Lecture Notes on:

Compressible Flow (ME 254)

For ME Students

Adel A. Abdel-Rahman
Mech. Eng. Dept.,
Alexandria University

2017
 Contents

Topic Page

(1) Introduction & Concepts to Compressible Flow 1

(2) Isentropic Flow 17

(3) Normal Shock Waves 32

(4) Supersonic Wind Tunnels 48

(5) Supersonic Inlets 58

(6) Flow in Ducts with Frictional Effects 70

(7) Flow in Ducts with Heating or Cooling 90

(8) Propulsion Engine Systems 100

1
 References

1. A. H. Shapiro (1953): The dynamics and Thermodynamics of

Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume I., New York: Ronald Press.

2. P. H. Oosthuizen and W. E. Carscallen (1997): Compressible

Fluid Flow. McGraw-Hill International Edition.

3. B. R. Munson, D. F. Young and T. H. Okishi (1994):

Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics (Chapter 11), 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4. B. K. Hodge and K. Koenig (1995): Compressible Fluid

Dynamics with Personal Computer Applications, New Jersy:
Prentice Hall.

5. M. A. Saad: Compressible Fluid Flow, Englewood Cliffs, New

Jersey: Prentice Hall.

2
 Introduction

Gas Dynamics: Dynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow

???

Density Changes are Large (≈ ∆ρ > 5%)

Example Applications: Aircraft - Gas pipeline at high pressure

& temperature - Compressors – and many others.

A Fluid: Is a substance that deforms CONTINUOUSLY under the

application of a shear stress (what about a solid ??)

Scope of Fluid Mechanics: Fluid Mechanics is concerned with

the study of any system in which a fluid is used such as;
1) Aircraft
2) Automobiles
3) Submarines
4) Rockets
5) Flow around buildings (sky scrapers ??.)
6) Shopping malls
7) All kinds of sports
8) Fluid machines; pumps, compressors, fans
9) Pipelines
10) Medical ….. heart , respiratory system, …

3
 If Fluid is compressible, it is Gas Dynamics

Basic Equations:
Analysis of any system of compressible flow starts with the basic
laws of fluid motion;
1) Conservation of mass
2) Newton's 2nd law of motion
3) Principle of angular momentum
4) 1st law of thermodynamics
5) 2nd law of thermodynamics
In addition, - Equation of state of a perfect gas
- Relation between shear stress and rate of
deformation of a fluid
- Fourier law of heat conduction

Concept of a Continuum:

Matter

Microscopic Macroscopic

Molecular structure In engineering life, interest is in

gross behavior as a continuous
material
Trace each individual molecule &
set equations for
(Kinetic theory or statistical Continuum
mechanics)

4
Methods of Analysis:
 Define the system to be solved; System or Control Volume
 System: it is a fixed identifiable quantity of mass: boundaries
(fixed or movable) – surrounding …… Lagrangian Motion
 C.V.: it is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid
flows: C.V., boundaries (C.S.; fixed, movable, real, imaginary,
at rest, or in motion) ……………………… Eulerian Motion

Reynolds Transport Theory

● It is the technique used to reformulate the system analysis to the
control-volume analysis
i.e; we need to relate the time derivative of a property of a system to
the rate of change of that property within a certain region (C.V.)

● If B is any property of the fluid like mass, energy, momentum,

…(note that all are extensive properties).
 intensive value for a small portion of the fluid is :
dB
dm
 the total amount of B in the control volume is BCV, where:

dB
BCV   dm  dV
CV

dBsys dBCV
 RTT wants to relate with
dt dt

dBsys d dB
i.e;
dt
  dm  dV
dt CV

5
 dBsys  dB dB

dt
 
t CV dm
 dV  
dm
 (V.dA)
CS

Now, if we let:

(1) B = m, we get mass conservation equation;

dmsys 
dt
   dV    (V.dA)
t CV CS

Since the mass within a fixed-mass system must necessarily be

conserved(dmsys/dt = 0), then:


  dV    (V.dA)  0.0
t CV CS

(2) B = mV, we get linear momentum equation;

d(mV ) 
dt
  V  dV   V (V.dA)
t CV CS

d(mV)
and since Newton's second law of motion states: F  dt

Then, linear momentum equation for a control volume is:


 F  t  V  dV   V (V.dA)
CV CS

(3) B = E, we get Energy equation;

dE  dE
  e  dV   e  (V.dA) , e
dt t CV CS
dm

6
Example:
Water is being added to a storage tank at a rate of 200 liters/min. At the
same time, water flows out the bottom through a 5 cm inside diameter
pipe, with an average velocity of 18 m/s. The storage tank has an inside
diameter of 3 m. Find the rate at which the water level rises or falls.

Solution: Qi=200lit/mi
n18m/s i

AT h

Ve=18m/s

Mass conservation equation is


0.0    dV    (V.dA)
t CV CS

dV
w  w Ve A e  w Vi Ai  0.0
dt
dV
  Vi A i  Ve A e  Qi  Ve A e
dt
, V  AT h
dV dh
  AT
dt dt
dh Q  Ve A e
  i  0.0045 m / s  4.5 mm/s
dt AT
 The water level is falling by 4.5 mm/s

7
Example:
The figure shown below is a schematic of a rocket engine mounted on a
test stand in standard atmospheric conditions. The area of the nozzle exit
plane is 225 cm2, the velocity of exhaust gases is 1780 m/s and the mass
flow rate is 1 kg/s. If the pressure at the nozzle exit plane is 180 kPa, find
the thrust force of the rocket engine. Assume steady state, and uniform
(average or one-dimensional) flow conditions at the exit plane.

Rocket

Exhaust gases Thrust force (F)

Test stand
e
Solution:

Ve=1780 m/s
F

Ae = 225 cm2
Pe = 180 kPa

Considering the rocket as a control volume, the linear momentum

equation is:


 F  t  V  dV   V (V.dA)
CV CS

This equation for steady state (where the rate of change of momentum
within the control volume is zero) and average values for velocities and
densities simplifies to:

8
 F  0.0  V (V A) e  V (V A) i

 F - (pe  pa )Ae  m
 (Ve  Vi ) , Vi  0.0

 F  - (p e  pa )Ae  m
 Ve

 225 
 F  - (180  100 )  103   4   1  1780
 10 
 F  3580 N

i.e; the thrust of the rocket engine is equal to 3580 N to the right
direction, opposite to what is shown in the previous figure.

9
Review of Perfect Gases
R
R , where
M
R is the universal gas constant,  8314 m 2 / s 2 K  8314 J/kg K,
R is the gas constant &
M is the gas molecular weight
p
Perfect gas law : ρ  ,
RT
Gas constant : R  cp - c v  const. ,
cp
Specific heat ratio : k   const.
cv
R
Specific heat at constant volume : c v  ,
k 1
kR
Specific heat at constant pressure : cp 
k 1
For air:
M = 28.97, k = 1.4 , R = 287 m 2 /s 2 K ,
c v  718 m 2 / s2 K & c p  1005 m 2 / s 2 K

Internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of a perfect gas may be

represented by the following equations:
T2 p
du  c vdT , dh  cpdT , s 2  s1  cpln  Rln 2
T1 p1
T p
For isentropic flow (s1  s 2 ), equation s 2  s1  c pln 2  Rln 2 leads to :
T1 p1
k
p 2  T2  k 1
 
p1  T1 

10
 Speed of Sound ?

P  P V=0.0 P
∆V C
   c 
T  T x Moving pulse T

P  P P
C-∆V C
   
T  T Stationary pulse
T

Conservation of mass for CV is:


  dV    (V.A)  0.0
t CV CS

Conservati on of mass for one - dimensiona l flow :

AC  (  )A(C  V)

 V  C (1)
  

Momentum equation for one - dimensiona l flow :


F  m
 (Vout  Vin )
 PA  (P  P)A  AC(C  V  C)
 P  CV (2)

Equations (1) and (2) lead to:

p   
C2  1  
   
, and as   0
 p  , a is called the speed of sound
 C2  a 2    but what about subscript s ……. ???
  S

11
 Speed of Sound of a perfect gas & isentropic process
p
 const for isentropic process
k
dp d  p  p
 k    k
p    S 
, for a perfect gas,
 p  p
a     k  kRT
  S 

For air (where k = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg K)

 a  (1.4) (287) T  20.05 T m/s

= 340.26 m/s for T=15ºC (288 K)

Speed of Sound of liquids & solids

For liquids and solids, the bulk modulus  of the material is defined as:

dp dp
-V 
dV d
dp 
 
d 

a 

● For water, bulk modulus of elasticity = 2x109 N/m2 at 15ºC.
2  10 9
a   1414 m / s , which is around 4 times the speed of
10 3
sound in air at the same temperature.
● At same temperature, sound travels through steel at 6000
m/s, which is around 4 times the speed of sound in water.

12
Pressure Field Created by a Moving Point Disturbance

Subsonic (u < a)

3at
2at

at

Motion of
d c b a

Point source ut ut ut

Airplane flying slower than the speed of sound with

pressure waves moving out from around it

13
 Supersonic (u > a)

Mach Cone

3at
Zone of Silence

2at Zone of
at action
d  c b a

ut ut ut

3at a 1
Sin    
3ut u M
,  is called the Mach angle

Airplane flying at supersonic speed with shock waves

moving away and behind the airplane

14
 Incompressible (u ≈ 0.0)

3at
2at

at

Mach angel () = ??

15
 Sonic (u = a)

3at

2at

at

d c b a

ut ut ut

Mach angel () = 90o

Airplane flying at the speed of sound with pressure waves

building up at the airplane’s nose to form a shock wave

16