U.S.

Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
Office for Victims of Crime

USING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

TO MAP CRIME VICTIM SERVICES
A Guide for State Victims of Crime Act
Administrators and Victim Service Providers

“Putting Victims First”

 U.S. Department of Justice
Office of Justice Programs
810 Seventh Street NW.
Washington, DC 20531

John Ashcroft
Attorney General

Deborah J. Daniels
Assistant Attorney General

John W. Gillis
Director, Office for Victims of Crime

Office of Justice Programs

World Wide Web Home Page
www.ojp.usdoj.gov

Office for Victims of Crime

World Wide Web Home Page
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc

For grant and funding information, contact

U.S. Department of Justice Response Center
1–800–421–6770

OVC Resource Center

1–800–627–6872
(TTY 1–877–712–9279)
www.ncjrs.org

OVC Training and Technical Assistance Center

1–866–682–8822
(TTY 1–866–682–8880)
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc/assist/welcome.html

NCJ 191877

Preparation of this document was supported by the Office for Victims of Crime,
Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The Office for Victims of
Crime is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the
Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Institute
of Justice, and the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
 USING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEMS TO MAP CRIME VICTIM
SERVICES
A Guide for State Victims of Crime Act Administrators
and Victim Service Providers

by

Debra A. Stoe, Acting Director

Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety

(formerly the Crime Mapping Research Center)

National Institute of Justice

with

Carol R. Watkins, Special Assistant to the OVC Director

Jeffrey Kerr, Program Specialist

Linda Rost, Administrative Specialist

State Compensation and Assistance Division

Office for Victims of Crime

and

Theodosia Craig, Writer/Editor

Aspen Systems Corporation

February 2003
NCJ 191877
MESSAGE FROM
THE DIRECTOR OF THE OFFICE
FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME

s more crime victims exercise their rights and seek services, state Victims of
Crime Act (VOCA) crime victim compensation and assistance administra-

A tors and victim service providers are challenged to assess victim needs,
allocate available resources effectively, and advocate for additional
resources. Since the 1986 infusion of federal VOCA funds, many victim service programs
have been established and preexisting ones have grown. During the past 15 years, state leg-
islatures have raised funding for crime victim compensation and assistance, increasing the
money available to victims and victim services. At the same time, field reports indicate that
obtaining sufficient funds is a continuing challenge as we reach out to previously unserved
victims.

Because of its growth, the victim service field is improving its administrative and manage-
ment skills. Calls from policymaking bodies and the public for accountability on the use of
public funds have led to an examination of tools that can support data-driven decisionmak-
ing and outcome evaluation. To provide state administrators and victim service providers
with one such tool for assessment, planning, and operations, the Office for Victims of Crime
(OVC) has partnered with the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Mapping and Analysis for
Public Safety (MAPS), formerly the Crime Mapping Research Center, to introduce
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology to the victim service field.

GIS technology can help analyze information, such as types of crime by location, victim pop-
ulation groups served and underserved, and the location of victim service organizations and
their geographic service areas. This information can be used to examine the availability of
basic services and the sufficiency of services for specialized population groups. It can

i
 visually display multiple funding sources in a geographic area to help in fair distribution of
resources. It can be extremely useful in developing strategic program and financial plans for
the maintenance and development of victim services.

OVC is honored to work with NIJ to publish this valuable report. We also wish to extend our
appreciation to individuals in the states and municipalities that provided the data used to cre-
ate maps for this report. Our hope is that you will find GIS and this report useful in your
efforts to advance crime victim services.

John W. Gillis, Director

Office for Victims of Crime
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

ii
MESSAGE FROM
THE DIRECTOR OF THE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE
or more than a decade, the criminal justice community has realized the
valuable analytic benefits of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This

F powerful technology enhances the ability of researchers and practitioners

to identify problem areas and target scarce resources. To promote the use
of GIS throughout the criminal justice system, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) established
Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety (MAPS), formerly the Crime Mapping Research
Center, in 1997. A year later, NIJ created the Crime Mapping and Analysis Program, a
training resource at the National Law Enforcement and Corrections Technology Center–Rocky
Mountain, in Denver, Colorado. NIJ’s investment in crime mapping was timely because the
value of GIS had been demonstrated with early successes in the analysis of criminal behav-
ior. As a result, NIJ has supported the allocation of resources, the organization of data, and
the evaluation of programs and initiatives to increase awareness of GIS as a crime-fighting
tool.

NIJ’s crime-mapping efforts have yielded five national conferences on the study and use of
crime mapping, each drawing more than 600 attendees. MAPS conducts research in the
field of analytic crime mapping and offers guidance and leadership to criminal justice agen-
cies nationwide. In addition, MAPS promotes, evaluates, develops, and disseminates GIS
technology. Through partnerships and other federally funded programs, NIJ has helped
develop crime-mapping software. Some software applications can be downloaded free from
the MAPS Web site at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/maps.

Although great strides have been made in disseminating GIS technology to local law
enforcement agencies, NIJ continues to explore new uses for GIS in the criminal justice field.

iii
 One natural application NIJ is focusing on is the more efficient allocation of victims’ services
and resources.

This report introduces GIS to state Victims of Crime Act (VOCA) administrators and victim
service providers to improve the methods by which victim compensation and victim assist-
ance are provided to states. VOCA administrators will learn how to manage the strategic
planning efforts behind crime mapping and how GIS can serve as a key vehicle in the
decisionmaking process.

Sarah V. Hart, Director

National Institute of Justice
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

iv
CONTENTS
Crime Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Creating Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
How GIS Is Used in Law Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
How State VOCA Administrators Can Use GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
How Administrators of VOCA Victim Assistance Can Use GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
How Administrators of VOCA Victim Compensation Can Use GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
How Subgrantees, Crime Victim Assistance Coalitions, and Victim Service
Providers Can Use Crime Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Training Resources Available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Funding GIS Development and Technical Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Additional Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
For Further Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

v
CRIME MAPPING
he use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in the criminal justice field

T
has its roots in the earlier generation of police crime maps. Historically, law
enforcement agencies and other organizations used hardcopy pin maps to
chart criminal activity; but these maps were static and, as crime rates
increased, difficult to maintain. In recent years, with advances in quick and user-friendly soft-
ware, manual pin mapping has given way to computerized crime mapping.

GIS is an application that links database1 software to graphics software to create visual
images of various types of data in map format. It is a unique tool for analyzing physical
space and conveying perspective. Presenting data in the form of a map helps agencies
understand the significance of where, when, and by whom crimes are committed.

Technological advancements have enabled agencies to collect enormous amounts of data. In

the law enforcement field, a rise in crime and an increase in the number of calls for service
have led to a greater need to sort, organize, analyze, and disseminate data. As a result,
criminal justice agencies are turning to GIS software and the latest crime-mapping techniques
to deliver data in a more efficient and instructive manner. In addition, using GIS to map
crime and criminal behavior eliminates the rampant duplication of efforts among agencies.

This has prompted the introduction and application of GIS technologies in the victim service
field. Consequently, there is a growing need to educate and guide agencies that rely on
other means of recording their data in the direction of implementing GIS. For example, if a
VOCA compensation administrator wants to create a visual depiction of the location of
applicants, street addresses and other relevant information can be converted into a database
format and linked to a graphics software application. In this example, the link is based on
the street address. Other spatial or geographic identifiers2 that could be used include ZIP
Codes and census tracts.3 This particular example would allow administrators to analyze
locations that generate victim compensation claims. Areas that lack applications could be

1
 examined to determine whether additional applications can be generated and if administra-
tors need to plan for outreach to those areas.

GIS software represents data on a map using points, lines, and polygons.4 Features that can
be represented as points include streetlight poles, crime events, and bus stops. Bus routes,
streets, and rivers are usually represented using lines; counties, states, and ZIP Codes are
depicted using polygons. GIS software is designed to capture, store, manage, integrate, and
manipulate various layers of data, allowing the user to visualize and analyze the data in a
spatial environment (exhibit 1).

Exhibit 1: Graphics Representing Data

Points as
Crime Events

Lines as
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Streets

Polygons as
States

Most GIS applications contain base information that orients the map to the reader. Some
examples of base information include roads and state and county boundaries. One easy
way to visualize base layers is to think about the information found in a road atlas.

In GIS, a database can represent a layer of information and that can be expanded to create
additional layers. For example, the OVC Subgrant Award Report System (SARS) could be
one layer, with the location of all subgrantees defined as individual points on that layer.
Another layer of data could be added by querying the SARS database for a particular type
of service provider, such as programs for survivors of homicide victims. This additional layer
would be mapped using a different color or graphic symbol.
2
The real power of GIS is that it gives users the ability to analyze multiple layers of informa-
tion. Not only can users create additional layers from a single database, they can also inte-
grate disparate datasets5 from other sources such as police departments, planning and
housing agencies, and the tax assessor’s office (exhibit 2). Each agency’s data would
become another layer of information in GIS. With this layering of information, users can dis-
cern spatial relationships among previously disassociated data. For example, the layer of
SARS information could be overlaid with incidents of domestic violence data from local
police departments about locations of courts handling domestic violence cases and locations
of public transportation systems. With this displayed information, users could examine how
accessible services and the criminal justice system are for domestic violence victims.

Exhibit 2: Multiple Layers of Information

Police Data (Crime Incidents)

City Planning (Roads) Apartments

Housing Authority Park

(Structures)

Tax Assessor

(Land Use)

Different layers could be combined to explore potential relationships.

Slide courtesy of Debra Thomas

GIS can pinpoint the physical location of features6 in every layer. It allows an administrator
to conduct spatial searches or queries in addition to tabular database queries. For example,
a tabular database query can retrieve information about the increase or decrease in the
number of crime victim compensation claims submitted in a particular region. What a tabu-
lar query cannot show is whether there has been a spatial displacement or diffusion of
claims. In other words, has the number of claims remained the same but shifted from one
Crime Mapping

neighborhood to another, or has the number of claims been diffused due to additional
resources in an area?

Another example of a spatial search would be to determine the proximity of one location to
another. For instance, one dataset or layer shows school locations, while another indicates
3
 crime locations involving juveniles. Overlaying this data in GIS, users can identify crimes that
occurred within 1,000 feet of a school. This information can be used to determine where
services could be located most effectively (exhibit 3) and could lead to an understanding of
the spatial relationship between crimes and school locations.

Although GIS software packages can be purchased containing base information such as
streets and census data, most GIS also require agency-specific data. A VOCA administrator
could tailor a GIS to fit his or her requirements by populating it with other data, such as
VOCA subgrantee service areas, which could be used to examine statewide coverage or

Exhibit 3: Spatial Search

Schools
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

1,000’ Buffer Zones

Aggravated Assaults Aggravated Assaults Streets

Involving Juveniles Involving Juveniles Within
1,000’ of a School

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 4/03/02, ESRI’s ArcView 3.1

Source: Winston-Salem Police Department, NIJ’s Community Safety
Information System, 1999 Data 2000 0 2000 Feet

4
types of crime to plan for general or specialized services. In summary, GIS is a powerful
mapping tool that allows agencies to identify their data spatially to better analyze data
relationships.

If an agency collects data via Excel, Access, Quattro Pro, Paradox, Oracle, SQL Server, or
any other type of spreadsheet or database management system, the data have potential for
use in GIS, but must have a geographic reference. Generally, ZIP Codes, street addresses,
or x–y coordinates are used to link data to the map by geocoding, or plotting on a map, the
data. For example (exhibit 4), a street address such as 1150 Main Street can be matched
against a street centerline7 file to determine its location. The geocoding function will link an
address to its approximate location on the street segment based on its number. For example,
1150 Main Street would be placed on the even side of the street about halfway between the
1100 and 1200 blocks.

Exhibit 4: Geocoding Addresses

t
Stree
12th S

Main
1150

t.
11th S

Main S
10th S

t.

t.
t.

To protect private and confidential information, sensitive data are geocoded to the street
Crime Mapping

block, ZIP Code, or census-tract level rather than the street level to reduce the possibility of
identifying an individual from the mapped data.

5
 Creating Maps
Crime mapping has its roots in cartography8 and comes with its own set of rules and limita-
tions. When publishing an article, authors always cite information resources. When con-
structing a map, cartographers always cite the source of the data and the software used to
create the map. If citations are left out, the map is incomplete and users may misinterpret the
information displayed. It is also recommended that mapmakers include disclaimers and/or
additional information to eliminate any misinterpretation of the material. A variety of maps
can be created using GIS software, but the three most common are pin maps, thematic
maps, and association or integrated maps.

Pin Maps
Pin maps—which use push pins to identify important locations—have long helped police offi-
cers patrol neighborhoods and detectives investigate crimes. GIS enables law enforcement
agencies to create, update, duplicate, and distribute pin maps more efficiently and easily.
Administrators of VOCA victim assistance can plot the locations of victim service providers
on pin maps to identify gaps in and duplication of services. Victim service providers can dis-
play the vicinity of crime victims to better coordinate their efforts with other providers. The
pin map is one of the easiest maps to create. Exhibit 5 shows the locations of all homicides
that occurred in Washington, D.C., in 1994 and 1995. During the 2-year period, there
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

were 756 murders and all but one occurred east of the Rock Creek Park.9 Although the
points on the map only show location, they reveal a spatial significance that cannot be dis-
cerned using a tabular query.

Exhibit 5: Homicides in Washington, DC 1994–95

Homicide Location

Source: Washington Metropolitan Police 0 2.5 5 Miles

Department/Author: Dan Sadler

6
Thematic Maps
A thematic map can identify the density Questions To Consider
value of a particular attribute, such as the (Exhibit 5)
number of assaults, crime victim service cen-
ters, or victim compensation claims in a geo- One of the unique qualities of GIS is that it cre-

graphically defined boundary composed of ates new information and stimulates questions.

a state, police precinct, county, neighbor- For instance, some questions that could be gen-
hood, census tract, or victim service provider erated from the Washington, D.C., pin map
catchment area (see exhibit 10). In exhibit 6, include
density values are used to create a map,
◗ Were the number of applications for
with shaded colors representing the different
crime victim compensation consistent
values between the boundaries, that allows
with the number of homicides that
users to examine patterns across selected
occurred in the area?
boundaries. The shading of thematic maps
ranges from light to dark, with the lightest ◗ Are services available to the survivors

shade representing the lowest value and the of homicide victims?

darkest shade representing the highest ◗ Where are services located?

value. Exhibit 6 shows the density of
California VOCA subgrantees by county.

Association or Integrated Maps

Association or integrated maps are usually a combination of a pin map and a thematic
map. Exhibit 7 combines data from North Carolina’s Winston-Salem Police Department
(WSPD), the Winston-Salem Housing Department, and the U.S. Census Bureau. In this map,
aggravated assaults and public housing units are identified with points, while the population
demographics are represented with various shades of the same color and organized by
police district boundaries.

This map spatially contextualizes10 the data. Here, WSPD chose to view census data reag-
gregated to police beat boundaries. With this type of map, WSPD can view income, popula-
tion, gender, race, and other factors within the boundaries that represent the department’s
work environment. Winston-Salem manages and allocates police department resources by
police districts. By reaggregating census data, information has been made more applicable
to department needs. For instance, WSPD may choose to increase resources in communities
with large numbers of public housing units. Integrated crime mapping allows WSPD to make
Crime Mapping

strategic administrative decisions based on contextualized data.

How GIS Is Used in Law Enforcement

GIS does not replace a law enforcement agency’s process of collecting and storing informa-
tion in a database. Rather, it enhances the agency’s ability to use the data. However, the use
7
 Exhibit 6: Density of California VOCA Subgrantees

Number of
Subgrantees
by County

0–8
9–20
21–40
41–100
101–264

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 4/23/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2 100 0 100 Miles
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Source: Office for Victims of Crime (SARS)

of contextualization raises new

concerns about the need for Questions To Consider
privacy and confidentiality (Exhibit 6)
guidelines.
◗ Is the density of subgrantees consistent
For example, a map can be creat- with population?
ed to show when and where a ◗ Is the density of subgrantees consistent
crime occurred with what type of with the crime rate?
weapon was used, whether a vic-
◗ What types of services are provided in
tim was present, whether the vic-
all counties?
tim was male or female, and so
forth. Once data, such as the ◗ Where are the gaps?
income level of Hispanic females
between ages 18 and 25, is
entered into a GIS database, the user can overlay that information with a specific crime, such
as recent homicides or rapes occurring in the neighborhood between 8 p.m. and midnight.
Overlaying specific crimes with ethnicity, age, and gender may inadvertently reveal the
8
Exhibit 7: Winston-Salem, NC

Estimated 2002 Population

by Police Beat

2,509–7,583
7,584–18,559
18,560–30,868
30,869–62,547
62,548–118,385

Public Housing

1997 Aggravated
Assaults

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 5/9/02, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2

Source: Winston-Salem Police Department, NIJ’s Community 1 0 1 2 Miles
Safety Information System, 1997 Data, Claritas Demographics

identity of a victim. Therefore, the creators of GIS data layers must be aware of confidential
and sensitive data and the need to take precautions to protect victims’ rights and privacy.

GIS usage enhances a police officer’s time on the streets. An officer with access to GIS soft-
ware and additional datasets, such as parolee and probationer data, can run queries from a
laptop in the patrol car using the
Community Policing Beat Book.
In 1998, the U.S. Department of Justice The Community Policing Beat
launched the Strategic Approaches to Com- Book is a crime-mapping tool cre-
munity Safety Initiative, a multiagency collabo- ated by Environmental Systems
rative approach to reduce crime in communities Research Institute (ESRI), funded
by using data-driven problem solving. One by NIJ,11 and tailored for law
major component of this project has been the enforcement agencies. Officers
development of the Community Safety Infor- can use it to check how many
mation System (CSIS), a GIS that provides spa- parolees or probationers were
tial analysis capabilities for addressing crime.
Crime Mapping

recently released on their beat,

Exhibit 7 is an integrated map created from the conditions of their release,
CSIS data collected in Winston-Salem, North and if they have violated any of
Carolina, the pilot site for the initiative. these conditions.

9
 In addition to plotting the geo-
graphical attributes of criminal Questions To Consider
phenomena, law enforcement (Exhibit 7)
agencies seek answers to why a
◗ Are a sufficient number of claims being
specific crime occurs in a certain
generated based on this assault data?
area. In 1982, George L. Kelling
and James Q. Wilson developed ◗ Where are hospital emergency rooms
the Broken Windows theory to located?
describe the relationship between
◗ Are admission staff trained in
disorder and crime in a neighbor-
compensation?
hood. They concluded that as the
physical environment in a neigh- ◗ Is there a victim advocate in the police
borhood deteriorates the crime department in areas with higher
rate increases. Newly opened assault rates?
adult bookstores selling porno-
◗ Are other state and federal resources,
graphic materials, check cashing
in addition to victim compensation and
stores, and vacant housing are
assistance, being integrated in the
predictors of declining neighbor-
public housing communities?
hoods. By highlighting aspects
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

of a crime on a map with

Exhibit 8: Crime Mapping Registered Child Sex Offenders

Liberty Christian

1-Mile Buffer
High-Risk Offender
Serious Offender
School
City Limits

Liberty Christian High School in

Redding, California, depicts the
home addresses of sex offenders
within a 1-mile radius of school.

Disclaimer: Please note that the symbols identifying the street location do not represent the exact location of where the
offender lives. The symbols have been enlarged and offset to keep an exact location from being determined. This map
can be found at http://ci.redding.ca.us/rpd/rpdmap_libertychristian.html.
10
neighborhood attributes, crime analysts can contextualize the data and gain insight about
why crimes occur.

Some law enforcement agencies use crime mapping to show where registered child sex
offenders live. They compare the locations of child sex offenders with the locations of the
town’s schools. A buffer zone is drawn around each school to observe how close the known
offenders live to these potential target areas. The sheriff’s department in San Bernardino
County, California, is one agency that uses this technique. Exhibit 8 shows how the Redding
Police Department in Redding, California, uses this technique to map registered child sex
offenders.

One department goal is to register sex offenders with local law enforcement, a requirement
under Section 290 of the California Penal Code. Another goal has been to arrest individuals
who have violated the conditions of their parole or probation. In 1999, 3 of 36 targeted
registrants were arrested for noncompliance with the penal code or some violation of parole
or probation. In addition, county officers issued warrants for 25 other registrants. For more
details, check out Crime Mapping Case Studies: Successes in the Field, Volume 2 (La Vigne
and Wartell, 2000).

Similarly, a victim service provider could use GIS to track and map the location of both
offenders and/or victims who were issued protection orders in stalking cases. GIS software
can map the home address of an individual, taking into consideration the conditions of the
protection order associated with the offender. Distance buffers can then be drawn around
these locations and reveal violations or compliance with the specified restrictions.

Crime Mapping

11
 How State VOCA Administrators Can Use GIS
State VOCA administrators can use GIS in many ways. As an analytical tool, GIS can identi-
fy trends and patterns not discernible by tabular inquiries. An example would be exploring
the relationship between addresses of applicants for crime victim compensation and loca-
tions of crime to learn whether an appropriate number of applications is being submitted
from neighborhoods with high crime rates.

GIS facilitates data-driven decisionmaking. By using multiple-source data, administrators can

analyze problems in greater depth. For example, integrating information on subgrants fund-
ed by VOCA victim assistance, the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA), the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention’s Rape Prevention and Education Grant Program, and the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Family Violence Prevention Funds into one
data warehouse can be key to developing a statewide financial plan for victim services. GIS
can be used in operations by using its funding data to determine which organizations will
receive VOCA victim assistance grants.

Because GIS can track changes over time, it can evaluate strategies. If a VOCA victim
assistance administrator responds to requests for increased services in African-American
communities by developing plans for delivering services and awarding grants to appropriate
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

organizations, the administrator can track the use of services from those grants on a regular
basis. If certain programs are accessed as expected and others are not, the administrator can
use this information to ask questions about the patterns of use and explore further options.

Administrators can use GIS to disseminate information to advisory groups and the public
and to conduct legislative analysis. GIS can be used to coordinate services with other
agencies and organizations, as in child abuse investigation and treatment teams that include
cross-jurisdictional involvement of law enforcement, prosecution, child protective services,
and health and mental health services.

In summary, GIS can be a valuable tool in helping administrators implement a compre-

hensive and seamless service delivery system for crime victims.

How Administrators of VOCA Victim Assistance

Can Use GIS
Several factors can influence where and why crime occurs, including the distance from an
offender’s residence, familiarity with his or her surroundings, and accessibility to and knowl-
edge of the victim (www.ojp.usdoj.gov/cmrc/briefing book/whymap.html). Therefore,
mapping incidents of crime, locations of crime victims, and potential crime hot spots can
help in making decisions about where to locate victim services.

12
As previously mentioned, one of the more recognized GIS capabilities is its visual display of
information. For many individuals, information that is spatially displayed is more easily com-
municated and understood. GIS can improve presentation of information at planning, policy,
and funding meetings by displaying the information in various formats, such as maps,
reports, and tables accompanied by descriptive narratives.

To illustrate mapping crime victim services as an administrative tool, the State of California
is depicted in exhibits 9 and 10. The data source used is the OVC SARS database. Sub-
grantees are geocoded by their ZIP Codes using ESRI’s ArcView 3.2 software. Using a pin
map, one can identify areas where available services are more densely located (exhibit 9).
This overview of the state is a starting point that will provide information to further develop
regional analysis.

Victim assistance administrators can plot the catchment areas of victim service providers
on a map along with the victim population groups served. Overlaying this information with
the types of crimes committed can help determine what additional services are needed in
which locations for underserved groups.

For example, areas with many reports of crimes against the elderly may need specialized
services. Using law enforcement crime reports and calls-for-service information, VOCA

Exhibit 9: Locations of Subgrantees in California

Subgrantees

California Boundary
Crime Mapping

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 4/23/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2 100 0 100 Miles
Source: Office for Victims of Crime (SARS)

Disclaimer: This map represents 206 ZIP Codes and 82 percent of the California subgrantees.

13
 Exhibit 10: 1999 California’s Hispanic Population and OVC Subgrantees

Subgrantee Locations
2
3–7
8–12
13–17
18–26

California

1999 Hispanic Population

Estimates by County
100–10,000
10,001–52,063
52,064–107,157
107,158–230,961
230,962–427,424
427,425–801,797
801,798–4,141,317

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 3/13/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2 50 0 50 100 Miles
Source: Office for Victims of Crime (SARS), U.S. Census Bureau

Disclaimer: This map represents 206 ZIP Codes and 82 percent of the California subgrantees.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

administrators can examine areas where the greatest density of these incidents occur and
overlay this information with the locations and use rates of existing victim services, senior
housing, senior citizen centers, meals-on-wheels programs, and other services. VOCA
assistance administrators can use this information to work with these organizations to
establish needed services.

When administrators must manage or coordinate multiple funding sources that cross legal
boundaries (e.g., states, Indian Country, neighborhoods, or cities), GIS can help them better
allocate the funds by creating a map of current funding and developing other maps to dem-
onstrate statewide coverage of victim services. This is done by using GIS to reconfigure the
distribution of funds. Using the previous example of crimes against elders, victim services
funding can be coordinated with other funding for elder services to create a more accessible
and victim-friendly system.

In exhibit 10, GIS mapping reveals how accessible services are to minority crime victims. It
shows estimates of California’s Hispanic population and the locations of subgrantees. Ad-
ministrators can use this information to determine which programs must have the bilingual
and bicultural capacity to provide services to this ethnic group.

14
A GIS containing census data on Hispanics, African-Americans, Asians, and Native
Americans can help administrators plan for delivery of services in these communities. This
information can be linked to other maps with specific features, such as jurisdictional bound-
aries, public transportation routes, sites accessible to people with disabilities, and geographic
terrain that complicates service delivery. Administrators can use this information to plan
service development and outreach.

In the next map, we move from a state to a much smaller area, the City of New Haven,
Connecticut (exhibit 11). This map shows the locations of VOCA-funded subgrantees and
raises questions about what other services are available for crime victims. Additional
research resulted in the new map (exhibit 12), which shows 21 additional service locations,
reflecting much greater coverage.

To provide a comprehensive picture of available services, additional contextual mapping

could add layers of provider agencies’ service areas and of the public transportation system
in relation to courts, police stations and substations, and residential areas.

The next example shows the location of VOCA subgrantees covering the states of California
and Nevada in a variation on the pin map (exhibit 13). Graduated symbols are used to

Exhibit 11: Locations of 1997 and 1998 Subgrantees in New Haven, CT

Coordinating Council
for Children in Crisis
Subgrantees Clifford W. Beers
Guidance Clinic, Inc.
Crime Incidents
by Police District
4,364
4,365–8,141
8,142–9,799
9,800–11,370
11,371–13,780

Streets
Hill Health
Center
Crime Mapping

Family Counseling of
Greater New Haven

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 2/21/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2

Source: New Haven Police Department, Office for Victims of 2000 0 2000 Feet
Crime (SARS), 1997 and 1998 Data

15
 Exhibit 12: Locations of VOCA and Other Service Providers in New Haven, CT

Subgrantees

Other Service
Providers

Crime Incidents
by Police District
4,364

4,365–8,141

8,142–9,799

9,800–11,370

11,371–13,780

Streets

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 2/21/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2

Source: New Haven Police Department, Office for Victims of 2000 0 2000 Feet
Crime (SARS), 1997 and 1998 Data
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Exhibit 13: Identifying Coverages Across California/Nevada State Boundaries

State Boundaries

Number of Subgrantees
2
3–7
8–12
13–17
18–26

1997 Population by County

1,160–10,412
10,413–28,336
28,337–48,024
48,025–304,341 Represents Approximately
304,342–9,184,770 17,000 Square Miles

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 3/08/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2 60 0 60 Miles

Source: Office for Victims of Crime (SARS)

16
 indicate ZIP Codes that contain
Questions To Consider more than one subgrantee. The
(Exhibit 12) larger the circle, the greater the
number of points located within
◗ What crime victim populations do
the polygon. In this case, the num-
these providers serve?
ber of subgrantees within a ZIP
◗ What is the service area of each Code varies from 1 to 26. Five
provider? different sizes of circles are used
to indicate various groupings
◗ Do the services meet the needs of the
(0–2, 3–7, 8–12, 13–17,
population based on the types of
18–26). This map uses 169
crimes committed?
geocoded ZIP Codes.

Bordering states that do not

share information are limited in their ability to ascertain whether adjacent geographical
areas are adequately served. Communicating and sharing spatial data across state
boundaries and between agencies minimizes the duplication of services, allowing
administrators to maximize services to areas where the rate and types of victimization
exceed the services available. Conversely, noted in this map is a 17,000-square-mile
area with no visible subgrantee—a point of consideration for both California and
Nevada administrators.

Exhibit 14 is another example of

an effective use of maps. It shows
Questions To Consider
three images of Nevada that
(Exhibit 14)
show changes in population
by areas of the state. Note the ◗ Are services being expanded in areas
results of slow but steady growth with increased population?
between 1990 and 1999 in the
◗ Does funding have to be reallocated?
northeast and southwest. This
If so, what happens if some communi-
information can affect decisions
ties lose funding?
on how best to allocate funds
statewide. ◗ Do the changes in population coincide
with changes in population in border-
With GIS, an administrator could ing states?
Crime Mapping

quickly add several years of pop-

◗ Can service providers be shared?
ulation data with service locations

17
 to discern whether the population density has increased or decreased in proximity to servic-
es provided, possibly explaining a change in victims served. An overlay indicating recent
changes in transportation routes could explain why there had been an increase in those
seeking assistance. GIS can quickly produce multiple scenarios by integrating and overlay-
ing disparate datasets, allowing for a wide array of possibilities for analysis and support for
strategic planning.

Exhibit 14: Nevada’s Changes in Population

1990 1997 1999

Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Population by Counties

1,000–9,000 44,001–300,000
9,001–28,000 300,001–1,220,000
28,001–44,000

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 4/17/02, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2 100 0 100 Miles
Source: U.S. Census Bureau

18
How Administrators
of VOCA Victim Compensation Can Use GIS
Administrators of VOCA crime victim compensation may be interested in several of the
preceding exhibit maps. The map showing California subgrantees can be overlaid with
data from crime victim compensation claims to examine whether subgrantees are generat-
ing expected claims. Using the map showing the changes in the population of Nevada,
administrators can examine whether there is an increase in crime and a commensurate
increase in claims in areas with increased populations. They can use this information to
plan outreach activities.

The true benefits of GIS technology are realized when data are shared and integrated into
an organization’s daily operations. With access to crime data, administrators of VOCA
crime victim compensation can quickly identify the locations of crime and crime victims. They
can then more accurately predict the numbers and types of claims that will be generated
from those locations. Exhibit 15 indicates the number of crime victims who received compen-
sation in relation to the location of crimes in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and shows that appli-
cations are not coming from the areas where crime occurs. Discrepancies in the data may
occur, however, if victims use their resident addresses to apply for compensation rather than
the addresses of where the crime occurred. For more information, administrators of crime vic-
tim compensation could overlay a map of subgrantees with a map of claims applications to

Exhibit 15: 1999 Crime Incidents in Pittsburgh, PA, and Recipients of

Victim Compensation

● Victims Who Received

Compensation
● 1999 Crime
Incidents
Streets
Crime Mapping

Created by Debra Stoe, MAPS, 1/25/01, ESRI’s ArcView 3.2

Source: Pittsburgh Police Department, Pittsburgh Housing Authority, 1 0 1Mile
Pennsylvania VOCA

19
 see if subgrantees are generating
a sufficient number of Questions To Consider
applications.
(Exhibit 15)
Administrators of crime victim ◗ What is the frequency of crime inci-
compensation can use the infor- dents and the frequency of victims
mation on VAWA grants as receiving compensation?
shown in the State of Georgia
◗ How does this information affect
(exhibit 16) to identify counties
outreach planning?
where additional service
providers may be available to
make referrals.

How Subgrantees, Crime Victim Assistance Coalitions,

and Victim Service Providers Can Use Crime Mapping
Crime victim services subgrantees, coalitions, and providers can use GIS to study crime rates
and resources in specific areas to improve allocation of resources, such as placing victim
advocates in community centers, police departments, or courts. When gaps in services are
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Exhibit 16: Georgia Areas Served by VAWA Domestic Violence and

Sexual Assault Service Projects

Dade Fannin Towns

Catoosa Rabun
Union
Walker Murray
Gilmer
m

Whitfield
ha

White
rs

Lumpkin Stephens
be

Chattooga
Da

Gordon
Ha

Pickens
ws

Franklin
on

Banks Hart
Hall
Floyd Bartow Cherokee Forsyth
Jackson Madison Elbert

Polk Barrow
Gwinnett Oglethorpe
Cobb
Paulding
Oc

Wilkes Lincoln
o

Walton
ne

Haralson
le

Douglas Fulton De Kalb

e
da
ck

Carroll Morgan
Clayt on

Ro

Mc

Newton Greene Taliaferro

Columbia
du

Henry Warren
f fie

Richmond
Coweta Jasper Putnam
Butts
Heard Spalding Hancock
Glascock

Pike Lamar Jefferson Burke

Jones Baldwin
Areas Served by Domestic
Troup Meriwether
Washington

Violence Projects
Upson
Bibb Wilkinson Jenkins Screven
Harris Talbot Johnson
Crawford Twiggs
Taylor Peach Emanuel
Muscogee
Areas Served by Sexual he
e
o c Marion
Houston Bleckley Laurens Treutlen
Candler Bulloch
ho Macon Effingham
Mont gom ery

Assault Projects Ch
a tta Schley
Dooly
Pulaski
Dodge
Wheeler Toombs Evans
Stewart Webster Bryan
Sumter
Wilcox Tattnall Chatham
Areas Served by Both Quitman
Crisp
Telfair

Jeff Davis Liberty

Randolph Terrell
DV and SA Projects Lee Ben Hill Long
Turner Appling
Irwin
Clay Bacon Wayne
Calhoun Dougherty Coffee
Worth Mcintosh
Tift
Early Baker Pierce
Atkinson
Berrien Glynn
Mitchell Colquitt Ware Brantley
Miller

Lanier
Seminole
Camden
Grady Thomas Clinch Charlton
Decatur Brooks Lowndes

Please note that unshaded areas may have Echols

projects funded by VOCA and DHR to assure

that services are provided in as many areas of
Georgia as possible.

20
identified, grant writers can incorporate this data into applications for federal, state, local,
and foundation funding, thus documenting the scope of the problem for proposal reviewers.

GIS technology uses a process called buffering to create a barrier or zone around an area
to be investigated or analyzed. For example, victims of domestic violence need many dif-
ferent services and are often dependent on public transportation in urban areas. In this in-
stance, coalitions and service providers may want to buffer12 the area surrounding bus routes
to determine how accessible police departments, shelters, courts, and social services are to
victims of domestic violence. Networking13 is another process used to calculate optimum trav-
el distances from all service locations or to determine optimum minimum distances between
service locations.

Sexual assault coalitions can develop maps of assault locations, offering a broader look
at where assaults occur or where victims reside. Child abuse coalitions can map the loca-
tion of registered child molesters and overlay this information with data on the locations
of schools and playgrounds to ensure supervision of offenders and protection of children
(see exhibits 3 and 8).

State coalitions for crime victim assistance and providers of victim services can use GIS to
identify underserved victims of crime, such as victims of physical assault, burglary, robbery,
drunk driving, arson, and hate crime, and victims who are family members of homicide vic-
tims. This information can be shared among several groups working to plan for and serve
these populations. This powerful tool allows the various coalitions to jointly assess and ana-
lyze crime on a larger scale by producing maps that can be shared and allow for joint
strategic planning to develop a seamless delivery system for crime victims.

Mapping Victim Services

When creating a mapping system for crime victim services, different types of data can be inte-
grated and different types of maps can be created. This information can be broken down into
four categories—victim services, criminal justice, health and social services, and generic.

Examples of victim services data include

■ VOCA-funded subgrantee locations and catchment areas.

■ Other victim services programs by location and catchment areas.

Crime Mapping

■ Funding of services by multiple funding sources.

■ Types of services available by location.

■ Locations of claimants for crime victim compensation (awarded and denied).

21
 ■ Dollar amounts of compensation claims awarded by geographic area.

■ Number of victims served by compensation programs.

■ Number of victims served by victim services organizations.

Examples of criminal justice data include

■ Number of crime incidents.

■ Types of crime incidents.

■ Locations of police stations, substations, and patrols.

■ Computer-aided dispatch calls.

■ Firearms purchases.

■ Locations of prisons and jails.

■ Locations of criminal and juvenile courts.

■ Open-air drug markets.

■ Gang locations.

■ Jurisdictional lines for state police, county sheriffs, tribal police, and municipal police.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

■ Number of protective or restraining orders.

Examples of health and social services data include

■ Locations of public assistance agencies.

■ Locations of public housing.

■ Locations of hospitals and emergency rooms.

■ Locations of mental health programs.

■ Locations of youth shelters.

Examples of generic data include

■ Census data.

■ Neighborhood boundaries.

■ State, county, and Indian Country boundaries.

■ School locations.

■ Business locations.

22
 ■ Transportation routes.

■ Park and recreation areas.

Getting Started
It is easy to talk about what GIS will do, but getting started is another matter. Recognizing
this, there are a couple of steps to consider. First, obtain training for staff who will introduce
GIS technology to all levels of your agency. Coordinate presentations on what GIS is and
what it can do.

Remember, thinking spatially about data is a learned skill. If you spend time teaching the
basics of GIS and generate some enthusiasm about the concept, you can avoid a lot of
confusion and reluctance down the road. Remember, GIS is a tool that enables an agency
to make better use of the data it is already collecting.

Second, perform a needs assessment. A needs assessment is simply a methodological evalu-

ation of an agency’s existing needs, resources, and goals. It is a structured approach by
which an organization is prompted to ask the right questions when considering implementing
a GIS system. Some basic questions to consider are highlighted below.

What Are the Needs and Goals of Our Agency?

To build a GIS system to address the needs of your agency, you must first identify those
needs. How will you use GIS? Will you use it to support management decisions, to evaluate
existing initiatives and projects, and/or as a predictive modeling tool to identify the location
of future subgrants? You can use a GIS system for all of these purposes and more, but know-
ing what you want to do before you begin will help you define the data needed to support
the application.

What Types of Queries Do We Want Supported by the GIS

Application?
If you purchase an off-the-shelf GIS software package, the system likely will contain an ad
hoc14 type of querying capability. In other words, any data that you have loaded or integrated
into the system can be accessed and queried. However, you may choose to customize the
application to address your specific needs. For example, here are two types of query options:
One is the ad hoc query used by ArcView 3.1 (exhibit 17) and the other is a screen shot of
a customized query15 built for Connecticut’s New Haven Police Department (exhibit 18).
Crime Mapping

As you can see, a generic query builder is much more flexible but requires more technical
expertise and knowledge about the data. A customized query builder requires less training
but is more data restrictive. The user only has access to the data fields defined by the

23
 Exhibit 17: Ad Hoc View Used by ArcView 3.1

drop-down menu. In the New Haven query menu, users can access several tables but are
limited to the particulars of the crime, date, age, time, and day of the week. However, the
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

tables contain much more information than what the menu is displaying (exhibit 18).

What Are Base Maps and Where Can We

Get Them?
Base maps are the foundation of a GIS. Typically, they comprise a street centerline and a
geographic backdrop such as the census tract, ZIP Code, and/or county and state bound-
aries. Street centerlines of almost every city, state, or region can be purchased from vendors
or downloaded free from the Internet by accessing the U.S. Census Bureau TIGER Files at
www.census.gov. TIGER (Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing) is
a nationwide, seamless, digital map. Most city information systems departments or planning
departments also have centerline files they may be willing to share, especially with other
government agencies or nonprofit organizations. These locally generated centerline files tend
to be more accurate and detailed because they are created at the local level and are updat-
ed more often than the Census Bureau’s.

What Additional Data Needs To Be Collected To Support

the Application?
In addition to using your own data, you may want to integrate additional data from other
sources, such as census figures, law enforcement data, and transportation information.
VOCA administrators may choose to collect and share information across state boundaries
and between compensation and assistance programs to minimize repetition and duplicate
24
Exhibit 18: Customized Query for the New Haven Police Department

efforts. Some agencies

will share information
about a case or a per-
son depending on how
relevant it is to their
agency and privacy
concerns. Of course,
any information shared
should not be identifi-
able to a specific indi-
vidual. The only
instance in which this
should occur would be
if more than one
agency is working with
crime victims and the information sharing is allowed by state law or by informed consent of
the victims.16

What Are Our Data

Formats and How Can Privacy and Confidentiality
We Integrate
Disparate Datasets? NIJ’s MAPS, through a contract with the Institute

Mapping systems can integrate for Law and Justice (ILJ), developed the guide

various data formats.17 However, Privacy in the Information Age: Guidelines for

the most common format is that Sharing Crime Maps and Spatial Data to

of a database file, a file exten- address privacy and data confidentiality when

sion ending in .dbf. Fortunately, using GIS. The report is available for down-

most spreadsheet tables can be loading from ILJ’s Web site at www.ilj.org, and

converted easily to database hard copies are available from NIJ. The guide-

files to make them ready for lines discuss options and requirements for

integration into a GIS. You can addressing privacy, confidentiality, and data

usually convert them by choos- sharing and address concerns about the dis-

ing “save as” under the file semination of geocoded data and the balance

drop-down menu of your soft- between the public’s right to know and the vic-
Crime Mapping

ware, choosing a .dbf file tim’s right to privacy. The report outlines some

extension, and following the of the mechanisms and techniques used to pro-

steps prompted by the tect privacy and provides Web resources for

application. online mapping efforts.

25
 Although creating a database warehouse for GIS would involve the input of a multitude of
data, it would eliminate redundant data collection by agencies. A VOCA database could
contain information on crime incidents, victims and offenders, locations of subgrantee recipi-
ents, compensation recipients, victim services programs, census data, and jurisdictional and
state boundaries. Obviously, data from various organizations will exist in differing formats,
but recent technologies make data conversions very easy.

Is Our Data Accurate and Timely?

It is critical that you know your data before using it in GIS. For example, does your commu-
nity have a Martin Luther King Boulevard? If so, how is it listed? MLK Blvd., Martin Luther
King Street, MLK Jr., or another variation? All these options are correct, but their variation
may create difficulties when you try to geocode your data. This is a problem many users
face when they begin to use their data in a spatial environment. Most agencies have been
collecting address-level data for years. Generally, the quality of this data has been left to the
discretion and integrity of the person entering the data. The accuracy and standardization of
this data will contribute to the overall ease or difficulty with which the data is integrated into
your GIS. Another issue to consider is the timeliness of data. Street files may only need to be
updated once a year, depending on the construction in the community, but records contain-
ing crime incidents, arrests, and claims and subgrant award data may need to be updated
more frequently.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

What Are Our Hardware and Software Requirements?

Some of the above questions can be answered by staff members who are familiar with the
data your agency collects. However, when it comes to hardware and software requirements,
it is better to consult with information technology (IT) professionals who can help you define
your GIS requirements based on your business needs and budget. IT professionals can help
identify the technical needs involved with implementing a GIS. For example, a GIS can be
implemented on the Internet, the Intranet, or as a stand-alone application loaded on an
agency’s personal computer (PC). IT professionals can tell you whether you should add more
PCs to your department, install larger transmission lines for faster data transfers, or increase
the RAM (random-access memory) and hardware space on your existing PCs. They can also
evaluate your assets. Do you have an Intranet that can be used, firewalls in place for confi-
dential data, or other types of security that can be accessed such as password-protected
applications? Other issues to be addressed in a needs assessment include training for users,
the experience of support personnel, system maintenance, and software licenses.

The GIS package purchased for your program will have greater use if it is compatible with
that of other agencies’ data. For efficiency’s sake, purchase software that can easily export
and import GIS files into the appropriate software packages. VOCA administrators and

26
subgrantees within the same state should purchase systems that use the same format for
storing data to significantly reduce duplication of effort.

Building a GIS from scratch takes time, effort, and experience, but with today’s off-the-shelf
desktop mapping applications, developing and customizing a system to address specific
organizational goals is relatively routine.

Training Resources Available

Information and Training
Three publicly funded agencies offer free training courses to help law enforcement personnel
master crime-mapping technology. VOCA administrators can also take these courses and
adapt the information to victim services planning.

The Crime Mapping and Analysis Program (CMAP) at the University of Denver in Colorado
offers a 2-week introductory course and courses in more advanced applications. For course
schedules and other information, contact Noah Fritz by phone at 1–800–416–8086, by
fax at 303–871–2500, or by e-mail at [email protected]. The CMAP Web site address is
www.nlectc.org/cmap.

The Carolinas Institute for Community Policing (CICP) offers courses that emphasize crime
mapping technology as an element of community policing. The courses are offered in six
cities throughout North and South Carolina in both technical and nontechnical formats. The
technical portion is appropriate for crime analysts; the nontechnical portion is appropriate
for officers, administrators, and community members. For course schedules and other infor-
mation, contact Linda Waddell at CICP, Charlotte-Mecklenburg, North Carolina, Police
Department, by phone at 704–336–4899, by fax at 704–336–7799, or by e-mail at
[email protected].

Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety (MAPS), in collaboration with the Office of Com-
munity Oriented Policing Services, offers training in crime mapping through Regional
Community Policing Institutes. The center offers four courses that are appropriate for police
officers, crime analysts, community members, and researchers.

Tuition is free and training is held at Regional Community Policing Institutes throughout the
country. The courses can be downloaded from the MAPS Web site. To learn about how to
Crime Mapping

become a trainer, how to host training classes, or how to take the training, contact Richard
Lumb, CICP Director, Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department, by phone at 704–336–2162,
by fax at 704–336–7799, or by e-mail at [email protected].

27
 The courses include

Crime Mapping for Community Policing and Problem Solving (4 hours): geared
toward officers, community members, and others who are interested in the basics of crime
mapping.

Mapping for Managers (4 hours): geared toward administrators and managers who
want to know about crime mapping, what to ask for, and what to expect.

What Is Crime Mapping? (8 hours): geared toward analysts, officers, community

members, and others who want a more indepth look at crime mapping.

Integrating GIS Into an Organization (8 hours): geared toward analysts, officers,

and others who are playing a role in implementing crime mapping in their agency.

Other Resources
Other resources are available to help administrators of crime victim services in their
efforts to use crime-mapping technology. The following programs are available to provide
onsite technical assistance on GIS to VOCA administrators.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Technical Assistance
The Justice Information Systems Technical Assistance Program provided through SEARCH
offers technical assistance to state and local justice agencies in how to acquire, develop,
manage, improve, and integrate their automated information systems. SEARCH works with
individual justice agencies (such as a police department implementing a new records man-
agement system or a court acquiring a new case management system) and with multidiscipli-
nary groups of justice agencies to help them plan for and integrate their information systems
at state, local, and regional levels. For more than 20 years, SEARCH programs have
provided both onsite and in-house, no-cost technical assistance to justice agencies throughout
the country. For more information, go to www.search.org/tech-assistance/default.asp.

Criminal Justice Statistical Analysis Centers

The Justice Research and Statistics Association (JRSA) is a nonprofit organization created in
1974 to promote the use of research in policy decisions and to facilitate the exchange of
criminal justice information among states. JRSA’s 50 constituent Statistical Analysis Centers
are located in almost every state and territory, where they conduct objective analyses to
meet planning needs and address statewide policy issues. The association also maintains a
clearinghouse of state criminal justice research and programs, conducts multistate research,
provides training and technical assistance, and convenes national conferences.

28
University Statistics and Research Center
An alternative resource for consultation could be a statistics and research center at a nearby
college or university. Some examples are undergraduate or graduate schools of public
administration, social work, criminal justice science, and public health.

University Statistics and Research Internships

Agencies that are interested in using crime mapping may want to recruit interns from the
local university or college to help them in administrative and strategic planning efforts.

Funding GIS Development and Technical Assistance

VOCA
A major OVC responsibility is to administer the Crime Victims Fund, which is derived from
fines and penalties paid by federal criminal offenders. Nearly 90 percent of the money col-
lected each year is distributed to states to help fund their victim assistance and compensation
programs. These programs help victims and their families.

Through the State Compensation and Assistance Division, OVC administers two formula/
block grant programs: Victim Assistance and Victim Compensation. During the past decade,
these two programs have improved the accessibility and quality of services to crime victims
nationwide.

Approximately 10,000 community-based organizations across the Nation provide services

to crime victims. VOCA victim assistance funds, awarded to states each year, support 4,000
such organizations. Priority must be given to victims of sexual assault, domestic violence, and
child abuse. In addition, state grantees must give priority to underserved victims of violent
crime, such as survivors of homicide victims and victims of assault, robbery, burglary, hate
crimes, drunk drivers, fraud, and elder abuse, among others.

All states and territories receive an annual VOCA victim assistance grant. Each state, the
District of Columbia, and the territories of the U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico receive
a base amount of $500,000. The territories of American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern
Mariana Islands each receive a base amount of $200,000. Additional funds are distributed
based on population.

In addition, all 50 states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and
Crime Mapping

Guam have established victim compensation programs. Each year, OVC offers eligible pro-
grams a grant equal to 40 to 60 percent of the amount the program has awarded to crime
victims from state revenue sources in the previous year. Every compensation program

29
 reimburses victims for crime-related expenses, such as medical costs, mental health counsel-
ing, funeral and burial costs, and lost wages or loss of support when other financial
resources such as private insurance or restitution are not available. The program must be
operated by a state or territory and offer compensation to victims and survivors of victims of
compensable crimes, including crimes involving terrorism, drunk driving, and domestic vio-
lence.

Each state VOCA grantee may retain up to 5 percent of each year’s grant to administer
VOCA victim assistance and compensation grant programs. State administrative dollars may
be used to expand, enhance, and/or improve the state’s previous level of effort in adminis-
trating the VOCA grant programs at the state level and to support activities and costs that
affect the delivery and quality of services to crime victims throughout the state. In this context,
VOCA administrative funds may be used to support GIS efforts, such as purchasing software,
attending relevant training and technical assistance meetings, and paying salaries and
benefits for staff and consultants’ fees to administer a GIS project.

Byrne Funds
The Bureau of Justice Assistance has one discretionary program, the Byrne Discretionary
Grant Program. Under this program, technical assistance and training grants can be award-
ed to states, local units of government, Indian tribes and tribal organizations, individuals,
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

educational institutions, private nonprofit organizations, and private commercial organiza-

tions. Some discretionary awards are competitive, with a limited amount of funds made
available to a number of potential recipients. Byrne discretionary funds are awarded directly
to criminal justice agencies and private nonprofit organizations to support a comprehensive
range of developmental and demonstration projects, technical assistance and training, and
public awareness activities and publications.

STOP Violence Against Women Formula Grants

The STOP (Services*Training*Officers*Prosecutors) Violence Against Women Formula Grants
Program promotes the development and implementation of effective, victim-centered law
enforcement, prosecution, and court strategies to address violent crimes against women. The
program is dedicated to the development and enhancement of victim services that involve
victims of domestic violence, sexual assault, and stalking.

Technology initiatives are encouraged under the STOP formula program and may include
“Developing, installing, or expanding data collection and communication systems, including
computerized systems, linking police, prosecution, and the courts or for the purpose of identi-
fying and tracking arrests, protection orders, violations of protection orders, prosecutions,
and convictions for violent crimes against women, including the crimes of sexual assault and
domestic violence.”18

30
NOTES
1. A collection of data organized specifically for rapid search and retrieval.

2. A spatial or geographic identifier refers to a location that can be defined geographically

(e.g., street addresses, block groups, neighborhoods, police districts, state or county
boundaries).

3. A census tract is a boundary created by the U.S. Census Bureau that divides counties into
subdivisions that usually range in population from 2,500 to 8,000.

4. A polygon is any shape that is totally enclosed (e.g., circle, square) or any irregular shape
that can be defined, such as census tracts, state or county boundaries, and school districts.

5. When a database is linked to the graphics software, integrated disparate datasets are
referred to as layers of information because they are displayed in map form.

6. Features are items such as schools, roads, bus stops, churches, or service providers refer-
enced in a query.

7. A street centerline refers to the GIS street file with street name and block ranges attached
in a database.

8. Cartography is the art or science of making maps.

9. For more information about crime mapping, visit the MAPS Web site at
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/maps.

10. Spatially contextualizing the data refers to layering information in an attempt to reveal
new or previously unrecognized relationships that exist between disparate datasets, such as
crime and public housing.

31
 11. The Community Policing Beat Book software was developed under a cooperative agree-
ment between NIJ and ESRI. The application, user manual, and relevant documents can be
downloaded at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/cmrc/tools/welcome.html.

12. Although the general walking distance to a bus route is approximately 1⁄4 mile, this dis-
tance depends on various factors, such as age, neighborhood conditions, and accessibility
for people with disabilities.

13. Networking takes into consideration one-way streets, speed limits, and traffic congestion.
This technique is used by MapQuest.

14. Ad hoc is a user-defined query that allows you to select specific data from all of the
data integrated into the GIS.

15. A customized query is one that is predefined based on user needs; the user does not
have access to all data.

16. Data sharing information can be found at www.search.org/integration/pdf/

ExchangePoints.pdf.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

17. Examples of different data formats that a GIS can integrate include text files generated
from word processors such as WordPerfect, Microsoft Word, and WordPad; spreadsheet
files generated from software such as Excel, Quattro Pro, and Lotus; and .dbf files such as
Access, Paradox, and dBASE V.

18. Violence Against Women Office, STOP Violence Against Women Formula Grant
Program Fiscal Year 2002 Application Guidelines, U.S. Department of Justice, Violence
Against Women Office, 2001.

32
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crime Mapping and Data-Driven Management Task Force. 1999. Mapping Out Crime:
Providing 21st Century Tools for Safe Communities. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice, National Partnership for Reinventing Government.

Green, S.W. 1990. “Approaching Archaeological Space.” In Interpreting Space: GIS and
Archaeology, edited by Kathleen M.S. Allen, Stanton W. Green, and Ezra B.W. Zubrow,
3–8. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.

Harries, Keith D. 1999. Mapping Crime: Principle and Practice. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice, Crime
Mapping Research Center.

Kelling, George L. 1997. Fixing Broken Windows, Restoring Order and Reducing Crime
in Our Communities, 19. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

La Vigne, Nancy, and Julie Wartell. 1998. Crime Mapping Case Studies: Successes in
the Field (Volume 1). Crime Mapping Research Center, Washington, DC: Police Executive
Research Forum.

La Vigne, Nancy, and Julie Wartell. 2000. Crime Mapping Case Studies: Successes in
the Field (Volume 2). Crime Mapping Research Center, Washington, DC: Police Executive
Research Forum.

Mamalian, Cynthia, and Nancy La Vigne. 1999. The Use of Computerized Crime
Mapping by Law Enforcement: Survey Results. Research Preview. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice.

33
 Robinson, Arthur H., Joel L. Morrison, Phillip C. Muehrcke, A. Jon Kimerling, and Stephen
C. Guptill. 1995. Elements of Cartography. Sixth Edition. New York, NY: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Weisburd, David, and Tom McEwen. 1997. “Crime Mapping Crime Prevention.” In Crime
Prevention Studies (Volume 8). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

34
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Antenucci, John, Kay Brown, Peter Croswell, Michael Kevany, with Hugh Archer. 1991.
Geographic Information Systems: A Guide to the Technology. New York, NY: Van
Nostrand Reinhold.

Block, Carolyn and Lynn Green. 1994. The Geoarchive Handbook: A Guide for
Developing a Geographic Database as an Information Foundation for Community
Policing. Chicago, IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority.

Block, Carolyn, and Margaret Dabdoub. 1993. Workshop on Crime Analysis Through
Computer Mapping Proceedings: 1993. Chicago, IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information
Authority.

Block, Carolyn, and Louise Miller. 1983. Manual for the Pattern Description of Time Series,
Part 1: Guide to Pattern Description. Chicago, IL: Illinois Criminal Justice Information
Authority.

Boggs, Sarah L. 1965. “Urban Crime Patterns.” American Sociological Review 30:899–908.

Brantingham, Paul J., and Patricia L. Brantingham. 1981. Environmental Criminology.

Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Brantingham, Paul J., and Patricia L. Brantingham. 1984. Patterns in Crime. New York, NY:
Macmillan.

Clarke, Keith C. 1997. Getting Started With Geographic Information Systems. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Clarke, Keith C. 1995. Analytical and Computer Cartography. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
35
 Dent, Borden D. 1990. Cartography: Thematic Map Design. Dubuque, IA: William C.
Brown.

Eck, John, and David Weisburd. 1995. Crime and Place. Monsey, NY: Willow Tree Press.

Evans, David J., and David T. Herbert. 1989. The Geography of Crime. London, England:
Rutledge.

Fotheringham, Stewart, and Peter Rogerson. 1995. Spatial Analysis and GIS. Bristol, PA:
Taylor & Francis.

Haining, Robert. 1990. Spatial Data Analysis in the Social and Environmental Sciences.
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Harries, Keith D. 1974. Geography of Crime and Justice. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

MacEachren, Alan 1995. How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design.
New York: Guilford Press

Monmonier, Mark. 1991. How to Lie With Maps. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

Monmonier, Mark. 1993. Mapping It Out. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Onsrud, Harlan J., and Gerard Rushton. 1995. Sharing Geographic Information. New
Brunswick, NJ: Center for Urban Policy Research.

Rengert, George F., and John Wasilchick. 1985. Suburban Burglary: A Time and Place
for Everything. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Simpson, Jeff L. 1989. Applied Community Research Monograph C3: Visual Display of
Statistics. Alexandria, VA: American Chamber of Commerce Researchers Association.

Tufte, Edward R. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, CT:
Graphics Press.

Tufte, Edward R. 1990. Envisioning Information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.

Tufte, Edward R. 1997. Visual Explanations. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.

Weisburd, David, and Tom McEwen. 1997. Crime Mapping & Crime Prevention. Monsey,
NY: Willow Tree Press.

36
GLOSSARY
Ad hoc query: A query fashioned from all available data integrated into the GIS.

Cartography: The art or science of making maps.

Census tract: A boundary created by the U.S. Census Bureau that divides counties into
populations ranging from 2,500 to 8,000.

Customized query: A predefined query based on user needs, used with systems in which
the user does not have access to all data.

Database: A collection of data organized especially for rapid search and retrieval.

Dataset: When a database is linked to the graphics software, integrated disparate datasets
are referred to as layers of information because they are displayed in map form.

Polygon: Any shape that is totally enclosed (e.g., circle, square) or any irregular shape
that can be defined, such as census tracts, state or county boundaries, and school districts.

Spatial data: Data that are identified with a geographical location, such as x–y coordi-
nates in latitude and longitude, state plane coordinates, street addresses, census tracts,
counties, and ZIP Codes.

Spatial or geographic identifier: A location that can be defined geographically (e.g.,

street addresses, block groups, neighborhoods, police districts, state or county boundaries).

Street centerline: Lines on a map that represent roads; the yellow dashes that separate
a two-way street.

37
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
Office for Victims of Crime
U.S. Department of Justice
810 Seventh Street NW.
Eighth Floor
Washington, DC 20531
202–307–5983
Fax: 202–514–6383
Web site: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc

Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety

National Institute of Justice
U.S. Department of Justice
810 Seventh Street NW.
Seventh Floor
Washington, DC 20531
202–514–3431
Web site: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/maps

Web Links
Bureau of Justice Statistics
www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs

Center for International Science Information Network

www.ciesin.org

CyberInstitute short course on GIS

www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/tools/gis

39
 Digital chart of the world
www.maproom.psu.edu/dcw

Digital maps
http://magic.lib.uconn.edu

EROS Data Center, the clearinghouse for U.S. Geological Survey digital data
http://edc.usgs.gov

Federal Bureau of Investigation

www.fbi.gov

Federal Geographic Data Committee

www.fgdc.gov

Federal Justice Statistics Resource Center

fjsrc.urban.org

Geophysical data
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ngdc.html
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

GIS datasets put together by ESRI for the production of live maps
www.esri.com/data/mapdata/index.html

GIS dictionary
www.geo.ed.ac.uk/agidict/welcome.html

GIS education and training

http://campus.esri.com

GIS FAQs
www.census.gov/geo/www/faq-index.html

GIS Guide for the Neophyte

http://ice.ucdavis.edu/local/gis/gis_primer.html

GIS links: Free datasets, standards, U.S. Geological Survey sites, U.S. Census Bureau, etc.
www.pipeline.com/~rking/gis.htm

40
GIS Support Center
www.state.oh.us/das/dcs/gis/

Global Resource Information Database

www.grid.unep.ch

Map FAQs, products and support data

www.mapfacts.com

MARIS spatial data

www.maris.state.ms.us

Massachusetts GIS site and geographic databases

www.magnet.state.ma.us/mgis/massgis.htm

National Archive of Criminal Justice Data

www.icpsr.umich.edu/nacjd

National Center for Victims of Crime

www.ncvc.org

National Organization for Victim Assistance

www.try-nova.org

Natural Resources Research Information Pages

www4.ncsu.edu/~leung/nrrips.html

Pennsylvania State University, access to spatial data of Pennsylvania

www.pasda,psu.edu

South Carolina Department of Natural Resources GIS Data Clearinghouse Home Page
www.dnr.state.sc.us/gisdata/index.html

Thematic maps
For Further Information

www.oseda.missouri.edu

University of California at Berkeley online map collection and links to other data and
map sources
http://library.berkeley.edu/EART

41
 University of Edinburgh, Scotland, GIS reference database and an elevation data catalog
www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/gishome.html

University of New Mexico Earth Data Analysis Center

http://edac.unm.edu

U.S. Census Bureau

www.census.gov

U.S. Geological Survey digital map data

http://geology.wr.usgs.gov/wgmt/digdata.html

U.S. Geological Survey on transferring data between systems without any loss
http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/sdts/whatsdts.html

Victim Assistance Online

www.vaonline.org

General Web Resources for Training Seminars and Conferences*

www.urisa.org/meetings.htm
Using Geographic Information Systems To Map Crime Victim Ser vices

http://msdis.missouri.edu

http://magicweb.kgs.ukans.edu/magic/magic_net.html

www.nsgic.org

www.mapinfo.com

www.esri.com/events

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/cmrc/training/welcome.html

www.nlectc.org/nlectcrm/cmaptrain.html

www.nijpcs.org/upcoming.htm

www.usdoj.gov/cops/gpa/tta/default.htm

http://giscenter.isu.edu/training/training.htm

www.alphagroupcenter.com

*As listed in Crime Mapping News, spring 2000, volume 2, issue 2.

42
 Using Geographic
Information Systems
To Map Crime Victim
Services

For copies of this monograph and/or additional information,

please contact

OVC Resource Center

P.O. Box 6000
Rockville, MD 20849–6000
Telephone: 1–800–627–6872 or 301–519–5500
(TTY 1–877–712–9279)

Or order OVC publications online at http://puborder.ncjrs.org.

E-mail questions to [email protected].
Send your feedback on this service to [email protected].

Refer to publication number NCJ 191877.

For information on training and technical

assistance available from OVC, please contact

OVC Training and Technical Assistance Center

10530 Rosehaven Street, Suite 400
Fairfax, VA 22030
Telephone: 1–866–OVC–TTAC (1–866–682–8822)
(TTY 1–866–682–8880)