Effective Action Resesarch Developing Reflective Thinking and Practice Continuum Research Methods

Effective Action
Research
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Developing Reflective
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Patrick J. M. Costello
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-1-4411-6375-2 (paperback)

978-1-4411-3326-7 (hardcover)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Costello, Patrick J. M., 1959–
Effective action research: developing reflective thinking and practice /
Patrick Costello.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4411-6375-2 (pbk.)
1. Action research in education. I. Title.
LB1028.24.C69 2011
370.72–dc22
2010020557
Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems Pvt Ltd, Chennai, India

Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd
This book is for my son, Thomas Rónan Costello.
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Contents
List of Illustrations ix
Acknowledgements x
Introduction 1
1 What is Action Research? 3

The nature of action research 3
Models of action research 8
2 Why Undertake Action Research? 15

The teacher as reflective practitioner 16
Relationships between educational theory and practice 17
The teacher as researcher 20
Teaching as a research-based profession 21
Problems with educational research 21
Teacher research and school improvement 23
Research and teachers’ continuing professional development 24
The importance of action research 28
3 How Do I Develop an Action Research Project? 31

Choosing a research topic 31
Developing a research proposal 32
Undertaking a literature search and review 33
Working with your tutor 35
Undertaking action research projects: some preliminary considerations 42
viii Contents
4 How Do I Collect Action Research Data? 45

Collecting action research data: some preliminary considerations 45
Rigour in action research 52
Examples of action research projects 57
5 How Do I Analyse Action Research Data? 65

Analysing research data 66
A model of action research revisited 73
Concluding comments 77
6 How Do I Produce an Action Research Report? 79

Requirements and guidelines for writing action research reports 79
7 How Will My Action Research Report be Assessed? 87

A model of assessing progress in argument in higher education 88
Students’ views of assessment 91
Assessing research projects: some examples 93
8 How Do I Publish My Action Research Report? 101

Students’ experiences of writing for publication 101
Publishing action research reports in journals 104
Publishing action research reports through presenting conference papers 105
9 Recommended Further Reading 113

The importance of reading widely 113
Recommended further reading 114
10 Endnote: The Theory and Practice of Action Research 117

Rationale for the format of this book 117
Developing reflective thinking and practice 118
Bibliography 121
Index 129
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 A basic action research model. 8
Figure 1.2 An extended action research model. 9
Figure 1.3 A representation of Denscombe’s action research model. 12
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 An ethical approval form preliminary checklist. 48
Figure 4.2 Details of your research project. 49
Figure 4.3 Research project information sheet. 50
Figure 4.4 Research project consent form. 51
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Observation chart. 67
Figure 5.2 Questionnaire. 69
Figure 5.3 Observation chart 1. 74
Figure 5.4 Observation chart 2. 75
Figure 5.5 A model of argument. 76
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Format for an undergraduate / postgraduate
research project report. 80
Figure 6.2 Format for a funded research project report. 81
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 A model of assessing progress in argument in
higher education. 89
Figure 7.2 Questionnaire for students in higher education. 91
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Questionnaire. 102
Figure 8.2 Proposal to present a paper at a national conference. 106
Figure 8.3 Proposal to present a paper at an international
conference. 107
Figure 8.4 PowerPoint presentation. 108
Acknowledgements
I should like to thank the following:
z Alison Clark and Christina Garbutt, Commissioning Editors at Continuum, for their
kind invitation to write this book.
z Dr. Donald Costello for the many discussions we have had about the theory and
practice of action research.
z Glyndw ˆ r University Wrexham for the award of a Research Fellowship, which enabled
me to undertake desk-based research to underpin the arguments presented here.
z The College of Teachers for permission to draw on some of the research published in
my paper ‘Can we teach students in higher education to think critically?’ (Education
Today, Vol. 59, No. 1, 2009, pp. 20–25).
z Professor Rob Norris, formerly Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Education, North East
Wales Institute of Higher Education, on whose assessment of an undergraduate
examination paper the schema outlined in Figure 7.1 is based.
Since 1986, I have had the opportunity to test and improve my thinking about
many of the key ideas presented in this book. With this in mind, I am very
grateful to those teachers and student teachers with whom I have worked, at
the University of Hull, Glyndŵr University Wrexham, and on behalf of the
General Teaching Council for Wales, to develop a broad range of action
research projects.
Introduction
The central aims of this book are to enable practitioners (students, teachers or
researchers) to undertake effective action research and to offer an account of
an action research project. The volume is divided into ten chapters, the first
eight of which are headed by a commonly-asked question. Having examined
the nature of action research and arguments for undertaking it in educational
settings, I shall focus on developing an appropriate project, data collection and
analysis, and producing, assessing and publishing action research reports.
Chapter 9 provides suggestions for further reading and I conclude by offering
a rationale for the format I have chosen to adopt in writing the book.
This volume is based on an earlier work, Action Research (Costello, 2003).
I welcomed the invitation to update and expand on what I had written
previously, as well as to add new chapters, not least because of the growing
popularity of action research, which is currently very much in vogue. As is
evident from the number of books and other publications that have been
written on it in recent years (see Dick, 2004, 2006, 2009 and Chapter 9), many
educators and other professionals have been adopting action research as their
preferred mode of enquiry in a broad range of contexts. While the book is
aimed primarily at practitioners undertaking a broad range of Education
courses, it may also be used as a generic text for those undertaking action
research projects in other disciplines. For example, a Google search of ‘Action
Research, Costello’ reveals that the earlier volume has been referred to by
researchers in the fields of, inter alia: archaeology, engineering, management,
agriculture, public relations, music therapy, and cultural studies.
Encouraging students to think critically is one of the central objectives of
higher education (Judge et al., 2009; Moon, 2005). Linked to this is a concern,
expressed by lecturers across a broad range of academic disciplines, that
2 Effective Action Research
students should learn how to develop and present arguments (Costello, 2007b,
2009a). Indeed, whether you are participating in a group discussion, writing
an essay or undertaking a research project, your ability to employ argument
and to evaluate the arguments of others will generally be an important measure
of achievement. Given this, the development of critical thinking, reasoning and
argument skills in higher education is crucial. Frequently, these skills are taught
through study skills programmes (Burke et al., 2005; Durkin and Main, 2002;
Goldfinch and Hughes, 2007), and/or research methodology seminars. A key
theme of this book is to enable you to enhance such skills.
My main emphasis here will be on undertaking effective action research in
the context of developing your reflective thinking and practice (Bolton, 2005;
Hedberg, 2009). By ‘effective’ action research, I mean research that is under-
taken with a specific aim or aims, that is conducted rigorously, using a variety
of methods for collecting data, and that is reported accurately and fully,
with appropriate conclusions and recommendations for future practice being
offered. As we shall see in Chapter 1, action research involves a close relation-
ship between reflection and action. Therefore, I shall focus throughout the
book on reflective thinking as a means to underpin practice (Pollard, 2002;
Pollard et al., 2008; Taggart and Wilson, 2005). To this end, I have devised a
series of ‘Reflective Thinking Exercises’ for you to consider as you work
your way through the chapters. These exercises are intended to help you to
develop your own action research project and to complete it successfully.
I have also referred to some of my own research projects, in order both to
illustrate key themes and to offer additional examples of collecting and
presenting research data.
What is Action Research? 1
Chapter Outline
The nature of action research 3
Models of action research 8
My aim in this chapter is to offer an answer to the question ‘What is action

research?’ In order to do this, I shall focus on two key themes:
z the nature of action research;

z the models of action research.
The nature of action research

In order to undertake an action research project within educational settings,
we need to begin by giving some thought to the question: ‘What is action
research?’ This, in turn, raises two further questions: ‘What is research?’ and
‘What is educational research?’ How are we to respond to these questions?
One effective way of doing so is to place them in order, beginning with the
most general, and then to do some reading and thinking about each in turn:
z What is research?
z What is educational research?
z What is action research?
Of the three questions, the most general is: ‘What is research?’ As a starting
point, it is useful to examine some texts that discuss a broad range of approaches
to engaging in research. These reveal that there are: (1) many different types
of research; (2) numerous views as to the nature of each, how it should be
conducted and what it aims to achieve.
For example, when discussing social research, Robson (2002, p. 26) cites the
following: ‘ethnography, quantitative behavioural science, phenomenology,
action research, hermeneutics, evaluation research, feminist research, critical
social science, historical-comparative research, and theoretical research’. It is
useful to compare this list with some examples offered by Blaxter et al. (2001,
p. 5): ‘pure, applied and strategic research; descriptive, explanatory and
evaluation research . . . exploratory, testing-out and problem-solving research;
covert, adversarial and collaborative research; basic, applied, instrumental and
action research.’
When reading general texts, you will see many references to these (and
other) kinds of research. At this stage, it is important to note several points.
First of all, do not be confused or distracted by the ‘labels’ that are attached to
various kinds of research. Instead, ask yourself:
z What sorts of practices are being engaged in by those who undertake action research,
ethnography, evaluation research etc.?
z What rationale is offered to support these practices?
In looking for commonalities between the types of research they cite, Blaxter
et al. (2001, p. 5) offer a succinct summary: ‘the basic characteristics shared by
all of these . . . are that they are, or aim to be, planned, cautious, systematic and
reliable ways of finding out or deepening understanding’.
Second, look for references to the particular kinds of research in which
you are interested. For our purposes, both of the above lists are useful because
they include ‘action research’. Third, before moving on to examine more
substantial accounts of action research, read and think carefully about the
briefer outlines given by writers such as those cited above. Then ask yourself
key questions:
z What do these outlines have in common?

z What is distinctive (if anything) about each?
Having considered the question ‘What is research?’ which he defines as
‘systematic, critical and self-critical enquiry which aims to contribute to the
advancement of knowledge and wisdom’, Bassey (1999, p. 38) moves on to
offer a response to the question, ‘What is educational research?’ Such research,
he argues, ‘is critical enquiry aimed at informing educational judgements and
decisions in order to improve educational action’ (p. 39). I shall return to the
idea of ‘critical enquiry’ in Chapter 2. In the meantime, Bassey’s definition,
focusing as it does on the improvement of educational action, leads us to the
third question ‘What is action research?’
In order to answer this question, we will consider some definitions:
‘Action research is a process of systematic reflection, enquiry and action carried out by
individuals about their own professional practices’ (Frost, 2002, p. 25).
‘Action research is a term used to describe professionals studying their own practice in
order to improve it’ (GTCW, 2002b, p. 15).
’Educational action research is an enquiry which is carried out in order to understand, to
evaluate and then to change, in order to improve some educational practice’ (Bassey,
1998, p. 93).
‘Action research combines a substantive act with a research procedure; it is action
disciplined by enquiry, a personal attempt at understanding while engaged in a
process of improvement and reform’ (Hopkins, 2008, p. 47).
‘Action research . . . is applied research, carried out by practitioners who have them-
selves identified a need for change or improvement’ (Bell, 2005, p. 8).
‘When applied to teaching, [action research] involves gathering and interpreting data to
better understand an aspect of teaching and learning and applying the outcomes to
improve practice’ (GTCW, 2002b, p. 15).
‘Action research is a flexible spiral process which allows action (change, improvement) and
research (understanding, knowledge) to be achieved at the same time’ (Dick, 2002).
‘Action research is . . . usually described as cyclic, with action and critical reflection tak-
ing place in turn. The reflection is used to review the previous action and plan the next
one’ (Dick, 1997).
‘[Action research] is an approach or an umbrella term, which . . . has proved to be
attractive to educators . . . because of its emphasis on practice and problem-solving
over a particular period of time’ (Burgess et al., 2006, p. 60).
‘[Action research] is both a sequence of events and an approach to problem solving’
Coghlan and Brannick, 2005, p. 4).
‘Action research is intended to combine a strong and rigorous research activity with a
respect for participants’ knowledge and understanding. It therefore brings together
theory and practical knowledge, to test each other with the purpose of developing
practice’ (Coleman, 2007, pp. 484–85).
Considering a variety of sources in this way enables us to develop an under-

standing of action research and its central aims. Before we explore these areas
further, please consider Reflective Thinking Exercise 1.1.
Reflective Thinking Exercise 1.1

1. Examine the above definitions of ‘action research’.
2. Identify commonalities and differences in the definitions.
3. Write out your own response to the question: ‘What is action research?’
This is an exercise I have given both to undergraduate and postgraduate

students. Results usually demonstrate a substantial amount of agreement.
Below, I outline the ten quotations once again, together with the responses
typically made by practitioners. I have indicated each new idea in bold letters
and underlined aspects covered by previous definitions. In this way, it is
possible to see quickly both areas of agreement and difference:
‘Action research is a process of systematic reflection, enquiry and action carried

out by individuals about their own professional practice’.
‘Action research is a term used to describe professionals studying their own practice
in order to improve it’.
‘Educational action research is an enquiry which is carried out in order to understand,
to evaluate and then to change, in order to improve some educational practice’.
‘Action research combines a substantive act with a research procedure; it is action
disciplined by enquiry, a personal attempt at understanding while engaged in a proc-
ess of improvement and reform’.
‘Action research . . . is applied research, carried out by practitioners who have them-
selves identified a need for change or improvement’.
‘When applied to teaching, [action research] involves gathering and interpreting
data to better understand an aspect of teaching and learning and applying the
outcomes to improve practice’.
‘Action research is a flexible spiral process which allows action (change, improvement)
and research (understanding, knowledge) to be achieved at the same time’.
‘Action research is . . . usually described as cyclic, with action and critical reflection taking
place in turn. The reflection is used to review the previous action and plan the
next one’.
‘[Action research] is an approach or an umbrella term, which . . . has proved to be
attractive to educators . . . because of its emphasis on practice and problem-
solving over a particular period of time’.
‘[Action research] is both a sequence of events and an approach to problem solving.
‘Action research is intended to combine a strong and rigorous research activity with
a respect for participants’ knowledge and understanding. It therefore brings
together theory and practical knowledge, to test each other with the purpose of
developing practice’.
An examination of these definitions suggests the following:

z Action research is referred to variously as a term, process, enquiry, approach, umbrella
term, sequence of events, flexible spiral process, activity, and as cyclic.
z It has a practice-oriented, problem solving emphasis.
z It is carried out by individuals, professionals, practitioners and educators.
z It involves being respectful of participants’ knowledge and understanding.
z It brings together theory and practical knowledge.
z It involves rigorous applied research, systematic, critical reflection and action.
z It aims to improve educational practice.
z Action is undertaken to understand, evaluate and change.
z Research involves gathering and interpreting (or analysing) data, often on an aspect
of teaching and learning.
z Critical reflection involves reviewing actions undertaken and planning future actions.
Reading a number of accounts of action research is instructive because, in

doing so, it becomes clear that there is both agreement and disagreement
among authors as to what are its defining characteristics. For example,
Denscombe (2007, p.123) suggests four such characteristics:
1. its practical nature;
2. its focus on change;
3. the involvement of a cyclical process;
4. its concern with participation:
‘Practitioners are the crucial people in the research process. Their participation is
active, not passive’. However, Dick (2000) rejects the view that action research ‘must
be participative, or qualitative, or published. It often is and I accept this . . . But . . .
I regard its cyclical/spiral process and its pursuit of both action and research as its
defining characteristics’.
What are the consequences of such agreements and disagreements for the
researcher? I would like to make two points here. First, if you are undertaking
an action research project, it is important to understand, as I indicated in the
Introduction, that the nature of such work is the subject of keen debate. As we
have seen, writers offer their own competing and complementary views as to
the fundamental character of action research. Second, if you are completing
this project as part of a course of study for an academic qualification, you will
need to engage critically with some of the arguments, positions and theoretical
perspectives advanced by writers such as those mentioned above. I shall say
more about this in Chapters 3 and 4.
Models of action research

In order to illustrate their views, many authors offer diagrammatic
representations of action research models (see, for example, Coghlan and
Brannick, 2005, pp. 21–25; MacNaughton and Hughes, 2009, pp. 1–3;
Mertler, 2009, pp. 13–19). As Drummond and Themessl-Huber (2007,
pp. 432–433) suggest: ‘The variations of the action research cycle presented
in the literature include circles of action, spirals, varying combinations
of circles and spirals and flow diagrams’. At its most basic, action research
can be viewed in terms of the processes outlined in Figure 1.1.
This model has its origins in the work of Kurt Lewin (1946) and has been
cited in several more recent accounts of action research (e.g. Ritchie et al.,
2002; Norton, 2009). From the point of view of teachers and teaching, it
involves deciding on a particular focus for research, planning to implement an
activity, series of activities, or other interventions, implementing these
activities, observing the outcomes, reflecting on what has happened and then
Plan
↓
Act
↓
Observe
↓
Reflect
Figure 1.1 A basic action research model.

planning a further series of activities if necessary. In outlining her own view
of the action research cycle, Norton (2009, p. 69) changes the order of the
processes in Figure 1.1 and suggests that researchers:
1. observe or notice that something is not as it should be and/or could be improved

(observe);
2. plan a course of action which involves changing something in your practice (plan);
3. carry out the change (act);
4. see what effect your change has made (reflect).
Dick (2002) has argued that the action research cycle can be characterised by
action leading to critical reflection and then, perhaps, to further action. As
he says: ‘So action is followed by critical reflection: What worked? What
didn’t? What have we learned? How might we do it differently next time?’
Furthermore: ‘Reflection is followed by action. The understanding achieved,
the conclusions drawn, the plans developed . . . These are tested in action.’
The action research cycle is further illustrated in Figure 1.2. Here the idea is
to demonstrate that, while action research can often involve undertaking a
single cycle of planning, acting, observing and reflecting, it can also lead to
more lengthy and substantial studies within educational settings.
Observe 3
Observe 2
Observe
Act 3 Act 2 Act Reflect Reflect 2 Reflect 3
Plan
Plan 2
Plan 3
Figure 1.2 An extended action research model.

These may be projects that are undertaken as part of study for a research
degree, or funded research projects where the timescale and scope of the
research extend beyond what is normally possible to teachers conducting
small-scale classroom-based research. If you wish to undertake an action
research thesis for an MPhil. or PhD, a number of general and specific texts
will be helpful (see, for example, Burgess et al., 2006; Cryer, 2006; Dick, 1993,
2000; Matthiesen and Binder, 2009; Phillips and Pugh, 2005; Trafford and
Leshem, 2008; Wellington et al., 2005).
A more elaborate action research model is offered by Michael Bassey,
whose framework consists of eight stages which may be summarised as
follows (see Bassey, 1998, pp. 94–95 and Robson, 2002, pp. 217–218):
z Stage 1: Defining the enquiry.

z Stage 2: Describing the educational situation.
z Stage 3: Collecting and analysing evaluative data.
z Stage 4: Reviewing the data and looking for contradictions.
z Stage 5: Tackling a contradiction by introducing some aspect of change.
z Stage 6: Monitoring the change.
z Stage 7: Analysing evaluative data concerning the change.
z Stage 8: Reviewing the change and deciding what to do next.
The framework is based on three central questions (Bassey, 1998, p. 94): what
is happening in this educational situation of ours now? (Stages 1 to 4); what
changes are we going to introduce? (Stage 5); what happens when we make the
changes? (Stages 6 to 8).
To accompany these questions and framework, Bassey offers seven invented
examples of possible action research projects. For the purposes of illustration,
I shall summarise one of these here. The project focuses on an initial question,
which defines the inquiry (Stage 1): ‘How do I, as head, know what is going on
in classrooms?’ (p. 96).
In describing the situation (Stage 2), the head teacher indicates that he has
recently been appointed to his post. His predecessor tended to manage the
school from his room and visited classrooms infrequently. With the intention
of providing effective educational leadership, the head teacher begins his
action research project (Stage 3) by initiating a discussion among the staff and
indicating his proposals for responding to the initial question. Over two weeks,
he conducts a ten-minute informal interview with each teacher about the
question and makes notes which are agreed with the teacher. He writes a brief
paper for staff which summarises the findings and indicates ‘a wide range of
views from “welcome” to “please keep out” ’ (p. 96).
The paper is discussed at a staff meeting (Stage 4) and the head teacher
attempts to focus on the evident contradiction between his view of his role and
the variation of responses made by the staff. At Stage 5, ‘Tackle a contradiction
by introducing a change’, the head indicates his decision to visit classrooms for
brief periods, as unobtrusively as possible, to talk with pupils and to look at
their work. He says that he will share his thoughts about this process with teach-
ers, on the same day that his visits take place, and he asks them to keep a diary
(one brief entry per week) in order to monitor the change (Stage 6).
Another member of staff (possibly the deputy head teacher, although
this person is identified only by her initials) offers to read the diaries and to
report on staff perceptions of the head teacher’s visits (Stage 7). In turn, the
head gives his own report about how this process has facilitated his goal of
providing appropriate educational leadership. Stage 8 involves reviewing the
change and deciding what to do next. This is accomplished at a staff meeting
to discuss the reports produced, as a preliminary to agreeing an appropriate
course of action.
The final action research model that I shall outline has been produced by
Denscombe (2007, p. 126). His framework illustrates the cyclical process
in action research and contains five elements: professional practice, critical
reflection, research, strategic planning, and action. This model can be
represented in several ways and Figure 1.3 outlines one example.
The framework involves beginning with professional practice and reflecting
critically on it. Such reflection may lead to the identification of a particular
problem or issue that requires research. When this enquiry has been
completed, the findings from the research become the starting point for the
development of an action plan. Strategic planning leads to instigating change
(action), which impacts on professional practice. The cycle then begins again
and a further round of critical reflection enables the researcher to evaluate
changes made. At this point, conclusions may be drawn and the project
may come to an end. However, it is possible that, following the evaluation,
some further research may be deemed necessary. If so, the cycle moves on to
re-visit this aspect and further ‘systematic and rigorous enquiry’ (p.126) is
undertaken.
1. Professional practice
↓
2. Critical reflection
(identify problem, or
evaluate changes)
↓
3. Research
(systematic and rigorous
enquiry)
↓
4. Strategic planning
(translate findings into
action plan)
↓
5. Action
(instigate change)
Figure 1.3 A representation of Denscombe’s action research model.
Some authors have argued that one of the major problems with such
research concerns the prescriptive nature of its models, as these may restrict
the flexibility with which teachers undertake their studies. For example,
Hopkins (2008, p. 55) suggests that ‘the tight specification of process steps and
cycles may trap teachers within a framework which they may come to depend
on and which will, consequently, inhibit independent action’. Hopkins
highlights a further problem when he notes that ‘the models may appear
daunting and confusing to practitioners’ (p. 55).
How are we to respond to this critique? To begin with, it should be
acknowledged that some action research models are complex both in their
design and theoretical justification. Should this lead to misunderstanding
or confusion on the part of practitioners, then these models will have failed
to achieve their desired purpose: the improvement of educational practice.
This said, I would agree with Bob Dick and others that one of the defining
characteristics of action research is its cyclical nature. Essentially it focuses, in
turn, on action and critical reflection. While this may be represented in the
form of a model (or models), it is important to note that practitioners should
be offered a range of possible models from which to choose. The emphasis
here is on choice and not prescription.
I would agree with those who say that choosing a pre-defined framework
within which to conduct a research project is, by its very nature, potentially
restrictive. However, rather than this being problematic, it is actually an
important indicator of a project’s likely success. Research projects should be
structured soundly and it must be clear from the initial proposal exactly what
is being excluded from the work to be undertaken as well as what is included.
To opt for action research must involve intention and critical reasoning on
the part of the researcher: it is a deliberate choice of a particular type of
enquiry. Once this initial choice has been made, practitioners should then
decide which action research framework is likely to enable them to achieve
their aims and to complete their studies successfully. This involves either
selecting from the range of models available or possibly developing one’s
own model (on the latter option, see McNiff with Whitehead, 2002, p. 55). To
argue that researchers should choose or devise a model of action research
within which to shape their studies is not, of course, to advocate the imposition
of particular models, as these may not be ‘representative of the realities
practitioners will experience. Practitioners need to see these models for what
they are: guidelines for how we hope things will eventually fall out’ (McNiff
with Whitehead, 2002, p. 52). In order to illustrate the choice that is available
to researchers, I shall use Denscombe’s model to develop three action research
projects in Chapter 4, below. Having examined the question ‘What is action
research?’ arguments for undertaking it in educational settings will be explored
in the next chapter.
Why Undertake
Action Research? 2
Chapter Outline
The teacher as reflective practitioner 16
Relationships between educational theory and practice 17
The teacher as researcher 20
Teaching as a research-based profession 21
Problems with educational research 21
Teacher research and school improvement 23
Research and teachers’ continuing professional development 24
The importance of action research 28
Having offered an account of the nature of action research, my aim in this

chapter is to respond to the question ‘Why undertake action research?’ In order
to do this, I shall explore several key themes:
z the teacher as reflective practitioner;

z relationships between educational theory and practice;
z the teacher as researcher;
z teaching as a research-based profession;
z problems with educational research;
z teacher research and school improvement;
z research and teachers’ continuing professional development;
z the importance of action research.
The teacher as reflective practitioner

The idea that teachers should be ‘reflective practitioners’ or should engage in
‘reflective practice’ has gained popularity due, in large part, to the work of
Donald Schön. His books on The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals
Think in Action (1991b), Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1991a) and
The Reflective Turn: Case Studies in and on Educational Practice (1992) have a
particular relevance for educationalists because of Schön’s view that, as
practitioners, they should: (1) engage in the study of their own practice;
(2) develop their own educational theories deriving from that practice (see
McNiff with Whitehead, 2002). Action research provides an appropriate
medium to enable these two aims to be achieved.
Here are some authors’ accounts of ‘reflection’, ‘reflective practice’, and
‘reflective teaching’ for you to consider.
Reflection
Across many professions (science, nursing, medicine, law, teaching) the need for
individuals to develop their understanding about the way they conduct their
work, and to be skilled practitioners through their work, has been important in
informing the profession about aspects of practice. By so doing, the knowledge
base of the profession is developed and refined in ways that help the practitioner
to be an effective and informed professional . . . Reflection, then, places an
emphasis on learning through questioning and investigation to lead to a
development of understanding. (Loughran, 2002, p. 34)
The results of reflection are tangible; changes in the learning process can be seen
and felt. Assignments are more thoughtful and result in deeper, fuller understand-
ing, and students bring more meaningful connections to the learning . . . What
they have discovered is more likely to become a part of them. Learning becomes
an adventure, not an event they must endure . . . A teacher may guide the process
with crucial questions or motivating structure, yet ultimately, it is the learner
who practises the reflection and who reaps whatever rewards follow. (Hedberg,
2009, p. 31)
Reflective Practice
Reflective practice is learning and developing through examining what we think
happened on any occasion, and how we think others perceived the event and us,
opening our practice to the scrutiny of others, and studying texts from the wider
sphere. (Bolton, 2005, p. 7)
Why Undertake Action Research? 17
Reflective practice offers one powerful way for educators – individually and
collectively – to stay challenged, effective, and alive in their work. The greater the
number of people involved, the greater the potential to significantly improve
educational practice and, therefore, the greater the potential to enhance student
learning. (York-Barr et al., 2006, p. 27)
The purpose of reflective practice is to increase learning at the individual and

organisational levels so that educational practice continuously improves and
student learning is enhanced. (York-Barr et al., 2006, p. 31)
Reflective Teaching
Reflective teaching implies an active concern with aims and consequences, as well
as means and technical efficiency.
Reflective teaching is applied in a cyclical or spiralling process, in which teachers

monitor, evaluate and revise their own practice continuously.
Reflective teaching requires competence in methods of evidence-based . . .

enquiry, to support the progressive development of higher standards of thinking.
(Pollard et al., 2008, p. 14)
Kuit et al. (2001, pp. 131–132) refer to action research as a ‘method of

reflection’ and discuss the model of ‘plan, act, observe, reflect’, which was
outlined in Chapter 1:
Planning involves identifying the problem, formulating a hypothesis about the

situation, identifying the theory in use and planning the action to be taken. The
action is undertaken and observed with data collected. The final stage is reflec-
tion, which relates to what the experience means and what can be learnt from it,
how can practice match theory, whether the theory needs to be adjusted and
whether teaching will change next time.
Relationships between educational

theory and practice
I shall discuss relationships between educational theory and practice in
Chapter 3, but it is necessary here to make some preliminary comments about
this theme. To begin with, we should note that while educational theory and
practice are inextricably linked, the relationship between them has been (and
continues to be) the subject of keen debate. Since the 1980s, numerous attacks
have been made against the theoretical study of education within initial teacher
education and training (ITET) courses. For example, in a pamphlet entitled
Who Teaches the Teachers? Anthony O’Hear (1988, p. 26) suggests that
‘what is vital in teaching is practical knowledge combined with emotional
maturity and not theoretical knowledge at all’. In a subsequent article, O’Hear
indicates the limited value which he attaches to the systematic discussion
and evaluation of educational theories. He argues (1989, p. 23) that the
theoretical study of education ‘should be made available to those teachers
who feel a need for it’ but suggests that it is more appropriate for practitio-
ners to undertake such study once they have benefited from some experience
of the classroom.
Dick (2000) explores an interesting aspect of the theory-practice debate
when making a distinction between what he calls ‘theory-driven’ and ‘data-
driven’ research. In order to illustrate the differences between these two
approaches, Dick asks two questions of postgraduate researchers. The first
concerns whether they wish to engage in ‘research that turns first to a body
of extant literature and contributes to knowledge by assuming that literature
as a given and extending or refining it, or challenging it?’ (a theory-driven
perspective). Alternatively, do they want to ‘deal with the research situation and
the people in it as they are, as far as possible putting aside . . . preconceptions’,
with a view to ‘fully experiencing’ the context of the research? This is a data-
driven approach.
Proponents of theory-driven research would argue that theory necessarily
precedes practice and is applied to it. On this view, before practitioners
undertaking action research projects can begin their research, they must
engage in a substantial amount of reading (about research methodology;
the subject matter of the project; the key theoretical issues that underpin the
work; research previously undertaken in this field etc.). Only then, having
considered such key issues carefully, can researchers begin their own studies.
However, advocates of a data-driven approach suggest that, in order to
undertake research, a greater degree of flexibility is required than is permitted
by the theory-driven perspective. For example, it is argued that any prescriptive
requirement for researchers to conduct an extensive preliminary review of the
literature may lead to them selecting a focus for their work which is restricted
by the findings of that review. In turn, this may stifle the potential of
researchers to be creative when completing projects, because they may feel
the need to remain within the parameters of the research as it was initially
conceived, rather than being able to respond more imaginatively and
spontaneously as the project progresses. Secondly, it is suggested that
important areas for investigation actually arise from research data collected
and that these potential avenues for research might not have been considered
by an initial literature review.
Dick (2000) notes that it is the data-driven approach to action research which
is of most interest to him because of its perceived flexibility and responsiveness
to the research context. He also makes a distinction between what he calls ‘the
researcher as technician’ and ‘the researcher as performing artist’. The former
he likens to an apprentice who learns from his/her tutor and from the relevant
literature how to adopt a particular approach to research.
The second type of researcher is described as someone who undertakes
research ‘with whatever resources and understanding [he/she] can bring
to bear’ and who learns from the experience. Dick indicates that these two
perspectives involve a shift in the teaching-learning interface and, conse-
quently, in the tutor-student relationship. He suggests that the conception
of the ‘researcher as performing artist’ involves learning mainly through
‘questioning enquiry’, in a context where the tutor acts as a mentor rather
than as a teacher.
What are we to make of these two sets of distinctions (theory-driven versus
data-driven research and the researcher as technician versus the researcher as
performing artist)? I would argue that there is no need to choose between the
alternatives offered in either case, as each has its own merits and strengths.
Essentially, I would want to ask the following questions: Why can research not
be both theory- and data-driven? Why is it not possible to view the researcher
as, in some sense, both an apprentice and (at least potentially) a performing
artist?
Action research undertaken for an academic award is essentially and
inevitably a form of apprenticeship and success depends on one’s ability to
do several things with a certain degree of skill. However, as we shall see in
the following chapters of this book, the competencies and skills required to
enable practitioners to complete projects to a high standard can be taught
and learned. Furthermore, while technical proficiency is certainly an essential
prerequisite for success, this does not preclude critical, reflective enquiry.
Indeed, the ability and willingness to ask pertinent questions, to test assump-
tions, to ask for reasons and evidence to support arguments, and to engage
in systematic thinking about educational theories and practices, are essential
attributes of the researcher (and this irrespective of whether the activities
engaged in are conceived of as being theory- or data-driven).
Reflective Thinking Exercise 2.1 invites you to offer your own view of the
key themes addressed so far in this chapter.

1. What do you consider is meant by the term ‘reflective practitioner’?
2. Outline three examples of reflective practice in which you have engaged.
3. What is the relationship between educational theory and practice?
The teacher as researcher

A focus on relationships between educational theory and practice leads us
on to consider the notion of ‘the teacher as researcher’. While the idea that
teachers should be regarded as researchers, or as practitioner-researchers (see
Robson, 2002, Appendix B), is now becoming increasingly popular, several
authors point out that this is not a recent idea. Hopkins (2008) offers a concise
account of the origins of the teacher research movement, beginning with the
work of Lawrence Stenhouse, who directed the Schools Council’s Humanities
Curriculum Project and authored a number of key publications, including An
Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development (1975) and ‘What counts
as research?’ (1981).
Substantial contributions to the development of teacher research were also
made by John Elliott and Clem Adelman through the Ford Teaching Project,
which involved 40 primary and secondary school teachers completing action
research projects that focused on classroom-based practice. As Hopkins (2008,
p. 1) points out: ‘These teachers developed hypotheses about their teaching
which could be shared with other teachers and used to enhance their own
teaching’.
Teaching as a research-based
profession
More recent initiatives in advancing the cause of teacher research include the
proposal that teaching should move increasingly towards being a research-based
profession (Hargreaves, 1996, 1999; Radford, 2006). In addition, both Campbell
(2007) and Coleman (2007) offer examples of the broad support which exists,
across a number of organisations and other agencies, for practitioner-based
enquiry. Such enquiry involves practitioners undertaking research activity as an
important aspect of their role, with a view to gathering data about a range of
issues including strategies for effective learning and teaching.
Rose (2002, p. 45) summarises some of the key arguments offered by
Stenhouse (1981) in the article referred to above. It is interesting to note, three
decades later, the extent to which these themes are now very much in vogue.
Stenhouse suggests that teachers should be at the forefront of educational
research and that classrooms provide an ideal context within which to test
educational theories. He argues that unless teachers are fully involved in
research being undertaken, they will not wish to be consumers of the findings
that emerge from it. Furthermore, teachers have lacked opportunities (other
than those offered within higher degree courses) to take on a more substantial
role in the research process. Finally, on the traditional view of educational
research, practitioners have been asked to justify themselves and their practices
to researchers. However, according to Stenhouse, it is researchers who should be
offering justifications to practitioners.
Problems with educational research

More recently, the nature, purposes and future of educational research have
been the focus of critical scrutiny (see Gorard, 2004; 2005; Hillage et al., 1998;
Tooley with Darby, 1998). As Foskett et al. (2005, p. 245) suggest:
Reflecting on the current state of research in any academic discipline is an

important part of its evolution and development. A consideration of the relevance
and utility of research and the added value that accrues to society from its
products provides key benchmarks for all in the research community. For those of
us who work in ‘second order fields’ . . . such as educational research, where
we are researching activity in ‘first order fields’ (e.g. the professional world of
education) these considerations become of especial significance. Without a
clear payoff for our research in terms of enhancing policy and practice, however
measured . . . researchers will surely be doomed to an existence that is marginal
in both academic and professional arenas.
Criticisms made of educational research include the following (see, for

example, Hargreaves, 1996; Rose, 2002). First, there is a widening gulf between
researchers and classroom practitioners, and research often fails to focus
on ‘the real life experiences of most teachers’ (Rose, 2002, p. 44). Second,
for the most part, research is an activity or series of activities which is done
to practitioners, rather than by them. Third, the findings of research are
often published in obscure journals, that are inaccessible to teachers both
in terms of the style in which they are written and their location (usually
the library of a higher education institution (HEI)). This is inconsistent
with a central aim of educational journals: to improve practice in schools
and classrooms.
A fourth criticism of educational research focuses on the tendency for it to
be compared unfavourably with other, supposedly more rigorous, forms of
research. For example, Riehl (2006, p. 24) notes that the federal government
in the USA has attempted ‘to move education research in more “scientific”
directions’. Furthermore, she suggests that ‘In their efforts to improve the
quality and persuasiveness of education research, many researchers and
research-focused policy makers have advocated increased use of experimental
methods, especially randomised experiments’ (p.24). Burkhardt and Schoenfeld
(2003, p. 3) quote the following statement from the U.S. Department of
Education’s Strategic Plan for 2002–2007:
Unlike medicine, agriculture and industrial production, the field of education

operates largely on the basis of ideology and professional consensus. As such, it is
subject to fads and is incapable of the cumulative progress that follows from the
application of the scientific method and from the systematic collection and use of
objective information in policy making. We will change education to make it an
evidence-based field.
Slavin (2002, p. 15), in focusing on the transformation of educational practice

and research, begins by offering the following scathing comment: ‘At the dawn
of the 21st century, educational research is finally entering the 20th century’. He
goes on to discuss ‘the promise and pitfalls of randomised and rigorously
matched experiments as a basis for policy and practice in education’ and con-
cludes by arguing that ‘a focus on rigorous experiments evaluating replicable
programmes and practices is essential to build confidence in educational
research among policymakers and educators’ (p. 15).
Teacher research and school

improvement
How are we to respond to these criticisms? I shall discuss the issue of rigour in
action research in Chapter 4. It seems to me that the best way to answer the
first three criticisms involves demonstrating the important effects that teacher
research in general, and action research in particular, may have both on school
improvement and on practitioners’ professional development. As regards the
first issue, Rob Halsall (1998) outlines the case for teacher research as a strategy
for school improvement. Interestingly, the sub-title of his book is Opening
Doors from the Inside and the volume contains a number of case studies (some
written by teachers themselves) that outline the impact of research at whole
school, department and classroom levels (see also Carter and Halsall, 1998).
Foskett et al. (2005, p. 247) refer to a survey of schools which found that’96
per cent of respondents had seriously considered research since qualifying
[to teach]. Much of the research was received through the filters of training
courses and via government departments, but nearly two-thirds of respondents
had consulted journals. Of this group, 69 per cent appeared to have been
influenced in their practice’.
The aim of Reflective Thinking Exercise 2.2 is to encourage you to draw on
your professional experience to evaluate the importance of educational research.

1. What do you consider to be the value of educational research?
2. Can you identify a piece of educational research that has had an impact on your
own professional practice?
3. Should teachers undertake research to evaluate and improve their own practice?
Research and teachers’ continuing

professional development
The relationship between research and teachers’ professional development is a
close one (Coleman, 2007). Indeed, a welcome and much-needed debate has
been taking place about the nature of continuing professional development
(CPD) for teachers and how this might be improved. For example, the General
Teaching Council for Wales (GTCW) (2002a), in a document entitled
Continuing Professional Development: an Entitlement for All, offered advice to
the National Assembly for Wales concerning a range of issues. The GTCW
argued that ‘all teachers should be entitled to high quality and well-planned
CPD provision throughout their career’ (para. 19). However, such an entitle-
ment carries with it certain responsibilities: ‘to develop oneself professionally
and to ensure that professional knowledge and skills are constantly updated’
(para. 19). It is noted (para. 14) that: ‘CPD activities take many forms. These
range from attending courses to school-based learning and undertaking action
research’. As Coleman (2007, p. 482) has noted: ‘The increased commitment
to . . . CPD for teachers . . . has also led to greater emphasis being placed
on self-assessment and reflection as mechanisms for enhancing personal
performance’.
Hargreaves (1996) suggested that the gulf between educational researchers
and classroom practitioners constitutes a serious problem, as well as being
‘. . . an obstacle which prevents educational research making a significant con-
tribution to theory or knowledge’ (Rose, 2002, p.45). Against this backdrop,
the introduction of the Best Practice Research Scholarship programme in Eng-
land (Furlong and Salisbury, 2005; Prestage et al., 2002) and the Teacher
Research Scholarship scheme in Wales (Costello, 2007a) was widely welcomed.
Funded and managed by the GTCW, the latter initiative commenced in
2001–2. It has enabled teachers to undertake small-scale action research
projects focusing on topics and themes, issues and problems, questions and
hypotheses, which they regarded as important and so wished to investigate.
Examples of completed research project titles are:
z Improving well-being and the involvement of pre-school children with behaviour

problems.
z Gender and reading for pleasure.
z Does the use of interactive ICT improve historical skills in pupils?
z An exploration of how creative writing can be improved in a Year 5 class.
z How can circle time be used in the primary school to improve children’s self-esteem?
z Investigating the effectiveness of a Student Assistance Programme in a junior school.
I have acted as a mentor to two groups of teachers who received GTCW

scholarships. The first group, based within Wrexham Local Education Authority,
undertook action research projects in a broad range of areas. The second,
also sponsored by the National Union of Teachers, completed projects on
the teaching and learning of thinking skills in infant and secondary schools.
This involved attendance at two residential seminars, where teachers were
introduced to aspects of research methodology, issues relating to thinking
skills, the development of research projects, data collection and analysis, and
writing research reports.
The GTCW TRS scheme was evaluated in two ways. Firstly, comprehensive
reports were produced by Egan and James (2002, 2003, and 2004). The first of
these involved the development of an evaluation pro forma for teacher
researchers; a questionnaire concerning the effectiveness of the scheme, which
was sent to their head teachers; a questionnaire for tutors/mentors; and a series
of interviews with teacher researchers, head teachers and line-managers. The
report (p. 15) indicated the following benefits to teachers from undertaking
action research projects: the development of individual needs and skills; moti-
vational and career factors; engagement with good practice; time to develop
reflective practice; work-based learning; working collaboratively with other
professionals; and learning and teaching gains.
In addition, I undertook my own evaluation of the impact of TRS on
enhancing teachers’ professional development. Following the evaluation pro
forma produced by Egan and James, I asked the following questions to two
cohorts of teachers (15 respondents in all):
• How effective do you consider the chosen activity to be in enhancing your

professional knowledge, skills and expertise? Please circle your response (1 =
very effective; 4 = very ineffective)
1 2 3 4
Please comment briefly:
———————————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————————
• How could you further develop the work you have undertaken? Please
specify.
———————————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————————
———————————————————————————————————
In answer to the first question, 12 respondents indicated a ‘1’ and 3 indicated
a ‘2’. Written comments included the following:
z It has made me look at what I do ‘day in, day out’. I haven’t really been doing any-
thing new, but I have become aware of what I’m doing and have looked at the results
of my strategies in the teaching and learning process. I have probably become even
more aware of the needs of the pupils I teach and the need to continue to look for
new ideas. I have most certainly become more confident in myself and it has given me
the ‘feel good factor’.
z Time to read and to research. Networking and sharing practice. Focus on mentoring:
I feel confident to undertake more research. Focus on learning and teaching in gen-
eral: I have adapted ideas from target groups to other classes.
z The research project has been excellent in enhancing my professional development,
as prior to this I was not even aware of what thinking skills were, let alone being able
to implement them in my classroom. It is also an opportunity to undertake research
which is directly related to improving teaching and thus learning.
z Very effective. The first course produced new ideas. The research process helped me
to develop thinking skills strategies and spread them through the Faculty. It improved
my skills and those of other teachers within the Faculty.
z I have enjoyed working on my research project and have developed various skills
which will enhance my teaching – such as improved questioning techniques.
z Very effective because it’s given me the drive to read about ‘thinking skills’ and pro-
vided me with the opportunity to work with my colleagues.
z The project has given me insight into the way that my pupils think about the work
they do. I hope that by providing them with a ‘thinking skills’ exercise, they will
become more proficient at thinking while working.
z It has allowed me to focus on thinking skills and begin to understand how I might
develop my teaching to use techniques and information to my (and my students’)
advantage.
Responses to the second question included the following:
z I would like to have the opportunity to ‘spread’ my experiences across the school and
to work with other teachers within the [Local Authority] and further afield. I would
like to be supported in doing some further written work (e.g. a teacher’s handbook
for classroom management).
z Adapt my research and findings to other areas of the scheme of work.
z I wish to develop further thinking skills strategies within the classroom and perhaps
extend to a whole school approach across key stages. It would also be useful to do
another research project which could build on the one already undertaken – perhaps
to implement thinking skills across the curriculum.
z I would like to form a working group within the school to develop thinking skills
activities across the curriculum, in order to spread good practice.
z I now want to continue my research and spread good practice across the whole
school. Thinking skills should be a key area in whole-school curriculum development.
I personally would like to initiate this and research my findings.
z Develop professional debate among staff to enhance the learning community.
The GTCW (2002a, para. 26) suggests that ‘Conditions need to be created . . .
to allow [teachers] to be reflective – to learn, develop, and improve as an inte-
gral part of their work’. Furthermore, ‘There is a need to provide teachers with
time to plan, undertake, reflect [on] and disseminate their experiences. This
best takes place in environments that foster learning’.
The importance of action research

In order to answer the question, ‘Why undertake action research?’ I have exam-
ined a number of related issues. Considering these together enables us to offer
several statements indicating the importance of action research. To begin with,
reflective practitioners are concerned to study their own practice and action
research provides an excellent medium for this to take place. Second, action
research enables practitioners to explore relationships between educational
theory and practice. Third, the critical scrutiny of educational research has led
to an increasing emphasis on the importance of practitioners undertaking
their own research studies. Fourth, a move towards developing teaching as a
research-based profession should lead practitioners to:
1. take an increasingly prominent role in the processes of gathering and analysing

research data, and reporting research findings;
2. complete action research projects regularly (and not only as part of higher degree
courses).
Finally, action research can have a beneficial impact both on school improve-
ment and on the professional development of teachers. Before we move on
to the development of action research projects, which will be discussed in
Chapter 3, please consider the questions outlined in Reflective Thinking
Exercise 2.3.

1. What is the relationship between reflective thinking and practice?
2. What is the relationship between reflective practice and action research?
3. Why undertake action research?
How Do I Develop an Action
Research Project? 3
Chapter Outline
Choosing a research topic 31
Developing a research proposal 32
Undertaking a literature search and review 33
Working with your tutor 35
Undertaking action research projects: some preliminary
considerations 42
In order to illustrate the development of an action research project, including

data collection and analysis, I shall outline three extended examples in
Chapters 4 and 5 below. However, my purpose here is to focus on some
general issues concerning:
z choosing a research topic;

z developing a research proposal;
z undertaking a literature search and review;
z working with your tutor;
z research methodology courses and seminars;
z undertaking action research projects: some preliminary considerations.
Choosing a research topic

In focusing on the central question: ‘How do I develop an action research
project?’ you may already have a research topic in mind. If this is not the case,
you might like to consider possibilities for research outlined by, for example,
Bassey (1998, pp. 96– 107); Macintyre (2000, pp. 32– 41); Mertler (2009, p. 22);
and Wragg (1999, pp.110– 111). As Wragg (p. 110) indicates, there is a wide
range of potential research topics. These include:
z What do teachers and pupils do in the classroom; how do they spend their time?
z What kind of interaction takes place, who talks to whom and about what?
z How do teachers manage their classes; what are the classroom rules; how are
elements such as time, space, pupil behaviour, or their own teaching strategies
managed?
z What do pupils learn; what tasks do they engage in, and with what degree of involve-
ment and success?
z What happens to particularly able pupils or those with learning difficulties?
z How are classroom decisions made, by the teacher, by pupils, by both in negotiation?
z What happens when pupils disrupt lessons or behave in an anti-social manner?
z How can I improve my own teaching?
Please consider the issues and questions set out in Reflective Thinking
Exercise 3.1.

1. Write down two possible research project topics.
2. Why are you interested in these topics?
3. In undertaking a research project in these areas, what do you want to find out?
4. Which topic do you prefer?
5. Why?
Developing a research proposal

Once you have determined an appropriate subject or context for research, it is
necessary to draw up a research proposal. Usually, this will be reviewed by your
tutor (or, in certain circumstances, by a review committee). However, if you
are undertaking a funded research project, you will be required to submit a
proposal to the funding body.
How Do I Develop an Action Research Project? 33
In preparing an action research proposal for your tutor, you may be asked
to write a brief outline (no more than two or three A4 pages) containing the
following information:
z Your name.
z A tentative title for the project (this may be amended in consultation with your tutor).
z The aims of your project.
z Possible research questions for your project.
z The educational setting or context within which your project will be undertaken.
z The period of time within which your project will be undertaken.
z The research methodology you propose to use.
z Anticipated outcomes of your research.
z An outline bibliography.
This information will provide a context for your first meeting with your tutor.
Putting it together in the way I have suggested will involve you in some
preliminary reflection and research. This is an essential aspect of the process
and a thorough approach at this stage will enable you to develop a solid
foundation for the project as a whole.
Undertaking a literature search

and review
To begin with, you need to undertake a literature search (Hart, 2001; Rumsey,
2008). The purpose of this is to establish whether the research topic you are
proposing is a viable one. If you are unable to gain access to a sufficient amount
of reading, both to deepen your understanding of the chosen field of study
and to underpin the research you will undertake, your tutor or the review
committee is likely to suggest that you choose a more appropriate topic.
In order to complete an effective literature search, you need to become
familiar with your HEI’s library. This involves
z reading the library’s guidelines on searching for appropriate resources;

z exploring the library’s general catalogue of resources;
z finding information about your subject discipline (including information on books;
electronic books (e-books); journals; online databases; the Internet (including
Internet Gateways); reference collections; audiovisual material (videos and DVDs)

and newspapers.
As regards Internet Gateways, you may find the following useful:
z Current Education and Children’s Services Research (CERUK): a database of current

educational research projects. Available at: http://www.ceruk.ac.uk.
z Education-line: a database of conference papers, working papers and electronic
literature supporting educational research, policy and practice. Available at: http://
www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/index.html.
z Intute: Education and Research Methods: a database of Internet websites to assist
you with your research. Available at: http://www.intute.ac.uk/education/.
z Teacher Training Resource Bank: this website includes articles focusing on action
research projects undertaken in schools. Available at: http://www.ttrb.ac.uk.
Having completed the literature search, you can begin the process of literature
review (Cridland, 2008; Hart, 1998; Mertler, 2009). This is necessary because
your action research project needs to demonstrate relationships between
educational theory and practice, which involves examining critically what
authors have to say about educational issues, and applying the reasons,
evidence, arguments or proof they offer to the practical context of the
classroom, school or other educational setting.
In reviewing the relevant literature (books, chapters in edited books,
journal articles, Internet sources etc.), an important aim is to enable you to
offer answers to key questions such as: ‘When authors tell me what is happen-
ing (or should) happen in, for example, a classroom, does this coincide with my
own experience? If yes, why? If no, why not? As a result of this review, do I need
to investigate the possibility of introducing appropriate change into my class-
room? If yes, how might I do this?’ Reflective Thinking Exercise 3.2 will help
you to reflect on the aims and purposes of a literature review.

1. Consider the following statements about the review of literature.
2. What do these accounts have in common?
3. What are the distinctive features of each account?
The aim of a literature review is to show your reader (your tutor) that you
have read, and have a good grasp of, the main published work concerning
a particular topic or question in your field. This work may be in any format,
including online sources. (Birmingham City University, 2007)
The purpose of the literature review:
1. To select research relevant to my study.

2. To outline existing knowledge in my field.
3. To evaluate existing research relevant to my field.
4. To identify research methods relevant to my study.
5. To identify gaps in the research.
6. To identify more appropriate research methods.
7. To position my study in the context of previous research.
8. To express views about the topic.
9. To indicate how my topic is to be investigated.
10. To justify my study.
(Cridland, 2008)
By reviewing related literature, you can identify a topic, narrow its focus, and
gather information for developing a research design, as well as the overall
project . . . A review of literature can reveal a study that could be systematically
replicated in your classroom or provide you with potential solutions to the
research problem you have identified. The literature review can also help establish
a connection between your action research project and what others have said,
done, and discovered before you . . . A literature review allows you to use the
insights and discoveries of others whose research came before yours in order
to make your research more efficient and effective. (Mertler, 2009, p. 51)
Working with your tutor

At your first meeting with your tutor, you will have an opportunity to: discuss
your proposal; indicate why you think it is an important area for research;
outline its key aims; and convince the tutor that you have access both to an
appropriate educational setting (e.g. a classroom) and to sufficient theoretical
resources (books, journal articles etc.) to complete the project successfully.
During the meeting, your tutor may suggest some amendments to your
proposal or he/she may ask you to give further thought to aspects of it, with a
view to finalising the outline at the next meeting. As a result of these initial
meetings, you will produce an agreed strategy for undertaking the project.
At this stage, you may have a number of queries about your research and
it is important to make your tutor aware of these. Never be afraid to ask
questions: these are essential to ensuring a successful outcome for your work.
There are several reasons why you may be reluctant to ask your tutor to clarify
key issues. First, you may not wish your tutor (or anyone else) to know that
you require additional guidance or support. Second, you may have several
questions and do not wish to trouble your tutor with them. Third, you may
not wish to ask questions in front of your fellow practitioners. Fourth,
you may generally be unsure both about what is required of you and how to
indicate this uncertainty to your tutor.
Whatever the reason for such reluctance, you should avail yourself of
all opportunities that are provided to meet your tutor and to articulate any
concerns you may have. By doing this, you are much more likely to complete
your project successfully. In addition, you may save both yourself and your
tutor a great deal of time in the long-term because regular discussions should
lead to fewer errors or misconceptions either in developing or carrying out
your research.
If you do not wish to ask questions in front of others, arrange to meet your
tutor to discuss these or see him/her during a seminar break or at the end of a
teaching session. Never assume that your questions are so naïve or lacking in
complexity that you would be reluctant to ask them. Please remember that
your tutor is as concerned as you are to ensure your success. Eliminating
uncertainties at the beginning of a project, or as they arise once it is underway,
will do much to accomplish this goal.
Please complete Reflective Thinking Exercise 3.3, which focuses on devel-
oping your draft research proposal.

1. Using the headings above (or those suggested by your tutor/HEI), write a draft
research proposal.
2. In completing the outline bibliography, ensure that you include some current
journal articles.
3. Discuss the proposal with your tutor.
Research methodology courses and seminars
In order to enable you to complete your research project, it is usual for HEIs to
provide modules or a series of seminars on research methodology. Typically,
these focus on topics such as: undertaking a research project; working with
your tutor; choosing an appropriate research methodology; reading for,
planning and writing your research project; citation and referencing; and
presenting your research project.
I have already outlined some aspects of working with your tutor. In
addition, it is important to attend research methods seminars (if these are
provided) and again to ask questions when you are unsure about anything
that is being discussed or outlined. When teaching research methodology
courses, I begin by offering students a sheet with three headings:
1. Things I know about undertaking the research project.

2. Things I am not sure about in undertaking the research project.
3. Things I would like to know about undertaking the research project.
They are invited to write up to five comments under each of these. Then
I collate responses and ensure that all aspects mentioned under the latter
two headings are discussed. During the final seminar, there is an opportunity
for course members to ask any remaining questions and for me to revise
key themes as necessary. Issues and questions commonly raised in the first
seminars are:
z I’m not sure what a research project is.

z What are the differences between a project and an assignment?
z Am I the only one who feels apprehensive about tackling a research project?
z What is the best way to start?
z What am I going to focus on?
z From whom should I seek help/advice?
z How much time will I have with my project tutor?
z Will I be given assistance to get started and will I have the opportunity to discuss the
project on a one-to-one basis?
z Will I be supervised so that, if I am in danger of going wrong, I will be told and helped
well in advance of the hand-in date?
z Can I see completed research projects?

z What kind of questions should I be asking?
z Is classroom-based research optional, necessary, or essential?
z Do I have to undertake interviews/questionnaires?
z Does every chapter have to have a title?
z How should I go about research and incorporate it into my project report?
z I am worried about: (1) plagiarism; (2) use of other people’s ideas and putting them
in my own words.
z Use of quotations/citations in the text.
z Can we use footnotes or will we use the Harvard system of referencing?
z Presentation of the bibliography.
z Do I need appendices? Where do I put them in my research report?
z Is my project title appropriate? Should the title be a question or a statement?
z How should I use my school experience placements/teaching experience in develop-
ing my project?
z Relationship between educational theory and practice.
z How often should I quote?
z What should the conclusion contain?
z Where do I find the information/resources?
z Continuity between chapters.
z Presentation of the report.
z How do I get a good mark or grade?
Your own HEI will provide you with a set of guidelines concerning the
completion of the research project. If, having reviewed these guidelines, you
have questions about them, or about any of the issues and questions outlined
above, please ask your tutor for clarification.
While you are undertaking your project, your tutor will wish to meet you,
either individually or with a small group of other researchers, in order to
review your progress. As I have indicated above, attendance at such meetings,
whether or not they are compulsory, is also important to your success and
allows your tutor to determine whether you need additional guidance in
completing the research. As your work progresses, you may be asked to:
1. submit draft chapters for your tutor to read and comment on;
2. produce a complete draft of your report before submitting the final version.
Again, although this may be optional, it is important to take advantage of the

opportunities that are being offered.
If you are undertaking a funded research project, your proposal to the
funding body is likely to have a format which is similar to that outlined by
the GTCW (2002b). Applicants for TRS are asked to complete a proposal of
between 500 and 700 words which outlines the following: the title of the
research project; the aims of the research project; a statement concerning how
the research project will help to raise educational standards; the expected
outcomes of the research project, both for the researcher and his/her school;
the research methodology to be used; the timescale and schedule for the
research project, including anticipated milestones; how the research under-
taken will be evaluated; the total funding requested and a breakdown of costs
to be incurred.
Funding bodies usually require researchers to have academic support
in undertaking their projects. This is provided by a mentor from a local
education authority, HEI, subject association, or research body, etc. The
mentor may assist researchers to develop their initial proposal, as well as
offer guidance through regular meetings, workshops, residential seminars,
or via e-mail correspondence. Mentors may also agree to read and comment
on work in progress, including draft copies of research reports.
Funded projects differ in one important respect from those undertaken as
part of a course of study for an academic qualification: they are primarily
practical pieces of research. Given this, practitioners are not expected to
undertake a formal review of the relevant literature before completing their
studies. Nevertheless, some engagement with the literature may be very
beneficial, as it is likely to suggest possible topics or themes for research, as
well as deepening the researchers’ knowledge and understanding of key aspects
of the work to be undertaken.
In the next chapter, I shall discuss a number of possible criticisms that may
be made of action research. In attempting to counter these, I shall argue that
researchers should endeavour to make their work as rigorous as possible.
Examining the relevant literature, even if only briefly, and applying some of
the insights derived from it to the context of current or proposed projects,
should lead to more rigorous research being completed. This is the best way to
respond to those sceptics who are doubtful about the value of small-scale
practitioner research.
Before outlining the three action research projects I mentioned at the
beginning of this chapter, I want to return to the list of issues and questions
commonly raised by undergraduate and postgraduate students. If you are

unsure about what a research project is, guidance will be provided either in
research methodology seminars, or by your tutor. Basically, a research project
is a long essay in which you undertake:
1. a critical review of the relevant literature concerning your proposed topic;

2. practical research within a classroom, school, or other educational setting.
Projects may vary in length both between academic courses and HEIs.
One difference between a research project and an assignment is that
the former tends to be a longer piece of work. When faced with writing a
research study of several thousand words, it is quite natural to feel some
apprehension. However, this can be significantly reduced through atten-
dance at appropriate seminars, by working closely with your tutor in the
ways I have suggested above, and by looking at examples of successfully
completed projects.
You should be given opportunities to examine research reports produced
by students in previous years. This may be a formal part of a research
methodology course, or you may be asked to look at projects in your own
time (they may be housed in your HEI’s library). This is a valuable exercise,
as it gives you the opportunity to consider questions such as:
z What are appropriate topics for research projects?

z What do successful research project reports look like (format, contents, presentation
etc.)?
z What are the titles of research projects?
z How are chapters or sections of project reports structured?
z How do chapters or sections of project reports relate to each other?
z Do researchers provide reviews of the relevant literature?
z Do researchers justify their choice of research methodology?
z How do researchers gather data?
z How do researchers analyse data?
z How are research project reports presented?
Please consider Reflective Thinking Exercise 3.4.


1. Read three research project reports.
2. In each case, write a critical evaluation of the report, detailing its strengths and
areas for improvement.
3. What have you learned from this exercise?
Most research projects are intended to enable you to use your teaching
experience or school experience placements to good effect. Ideally, you
should focus on an aspect or aspects of teaching that interest you. For example,
if you are a trainee teacher, you will need to discuss the precise focus of
your research with your school mentor. If you are required to make some
preliminary visits to the school before your placement begins, make sure
that the mentor is aware that you have to complete a project and seek his/her
guidance about how best to proceed. Usually, the mentor will have experience
of working with students undertaking research studies and so will be an
important source of support.
If you are undertaking an action research project as part of another
academic qualification (such as a Master’s degree in Education), try to
ensure that the topic you select enables you to make the most of the
educational context in which you find yourself. For example, for the
teacher, classrooms and schools are rich sources of potential research studies.
Many research proposals are based on aspects of teaching and learning
and emerge from practitioners’ own reflection on their practice or on the
academic progress of their pupils.
If you are about to begin a Master’s dissertation, your choice of topic will
usually emerge from the taught modules that have made up the first part of
your degree. Having explored a number of topics and issues, and completed
assignments in these areas, you may choose to focus on one theme in consider-
able depth. Most probably, you will not have experience of writing such a
lengthy project report. The best way to approach this task is to consider that
you are writing five or six shorter, though connected, essays. Think carefully
about the title and the content to be covered in each chapter.
Having produced a proposal and agreed its basic content and structure with
your tutor, you should write a draft chapter (often a review of the literature).
The feedback you receive from your tutor will be useful because it should:
confirm whether or not the chapter is of an appropriate standard for success;
indicate those aspects of the chapter which are satisfactory or better as they
stand; outline those aspects where improvements could be made; and detail
those aspects which require further work. At this stage, it is advisable to con-
sider carefully the advice that you are given. If you are unsure about any aspect
of it, please consult your tutor. Once you have made appropriate amendments,
a second draft should be submitted, together with the first. Sending both versions
to your tutor will enable him/her to see quickly how you have responded to the
suggestions made.
Undertaking action research projects:

some preliminary considerations
Prior to proceeding with your action research project, I suggest that you
should:
z Undertake reading on research methodology (the bibliography of this book provides

a good starting point).
z Consult completed research project reports.
z Undertake a literature search, enabling confirmation (both to yourself and to your
tutor) that you have access to a sufficient amount of educational theory to underpin
your research. Note that a literature search, though not required for small-scale
funded research, may be very useful.
z Write an outline of your proposed project, including a rationale for it and an account
of your suggested research methodology.
z Detail the contents of your research project report, either chapter by chapter or sec-
tion by section (this may be amended during your research).
Having begun your research project, you should:
z Meet your tutor/mentor regularly to discuss your project.

z Produce individual draft chapters/sections of the project report for your tutor to read.
This is preferable to submitting several chapters/sections at the same time because, if
there are problems with one chapter, it is likely that these will be replicated in other
chapters too).
z Ensure continuity between chapters or sections of the project report. I shall discuss
this further in Chapter 6.
In the next chapter, issues concerning the collection of action research data
will be explored.
How Do I Collect Action
Research Data? 4
Chapter Outline
Collecting action research data: some preliminary considerations 45
Rigour in action research 52
Examples of action research projects 57
Here and in the following chapter, I shall outline three invented examples of
action research projects. In devising these examples, my aim is to offer illustra-
tions that demonstrate the following:
z relationships between educational theory and practice;

z relationships between quantitative and qualitative research;
z a variety of approaches to collecting action research data;
z rigour in action research.
Collecting action research data: some

preliminary considerations
Before undertaking an action research project and collecting data, you should
be aware of the main criticisms that have been made of action research as
a mode of enquiry (for example, the prescriptive nature of its models, as
discussed in Chapter 1). If you are completing a project as part of a course
of study for an academic qualification, you will need to demonstrate your
understanding of these criticisms. You will also need to offer suggestions as to

how action researchers in general (and you in particular, in the context of your
own research) have sought to overcome them. Depending on the nature of
your study, it may also be important to explore some problems associated
with the practice of educational research in its broadest sense, and these I
have discussed in Chapter 2. Concerns about and criticisms of action research
have tended to focus on:
z ethical concerns associated with undertaking action research projects;

z rigour in action research.
Let us examine these issues in turn.
Ethical issues
Denscombe (2007, p. 128) outlines a number of ethical issues which practitio-
ners should consider when undertaking action research projects. He argues
that a particular problem facing action researchers concerns the fact that while
their projects tend to focus on their own activities, ‘it is almost inevitable that
the activity of colleagues will also come under the microscope at some stage or
other’. This is because practitioners do not work in isolation: ‘Their practice
and the changes they seek to make can hardly be put in place without some
knock-on effect for others who operate close-by in organisational terms’
(p. 128) (see also Denscombe, 2009, Chapter 4).
What are the implications of this for researchers? First, they should distin-
guish between undertaking action research that is personal to them and that
focuses on their own practice, and research that relates to, and impacts on, the
work of others. Where the latter is inevitable, ‘the usual standards of research
ethics must be observed: permissions obtained, confidentiality maintained, iden-
tities protected’ (Denscombe, 2007, p. 129). Denscombe suggests that practitio-
ners should be open about their research and that they should ensure that those
involved in it give informed consent to what is being proposed. In particular,
permission should be sought before researchers engage in any form of
observation or examine documentation that may have been produced for
purposes other than the research project.
Chapters 6 and 8 of this book focus on the questions: ‘How do I produce an
action research report?’ and ‘How do I publish my action research report?’ Here,
How Do I Collect Action Research Data? 47
too, as Denscombe acknowledges, ethical considerations are important, since
researchers should ensure that any descriptions of others’ works or the view-
points they offer (for example, during interviews) must be agreed with the
parties concerned before reports are submitted for examination or publication.
Before undertaking an undergraduate or postgraduate research project, it is
likely that you will be asked by your HEI to complete an ethical approval form.
Typically, this is divided into several sections, the first of which asks you to pro-
vide basic information such as your name, e-mail address and research project
title. This may be followed by a preliminary checklist, as well as a section in
which you outline the details of your project (see Figures 4.1 and 4.2). Please
note that HEIs often provide a generic ethical approval form, that is, one which
is used across a broad range of subject disciplines. The checklist is an amended
version of the document used by my own university and, in my experience,
most undergraduate and postgraduate research projects involve the researcher
in answering ‘yes’ to questions 1 to 3 and ‘no’ to the remaining questions.
If you are undertaking research within a setting such as a school, you may
be asked to provide an information sheet for the head teacher and a consent
form for him/her to sign (see Figures 4.3 and 4.4). As regards the last item on
the information sheet, ‘How research data will be stored and used’, I ask my
students to write the following statement: ‘Two copies of the research project
will be given to my tutor; one will be returned to me and one kept by my tutor.
I shall ensure that confidentiality, privacy and anonymity of data are main-
tained at all times’. When completed, all of this documentation, which will
usually be checked by your tutor, should be placed in the appendices of your
research report. I shall discuss this further in Chapter 6.
Reflective Thinking Exercise 4.1 focuses on the issue of gaining ethical
approval for your research project.

Find out whether you need to complete an ethical approval form.
1. If so, read this carefully, together with any associated documentation.

2. Ensure you understand what is required of you and discuss any queries you may
have with your tutor.
Research Project Proposal
Preliminary Checklist (please tick boxes )
YES NO
Does the study involve participants who are particularly vulnerable (e.g.
young children)?
Does the study involve participants who would find it difficult to

give informed consent (e.g. young children, people with learning
difficulties)?
Will the study require the co-operation of a gatekeeper for initial

access to the groups or individuals to be recruited?
Will it be necessary for participants to take part in the study without

their knowledge or consent at the time?
Will the study involve discussion of topics which the participants may
find sensitive?
Are drugs, placebos or other substances to be administered to the

study participants?
Will the study involve invasive, intrusive or potentially harmful

procedures of any kind?
Will blood or tissue samples be obtained from participants?
Is pain or more than mild discomfort likely to result from the study?
Could the study induce psychological distress or anxiety or cause

harm or negative consequences beyond the risks encountered in
normal life?
Will the study involve prolonged or repetitive testing?
Will the study require any deception of participants?
Figure 4.1 An ethical approval form preliminary checklist.

1. Project title
2. Location(s) at which project is to be carried out
3. Background and rationale for study
4. Aims and objectives of the research and/or the research

questions
5. Methods of data collection

Clearly outline how data will be collected. Copies of
questionnaires, interview schedules, or observation
guidelines must be appended.
6. Recruitment of participants
Give approximate number of participants involved, how
they will be identified and invited to participate, and how
voluntary, informed consent will be obtained. Information
sheets and consent forms must be appended.
7. Potential benefits of proposed research

Outline any benefits of the research for: (1) participants
involved; (2) yourself as a researcher.
8. Steps to be taken to ensure confidentiality of data

Outline steps to ensure confidentiality, privacy and
anonymity of data. Research projects must adhere to the
requirements of the Data Protection Act.
Figure 4.2 Details of your research project.

Name:
Project title:
Background and rationale for study:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Aims and objectives of the research and/or the research questions:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Methods of data collection:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Potential benefits of the proposed research:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
How research data will be stored and used:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
In undertaking this research project, I understand that individuals may

decline to participate and are free to withdraw at any time without giving a
reason.
If you would like to ask any questions or make any comments about this research
project, please write these below:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Thank you.
Signed:____________________________________________________Student
Date: ____________________________________________________
Figure 4.3 Research project information sheet.

Name of researcher:
Title of research project:
I consent to the above-named person undertaking a research project in my school.
Signed: ____________________________________________________
Head teacher
Figure 4.4 Research project consent form.

Rigour in action research

Critics of action research often refer to a perceived lack of rigour in studies
undertaken. This is not intended, primarily, as a criticism of individual
researchers or of the work they have completed; rather it might be seen as a
direct attack on the nature of action research itself. So what are the problems
to which critics refer and how might action researchers respond to them? To
begin with, it has been suggested (Hopkins, 2008, p. 58) that an overuse of
words like ‘problem’, ‘improve’, ‘needs assessment’ etc. ‘could give the impression
that action research is a deficit model of professional development’. In other
words, ‘Something is wrong, so do this to make it better’.
I agree with Hopkins that action research offers practitioners a powerful
tool to enhance their ‘professional confidence’ (p. 58) and so, with this in mind,
it is important to attempt to speak and write about school-based research as
positively as we can. However, Wragg (1999, p. 118) distinguishes between
two kinds of action research, which he calls ‘rational-reactive’ and ‘intuitive-
proactive’. In the first, the researcher examines what is occurring (in a class-
room, for example) ‘usually with a specific focus on something known to be
a problem or in need of improvement, and then draws up a programme to
react to, or remediate, what has been discovered’ (p. 118). The second type
of action research is undertaken by practitioners who know, ‘or think they
know, what needs to be done, so they implement an intervention programme
first, and then visit classrooms to see how well it is progressing’ (p. 118).
These distinctions are important because they draw attention to different ways
of utilising action research to achieve educational goals. It is often the case that
particular problems identified within a classroom or school may be tackled
effectively through a sharply-focused research study. However, it is important
to remember that this is not the only purpose which action research may
serve. As Hopkins (2008, p. 58) indicates, it ‘provides teachers with a more
appropriate alternative to traditional research designs and one that is, in
aspiration at least, emancipatory’.
The notion of a ‘traditional research design’ is an interesting one, not least
because action research has frequently been compared unfavourably to it. In
attempting to find out why this is the case and whether such a comparison
is justifiable, we need to examine relationships between quantitative and
qualitative research. Thomas (2009) and Blaxter et al. (2001) offer concise
explanations of these approaches. According to Thomas (p. 83), ‘Quantitative
research refers to research using numbers, and qualitative research refers
to that which does not use numbers’. Blaxter et al. (p. 64) suggest that quanti-
tative research is ‘concerned with the collection and analysis of data in
numeric form. It tends to emphasise relatively large-scale and representative
sets of data’. However, qualitative research ‘is concerned with collecting and
analysing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric, as possible’
(p. 64). The authors note that quantitative research is regarded or represented
(mistakenly in their view) as attempting to collect ‘facts’, while qualitative
research aims to explore in great detail ‘smaller numbers of instances or
examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to
achieve “depth” rather than “breadth” ’ (p. 64). Although Dick (2000) suggests
that action research is often qualitative in nature, it is possible, as we shall
see, for practitioners to use both quantitative and qualitative methods in
undertaking their research projects. This is a necessary approach because,
as Wragg (1999, p. 10) argues: ‘While the counting of events may offer
some interesting insights, it falls far short of telling the whole story of
classroom life’.
Although acknowledging that there is no ‘watertight’ distinction between
these two approaches, Denscombe (2007, pp. 248–250) suggests that quanti-
tative research tends to be associated with:
z numbers as the unit of analysis;

z analysis;
z large-scale studies;
z a specific focus;
z researcher detachment;
z pre-determined research design.
On the other hand, qualitative research tends to be associated with:
z words as the unit of analysis;

z description;
z small-scale studies;
z an holistic perspective;
z researcher involvement;
z an emergent research design.
Arguments have been advanced against the rigour of action research on the
grounds that:
z it is primarily qualitative in nature;

z it is susceptible to ‘researcher bias’ because practitioners often engage in the study of
their own practice;
z it usually involves undertaking small-scale studies (often of a particular classroom or
school);
z given the very limited scope of typical action research projects, results obtained
from these studies should not be regarded as generalisable beyond their individual
contexts.
How might action researchers respond to these criticisms? The best way to
begin is by acknowledging that when undertaking research of any kind, it is
important that the results deriving from it are sound. Robson (2002 p. 93)
discusses how the trustworthiness of research is usually established. In
attempting to convince your audiences (and yourself) that your findings are
significant, he suggests that you should ask several questions: ‘What is it that
makes the study believable and trustworthy? What are the kinds of arguments
that you can use? What questions should you ask? What criteria are involved?’
In offering answers to these questions, Robson refers to several important
concepts that are usually associated with ‘traditional’ research:
z Validity. This is concerned with ‘whether the findings are “really” about what they
appear to be about’ (Robson, 2002, p. 93) or, in Bell’s words (2005, p. 117), ‘whether
an item or instrument measures or describes what it is supposed to measure or
describe’.
z Reliability. This refers to ‘the consistency or stability of a measure; for example, if it
were to be repeated, would the same result be obtained?’ (Robson, 2002, p. 93);
z Generalisability. This refers to ‘the extent to which the findings of the enquiry are
more generally applicable outside the specifics of the situation studied’ (Robson,
2002, p. 93).
At this stage, it is important to:
1. determine the extent to which these terms have any applicability to action research;
2. establish how researchers might endeavour to ensure that their studies are as rigorous
as possible.
As Robson notes, concepts such as ‘validity’, ‘reliability’ and ‘generalisability’
were initially utilised within the context of traditional ‘fixed-design’ research,
where the aim was to collect quantitative data. Given this, there is a substantial
debate as to whether they are applicable to ‘flexible-design’ research aiming to
gather qualitative data (see Chapters 5 and 6 of Real World Research (Robson,
2002) for discussions of fixed and flexible designs).
Robson refers to the close relationship that exists between action research
and qualitative, flexible-design research, and outlines a number of factors
that may lead us plausibly to use the term ‘validity’ in the context of
such investigations. Claiming that a piece of qualitative research ‘has
validity’ is, as Robson (2002, p. 170) rightly suggests, to refer to it as ‘being
accurate, or correct, or true’. While acknowledging that it is difficult (if
not impossible) to verify these characteristics with certainty, he suggests
that ‘An alternative . . . tack is to focus on the credibility or trustworthiness
of the research’. How are these to be determined? Robson refers to a number
of strategies for dealing with threats to the validity of a piece of research.
These include:
z prolonged involvement in the study (which may take place over weeks or months:
‘much longer than is typical in fixed methods research’ (Robson, 2002, p. 172);
z triangulation (for example, the use of more than one method of data collection, or
more than one observer in the research, or drawing on both quantitative and qualita-
tive approaches);
z negative case analysis (‘As you develop theories about what is going on [in your
research], you should devote time and attention to searching for instances which will
disconfirm your theory’ (Robson, 2002, p. 173);
z audit trail (keeping a complete record of your research while carrying it out; this
includes raw data such as completed questionnaires, interview transcripts and field
notes, audiotapes and videotapes, as well as your research diary or journal – see Rob-
son, 2002, pp. 1–2).
While prolonged involvement in a piece of research may (at least potentially)

increase the risk of researcher bias, triangulation, negative case analysis and
an effective audit trail may all help to reduce it. Robson also suggests that a
researcher’s prolonged involvement in a study may help to reduce respondents’
bias. This is due to the likely development of a trusting relationship between
researcher and respondent, which may decrease the possibility that the latter
will provide biased information.
Prolonged involvement, triangulation, negative case analysis, and audit

trail are strategies that, if adopted collectively, can reduce substantially
possible threats to validity. In this way, the credibility or trustworthiness
of the research undertaken is enhanced. In addition, an audit trail offers
evidence that you are being careful, systematic and scrupulous about your
research. These are important considerations when you are making the case
for its reliability.
As regards generalisability, Robson (2002, p. 176) refers to the work of
Maxwell (see 1992, 2005) who distinguishes between ‘internal’ and ‘external’
generalisability. These refer respectively to the generalisability of conclusions
within and outside the setting being researched. As regards the former,
unjustifiable selectivity on the part of researchers (for example, in terms
of choosing interviewees, or potential respondents to a questionnaire, or
particular contexts for observation research) will substantially increase the
possibility that their accounts will exhibit bias.
Robson points out that some projects may not seek external generalisability.
This is commonly the case with small-scale, funded action research studies,
as well as those undertaken within the context of most undergraduate and
postgraduate courses. Therefore, it is unwarranted to criticise a piece of
research in terms of its lack of generalisability when this is neither a stated goal
for the work being conducted, nor an explicit intention of the researcher
who carries it out. This is not to deny that small-scale action research has the
potential for generalisability. For example, if researchers share details such as
the context of and planning for their studies in their reports, readers can
explore the relevance of these aspects to their own research. As Macintyre
(2000, p. 66) indicates, ‘This makes generalisation a much more serious
possibility’. For a discussion of bias, reliability, validity and generalisability,
within an action research framework, see Macintyre (2000, pp. 48–50 and 66);
MacNaughton and Hughes (2009, Chapter 8); and McNiff and Whitehead
(2006, Chapter 16).
Dick (1993) details a number of procedures that you may use in order to
achieve rigour in your research. These include:
z using multiple sources when collecting data;

z continually testing your assumptions;
z seeking exceptions in cases of apparent agreement and explanations in cases of
apparent disagreement;
z being willing to challenge your own ideas.
As regards the latter three points, please remember that these apply both in the
context of your general reading and in your fieldwork (or practical research).
Mertler (2009, pp. 24–25) also focuses on the theme of ‘rigour’ in action research
and discusses ways in which research projects may be made more rigorous.
Before we move on to discuss examples of action research projects, please
consider Reflective Thinking Exercise 4.2.

1. What do you consider to be the main criticisms of action research as a mode of
enquiry?
2. What can researchers do to counter these criticisms and to ensure that their
research projects are as rigorous as possible?
Examples of action research projects

Examining the above issues carefully enables you to develop a solid foundation
for your action research project. In order to illustrate how this might be devel-
oped, I shall set out three examples using Denscombe’s (2007) action research
model. In Chapter 1, I suggested that this could be represented in several ways
and offered one example (see Figure 1.3 above). I also noted that Hopkins
(2008) rightly draws our attention to difficulties which may arise if action
research models are offered to practitioners in a prescriptive manner. Given
this, I suggest only that the above framework may provide a useful tool with
which to undertake an action research project. Its viability will depend entirely
on the outcomes of its use in educational settings. Earlier in this chapter, I also
referred to Hopkins’ concern about a possible overuse of words such as ‘prob-
lem’, ‘improve,’ etc. With this in mind, I suggest that the word ‘problem’ in
Denscombe’s model should be considered as an ‘umbrella’ term to include the
research issue, question, or hypothesis to be examined.
Example 1: Developing an effective school governing

body: an action research project
The research project begins with the premise that an effective governing body is
essential to the success of a school. Given this, practitioners may be interested to
investigate issues such as: how governors’ meetings are managed; the agenda items
discussed by governors; the length of time taken up by discussions of individual top-
ics; the level of participation by individual governors, etc. This research might be
carried out by, for example, undergraduate or postgraduate students; teachers com-
pleting funded research projects; and head teachers wishing to find out whether
meetings of their schools’ governing bodies are being well managed and whether
members are participating as fully as possible.
For the purposes of this example, we shall assume that it is the head teacher of a
secondary school, Mrs A, who wishes to undertake the project. She has been in post
for three years and has attended all meetings of her school’s governing body (stage
1: professional practice). Although she usually speaks fully concerning all agenda
items, Mrs A has become aware that some members rarely participate in discussions.
Furthermore, during her informal conversations with governors, many suggested
that meetings were too lengthy and that excessive amounts of time were devoted to
administrative matters. When asked why their level of participation was low, some
made statements such as:
z ‘I am never invited to speak’ (student representative).

z ‘I find these meetings rather dull and boring’ (councillor).
z ‘I know very little about many of the topics being discussed’ (company
director).
z ‘Mrs. B usually speaks on behalf of both of us’ (parent governor).
z ‘I see my role as being to offer support as requested’ (staff representative).
Mrs A reflects critically both on her own experience of governors’ meetings and the
feedback she has received from individual members of the governing body (stage 2:
critical reflection). She decides to initiate an action research project with the
following aims:
1. To explore the nature and extent of participation in school governors’

meetings.
2. To seek the views of members of the governing body about their participation
in meetings.
3. To seek the views of members of the governing body about how meetings
might be made more effective.
4. To implement change as appropriate (with a view to developing a more effec-
tive school governing body).
Ö
After consultation with colleagues from her local education authority and HEI,
Mrs A agrees to formalise her research by making an application for a funded
research scholarship and receives a grant of £3000. Although not required by the
terms of the research to undertake a literature search, she is keen to find out as
much information as possible about:
1. school governing bodies;

2. research methodology.
She gains access to her HEI’s library database and undertakes several ‘key word’
searches (e.g. ‘school governors’; ‘school governing bodies’; ‘effective schools’;
‘school leadership’; ‘educational management’) to find important source material
(books, journals, Internet websites etc.). Mrs A then visits the website of the
Department for Children, Schools and Families (http://www.dcsf.gov.uk) to ascertain
whether additional information is available. Under the heading ‘School Governors’,
she finds a website called ‘Governornet’ (http://governornet.co.uk), which contains
some interesting publications. She then moves on to consider some basic texts on
research methodology.
While reading a chapter on ‘Observation Studies’ in Bell’s Doing Your Research
Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in Education and Social Science (first
edition, 1987, p. 95), Mrs. A finds an observation chart which offers an account
of a school governors’ meeting, including agenda topics and the extent of individual
governors’ participation. She decides to adopt this approach as one means of
gathering data for her own research study and invites a lecturer from the local HEI
to observe the next meeting of the governing body (stage 3: research).
In order to do this (and following Bell’s guidance), the lecturer takes some sheets of
lined paper and marks each line as representing one minute. Within a generous verti-
cal margin, agenda items and the starting times for their discussion are indicated.
Speakers’ initials are written in the margin each time they make a contribution to the
meeting. Brief notes about the discussions taking place are included on the sheet and
a single line is drawn after each agenda item has been completed. A summary sheet,
containing the information obtained from the meeting, is then produced.
Mrs A would like the research project to be as rigorous as possible and so decides
to supplement the data gathered from the initial observation. She does this in
three ways:
1. repeating the observation;

2. developing a questionnaire which is sent to all members of the governing
body;
3. interviewing a smaller sample of the group (stage 3: research).
The research instruments used by Mrs A (observation chart, questionnaire and

interview schedule) will be discussed in the next chapter.
Example 2: Developing questioning in organisations: an

action research project
The research project begins with the premise that it is important for professionals
working in a broad range of organisations to develop their questioning skills in
order to:
1. improve the quality of their own thinking and practice;

2. improve the quality of colleagues’ thinking and practice;
3. enhance the learning and performance of individual groups within organisations;
4. enhance the learning and performance of organisations.
Given this, practitioners may be interested to ask and find answers to the following
questions:
z How often do I ask colleagues questions?

z What sort of questions do I ask?
z What can I do to increase the number, range and quality of my questions?
z What can I do to ensure a greater response to questions from my colleagues?
This research might be carried out by undergraduates, postgraduates, and profes-

sionals working in organisations. For the purposes of this example, we shall assume
that it is a middle manager, Mr B, who works in a retail business and who wishes
to undertake the project as part of his study for an MA in Management. He has
been in post for eight years and has a broad range of experience within his
organisation. He manages a team of 19 staff. At regular meetings, Mr B requests
contributions from the group that focus on work undertaken, progress made,
issues and problems that arise, etc. Mr B is keen to explore the role his questioning
plays in enhancing the group’s learning and development (stage 1: professional
practice). Having reflected critically on his questioning (stage 2: critical reflection),
Mr B considers himself to be someone who asks his colleagues a broad range of
questions. He would like to find out whether his own perceptions of his question-
ing are confirmed through research and so decides to initiate a project with the
following aims:
z To ascertain how many questions are asked during a series of meetings covering
a range of subjects.
z To ascertain the nature of the questioning that takes place.
z To ascertain which colleagues respond to questions.
Ö
z To ascertain which colleagues do not respond to questions.

z To implement change, as appropriate (focusing on: ‘What can I do to increase
the number, range and quality of my questions?’ and ‘What can I do to ensure
a greater response from my colleagues to the questions I ask?’).
Mr B gains access to his HEI’s library database and undertakes two initial ‘key word’
searches, ‘questioning’ and ‘asking questions’. These produce some interesting
insights and areas for additional key word searches. To begin with, Mr B’s discovery
of a book entitled The Art of Asking Questions, dated 1951, indicates that a concern
to improve questioning skills is not a recent development. Given this, he decides to
discuss, in one of the early chapters of his dissertation, the historical evolution of
questioning in professional settings.
Second, his initial searches lead him to explore topics such as ‘reflective
questioning’; ‘the questioning manager’; ‘effective questioning skills’; ‘question-
ing and explaining’; and ‘questioning and learning’. Further key word searches
in these areas enable Mr B to gain access to a broad range of books, journals,
Internet websites etc. Finally, he undertakes some initial reading on research
methodology.
While reading McGill and Beaty’s Action Learning (2001), Mr B finds a number of
references to questions and questioning. He decides to gather research data using
two methods (stage 3: research). The first involves a senior colleague observing his
questioning during meetings in order to ascertain the number and nature of the
questions asked. Mr B devises an observation chart using a category system that
focuses on: open questions; closed questions; affective questions (‘How do you feel
about . . .?’); probing questions (‘What aspects of your behaviour do you think might
be relevant here?’); checking questions (‘What you plan to do is . . . Is that right?’);
and reflective questions (‘In what way were your colleague’s questions confusing?’)
(McGill and Beaty, 2001, pp. 128–29).
Mr B wishes to be as rigorous as possible in his research. In order to achieve this,
he asks his colleague to observe a series of meetings, not just a single event. He also
requests not to be given any feedback after each meeting, so as to ensure that his
questioning style remains as consistent as possible. Mr B supplements the data col-
lected in two ways. First, he develops a second observation chart. In its initial form,
colleagues’ names are written in the left-hand column. Across the top row, numerals
indicate the questions asked during a particular period. When Mr B asks a question
and receives a response from a colleague, the observer writes ‘x’ in the appropriate
box. Again, this chart is used in several meetings. Second, Mr B catalogues his
research by maintaining a personal record of the process. These field notes detail key
aspects of the meetings as seen from Mr B’s perspective. The observation charts
developed in this study will be outlined in the next chapter.
Example 3: Developing thinking skills in the early years

classroom: an action research study
The research project begins with the premise that young children should be taught
critical thinking, reasoning and argument skills as part of the formal school curriculum.
Given this, practitioners may be interested to ask and find answers to the following
questions:
z What are ‘thinking skills’?

z Do we need to teach thinking skills in schools and, if so, why?
z What obstacles exist which may hinder such teaching?
z How might ‘thinking skills’ be developed in schools?
This research might be carried out by, for example, undergraduate and postgraduate
students, and teachers completing funded research projects. For the purposes of this
example, we shall assume that it is a trainee teacher, Ms C, who wishes to undertake
the project during her school experience placement. Having attended a conference
on the teaching of thinking skills, which was hosted by her HEI during the previous
year, she wishes to gain experience of such teaching as quickly as possible (stage 1:
professional practice). Having reflected critically on her last school placement (stage 2:
critical reflection), where Ms C was able to teach three lessons with a thinking skills
focus, and having already completed some basic reading on this topic, she decides
to initiate a project with the following aims:
1. To discuss the nature of ‘thinking skills’.

2. To argue that thinking skills should be taught in early childhood education.
3. To outline those factors that may inhibit the teaching of thinking skills in early
childhood education.
4. To implement a thinking skills programme with a class of 5–6-year-old pupils.
Ms C gains access to her HEI’s library database and undertakes several ‘key word’
searches based on her earlier reading: ‘teaching thinking skills’; ‘improving reasoning
and argument skills’, ‘education for citizenship’, ‘personal, social and moral education’,
‘critical thinking’, and ‘the cognitive curriculum’. She finds a broad range of books,
journals, Internet websites, etc. and undertakes some initial reading on research
methodology.
Having read Costello’s Thinking Skills and Early Childhood Education (2000),
Ms C decides to focus on developing young children’s moral thinking, through
discussing episodes from Sesame Street videotapes with a class of 5–6-year-old
Ö
pupils. In order to ensure that her research is as rigorous as possible, she chooses to
gather data using two methods (stage 3: research). These are:
1. video taping a lesson taught by her mentor, Mr D;

2. audio taping two of her lessons and transcribing examples of the dialogues in
which she engages with her class.
Ms C wishes to explore the processes of argument that children use when

speaking. Accordingly, she amends a model of argument (outlined by Costello
(2000, pp. 95–96) and presented in the next chapter) and analyses both the
videotape and audiotapes with a view to determining the extent to which pupils
utilise these processes. Relationships between the collection and analysis of action
research data will be examined in Chapter 5.
How Do I Analyse Action
Research Data? 5
Chapter Outline
Analysing research data 66
A model of action research revisited 73
Concluding comments 77
My aims in this chapter are:
z to offer some practical examples of data collection instruments utilised in the three
projects mentioned previously;
z to discuss possibilities for data analysis arising from them.
I wish to begin by arguing that there is a close relationship between the

collection of action research data and its analysis. In supporting this view,
I would refer to my experience of supervising the research projects of students
and teachers undertaking a broad range of academic courses, as well as funded
research. In all of these cases, practitioners engaged in research are busy
individuals: project work is only a small part of what they have to do and so
there is a need to use time wisely.
How is this to be achieved? When offering research methodology seminars
and modules, I refer to a series of related maxims: ‘The better the research
instruments we develop to collect data, the more reliable those data will be.
The more reliable our data, the greater are our chances of undertaking research
that merits the label “rigorous”. The more rigorous our research, the more
likely it is that our conclusions and recommendations will be significant’.
In the last chapter, I outlined three research projects and suggested
methods by which action research data might be collected. Given the length of
this book, it is not possible to examine in any depth the particular advantages
and possible disadvantages of using questionnaires, interviews, observations
etc. within your action research project. However, both Hopkins (2008) and
Macintyre (2000) discuss this topic at some length. Also, it should be noted
that some authors have devoted entire volumes to discussing themes such as
‘developing a questionnaire’ (Gillham, 2008a); ‘the research interview’ (Gillham,
2001, 2005); observation techniques (Gillham, 2008b); and ‘case study research
methods’ (Gillham, 2000). In Chapter 9, I offer a number of suggestions for
further reading that will enable you to examine these individual research
methods in some detail.
Analysing research data

In considering the analysis of research data, let us begin by looking once again
at Example 1, ‘Developing an effective school governing body’. As we saw in the
previous chapter, the researcher, Mrs A, collects data by utilising three research
methods: observation, questionnaire and interview. The first observation
produces quantitative data (see Figure 5.1), and these are broadly confirmed
by a second observation. The observation chart details the agenda items for
the meeting of the school’s governing body, the number of minutes for which
each member speaks on a particular topic, and the total number of minutes for
which members speak expressed as a percentage of the whole. Please consider
Reflective Thinking Exercises 5.1 and 5.2.

1. How might the data in Figure 5.1 be analysed?
2. What might Mrs A conclude from the data?
3. What is Mrs A entitled to conclude from the data?
How Do I Analyse Action Research Data? 67
Evergreen High School
School Governors’ Meeting
1 October, 2010
No. %
Chair 1111 1111 1111 1 1 1 1 29 19.1

(University lecturer) 1111 111 11
Secretary 1111 111 11 15 9.9

(LEA official) 1111
Head teacher 1111 1111 1111 1111 111 111 1111 111 44 28.9
1111 1111
Assistant Head 111 111 1111 111 1 14 9.2
teacher
Mr P 1111 111 1 8 5.3

(Councillor)
Ms L 1 1 2 1.3
(Councillor)
Mr E 1 11 1 4 2.6
(Company director)
Mrs R 1111 111 11 10 6.6

(LEA
representative)
Mrs C 1 11 1 111 7 4.6

(Staff
representative)
Mr J 0 0.0
(Student
representative)
Mrs B 11 111 11 111 1 1111 11 18 11.8

(Parent governor)
Mr Y 1 1 0.7
(Parent governor)
Total time 35 22 38 20 6 12 9 10 152 100

(in minutes)
Admin (Minutes, etc.)
Staff Development
School inspection
Curriculum
Discipline
Exams
Other
PTA
Figure 5.1 Observation chart.


Having examined the observation chart, consider the six statements below. Do you
agree with them? If yes, why? If no, why not?
1. Mr J [student representative] did not speak during the meeting.

2. Contributions made by the head teacher and chairperson take up almost half the
meeting.
3. Some members contribute very little to the meeting, especially Ms L [councillor],
Mr E [company director], Mr Y [parent governor] and Mr J [student representative].
4. The school does not have any problems with pupils’ discipline.
5. The school’s inspection report was either very good or very poor.
6. The head teacher and assistant head teacher work closely together and are
mutually supportive.
A number of additional statements might be added to the above list and it

is instructive to consider exactly what might or might not be concluded
justifiably from such an observation chart, as well as what remains an
hypothesis to be investigated further. For example, it is unjustifiable to con-
clude from the chart alone that ‘Mr J [student representative] did not speak
during the meeting’. As one of my students pointed out:
1. Mr J may have spoken for less than one minute on all agenda items;
2. a concise but effective contribution to a discussion might be (and often is) made in
less than one minute.
While collecting quantitative data may make an important contribution to an

action research project, it should be remembered that information represented
in an observation chart needs to be interpreted in exactly the same way as
other data gathered during a research study. The so-called ‘facts’ that emerge
from quantitative research never speak for themselves: they have to be sup-
ported by reasons, evidence, and argument. The importance of Figure 5.1 is
that it provides us with a number of questions to pursue via other research
methods, such as the questionnaire and interview schedule developed by Mrs A.
Let us look at each in turn, beginning with the questionnaire (see Figure 5.2).
1. For how many years have you been a member of the school’s governing body?
< 1 year 1 year 2 years
3 years 4 years 5 years
> 5 years
2. Which of the following statements best describes your attendance at governors’

meetings?
I attend all meetings
I attend most meetings
I attend some meetings
I rarely attend meetings
Comments ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. Which of the following statements best describes your participation in governors’

meetings?
I always contribute to discussions
I often contribute to discussions
I sometimes contribute to discussions
I rarely contribute to discussions
I never contribute to discussions
Comments ________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Figure 5.2 Questionnaire.

4. Have you contributed to the discussion of the following topics?
Administrative matters Yes No
Curriculum Yes No
School inspection Yes No
Examinations Yes No
Discipline Yes No
Parent Teacher Association Yes No
Staff development Yes No
Other Yes No
If ‘Other’, please state topic(s) _____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
5. Would you like to make a greater contribution to governors’ meetings?
Yes No
6. If ‘Yes’, please indicate any factors that may inhibit your increasing participation:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Figure 5.2 Continued.

7. How would you describe the management of governors’ meetings?
Excellent Good
Satisfactory Less than adequate
Poor Don’t know
Comments ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
8. Do you have any suggestions concerning how governors’ meetings might

be improved?
Yes No
Comments ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
9. Is the governing body successful in fulfilling its aims?
Very Quite Not really
Not at all Don’t know
Comments ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

10. Do you have any suggestions concerning how the governing body might become
more successful in fulfilling its aims?
Comments ______________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Mrs A has piloted the above questionnaire carefully, i.e. she has produced a
draft version, circulated it for comment to two colleagues, and then made
several amendments as a result of responses received. She is aware of the need
to pilot all data-gathering instruments, in order to ascertain the amount of
time recipients take to complete them, to ensure that all the questions and
accompanying instructions are outlined clearly and to enable items to be
removed or amended as necessary (Bell, 2005).
Mrs A aims to collect both quantitative and qualitative datas. As regards the
former, she provides a variety of possible options for response. In question
two, four alternatives are offered; in question three, there are five to consider
and so on. This reduces the possibility that respondents may reply automati-
cally to questions, or persist in choosing the middle option in a non-reflective
manner. On several occasions, Mrs A offers respondents the opportunity to
write comments. These will be analysed individually to determine whether
common or uncommon themes emerge. In analysing action research data,
Macintyre (2000, p. 91) offers a concise explanation of four key terms: themes
(‘the consistent ideas which emerged’); incidence (‘how often something
occurred, or the number of questionnaire replies which said the same thing’);
patterns (‘the timing of the occurrences – whether they were single or in a
cluster’); and trends (‘the frequency of the patterns’). These enable researchers
to offer explanations for what has taken place, rather than just descriptions of
events. This schema will be useful in analysing data that emerge from Mrs A’s
interview schedule, which contains the following questions:
z Why did you become a member of the school’s governing body?

z Have you found being a member of the governing body a worthwhile experience?
z Have you found being a member of the governing body an enjoyable experience?
z As a member of the governing body, what would you like it to achieve?
z Are you able to attend meetings of the governing body regularly? If not; why not?
z How might you contribute to the success of the governing body?
z Describe some characteristics of a successful governing body.
z Are these characteristics evident in the governing body of which you are a member?
z Describe some characteristics of a well-managed governors’ meeting.
z Are these characteristics evident in the meetings of the governing body that you attend?
z Do you leave governors’ meetings feeling that you have said everything that you
wanted to say? If not, why not?
z About which agenda items do you tend to contribute to discussions? Why?
z About which agenda items do you tend not to contribute to discussions? Why not?
z How, if at all, might you make a greater contribution to governors’ meetings?
z Could you say something about factors, if any that may inhibit you making a greater
contribution to meetings?
z What assistance, if any, do you need in order to make a greater contribution to
meetings?
z Who might offer you such assistance?
z Do you have any views about how, if at all, governors’ meetings might be improved?
z Do you have any views about how, if at all, the governing body might become more
effective?
Reflective Thinking Exercise 5.3 focuses on the development and discussion of

a draft questionnaire and interview schedule.

1. Write a draft questionnaire related to your proposed research topic.
2. Write a draft interview schedule related to your proposed research topic.
Discuss these with your tutor and make amendments as necessary.
A model of action research revisited

Having analysed the research data, Mrs A is now able to translate her findings
into an action plan (stage 4 of Denscombe’s (2007) action research model:
strategic planning). For example, this might involve the development of
strategies to encourage greater participation in governors’ meetings, for
example, asking members to speak to individual agenda items; modifying

the agenda to ensure that all governors have at least one topic concerning
which they could make a contribution to discussions; introducing seminars to
develop governors’ knowledge of particular issues etc. Once these strategies
have been implemented (stage 5: action), they will have an impact on profes-
sional practice (stage 1) and so the action research cycle begins again. After a
period of time, Mrs A engages in further critical reflection to determine the
effectiveness of her action (stage 2: evaluate changes). At this point, the research
may come to an end, or further research may be required. If the latter is the
case, then Mrs A returns to stage 3 of the cycle and engages in another round
of systematic and rigorous enquiry.
This format may be repeated in the other two projects outlined in the last
chapter. Before commencing your own action research study, it would be
beneficial to re-visit the second of these examples and to discuss ways in which
stages 4 and 5 of Denscombe’s (2007) cycle might be reached. To assist you in
this, following are the two observation charts (the first uses a category system)
that were devised by Mr B during his project on ‘Developing questioning in
organisations’ (see Figures 5.3 and 5.4).
Please consider the question outlined in Reflective Thinking Exercise 5.4.

1. How might you analyse the data provided in the observation charts below to
develop an action plan and instigate change within the group?
1. Manager asks open questions //////////
2. Manager asks closed questions /////////////////////
3. Manager asks affective questions ///////
4. Manager asks probing questions ///
5. Manager asks checking questions ///////////////
6. Manager asks reflective questions ///
Figure 5.3 Observation chart 1.

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19
A x
B x x
C x
D
E x
F x
G x x x x x x
H x
How Do I Analyse Action Research Data?

I
J x
K x x x x
L x x
M x x
N
O x
P
Q x x
R x
S x
Figure 5.4 Observation chart 2.
75
Assessing Progress in Argument
Processes of Argument
The pupil is able to:
express a point clearly;

take a point of view, express an opinion;
make a personal value statement;
express a preference;
give an example;
give several examples;
give appropriate examples;
make a comparison;
give a reason;
give a variety of reasons;
give appropriate reasons;
quote evidence;
weigh up evidence;
refer to own experience to support arguments;
listen and respond to others’ points of view.
Figure 5.5 A model of argument.
Finally, we turn to the third research project, undertaken by Ms C, entitled

‘Developing thinking skills in the early years classroom’. Figure 5.5 outlines the
amended model of argument she uses when introducing a thinking skills pro-
gramme to develop young children’s moral thinking.
Having collected research data by means of audio recording and video
recording, how should Ms C proceed with the task of analysis? The best way to
begin is to examine the videotape of her mentor’s lesson and to write down the
names of children who demonstrate any of the above processes of argument,
together with the statement they make and the process that is involved. For
example: ‘Mary – gives a reason – ‘Because it would be cruel to animals’.
This raw data can be transferred to a second sheet, where pupils’ contribu-
tions or examples of particular processes could be grouped. This will enable
Ms C to determine which pupils are demonstrating competence in regard to
specific processes. If the argument model was used in a number of different
lessons, it would be possible to indicate pupils’ progress over time and to alter
teaching strategies accordingly. Once Ms C has completed the analysis of the
videotape, she can begin to analyse the audiotapes of her two lessons (and
perhaps compare her results to those achieved by her mentor). For a fuller
account of the processes involved in analysing data from videotapes and
pupils’ dialogues, see Costello (2000). In addition, Macintyre (2000) discusses
a number of strategies for recording research findings (see also ‘audiotape
recording/videotape recording’ in Chapter 9).
Concluding comments
In concluding this chapter, please note the following points regarding data
analysis. All the data you collect should be discussed in your project report. If
you are unable to analyse all of the information you have obtained, the reasons
for your selection of particular data should be made clear. Remember that it is
possible to display your results in a variety of ways (e.g. observation charts,
pie-charts, bar graphs etc.). Finally, use appendices to offer the reader a more
extensive account of your research than is permitted within individual chapters.
For example, if you discuss brief passages from a dialogue with pupils in the
main body of the text, you might wish to provide a more substantial extract in
an appendix (see Macintyre, 2000).
In Chapter 2, I referred to a number of problems that have been raised in
the context of educational research. Wragg (1999, p. 108) notes that cynicism
about the aims of such research and its impact on practice is evident even
among teachers. However, he argues that classroom observation research ‘can
make a significant contribution to the improvement of teaching competence,
especially if teachers and schools, as a matter of policy, research their own
practice and act on their findings’.
How Do I Produce an Action
Research Report? 6
Chapter Outline
Requirements and guidelines for writing action research reports 79
Once you have collected and analysed your action research data, you are ready
to produce a report of your findings. In doing this, it is useful to consider two
preliminary questions:
z For whom are you writing the report?

z What are the particular requirements or guidelines for writing the report?
If you are undertaking an action research project as part of a course of study

for an academic qualification, your audience will include your tutor and
(potentially) an external examiner. Completed projects are usually retained
by your HEI, so that they may be read by those undertaking future research
projects. Given this, it is important to remember, when writing, that your work
will also be read by other practitioners. If you are undertaking funded research
(not necessarily, for an academic qualification), your audience will include
both the funding body and other practitioners.
Requirements and guidelines for

writing action research reports
Usually, there are specific requirements or guidelines for writing the action
research report. Before beginning to write, consider these carefully. These
requirements include a word limit for the project. You may also be given
guidelines concerning the presentation of the project report. Here is one
example:
z Paper size: A4.

z Your project must be word-processed using Times or Times New Roman 12 point.
z Margins: left-hand – 3 cm; right-hand – 2 cm; top – 3 cm; bottom – 2 cm.
z All pages should be numbered.
z Use double spacing throughout.
z Either spiral ring binding or soft binding for initial submission and hard binding after
examination.
As regards the format of reports, I shall outline examples taken from: (1) an
undergraduate/postgraduate project; (2) a funded research project (see
Figures 6.1 and 6.2).
As Example 1 indicates, the structures of undergraduate and postgraduate
project reports tend to be very similar (and are often identical). The basic
differences between the two reports are:
1. the word limit stipulated for each;

2. the levels of critical reflection and analysis required in writing them;
3. the breadth and depth of research being discussed.
Example 1
z Front cover to include title of research project; candidate’s name; degree title;
date of submission.
z Contents page.
z Declaration.
z Summary.
z Acknowledgements.
z Introduction.
z Chapters.
z Appendices.
z Bibliography.
Figure 6.1 Format for an undergraduate / postgraduate research project report.

How Do I Produce an Action Research Report? 81
Example 2
z Front cover to include funding body; title of award (e.g. ‘Teacher Research Scholarship’);
title of project; candidate’s name; interim or final report; date of submission.
z Summary of the report.
z An outline of the aims of the research.
z Methodology.
z A summary of the results (a complete set of results should be included in the appendices).
z Conclusions from the research, including recommendations.
z Evaluation of the process.
(See GTCW, 2002b, pp. 15–17)
Figure 6.2 Format for a funded research project report.
Action research reports: a possible format

It is useful to consider the format of a typical report:
Contents page Here you should list chapter and other headings in the order
in which they are presented in the report. Remember to include the page
number on which chapters, etc. begin.
Declaration A brief statement to indicate that the project submitted offers
an account of your own independent research. Typically, you may be asked to
sign a statement such as: ‘I certify that the whole of this work is the result of
my individual effort, and that all quotations from books, journals etc., have
been acknowledged’.
Summary A brief synopsis of the project (usually no more than a few
hundred words). You should write this once you have completed the rest of
the report. The summary draws attention to the key aspects of each of your
chapters. You may wish to make reference to your project’s aims, its theoretical
underpinning, the approach to the research which you have adopted (e.g.
action research), research methods used to collect data, results of the research,
conclusions and recommendations for future practice; and implications for
your own professional development.
Acknowledgements Here you need to thank those people who have assisted
you in the completion of your project: your tutor or mentor; teachers and
pupils with whom you have worked; those who responded to your question-
naire or who agreed to be interviewed by you etc. It is also possible to mention
family members or others who have helped you, but please remember that the
overall statement should be concise and to the point. Schools, teachers and
pupils should not be identified by name, as it is an accepted convention of
research that anonymity should be preserved. If you are unsure about this,
please consult your tutor or mentor. A typical sentence might begin: ‘I should
like to thank the staff and pupils at the primary school where I undertook my
research for . . .’
Introduction Like the summary, this details the key aspects of your project
but at greater length. Here, your aim is to outline the nature of the project as
a whole. This is followed by a brief but systematic examination of the central
themes of your individual chapters. You may also wish to refer to the contents
of your appendices. When writing your report, it is useful to consider it in
terms of a ‘journey’ on which you are embarking. Remember, too, that
whoever reads your work (tutors, mentors, external examiners, or other
practitioners) will ‘travel’ with you in their turn. With this in mind, write the
introduction in such a way that it offers an account of the important ‘staging
posts’ of your ‘journey’: why or how you became interested in the topic being
researched; how you developed its precise focus and the project’s aims; how
your review of the literature developed your knowledge of the topic and
influenced your practical research; and how you undertook the research and
analysed data emerging from it. Finally, you should refer to the conclusions
you draw from your work, as well as to possible recommendations for future
practice. The implications of the research for your own professional develop-
ment should also be indicated. Because the introduction should offer an
accurate account of your research project, you should write it immediately
before the summary (which may be derived from it).
Chapters These constitute the main part of your report. The requirements
or guidelines for your project may specify the number of chapters your report
should contain (they may even extend to providing you with chapter titles, for
example, ‘Review of the Literature’, ‘Research Context’, ‘Research Methods’
etc.). On the other hand, you may simply be asked to set your work out
in terms of the reading you have undertaken (which should provide a
theoretical underpinning for your study) and the practical research you have
completed. In the latter case, it is important for you to develop your own
structure for the project and I offer an example of this below. Essentially
chapters should provide:
1. a critical review of the relevant literature;

2. information about the nature and context of your research (including methods of
data collection and analysis);
3. a discussion of the results of your research;
4. conclusions and recommendations.
Appendices These contain material to which you have referred in the main
body of the text, such as: examples of children’s work; blank questionnaire,
interview and observation schedules; research ethics documentation; extended
versions of audiotape or videotape transcripts; charts, tables, diagrams, etc.
Bibliography This contains full references to all sources (books, chapters in
edited books, journal articles, Internet websites etc.) to which you have referred
in the text (either by means of quotation or citation – see below for a discussion
of these). Once again, the requirements or guidelines for your research project
may indicate a preferred style of presentation for the bibliography. If this is not
the case, the bibliography at the end of this book utilises a format that you may
wish to adopt.
Following is an example of a possible structure for a project report. In
developing it, I have chosen the third research project discussed in Chapters 4
and 5:
Title
Developing Thinking Skills in the Early Years Classroom: An Action Research
Study.
Introduction
Outlines, chapter by chapter, the contents and main arguments/conclusions of
the project.
Chapter 1: Preliminary issues to be discussed

Introduction sets out the aims and scope of this chapter. Chapter examines
important preliminary questions: What are ‘thinking skills’? Do we need to
teach thinking skills in schools and, if so, why? What obstacles exist that
may hinder such teaching (e.g. the problem of indoctrination in schools)?
Summary of chapter.
Chapter 2: Critical review of the literature

Introduction sets out the aims and scope of this chapter. Chapter offers a
critical evaluation of some of the literature on the teaching of thinking skills
and examines the work of selected educators who are prominent in this field.
Answers questions such as: are thinking skills being taught in primary schools?
How? Is this enough? Summary of chapter.
Chapter 3: The research project

Introduction to the chapter sets out the aims and objectives of your research
project: teaching thinking skills to a class of 5–6-year-old pupils. Chapter
details the research issue/question/problem/hypothesis to be examined and
the timescale for the study, and describes the educational setting for the proj-
ect (e.g. school and classroom etc.). Discusses why action research has been
selected as the mode of enquiry or investigation, describes the research tools
used (video taping; audio taping) and states how you selected and analysed
action research data. Summary of chapter.
Chapter 4: Results of the research

Introduction sets out the aims and scope of this chapter. Chapter details
the results of your research project and examines critically some of the data
produced (dialogues with pupils). Results of the research are to be explained
and evaluated. Summary of chapter.
Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations

Introduction sets out the aims and scope of this chapter. Chapter outlines a
summary of the project, linking results of the research to earlier chapters
and offering some conclusions. Recommendations for the improvement of
educational practice and implications for the researcher’s professional
development should be outlined.
Please consider the following points when writing your research report. You
should demonstrate continuity and progression throughout the text, so that it
reads as a coherent and developing narrative. The best way to do this is to
make explicit connections between chapters. For example, Chapter 1 of this
book concludes as follows: ‘Having examined the question “What is action
research?” arguments for undertaking it in educational settings will be explored
in the next chapter’.
You may be asked to write your report in the first person (‘I would argue . . .’)
or third person (‘It is argued . . .’). Sometimes tutors or mentors have a prefer-
ence for one of these approaches. Before you begin your report, be sure that
you know how your tutor or mentor would like it to be written.
Remember to avoid plagiarism (Neville, 2010). According to Webster’s
Collegiate Dictionary, to plagiarise means ‘to steal or purloin and pass off as
one’s own the ideas, words, writings etc. of another’. This may be a deliberate
act or undertaken unintentionally. The best way to avoid plagiarism is to
ensure that, when quoting from a source such as a book or journal article, you
acknowledge the source by using speech marks and providing a full reference
in the text. In order to illustrate how this is done, I have provided many
examples of quoting from the work of others throughout the book.
Use both quotation and citation to illustrate your own developing
arguments. One way to cite another’s work is to summarise it in your own
words. Another approach is to refer to particular sources as examples to illus-
trate the point you are making. For example, you might write as follows: ‘I
would argue that action research aims to improve professional practice
(Macintyre, 2000; Hopkins, 2008). This is because . . .’ Again, I have incorpo-
rated examples of citation in this book.
Offer an honest account of your research project. Do not attempt to
disguise the problems that you may have experienced with it, or the fact that you
have been unable (due to circumstances beyond your control) to fulfil all the
aims with which you began. For example, it is possible that, having intended
for your project to take place over eight weeks, you had to complete it in four
weeks. If this is the case, say so in your report and discuss the consequences of
the reduced timescale for your research. Did you need to amend your aims?
Were there fewer opportunities to collect data? How did you respond to the
situation? What data were you able to gather? How did you analyse the data?
Can you offer conclusions and recommendations on the basis of the work that
you were able to complete? Remember that there is no such thing as a ‘perfect’
research project. All that a tutor, mentor or external examiner can expect from
you is that you have:
1. done your best to think carefully about the development of your project;
2. devised an appropriate project proposal, including a viable set of aims;
3. reviewed the relevant literature as appropriate;
4. attempted to ensure rigour in the research you have carried out; and
5. written an accurate account of your work, with appropriate conclusions and
recommendations.
Before submitting your report, or portions of it (even in draft form) to your

tutor or mentor, ensure that you have removed spelling, typographical and
other errors from the text. Then ask someone else (perhaps a colleague within
your institution or another member of your course) to read and comment
on it. This will provide additional feedback about your work and increase its
potential for rigour. Finally, retain a paper copy of your report and also keep a
copy on a USB memory stick and/or on the hard drive of your computer.
Reflective Thinking Exercise 6.1 focuses on writing and discussing the
draft introduction to and summary of your research report.

1. Write a draft Introduction to your research report.
2. Write a draft Summary of your research report.
Discuss the Introduction and Summary with your tutor or mentor and make neces-
sary amendments.
How Will My Action Research
Report be Assessed? 7
Chapter Outline
A model of assessing progress in argument in higher education 88
Students’ views of assessment 91
Assessing research projects: some examples 93
My aims in this chapter are to discuss assessment in higher education and to

offer examples of possible ways in which your action research project may be
assessed. In particular, the following will be explored:
z a model of assessing progress in argument in higher education;

z students’ views of assessment;
z assessing research projects.
There is now a substantial literature on assessment in higher education. Much

of this has focused on issues such as: assessment and student learning (Gibbs
and Dunbat-Goddet, 2007); providing assessment feedback to students on the
work they have submitted (Mutch, 2003; Oxford Learning Institute (undated);
Rae and Cochrane, 2008) and students’ use of that feedback (Pitts, 2005). Two
important themes are: (1) the need to prepare students adequately to under-
take a broad range of assignments (including research projects) by sharing
with them the criteria by which such work will be assessed; (2) the importance
of students’ participation in discussions about the assessment process, both
before and after this has taken place.
A model of assessing progress in

argument in higher education
In the Introduction to this book, I referred to the importance of developing
students’ critical thinking, reasoning and argument skills. Elsewhere (Costello,
2007b), I have discussed a model of assessing progress in argument which was
developed as a result of undertaking collaborative teaching and assessment
with a colleague, Rob Norris. Having provided some seminars as part of a final
year undergraduate module, we set an examination and agreed that we would
each mark half of the students’ work.
On examining the scripts assessed by Norris, I saw that he had treated writ-
ten answers as though they were longer, word-processed assignments. In all
cases, the text was closely annotated with comments indicating where, in the
view of the marker; students had been more or less successful in terms of what
they had written. Having scrutinised the examination scripts, it was clear to
me that my colleague had utilised his own implicit model of argument (in
contrast to the explicit model which was discussed, in the context of Ms C’s
action research project, in Chapters 4 and 5). In order to assess the former
in greater depth, I wrote out all the comments made by Norris on the scripts
and grouped them under the headings ‘Plus Points’ and ‘Minus Points’ (see
Figure 7.1). The ‘forward slash’ symbols indicate the number of times that
Norris found these points in the students’ work.
From an examination of the model, it is evident that it offers a clear and
concise framework by which students’ progress in developing the skills of
argument may be assessed. However, this model represents the critical reflec-
tion of a single individual. In order to foster students’ thinking, reasoning and
argument skills, I would suggest that certain prerequisites are necessary. To
begin with, academic tutors need to discuss, debate and ultimately agree on
appropriate models for assessing these skills (for a discussion of thinking skills
frameworks, see Moseley et al. 2005). Second, these models should be shared
and discussed with students in advance of formal assessments taking place.
Finally, at the conclusion of the assessment process, tutors should encourage
students to evaluate their academic performance critically, as a basis for
agreeing short-, medium- and long-term goals for future work. I would
argue that students’ full involvement in the assessment process is a necessary
condition for the improvement of their academic performance.
How Will My Action Research Report be Assessed? 89
Plus Points
Straight into the question/to the point //

Sticks closely to the task of answering the question //
Sense of immediacy in answer/sense of debate /
Deals directly and crisply with key developments in policy ///
Clear/economical/well-paced/well-expressed/well-structured argument /////////////
Critical thinking/analysis/argument/evaluation/personal critical voice ///////
Grasp of complexity of issues/attitudes ////
Evaluates approaches /
Raises interesting questions /
Concepts/issues grasped/identified/clarified ////
Identifies development of policies/their characteristics/key problems ///
Demonstrates some awareness of issues /
Describes context with some reference to issues /
Shows understanding/awareness of historical developments and key issues/concepts ///
Substantial/good reference to journal and other literature ///
Refers to/some substantiation from literature /////
Some referencing /
Cites evidence /////
Gives/lists reasons //
Has the key ideas /
Sound argument //
Relevant statements/arguments //
Some relevant points /
Keeps argument going /
Minus Points
Does not get straight into/to grips with question //

Answer runs in parallel with the question rather than addressing it directly /
Quote is not sufficiently well-addressed /
Lacks clarity of conceptualisation /
Provides references to support argument but simplistic at times /
Not so good in citing research evidence /
Tends to lack substantial evidence /
Weak on reference and evidence //
Only some referencing /
Some reference to literature but not to research /
No evidence of reading //
Figure 7.1 A model of assessing progress in argument in higher education.

Not well-informed /
Lacks clear thread of argument /
Points not welded together into an argument /
Grapples with key concepts/arguments but with some lack of control /
Does not marshal arguments for and against sufficiently well /
Shaky/inadequate grasp of key concepts //
Does not demonstrate clear understanding through analysis/evaluation /
Gives examples rather than analyses issues /
Rushed argument with little critical analysis /
Demonstrates lack of knowledge of research /
Identifies issues around the question /
Gaps in content /
Repetitious /
Reader left to make connections /
Argument at level of invective /
Catalogue of bold and unsubstantiated assertions /
High on assertion /
Low on analysis/evaluation ////
Lacks analysis/evidence /
Answer not structured /
Answer poorly structured /
Answers at a common sense level ///
Naïve and over-simplified ///
Largely misses point of the question /
No depth /
No references //
Poor expression //
Plan looks better than essay /
Reflective Thinking Exercise 7.1 invites you to consider the model of assess-
ing progress in argument in higher education.

1. What can you learn from Figure 7.1 in order to improve your research project?
2. Look carefully at the ‘Plus Points’ and ‘Minus Points’. Do you want to add
anything to these lists? Why/why not?
Students’ views of assessment

One way to encourage students’ reflective thinking about the assessment
process is to ascertain their views about the more general issue of studying
in higher education. Currently, I am engaged in a research project that aims
to explore keys issues concerning teaching, learning and assessment across
three years of an undergraduate degree. Phase one of the project has focused
on induction into higher education and I have asked two cohorts of first-year
students, who are undertaking an undergraduate degree in Education, a
number of questions (Costello, 2009a). Some of these are set out below,
together with examples of students’ responses (see Figure 7.2).
How can students’ best be prepared to How can lecturers help to facilitate students’
undertake study in higher education? academic success?
Students should be mentally and physically Help with assignment layout and discuss
prepared and focused to put everything into assignment title words.
the course and must take responsibility for their Give clear explanation of the content of the
own learning. assignment and of assessment criteria in
Students must be committed to the degree order to dispel any confusion.
programme in order to gain maximum
Ensure feedback is given after every
knowledge and understanding from lectures.
assignment on a one-to-one basis.
Study hard and attend all lectures. Take any
Make time for students’ questions,
opportunity available to gain help or information
so students know areas which need
from those who offer it.
improvement and can develop these areas
Study skills are invaluable, especially as a mature for future assignments.
student returning to education after twenty years.
Offer critical advice on assignments. It’s good
To know what is expected of us when writing
to be positive but we cannot improve without
assignments.
being given advice on what we have done
Have help with assignment writing, such as wrong.
how to structure an essay and how to write
references.
Open days to prepare students and allow them
to see if higher education is for them.
Considering tutors’ feedback on assignments Considering tutors’ feedback on assignments
you have completed in year 1, write down three you have completed in year 1, write down
things you have done well. three aspects of your work that require
further improvement.
Knowledge and understanding of subject area. Ensure I understand the question completely.
Analysed question well. Ensuring that I meet the expectations of the
Researched well for assignments. marking tutor through the assessment criteria.
Good range of sources – articles, books and Introduction to assignment is too brief.
websites.
Figure 7.2 Questionnaire for students in higher education.

Evidence of good planning. Write more detailed conclusions.

Quotations selected appropriately. Justify quotations.
Clearly set out and well structured. Sometimes points made are a bit disjointed.
Written fluently to engage the reader. Present bibliography in an appropriate
Gave good ideas for developing oral skills with manner.
effective examples.
Proofreading needs attention.
Made better use of references.
Issues with spelling, punctuation and
Good presentation. common grammatical errors.
Critical argument. Adhere to word limit.
Essay reflects the effort I put into the work.
Develop argument skills.
Supporting arguments with relevant
evidence.
Use a broader range of source material to
support my arguments.
Try to make arguments more succinct.
What academic support do you require to make What can you do to facilitate your own
these improvements? success?
More guidance about assignment writing. Ask if I am unsure about the essay that has
Examples of good assignments, good layout been set.
and presentation to be made available. Start the assignment as early as possible.
Learning thinking, reasoning and argument Research topic in greater depth.
skills. Plan my assignments in line with the marking
More study skills lectures – how arguments are criteria.
to be focused and refined. Spend more time on the assignments.
One-to-one support where an individual feels Do more reading on assignments and read
they would benefit from it. more in between assignments to build up my
Critical feedback. knowledge.
Open lectures where lecturers are free to Practise my essay writing.
answer any questions we may have. Remember to analyse my quotes in depth.
Improve my reasoning and argument skills.
Read more books, study harder, listen to
other people’s judgements and liaise better
with lecturers.
Accept positive, constructive feedback and
criticism.
Discuss my assignments with tutors so I can
get the feedback needed to do better next time.
Continue with the standard of work I have
produced during year one and develop my
style of academic writing further.

Many of the comments made by my students bear directly on the issue of assess-
ment. For example, this is evident from their responses concerning tutors’ assess-
ment feedback, as well as to the question ‘How can lecturers help to facilitate
students’ academic success?’ Reflective Thinking Exercise 7.2 focuses on your
own analysis of the students’ comments outlined above, while Reflective Thinking
Exercise 7.3 is concerned with tutors’ assessment of your assignments.

1. Which of the students’ comments in Figure 7.2 relate particularly to the
assessment of their work?
2. What can you learn from these comments in order to improve the quality of your
research project?
3. Do you have any questions for your tutor?

1. Look carefully at your tutors’ assessment of the assignments you have already
completed.
2. What can you learn from the tutors’ comments in order to improve the quality of
your research project?
Assessing research projects:

some examples
At this stage, it will be useful to consider some typical examples of how your
research project may be assessed. Following are several assessment pro formas
that focus on undergraduate and postgraduate projects. These are as follows:
(1) two undergraduate pro formas that focus on a broad range of attainment
(40–80/100 marks); (2) a postgraduate pro forma; (3) a postgraduate dissertation
pro forma. Please note that your research project may be assessed by more
than one tutor and that your mark (or grade) will need to be confirmed by an
examiner who is external to your HEI.
Undergraduate Research Project: Example 1

Assignment Title: Developing Effective Approaches to Education for Citizenship in the
Primary School: An Action Research Study.
Assessment Criteria Mark
Evidence of research and scholarly activity to inform practice: 9/10

Books, journal articles and appropriate websites concerned with action research and education
for citizenship.
Evidence of critical thinking, analysis and argument: 7/10

Using relevant documentation to develop your arguments about the nature, purposes and
practice of action research and education for citizenship.
Clarity of focus: 8/10

Rationale for undertaking action research in schools or other professional settings.
Undertaking a small-scale research project: 40/50

Outline your action research study.
Reflection on the quality of your own professional learning in relation to future practice: 8/10
What are the implications of your action research study both
for pupils’ learning and your own teaching?
Clarity of written expression: 4/5

Use of sub-headings to structure your work; correct grammar and punctuation; assignment written
within the word limit.
Presentation: 4/5
All references acknowledged; work word-processed and presented appropriately.
Marking Tutor’s Comments

This is an excellent piece of work, into which it is clear that you have put a great deal of effort. You have:
z drawn upon an excellent range of sources to support your arguments;
z established a clear focus for the assignment;
z completed a very good action research project;
z offered several examples which demonstrate the link between educational theory and practice;
z expressed your own professional learning by outlining the implications of your research study;
z offered appropriate conclusions and recommendations for practice.
z included the required research ethics documentation in your appendices.
In reflecting on your assignment, consider the following questions:

z How would you respond to the view that education for citizenship is essentially an exercise in indoctrination?
z Have you offered an adequate justification for the action research model used to develop your research
project?
The assignment has an appropriate structure and, overall, there is a very good standard of presentation.
Please see my comments in the text. Well done!
Recommended Mark: 80
Marking Tutor:
Tutor’s Signature:
Date:
Undergraduate Research Project: Example 2
Assignment Title: Developing Effective Approaches to Education for Citizenship in the
Primary School: An Action Research Study.
Assessment Criteria Mark
Evidence of research and scholarly activity to inform practice: 5/10

Books, journal articles and appropriate websites concerned with action research and education
for citizenship.
Evidence of critical thinking, analysis and argument: 3/10

Using relevant documentation to develop your arguments about the nature, purposes and
practice of action research and education for citizenship.
Clarity of focus: 5/10

Rationale for undertaking action research in schools or other professional settings.
Undertaking a small-scale research project: 22/50

Outline your action research study.
Reflection on the quality of your own professional learning in relation to future practice: 3/10
What are the implications of your action research study both for pupils’ learning and your
own teaching?
Clarity of written expression: 1/5

Use of sub-headings to structure your work; correct grammar and punctuation; assignment
written within the word limit.
Presentation: 1/5
All references acknowledged; work word-processed and presented appropriately.
Marking Tutor’s Comments

You have used some appropriate sources to support your action research study but your text is much
too descriptive (to the exclusion of analysis and evaluation). There is some very limited evidence of
critical thinking, analysis and argument, and you attempt to establish a relationship between educational
theory and practice. You offer some reflections on what you have learned from undertaking the research
project. Your mode of presentation requires attention throughout. Please see my comments in the text,
particularly concerning clarity of written expression. In considering your assignment, ask yourself the
following questions:

z Why are you using action research to explore education for citizenship in the primary school?
z Have you clarified the purposes of education for citizenship?
z Why have you chosen to collect research data using only a very brief questionnaire?
z Have you analysed your research data fully, rather than leaving the reader to interpret them?
Recommended Mark: 40
Marking Tutor:
Tutor’s Signature:
Date:
Postgraduate Research Project

Assignment Title:
Part 1: 3000 words
Identify an action research topic and analyse the key issues that would form the basis
of it.
Part 2: 3000 words
Outline the action research design, its implementation and evaluation.
Content:
This assignment offers a critical evaluation of the role of play in early childhood set-
tings. You begin by offering a thorough introduction to the topic. This is followed by
sections focusing on the background to and rationale for your study, as well as the
nature and role of play in early year’s education. You are to be commended for hav-
ing read widely. Your section on action research methodology is well-considered and
you discuss ethical considerations associated with your study. The following section,
on the analysis of research data, is thorough and you set out your main findings
concisely. You offer an appropriate concluding section, together with some recom-
mendations for future practice. A question to consider: was it Piaget who said ‘Play
is the child’s work’ and ‘Play is a serious business?’
Relevance to practice:
Your assignment is successful in demonstrating relationships between educational
theory and practice. It is clear that the research undertaken will be beneficial both
for your own institution and in terms of your own professional development and
practice.
Presentation:
Presentation throughout is of a very high standard. Please see my comments in the
text.
References:
I have scanned a selection of references in the text and found all of these in the
bibliography. Looking ahead to your dissertation, please consider drawing on a
broader range of journal articles to support your arguments. Congratulations on
having written an excellent assignment!
Recommended mark: 75
Marking tutor’s signature:
Date:
Postgraduate Research Project: Dissertation

Title:
Developing Effective Approaches to the Teaching and Learning of Argument in Reli-
gious Education: An Action Research Study.
Introduction/Conclusion:
Your excellent summary and introduction offer a clear and concise rationale for the
dissertation. A research project that focuses on developing effective approaches
to the teaching and learning of argument in religious education in a secondary
school is timely. Based on the research you have undertaken, you offer appropriate
conclusions and recommendations for future practice.
Content:
The dissertation focuses on: (1) establishing a rationale for the study through a critical
review of relevant literature; (2) outlining the research methods used in your study
and examining some key texts in the research methodology literature; (3) discussing
ethical considerations associated with the study; (4) setting out and discussing your
findings; (5) offering conclusions and recommendations for future practice.
Research Design:
You offer an appropriate rationale for the use of an action research approach and
you relate your work to research undertaken previously for the MA degree. You
utilise triangulation to good effect, drawing on questionnaires, semi-structured
interviews and observations.
Use of Literature:
Your dissertation offers evidence of extensive reading and you are successful
throughout in demonstrating relationships between educational theory and
practice. It is clear that the research undertaken will have important implications
for your school, as well as for your own professional development.
Academic Presentation:
Presentation throughout is of a very high standard. I have scanned a selection of
references in the text and found all of these in the bibliography. You have benefited
from having produced draft chapters throughout the period of study and you have
worked at a consistently high level.
This is an excellent piece of work, which I have enjoyed reading. I hope you will
consider publishing some of your dissertation in professional journals. Given the
quality of your work, I also suggest that you should consider undertaking a research
Ö
degree (M.Phil./Ph.D.). If you would like to discuss either publication or beginning

a research degree, please let me know. Well done!
Suggested Mark (First Marker): 85

Suggested Mark (Second Marker):
Agreed mark (subject to confirmation by the external examiner):
Signed:
First Marker
Signed:
Second Marker
While funded research projects are not assessed in the same way as reports
submitted for an academic qualification (i.e. they are not given a mark
or grade), it is customary for the funding body to provide some guidance
concerning success indicators. For example, this may take the form of advice
about how best to approach the individual categories set out in Figure 6.2.
For a discussion of how postgraduate research theses are assessed, see Mullins
and Kiley (2002).
Comments on action research project assessments

In concluding this chapter, I would like to make some comments about
the action research project assessments outlined above. To begin with, it is
important that you should consider the issue of assessment before undertaking
your research project. The best way to do this is to read carefully the informa-
tion provided in your course or module handbook, which should contain
the assessment pro forma(s) being used, as well as general guidance about how
to complete your project successfully. If you have any questions about the
assessment process, please consult your tutor.
You will see from the first two assessments that there is a substantial
variation in students’ attainment. Familiarising yourself with the assessment
pro forma, asking pertinent questions, and looking at examples of projects
completed by previous cohorts of students (please ask your tutor if you can
read some of these), will enable you to begin your research in an effective
way. This is because you will be able to distinguish between good and less than
successful practice from the beginning. Please note that, in their assessment of
your work, tutors will draw your attention to those aspects of your project
which are to be commended, as well as to those areas that require improvement.
Often their feedback will take the form of a commentary on what you have
written but tutors may also ask you questions to encourage your reflective
thinking and practice. As is evident from the first assessment, such questions
may be asked even in the context of excellent research studies. Reflective
Thinking Exercise 7.4 focuses on the assessment of your project.

1. When your research project has been assessed, consider your tutor’s comments
and questions.
2. Do you understand these fully?
3. What have you learned?
Do you have any questions for your tutor?

How Do I Publish My Action
Research Report? 8
Chapter Outline
Students’ experiences of writing for publication 101
Publishing action research reports in journals 104
Publishing action research reports through presenting
conference papers 105
Having completed your action research report, you may now wish to share
your findings with a broader audience. Several authors offer advice on how to
do this in the context of: (1) presentations to your colleagues (Baumfield et al.,
2008; MacNaughton and Hughes, 2009; Mertler, 2009); (2) the Internet
(MacNaughton and Hughes, 2009; Mertler, 2009). Given that two key
questions often asked by researchers are: ‘Why should I publish my action
research report?’ and ‘How do I publish my action research report?’ My aim
here is to examine
z students’ experiences of writing for publication;

z publishing action research reports in journals;
z publishing action research reports through presenting conference papers.
Students’ experiences of writing

for publication
There is now a substantial literature on academic writing and publishing
(Hartley, 2008; Murray and Moore, 2006), much of which is intended
primarily for lecturers and researchers, rather than undergraduate and

postgraduate students undertaking taught courses (Aitchison et al., 2010;
Wellington, 2003). However, in recent years, the idea of developing under-
graduate research has become increasingly popular (Garde-Hansen and
Calvert, 2007; Healey and Jenkins, 2009).
In my own university, we have replaced the third year undergraduate
dissertation (an assignment of 6000 to 8000 words in length) with a research
article (3000 words). As part of a module entitled ‘Education and Professional
Studies’, I offer seminars on topics such as: ‘Undertaking a literature review’;
‘Action research’; ‘Research ethics’; ‘Writing a research article’ and ‘Publishing
a research article’. Students are asked to write an article (or paper) for one of
three named journals and a visiting professor (who is a former editor of one of
the journals) has reviewed some of the best pieces of work and offered addi-
tional advice concerning possible publication. Again with a view to developing
their reflecting thinking and practice, students have been asked for their views
on this assignment (Bassett and Costello, 2009). The following abridged extract
from a questionnaire distributed to a cohort of 36 students offers another
example of gathering qualitative and quantitative research data (Figure 8.1).
1. Do you believe that it is important for teachers to publish their good practice for
others to read?
YES 36 NO 0 DON’T KNOW 0
Please give reasons for your view:
z Yes: a great way for others to gain knowledge and teaching ideas; an excellent
resource which is more reliable/realistic, as a fellow teacher has written and
published this work.
z Yes: because it gives other teachers ‘food for thought’ on topical issues.
z Yes: it informs good practice and generates further potential to develop one’s own
pedagogic practice.
z Yes: it enables others to gain a perspective on what constitutes good teaching
and how effective it has been.
z Yes: it is always helpful to consider the good practice of others when thinking/
reflecting on your own practice.
z Yes: journal articles written by teachers are a good source for other teachers to
pick up new techniques.
Figure 8.1 Questionnaire.

How Do I Publish My Action Research Report? 103
2. Did you find writing the research article a challenging assignment?
z Yes: it was very challenging to read broadly and critically analyse what each
author has to say.
z Yes: challenging but very worthwhile.
z It is writing in a different style. When choosing your own topic, it made it more
challenging as you were in control.
z Yes, it was very challenging and I researched the work thoroughly to write a
successful article.
z Yes: I had never written anything like this before; it was the first time that I had
critically evaluated current research.
3. Do you believe that you had sufficient choice of area to research?
4. Did you undertake any additional small-scale research to complement your critical
review of the literature?
YES 8 NO 28
5. Do you feel that this research added to the quality of your research article?
If yes, please give reasons for your view:
z It gave me practical evidence to support the views formed.

z I was able to appreciate what children think when they are engaged in learning
through play.
z I was able to see how what I was researching was put into place and how this
was being received.
6. If you were doing this assignment again, what three things would you do differently?
z Start earlier/allow more time.

z Read more articles from the journal I am writing for.
z Choose a topic on which there is a lot more published.
z Even more reading is necessary.
z Some small-scale research to give a practical view.
z Be more critical of my first attempts.

Although this form of assessment is relatively new, it has been welcomed by

students. In my seminar on publication, I outline ways in which the article
(and research projects more generally) may be written up and submitted to a
broad range of journals. In the following sections, I shall discuss this, together
with making presentations at conferences.
Publishing action research reports

in journals
MacNaughton and Hughes (2009, p. 231) argue that the similarities between
research project reports and articles for academic journals are such that ‘a
researcher will often use their formal, written project report as the starting
point for a subsequent journal article, rather than starting from scratch’.
If you are considering publishing your action research report in a journal,
you should seek advice from your tutor or mentor concerning how to proceed.
My own view is that you should begin by considering the range of journals in
your particular subject discipline (e.g. Education) or sub-section of it (e.g.
primary education) and then find out which of these are available in your
HEI’s library (either in printed copy or on-line). Then you need to examine
the journals carefully and ask yourself the following questions: What subject
matter is covered? What guidance do the journals offer about accepting articles
for publication?’
Some professional journals ask for shorter articles (fewer than 3000 words).
I suggest you begin by aiming to publish in one of these before going on to
write lengthier papers (5000–6000 words). You will increase your chance of
success by following closely the requirements set out by journals. These relate
to matters such as: focusing on appropriate subject content; adhering to the
suggested word length; following guidance on quotation and referencing in the
text; setting out the bibliography appropriately; and writing a summary of your
article if required etc. If the journal you are writing for has a policy of sending
papers to referees for their comments, so that they can make a recommendation
as to whether your article should be published, pay close attention to their
comments and advice. If it is suggested that your article needs to be amended,
do not be discouraged; make the changes as suggested and submit your work
again. It is much more likely to be accepted when submitted for a second time.
Wellington (2003) interviewed 12 editors of journals in the UK. Here are
some of their comments concerning the question ‘What counts as a good
article?’ (pp. 67–68).
z Clear and coherent argument backed up by appropriate data (where relevant); well
set out.
z Internal consistency; ‘soundness’; is it well written? Does it flow?
z Reads well, lucid, well-organised. Clear evidence of existing knowledge of the topic
under investigation; evidence of critical engagement with that and where it will take
them; the ability to theorise; to understand the sensitivities of research findings; takes
notice of the requirements of the journal.
When asked the questions ‘What are grounds for rejection? And common
complaints?’ the editors responded as follows (pp. 69–70):
z Bad ones: lack any theoretical depth, are not grounded in previous literature, their
methodology is inappropriate for the research questions, have short conclusions or
discussion, are just aimed at classroom practice, but not grounded in any theoretical
perspective, show little depth of analysis, ‘superficial analysis of data’.
z Really bad?: the author has never opened the pages of this journal. Someone, who
has written on a topic, and made no reference to a series of articles on the same
topic; I can just look at the list of references to get a feel for this.
z Confused or incoherent writing: no data or evidence, confusing presentation
of data.
z Poorly presented, badly written, inadequately argued, lacking a theoretical frame-
work, uninformed by the literature . . . and so on.
For additional guidance on publishing your action research project in a journal

and elsewhere, see Murray (2009), Norton (2009), and Wellington (2003).
Publishing action research

reports through presenting
conference papers
As Norton (2009, p. 200) suggests: ‘If you are aiming at a journal paper, present-
ing your findings at a conference first will give you some valuable peer feedback
which will help you develop your paper’. Also, presentations are frequently
published in the conference proceedings of the event. In order to have a confer-
ence paper accepted, it is customary to submit a proposal (Costello, 2009b).
This usually contains several categories and you are asked to write to a specific
word limit. Below are examples of proposals I have made to present papers at
both a national and an international conference (Figures 8.2 and 8.3).
Once your proposal has been accepted, you will need to consider how to
present your paper (Karlin, 2008). Conference speakers usually prepare a
PowerPoint presentation and the easiest way to do this is to follow the main
points outlined in your proposal (Figure 8.4).
Title of Paper
Developing Communities of Inquiry in the UK: Retrospect and Prospect
Abstract
(maximum 250 words)
My aim in this paper is to offer a critical evaluation of the development of communities

of inquiry (CoI) in the UK, with particular reference to the teaching of philosophical
thinking in schools. The paper is divided into four sections. In the first, I offer an answer
to the question ‘what is a community of inquiry?’ and examine some key aspects of the
development of CoI from an historical perspective. The second section focuses on the
question: ‘should children be taught to think philosophically?’ Following this and drawing
on my own research, I outline my approach to the teaching of philosophy to young
children and discuss the current context for such teaching in the UK. Finally, I conclude
by considering future prospects for developing CoI. I shall argue that such development
is likely to take place within the context of the following themes:
z The increasing prominence of (and importance attributed to) teachers’ research

projects.
z The growth of organisations that aim to promote the teaching and learning of
thinking skills (including Philosophy).
z The prevalence of publications in this field.
z New directions for research and practice.
In the context of the conference theme, I shall argue that the teaching of philosophical
thinking in schools offers an excellent example of ‘education beyond boundaries’,
since it enables learners to reflect critically on a broad range of subject matter.
Such reflection may be exercised in the context of (but will not be limited to) the
formal school curriculum.
247 words
Figure 8.2 Proposal to present a paper at a national conference.

Title of Presentation: Tolerance, Citizenship Education and the Development of Moral
Values
Abstract (maximum 100 words)

My central aim in this paper is to explore the role of the school in the development of
tolerance and other moral values. I argue that effective citizenship education programmes,
that incorporate the teaching of philosophical thinking skills in schools, have an important
contribution to make to this endeavour. Having examined the relationship between
citizenship education and the teaching of philosophy in schools, I outline my own approach
to the latter and suggest that the teaching of critical thinking, reasoning and argument skills
is essential to the development of tolerance and other moral values. [94 words]
Summary (maximum 500 words)

My central aim in this paper is to explore the role of the school in the development
of tolerance and other moral values. I shall argue that effective citizenship education
programmes, that incorporate the teaching of philosophical thinking skills, have a
substantial contribution to make to this endeavour. I begin by responding to the question
‘why educate for tolerance?’ This is followed by the presentation of arguments for
developing tolerance and other moral values within the context of citizenship education
programmes. Having discussed the nature of citizenship education and argued for the
concept of a ‘reflective citizenry’, I explore the relationship between such education and
the teaching of philosophy in schools.
The idea that children should engage in the systematic discussion of philosophical
ideas is a relatively new one. My aim here is to offer a rationale for such an endeavour.
In the USA, there has emerged what has been called ‘a new branch of philosophy’,
Philosophy for Children. The main pioneer of this field of philosophy is Matthew Lipman
and, in this part of the paper, I offer a critical examination of his ‘Philosophy for Children’
programme. Drawing on my own research (e.g. Thinking Skills and Early Childhood
Education, David Fulton Publishers), I outline my own approach to the teaching of
philosophy to young children and examine findings of research studies concerned with
improving the quality of children’s thinking, reasoning and argument skills.
In the context of the conference theme, I argue that teaching such skills in schools is
essential to the development of tolerance and other moral values. The main points of the
presentation are: Why educate for tolerance?; Tolerance, moral values and citizenship
education; What is citizenship education?; Citizenship education and the teaching of
philosophy in schools; The nature of philosophical thinking; Teaching philosophical
thinking skills: the ‘Philosophy for Children’ programme; Developing moral values
through the teaching of philosophical thinking in British schools; Improving the quality of
children’s argument; Assessing progress in argument; Cultivating tolerance: the role of
the school. [333 words]
Key words
Tolerance
Citizenship education
Moral values
Philosophy in schools
Figure 8.3 Proposal to present a paper at an international conference.

Thirty-Fifth Conference of the Association for

Moral Education
‘Cultivating Tolerance: Moral Functioning and its

Development’
Utrecht University, The Netherlands
Tolerance, Citizenship Education and the

Development of Moral Values
Professor Patrick Costello
Glyndŵr University, Wales
Why educate for tolerance?
z Tolerance, moral values and citizenship education

z ‘A key component of civic education is to teach children the virtues
of liberal, democratic citizenship . . . toleration, mutual respect,
reciprocity . . .’ (MacMullen)
z The nature of citizenship education
Figure 8.4 PowerPoint presentation

The nature of philosophical thinking
z Education for citizenship and the concept of a reflective citizenry

z Citizenship and the teaching of philosophy
z What is philosophy?
z Why teach philosophical thinking in schools?
z Philosophy and the development of moral values
Developing philosophical thinking skills
z The ‘Philosophy for Children’ programme

z Lipman’s ‘community of inquiry’
z Developing philosophical thinking in British schools
z Developing moral values: teaching philosophy through narrative

and video
The teaching and learning of argument
z Improving the quality of young children’s argument
z Assessing progress in argument

Cultivating tolerance: the role of the school
z General learning goals: values, knowledge and skills

z Tolerance and the teaching of thinking, reasoning and argument
skills
z Schools as communities of inquiry: an alternative vision of
education?
References
z Blommaert, J. (1998) Debating Diversity: Analysing the Rhetoric of

Tolerance, London: Routledge.
z Brunskill, K. (2006) Developing Consideration, Respect and
Tolerance, London: Paul Chapman.
z Costello, P.J.M. (2000) Thinking Skills and Early Childhood

Education, London: David Fulton Publishers.
z Costello, P.J.M. (2003) Action Research, London: Continuum.
z Costello, P.J.M. (2010) ‘Developing communities of inquiry in the
UK: retrospect and prospect’, Analytic Teaching: The Community
of Inquiry Journal (forthcoming).
z MacMullen, I. (2007) Faith in Schools? Autonomy, Citizenship

and Religious Education in the Liberal State, Oxford: Princeton
University Press.
z UNESCO (1994) Tolerance: The Threshold of Peace, Paris:

UNESCO.
z Vogt, W. Paul (1997) Tolerance and Education: Learning to Live

with Diversity and Difference, London: Sage.

Reflective Thinking Exercise 8.1 focuses on publishing your action research
project report in a journal.

1. Find a journal that relates to your action research project.
2. Look at the content and structure of several articles.
3. Write a draft article using the structure of one of these published papers.
4. Discuss the article with your tutor or mentor.
Recommended Further
Reading 9
Chapter Outline
The importance of reading widely 113
Recommended further reading 114
The importance of reading widely

As I stated at the beginning of this book, its central aims are to enable
practitioners to undertake and to offer an account of an action research
project. When developing such a project (for example, as part of a course
of study for an academic qualification), I suggested that it is important to
read widely. This will enable you both to increase your knowledge and under-
standing of educational theory and practice, and to underpin your research
with relevant references to the literature.
While this volume provides a concise introduction to action research, a
number of other texts offer important insights into (and sometimes extensive
accounts of) its key features. With this in mind, you may find helpful the fol-
lowing suggestions for further reading. Please remember that these are exam-
ples from what is now a substantial body of written work in this area. It is part
of the task of undertaking research that you should reflect critically on source
material beyond that suggested by your tutor. The texts indicated below will,
in turn, offer their own suggestions for further reading.
Recommended further reading

It is advisable to read some accounts of action research that are located within
general texts concerned with undertaking educational or social science
research, such as Bassey (1998), Bell (2005), Blaxter et al. (2001), Denscombe
(2007), Hopkins (2008) and Robson (2002). Having considered how action
research relates to other forms or types of research, you can then move on to
books with a specific action research focus, such as Baumfield et al. (2008),
Coghlan and Brannick (2005), Macintyre (2000), McNiff and Whitehead
(2006), Mertler (2009), Norton (2009) and Somekh (2006).
For discussions about
z the origins of action research, see Adelman (1993), Coghlan and Brannick, (2005),
Elliott (1991), Hopkins (2008), McNiff and Whitehead (2006) and Norton (2009);
z models of action research, see Baumfield et al. (2008), Coghlan and Brannick (2005),
Drummond and Themessl-Huber (2007), Elliott (1991), Hopkins (2008), MacNaughton
and Hughes (2009), McNiff with Whitehead (2002) and Mertler (2009).
z ethical considerations in undertaking action research, see Blaxter et al. (2001), British
Educational Research Association (2004), Denscombe (2009), Gregory (2003);
Hostetler (2005); Norton (2009), Oliver (2010) and Thomas (2009).
z criteria for good action research, see Coghlan and Brannick (2005), Elliott (1995),
Feldman (2007), MacNaughton and Hughes (2009) and Mertler (2009).
Much useful information about action research may be found via the
Internet. In particular, Southern Cross University (2009) in Australia offers a
substantial archive of resource material. Of particular interest to beginning
researchers is the collection of papers supporting a 14-week introductory
course, ‘Action Research and Evaluation on Line’, and a series of brief com-
ments about action research, ‘Occasional Pieces’. If you are proposing to
undertake a postgraduate action research project, I suggest you read Dick’s
(1993) ‘You want to do an action research thesis?’, which offers guidance
on key issues and contains a substantial (and annotated) bibliography. In
addition, Mertler (2009, pp. 206–7) provides details of a number of action
research electronic journals.
Within the UK, the Collaborative Action Research Network (CARN), whose
website is hosted by Manchester Metropolitan University, ‘aims to encourage
and support action research projects (personal, local, national and international),
Recommended Further Reading 115
accessible accounts of action research projects, and contributions to the theory
and methodology of action research’ (see CARN, 2010). The website contains
information about becoming a member of the Network, as well as details of
its study days, conferences and publications (including CARN Bulletins and
the journal Educational Action Research). Links to related websites are also
provided.
The ‘Teachers’ TV’ website has a section which focuses on case studies
investigating the use of action research in schools (see http://www.teachers.tv/
video/4883).
A number of books and other sources offer very useful advice and
guidance on: undertaking a literature search and review, research ethics,
and collecting and analysing action research data. In particular, see the
following for information concerning
z literature search and review: Birmingham City University (2007), Cridland (2008), Hart
(1998, 2001), MacNaughton and Hughes (2009), Mertler (2009), Rumsey (2008) and
Thomas (2009);
z quantitative and qualitative research: Blaxter et al. (2001), Denscombe (2007), Free-
body (2003), Maxwell (2005), Robson (2002), Thomas (2009) and Wragg (1999);
z case study research: Bassey (1999), Gillham (2000), Simons (2009) and Yin (2009);
z questionnaires: Bell (2005), Denscombe (2007), Gillham (2008a, 2008c), Macintyre
(2000), and Robson (2002);
z interviews: Bell (2005), Denscombe (2007), Gillham (2001, 2005, 2008c), James and
Busher (2009), Macintyre (2000) and Robson (2002);
z observation studies: Bell (2005), Denscombe (2007), Gillham (2008b), Macintyre
(2000), Robson (2002) and Wragg (1999);
z audiotape recording/videotape recording: Baumfield et al. (2008), Hopkins (2008),
Macintyre (2000), Mertler (2009) and Wragg (1999);
z diaries, journals and field notes: Baumfield et al. (2008), Bell (2005), Hopkins (2008),
Macintyre (2000), Mertler (2009), Moon (2006), Patrick et al. (2007) and Thomas
(2009).
Endnote: The Theory and
Practice of Action Research 10
Chapter Outline
Rationale for the format of this book 117
Developing reflective thinking and practice 118
Rationale for the format of this book

In conclusion, I would like to offer a rationale for the format I have chosen to
adopt in writing this book. Although it is customary to outline this at the
beginning of a volume, I have chosen a different approach here. This is for two
reasons. First, as I said in the introduction, my main aims have been to enable
you to undertake effective action research and to offer an account of an action
research project. Given this (and the overall length of the book), my primary
emphasis has been on the practice of action research, underpinned as necessary
by references to educational theory. To offer a substantial rationale at the
beginning may have detracted from the essentially practical focus of the text.
The second reason for selecting this approach is that I wanted you to
experience each part of the action research process without having to under-
take too much preliminary thinking about its individual stages. I find that this
strategy is particularly useful, both for practitioners who are embarking on
their first research project and for those who may not have undertaken such
work for a number of years. This is because it should help to dispel potential
anxieties that would-be researchers may have concerning the nature of the
project, the methodologies involved, the theoretical reflection required, etc.

Having examined these key issues individually and given some thought to how
they might be addressed in the context of your own educational practice, you
should now be ready to embark on your project.
Developing reflective thinking

and practice
To assist you in this, the format of the book is intended to offer guidance at
each stage of the process. Throughout, my focus has been on the development
of reflective thinking and practice. With this in mind and in thinking about
how to begin, I suggest you look again at the eight key action research questions
and then consider the following: What do you understand is meant by ‘action
research’? What are the similarities and differences between different models
of action research? Is there a particular model of action research that appeals
to you because it would be useful in helping you to structure your project?
Could you develop your own model of action research from existing models?
Now ask yourself the question ‘Why should I undertake action research?’
and examine the issues discussed in Chapter 2. Which of these issues is rele-
vant to your own professional practice? Do you regard yourself as a ‘reflective
practitioner’ and, if so, why? Should teachers engage in research and should
teaching move increasingly towards being a research-based profession?
Having considered the problems with educational research that were outlined,
how might these be overcome? Finally, what do you consider to be the role of
research in bringing about school improvement and in enhancing your own
professional development?
As regards your action research project, you need to consider the following
questions in the early stages of your work: Have you attended those research
methodology seminars that may have been provided to support your study?
Have you undertaken a thorough literature search and review? Do you have
questions to ask before you develop your research proposal? Who might be
able to answer these? Having produced the research proposal, have you made
any amendments that may have been suggested by your tutor or mentor? Have
you examined available research reports produced by other researchers? Do
Endnote: The Theory and Practice of Action Research 119
you understand how your action research report will be assessed? If not, who
might be able to advise you on this?
When you have completed a literature search and gained access to a broad
range of source material, you will need to evaluate critically what authors have
said about those educational (and other) issues with which you are concerned.
In order to do this, you may utilise both quotation and citation in the text.
Throughout this book, I have quoted from and cited a number of sources. In
doing so, my intention has been
1. to illustrate relationships between educational theory and practice;

2. to offer practical examples of quotation and citation, so that you can consider how
these might be incorporated into your project.
Before attempting to collect and analyse research data, examine again the
criticisms of action research that I discussed in Chapter 4. Having done this,
consider the following key question: ‘How can I ensure that my research is as
rigorous as possible?’
Before producing your research report, look carefully again at both the
guidance offered by your own HEI or funding body, and that outlined in
Chapter 6. When your research report has been assessed, reflect on the feed-
back you have received from your marking tutor and ask yourself what you
have learned regarding
1. the project itself;

2. other assignments that you may still have to complete.
If you have produced a very good piece of work and are interested in
exploring the possibility that some (or all) of it might be published, discuss
this with your tutor. Finally, please remember that, in order to increase
your understanding of the central themes of this book, it is important to read
widely. To this end, I have made a number of suggestions for further reading
in Chapter 9. I wish you success in your research!
Bibliography
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Abingdon: Routledge.
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Index
action research bibliography 83

arguments/rationales for undertaking 1, chapters 82–4
13, 15 citation and referencing 38, 85, 119
as apprenticeship 19 conclusions 84
assessing report 1, 87, 98–9 contents page 81
assessing progress in argument 88–90 continuity and progression 84
examples of 93–8 declaration 81
students’ views of assessment 91–3 example of structure 79–84
benefits to teachers from introduction 82–3
undertaking 25 plagiarism 85
choosing research topic 31–2 proofreading 86
competencies and skills required for 19 quotation 85, 119
criticisms of 12–13, 39, 52–7, 119 recommendations 84
cycle 8–9, 11–12, 74 requirements and guidelines
developing research proposal 32–3, 113 for 79–86
developing/undertaking project 1, 8, 18, summary 81
38–9, 42–3 writing style 84–5
defining characteristics 7 publishing report 1, 101, 119
definitions 5–7 in journals 104–5
effective 1–2, 117 students’ experiences of writing for
ethical issues 46–51, 114 publication 101–4
examining completed reports 40, 42, 118 through presenting conference
generalisability of findings from 54–6 papers 105–10
guidelines for completing project 38 rational-reactive 52
importance of 28 rigour in 39, 52–7, 86, 119
intuitive-proactive 52 small-scale studies 54, 56
invented examples of 10–11, 13, 45, 57–63 structuring project 13
nature of 1, 5–8 theory and practice of 117–19
nature of project 40, 117–18 thesis 10, 114
models of 8–13, 57, 73–4, 114, 118 undertaken for academic award 19, 45,
origins of 8, 114 79, 113
producing/writing report 1, 119 utilising to achieve educational
acknowledgements 81–2 goals 52
appendices 83 value of 39
130 Index
Adelman, C. 20, 114 Cryer, P. 10

Aitchison, C. 102 Current Education and Children’s Services
argument 2 Research (CERUK) 34
model of 63, 76, 88–90
audit trail 55–6 Darby, D. 21
Denscombe, M. 7, 11, 13, 46, 53, 57, 73–4,
Bassett, P. 102 114–15
Bassey, M. 5, 10, 32, 114–15 Department for Children, Schools and
Baumfield, V. 101, 114–15 Families (DCSF) 59
Beaty, L. 61 Dick, B. 1, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 18–19, 53, 56, 114
Bell, J. 5, 54, 59, 72, 114–15 Drummond, J.S. 8, 114
Best Practice Research Scholarship Dunbat-Goddet, H. 87
programme 24 Durkin, K. 2
Binder, M. 10
Birmingham City University 35, 115 Eaude, T. 98
Blaxter, L. 4, 52–3, 114–15 Education-line 34
Bolton, G. 2, 16 educational practice 17–20, 28, 34, 45, 113
Brannick, T. 5, 8, 114 improving 22
British Educational Research Association educational research,
(BERA) 114 critical scrutiny of 21
Burgess, H. 5, 10 general texts on 114
Burke, V. 2 nature of 3, 5, 21
Burkhardt, H. 22 problems with 21–3, 52, 77, 118
Busher, H. 115 educational settings 3, 9, 13
educational theory 17–20, 28, 34, 45,
Calvert, B. 102 113, 117
Campbell, A. 21 testing 21
Carter, K. 23 Egan, D. 25
Cochrane, D.K. 87 Elliott, J. 20, 114
Coghlan, D. 5, 8, 114
Coleman, A. 6, 21, 24 Feldman, A. 114
Collaborative Action Research Network Ford Teaching Project 20
(CARN) 114–15 Foskett, N. 21, 23
continuing professional development of Freebody, P. 115
teachers 24–8, 52, 118 Frost, P. 5
Costello, P.J.M. 1–2, 24, 62–3, 77, 88, 91, funded research projects 10, 24–5, 32, 39,
102, 106 59, 79–81
Cridland, C. 34–5, 115 Furlong, J. 24
critical
enquiry 5, 19 Garde-Hansen, J. 102
engagement 8 General Teaching Council for Wales
evaluation 119 (GTCW) 5, 24, 28, 39, 81
reasoning 13 Gibbs, G. 87
reflection 9, 11, 74, 113 Gillham, B. 66, 115
thinking 1–2 Gorard, S. 21
Index 131
Governornet 59 Mertler, C.A. 8, 32, 34–5, 57, 101, 114–15
Gregory, I. 114 Moon, J. 1, 115
Moore, S. 101
Halsall, R. 23 Moseley, D. 88
Hargreaves, D. 21–2, 24 Mullins, G. 98
Hart, C. 33–4, 115 Murray, R. 101, 105
Hartley, J. 101 Mutch, A. 87
Healey, M. 102
Hedberg, P.R. 2, 16 negative case analysis 55
Hostetler, K. 114 Neville, C. 85
Hillage, J. 21 Norris, R. 88
Hopkins, D. 5, 12, 20, 52, 57, 66, 85, Norton, L.S. 8–9, 105, 114
114–15
Hughes, M. 2 O’Hear, A. 18
Hughes, P. 8, 56, 101, 104, 114–15 Oliver, P. 114
Oxford Learning Institute 87
initial teacher education and training
(ITET) 18 Patrick, K.F. 115
Intute: Education and Research Phillips, E.M. 10
Methods 34 Pitts, S.E. 87
Pollard, A. 2, 17
James, N. 115 Prestage, S. 24
James, R. 25 professional practice 11, 118
Jenkins, A. 102 Pugh, D.S. 10
Judge, B. 1
Radford, M. 21
Karlin, N.J. 106 Rae, A.M. 87
Kiley, M. 98 recommended further reading 1, 113–15
Kuit, J.A. 17 reflection 2, 16
reflective practice 2, 16–17, 118–19
Leshem, S. 10 reflective practitioners 28, 118
Lewin, K. 8 reflective teaching 17
literature reflective thinking 2, 118–19
review 34–5, 39–40, 85, 119 reflective thinking exercises 2, 6, 20, 23, 29,
search 33–4, 59, 61–2, 119 32, 34, 36, 41, 47, 57, 66, 68, 73–4,
Loughran, J.J. 16 86, 90, 93, 99, 111
reliability 54, 56, 65
McGill, I. 61 research
Macintyre, C. 32, 56, 66, 72, 77, 85, case study 66, 115
114–15 classroom-based 10
MacNaughton, G. 8, 56, 101, 104, 114–15 data-driven 18–19
McNiff, J. 13, 16, 56, 114 findings 22
Main, A. 2 fixed-design 55
Matthiesen, J. 10 flexible-design 55
Maxwell, J.A. 56, 115 hypothesis 57, 68
132 Index
research (Cont’d) Schools Council Humanities Curriculum

methodology 18, 42 Project 20
methodology courses/seminars 2, 37–40 Simons, H. 115
nature of 3–5 Slavin, R.E. 22
qualitative 45, 52–3, 55, 115 Somekh, B. 114
quantitative 45, 52–3, 55, 115 Southern Cross University 114
question 57 Stenhouse, L. 20–1
theory-driven 18–19
research data Taggart, G.L. 2
analysing 1, 28, 31, 40, 66–77, 85, teacher
115, 119 as reflective practitioner 16–17
collecting 1–2, 28, 31, 40, 43, 45, 55–6, as researcher 20
58–63, 68, 72, 85, 115, 119 research 23
audiotape recording 55, 63, research movement 20
76, 115 Teacher Research Scholarship
diaries 11, 55, 115 scheme 24–5, 39, 81
field notes 55, 61, 115 evaluation of 25–8
interview 55, 59, 72–3, 115 Teacher Training Resource Bank 34
observation 56, 59, 61, 115 Teachers’ TV 115
questionnaire 55, 59, 68–72, 115 teaching
videotape recording 55, 63, 76, 115 and learning interface 19
presenting 2, 77 as a research-based profession 21, 118
bar graph 77 Themessl-Huber, M. 8, 114
observation chart 59, 61, 74–5, 77, thinking skills 25, 62–3, 76
pie-chart 77 Thomas, G. 52–3, 114–15
qualitative 72 traditional research design 52, 55
quantitative 68, 72 triangulation 55
researcher Tooley, J. 21
as performing artist 19 Trafford, V. 10
as technician 19 tutor-researcher relationship 19, 31, 35–6,
bias 54–5 42, 86, 118
Riehl, C. 22
Ritchie, R. 8 validity 54–6
Robson, C. 4, 10, 20, 54–6, 114–15
Rose, R. 21–2, 24 Wellington, J. 10, 102, 105
Rumsey, S. 33, 115 Whitehead, J. 13, 16, 56, 114
Wilson, A.P. 2
Salisbury, J. 24 Wragg, E.C. 32, 52–3, 77, 115
Schoenfeld, A.H. 22
Schön, D.A. 16 Yin, R.K. 115
school improvement 15, 23, 28, 118 York-Barr, J. 17

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3 How Do I Develop an Action Research Project? 31

4 How Do I Collect Action Research Data? 45

5 How Do I Analyse Action Research Data? 65

6 How Do I Produce an Action Research Report? 79

7 How Will My Action Research Report be Assessed? 87

8 How Do I Publish My Action Research Report? 101

9 Recommended Further Reading 113

10 Endnote: The Theory and Practice of Action Research 117

I should like to thank the following:

My aim in this chapter is to offer an answer to the question ‘What is action

z the nature of action research;

The nature of action research

z What do these outlines have in common?

Considering a variety of sources in this way enables us to develop an under-

Reflective Thinking Exercise 1.1

This is an exercise I have given both to undergraduate and postgraduate

‘Action research is a process of systematic reflection, enquiry and action carried

An examination of these definitions suggests the following:

Reading a number of accounts of action research is instructive because, in

Models of action research

Figure 1.1 A basic action research model.

1. observe or notice that something is not as it should be and/or could be improved

Act 3 Act 2 Act Reflect Reflect 2 Reflect 3

Figure 1.2 An extended action research model.

z Stage 1: Defining the enquiry.

Figure 1.3 A representation of Denscombe’s action research model.

Having offered an account of the nature of action research, my aim in this

z the teacher as reflective practitioner;

The teacher as reflective practitioner

The purpose of reflective practice is to increase learning at the individual and

Reflective teaching is applied in a cyclical or spiralling process, in which teachers

Reflective teaching requires competence in methods of evidence-based . . .

Kuit et al. (2001, pp. 131–132) refer to action research as a ‘method of

Planning involves identifying the problem, formulating a hypothesis about the

Relationships between educational

Reflective Thinking Exercise 2.1

The teacher as researcher

Problems with educational research

Reflecting on the current state of research in any academic discipline is an

Criticisms made of educational research include the following (see, for

Unlike medicine, agriculture and industrial production, the field of education

Slavin (2002, p. 15), in focusing on the transformation of educational practice

Teacher research and school

Reflective Thinking Exercise 2.2

Research and teachers’ continuing

Preliminary Checklist (please tick boxes )