phase shift to change slightly. Dependent upon the amount of deviation.

The original signal and the phase shifted signal are then passed into a multiplier or mixer.

Quadrature FM demodulator

The mixer output is dependent upon the phase difference between the two signals, i.e. it acts
as a phase detector and produces a voltage output that is proportional to the phase difference
and hence to the level of deviation on the signal.

Diode ring phase detector response curve

If the operation of the system is designed to ensure that the deviation remains well away from
the ±90° points, then the linearity remains very good.
In terms of performance, the quadrature detector is able to operate with relatively low input
levels, typically down to levels of around 100 microvolts and it is very easy to set up requiring
only the phase shift network to be tuned to the centre frequency of the expected signal. It also
provides good linearity and this results in low levels of distortion.

Coincidence FM demodulator

Often the analogue multiplier is replaced by a logic AND gate and the input signal is hard limited
to produce a variable frequency pulse waveform.

Coincidence FM demodulator

The operation of the circuit is fundamentally the same, but it is known as a coincidence
detector. Also the output of the AND gate has an integrator to 'average' the output waveform
to provide the required audio output, otherwise it would consist of a series of square wave
pulses.

Quadrature detector advantages & disadvantages

The quadrature detector offers significant advantages for many circuits, but as with any
decision, a number of different advantages and disadvantages have to be considered when
selecting a given circuit for FM demodulation.

Advantages of FM quadrature demodulator

 Offers good level of performance and including linearity.
 Can be incorporated into an integrated circuit.
 Very simple circuit - easy to ensure it operates correctly.
Disadvantages of FM quadrature demodulator
 Requires the use of a coil - this is not a major issue as a simple coil is used and an RF
transformer is not needed as in the case of the ratio and Foster Seeley circuits.
 Some designs may require setting during manufacture.
The quadrature detector is ideal for many radio receiver applications. Despite the fact that it
needs a coil to provide the required phase shift, it is often used because it lends itself to easy
incorporation into an integrated circuit and its is very simple to implement. The facts that the
quadrature detector and coincidence detectors require a coil is not a major disadvantage
because a simple coil can be used

What is MSK: Minimum Shift Keying Modulation

MSK, Minimum Shift Keying is a form of continuous phase frequency shift keying, providing
spectrum efficiency & enabling efficient RF power amplifier operation.

Minimum shift keying, MSK, is a form frequency modulation based on a system called
continuous-phase frequency-shift keying.

Minimum shift keying, MSK offers advantages in terms of spectral efficiency when compared to
other similar modes, and it also enables power amplifiers to operate in saturaton enabling
them to provide high levels of efficiency.

Reason for Minimum Shift Keying, MSK

It is found that binary data consisting of sharp transitions between "one" and "zero" states and
vice versa potentially creates signals that have sidebands extending out a long way from the
carrier, and this creates problems for many radio communications systems, as any sidebands
outside the allowed bandwidth cause interference to adjacent channels and any radio
communications links that may be using them.

MSK, minimum shift keying has the feature that there are no phase discontinuities and this
significantly reduces the bandwidth needed over other forms of phase and frequency shift
keying.

Minimum Shift Keying, MSK basics

The problem can be overcome in part by filtering the signal, but is found that the transitions in
the data become progressively less sharp as the level of filtering is increased and the bandwidth
reduced. To overcome this problem GMSK is often used and this is based on Minimum Shift
Keying, MSK modulation. The advantage of which is what is known as a continuous phase
scheme. Here there are no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the
carrier zero crossing points.

When looking at a plot of a signal using MSK modulation, it can be seen that the modulating
data signal changes the frequency of the signal and there are no phase discontinuities. This
arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency difference between the logical
one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate. This can be expressed in terms
of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.

Concept of a minimum shift keying, MSK signal

MSK is a particularly effective form of modulation where data communications is required.

Although QAM and PSK are used for many other systems, MWK is able to provide relatively
efficient spectrum usage. As it is a form of frequency modulation, this enables RF power
amplifiers to operate in saturation, thereby enabling them to operate as efficiently as possible.
If amplitude variations are present these need to be preserved and amplifiers cannot run in
saturation and this significantly limits the efficiency levels attainable.

What is PM, Phase Modulation

Phase modulation, PM can be used for both analogue and digital data, but it is for data & phase
shift keying that it is most widely used.

As the name implies, phase modulation, PM uses variations in phase for carrying the
modulation.

As phase and frequency are interrelated, this relationship carries forwards into phase
modulation where it has many commonalities with frequency modulation. As a result the term
angle modulation is often use to describe both.

Phase modulation, PM is sometimes used for analogue transmission, but it has become the
basis for modulation schemes used for carrying data. Phase shoft keying, PSK is widely used for
data communication.
Phase modulation is also the basis of a form of modulation known as quadrature amplitude
modulation, where both phase and amplitude are varied to provide additional capabilities.

Phase modulation basics

Before looking at phase modulation it is first necessary to look at phase itself. A radio frequency
signal consists of an oscillating carrier in the form of a sine wave is the basis of the signal. The
instantaneous amplitude follows this curve moving positive and then negative, returning to the
start point after one complete cycle - it follows the curve of the sine wave.

A Sine Wave

The sine wave can also be represented by the movement of a point around a circle, the phase
at any given point being the angle between the start point and the point on the waveform as
shown.

Phase angle of points on a sine wave

Also the phase advances as time progresses so points on the waveform can be said to have a
phase difference between them.
 Phase difference between signals

Phase modulation works by modulating the phase of the signal, i.e. changing the rate at which
the point moves around the circle. This changes the phase of the signal from what it would
have been if no modulation was applied. In other words the speed of rotation around the circle
is modulated about the mean value.
 Phase modulation concept

To achieve this it is necessary to change the frequency of the signal for a short time. In other
words when phase modulation is applied to a signal there are frequency changes and vice
versa. Phase and frequency are inseparably linked as phase is the integral of frequency.

Frequency modulation can be changed to phase modulation by simply adding a CR network to

the modulating signal that integrates the modulating signal. As such the information regarding
sidebands, bandwidth and the like also hold true for phase modulation as they do for frequency
modulation, bearing in mind their relationship.

Forms of phase modulation

Although phase modulation is used for some analogue transmissions, it is far more widely used
as a digital form of modulation where it switches between different phases. This is known as
phase shift keying, PSK, and there are many flavours of this. It is even possible to combine
phase shift keying and amplitude keying in a form of modulation known as quadrature
amplitude modulation, QAM.

The list below gives some of the forms of phase shift keying that are used:

 PM - Phase Modulation
 PSK - Phase Shift Keying
 BPSK - Binary Phase Shift Keying
 QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
 8 PSK - 8 Point Phase Shift Keying
 16 PSK - 16 Point Phase Shift Keying
 OPSK - Offset Phase Shift Keying
These are just some of the major forms of phase modulation that are widely used in radio
communications applications today. With today's highly software adaptable radio
communications systems, it is possible to change between the different types of modulation to
best meet the prevailing conditions.

Since the introduction of digital or data communications, the use of phase modulation in the
form of phase shift keying has grown very significantly. Previously there were few advantages
to its use. Now it is widely used along with quadrature amplitude modulation which
incorporates phase elements to its operation as well as amplitude. With data communications
only set to increase various forms of phase modulation, or forms of modulation that use phase
elements will continue to rise.

What is PSK, Phase Shift Keying

- overview, information and tutorial about the basics of what is phase shift keying, PSK, used for
radio communications applications, and in particular for digital forms of radio communications.

Phase shift keying, PSK, is widely used these days within a whole raft of radio communications
systems. It is particularly well suited to the growing area of data communications. PSK, phase
shift keying enables data to be carried on a radio communications signal in a more efficient
manner than Frequency Shift Keying, FSK, and some other forms of modulation.

With more forms of communications transferring from analogue formats to digital formats,
data communications is growing in importance, and along with it the various forms of
modulation that can be used to carry data.

There are several flavours of phase shift keying, PSK that are available for use. Each form has its
own advantages and disadvantages, and a choice of the optimum format has to be made for
each radio communications system that is designed. To make the right choice it is necessary to
have a knowledge and understanding of the way in which PSK works.

Phase Shift Keying, PSK, basics

Like any form of shift keying, there are defined states or points that are used for signalling the
data bits. The basic form of binary phase shift keying is known as Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK) or it is occasionally called Phase Reversal Keying (PRK). A digital signal alternating
between +1 and -1 (or 1 and 0) will create phase reversals, i.e. 180 degree phase shifts as the
data shifts state.

The problem with phase shift keying is that the receiver cannot know the exact phase of the
transmitted signal to determine whether it is in a mark or space condition. This would not be
possible even if the transmitter and receiver clocks were accurately linked because the path
length would determine the exact phase of the received signal. To overcome this problem PSK
systems use a differential method for encoding the data onto the carrier. This is accomplished,
for example, by making a change in phase equal to a one, and no phase change equal to a zero.
Further improvements can be made upon this basic system and a number of other types of
phase shift keying have been developed. One simple improvement can be made by making a
change in phase by 90 degrees in one direction for a one, and 90 degrees the other way for a
zero. This retains the 180 degree phase reversal between one and zero states, but gives a
distinct change for a zero. In a basic system not using this process it may be possible to loose
synchronisation if a long series of zeros are sent. This is because the phase will not change state
for this occurrence.

There are many variations on the basic idea of phase shift keying. Each one has its own
advantages and disadvantages enabling system designers to choose the one most applicable for
any given circumstances. Other common forms include QPSK (Quadrature phase shift keying)
where four phase states are used, each at 90 degrees to the other, 8-PSK where there are eight
states and so forth.

PSK constellation diagrams

It is often convenient to represent a phase shift keyed signal, and sometimes other types of
signal using a phasor or constellation diagram. Using this scheme, the phase of the signal is
represented by the angle around the circle, and the amplitude by the distance from the origin
or centre of the circle. In this way the can be signal resolved into quadrature components
representing the sine or I for In-phase component and the cosine for the quadrature
component. Most phase shift keyed systems use a constant amplitude and therefore points
appear on one circle with a constant amplitude and the changes in state being represented by
movement around the circle. For binary shift keying using phase reversals the two points
appear at opposite points on the circle. Other forms of phase shift keying may use different
points on the circle and there will be more points on the circle.

When plotted using test equipment errors may be seen from the ideal positions on the phase
diagram. These errors may appear as the result of inaccuracies in the modulator and
transmission and reception equipment, or as noise that enters the system. It can be imagined
that if the position of the real measurement when compared to the ideal position becomes too
large, then data errors will appear as the receiving demodulator is unable to correctly detect
the intended position of the point around the circle.
Using a constellation view of the signal enables quick fault finding in a system. If the problem is
related to phase, the constellation will spread around the circle. If the problem is related to
magnitude, the constellation will spread off the circle, either towards or away from the origin.
These graphical techniques assist in isolating problems much faster than when using other
techniques.

QPSK is used for the forward link form the base station to the mobile in the IS-95 cellular
system and uses the absolute phase position to represent the symbols. There are four phase
decision points, and when transitioning from one state to another, it is possible to pass through
the circle's origin, indicating minimum magnitude.

On the reverse link from mobile to base station, O-QPSK is used to prevent transitions through
the origin. Consider the components that make up any particular vector on the constellation
diagram as X and Y components. Normally, both of these components would transition
simultaneously, causing the vector to move through the origin. In O-QPSK, one component is
delayed, so the vector will move down first, and then over, thus avoiding moving through the
origin, and simplifying the radio's design. A constellation diagram will show the accuracy of the
modulation.

Forms of phase shift keying

Although phase modulation is used for some analogue transmissions, it is far more widely used
as a digital form of modulation where it switches between different phases. This is known as
phase shift keying, PSK, and there are many flavours of this. It is even possible to combine
phase shift keying and amplitude keying in a form of modulation known as quadrature
amplitude modulation, QAM.

The list below gives some of the more commonly used forms of phase shift keying, PSK, and
related forms of modulation that are used:

 PSK - Phase Shift Keying

 BPSK - Binary Phase Shift Keying
 QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
 O-QPSK - Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
 8 PSK - 8 Point Phase Shift Keying
 16 PSK - 16 Point Phase Shift Keying
These are just some of the major forms of phase shift keying, PSK, that are widely used in radio
communications applications today. Each form of phase shift keying has its own advantages and
disadvantages. In general the higher order forms of modulation allow higher data rates to be
carried within a given bandwidth. However the downside is that the higher data rates require a
better signal to noise ratio before the error rates start to rise and this counteracts any
improvements in data rate performance. In view of this balance many radio communications
systems are able to dynamically choose the form of modulation depending upon the prevailing
conditions and requirements.