Current electricity:

Current:
The rate of flow charge is called an electric current.
Therefore, i = q / t
For the case of time varying charge flow,the current also varies with time.In such
situations, current can be written as
i= dq / dt
It's unit is Ampere.

1A(Ampere) current : The current flowing through the conductor is said to be 1A if 1C

of charge flows through the circuit in 1 sec.

Expression for current and current density: (Mechanism of Metallic conduction

and Drift velocity)

Random motion of an electron in a metallic

crystal in the absence of electric field.
 The valence electrons in metal atom are free to move. So the metal contains large
number of free electron which are moving randomly in all direction from atom to atom.
When an electric field is not applied to a metallic conductor, the free electrons are in
thermal equilibrium with the conductor and are in random motion on the surface . So, the
average velocity of the electrons in a direction is zero. Since this motion does not make
up transport of a net charge across any section of the conductor, there is no current in the
conductor.
When an electric field is applied to the conductor by connecting a battery across it ,
each electron is acted by an electrostatic force, and the electrons get accelerated in the
opposite to that of the field. Then the electrons gain velocity and kinetic energy. These
electrons however collide with atoms (or ions) on lattice site of the metal. During the
collisions, the electrons give up their energy to the atoms and so their velocity decrease.
However, the electrons again accelerate due to the electric force and make collisions with
atoms. As a result of the repeated collisions, the average acceleration of electrons is
reduced to zero and the electrons thus acquire a constant average velocity opposite to
the direction of the electric field. This velocity is called the drift velocity which is
responsible for the flow of a current through the conductor.
Thus the average velocity acquired by the free electrons in a conductor subjected to
an electric field is called drift velocity.
Let us consider a conductor wire of length L and area of cross-section A. The potential
difference is applied across the conductor. If E be the electric field strength then free
electrons inside the conductor are moving in the opposite direction of the electric field
strength. If n be the no. of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor then,
n= N / volume, N = total no. of electrons
N=nxV
We know, i = q / t = Ne/t = (n x Vx e) / t
But, V = A x L
Therefore, i = (n x A x L x e) / t ….................(i)

If vd be drift velocity then,

vd = L/t
L = vd x t...........................(ii)
From equation (I) and (ii) we get;
i= (n x A x vd x t x e) / t = nAvde
i = vdenA ,This gives the relation bet.current and drift velocity.

Current density:
It is defined as the current flowing through the conductor per unit cross-sectional
area .
i.e J = i/ A = vdenA / A = vden
Resistance:
Resistance is defined as the property of the conductor which opposes the flow of
electric current (charge). It is also defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric
current flowing through it.
The following are the main laws of resistance:
(i) Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length, provided temperature
and other physical conditions remain unchanged.
It means that R ∝ L….....................(1)
i.e., if the length increases, the resistance also increases and if length decreases, its
resistance also decreases.
(ii) Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross section, other
conditions remaining the same.
If A is the area of cross section, then :
R α 1/A …......................(2)
(iii) R depends on the nature of the material of the conductor. It means, if we take equal
lengths of wires of copper, aluminum and iron and all of the same cross-sectional area,
their resistance are different from each other since they are of different materials.
Combining equations (1) and(2) , we get R α L /A
Or, R = ρ L /A …....(3) Where, ρ is resistivity of a
substance.
If L=1 unit and A=1 unit then, R=ρ.
Hence,Resistivity is defined as the resistance offered by the material per unit length for
unit cross-section. The SI unit of resistivity is Ohmmeter. Resistivity increases linearly with
temperature. The resistivity of conductors is low when compared to the resistivity of the
insulators. Therefore, it can be represented as:
Resistivity of conductors < Resistivity of alloys < Resistivity of insulators.
Resistivity is also defined as the ratio of electric field to the current density.
Therefore, ρ= E/J

Conductivity(σ) :
It is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity that is σ=1/ρ.
From equation (3) ρ=RA / L
Therefore, σ=L / RA
Ohm's law:
Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference. The
current that flows through most conductors is directly proportional to the voltage applied
to it. Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist was the first to verify Ohm’s law
experimentally.

Statement: Ohm’s law states that current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across a conductor, provided all physical conditions and
temperature remain constant.
That is, V ∝ I
V = IR where R is resistance of the conductor
V/ I = R

In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R is Resistance and has units of ohms, with
symbol Ω.

Experimental Verification of Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law can be easily verified by the following experiment:
Ohm’s law can be verified by using a simple circuit as shown in fig. aside. A resistance R is
connected in a series to a battery, ammeter and a rheostat. A voltmeter is connected in
parallel across a fixed resistance R. When the key is closed, I current flows in the circuit
and voltmeter and ammeter shows reading. By adjusting rheostat at different position
different value of V and A are obtained. These values are noted and plotted on a graph
paper and the graph shown below is obtained.

Here a straight line passing through origin is obtained. This graph shows V is
proportions to I which is Ohm’s Law. Hence Verified.
 Microscopically ohm's law can be expressed in terms of current density (J) and
electric field (E):
We know, I= V/R
=(E A L)/ρL (E = V/L and R= ρL / A)
Or, I/ A = E/ρ
Or, J = E/ρ = σE (J =I/A and σ = 1/ρ )
Above relation is also known as modified ohm's law and it states that the current
density of a material is proportional to the applied electric field.

Another way to determine R and ρ :

We know, J = E/ρ = σE
Or, I/A = σ V/L
Or, V = (I/A) x ( L /σ)
Or, V = I (ρL/A).............................(i)
But from ohm's law'
V = IR.....................................(ii)
Therefore, R =ρ(L/A) and
ρ= R(A/ L)
Microscopic view of Ohm's Law :Resistivity
A classical model of electrical conduction in metals leads to ohm's law and establishes the
relationship between the resistivity of the metal and motion of the electrons.
According to CFE model, when a conductor does not have applied electric field across it, it's
conduction electron move randomly with different thermal velocities. Since there is no net
flow of charge so there is no current. When a potential difference is applied across it, The
free electrons tend to move in the direction opposite to that of applied electric field with a
speed called drift speed vd.

Let an electron of mass m and charge e is placed in an electric field E ,The electric force
experienced by electron is F=eE.
Also from Newton's law, F= ma.
Hence, ma = eE
a = eE / m

The average drift speed of electron is, vd=aτ, where τ is average time between collision called
mean free time or relaxation time.
Therefore, v d = eEτ / m........................(1)

The electron mobility is defined as the drift speed per unit applied electric field.
Electron mobility, (μ) = v d / E = eτ / m........................(2)
Since current density, J= vden
= (eEτ / m)ne = (ne2τ / m).E ......................(3)

Also, J=σE …................................(4)

Comparing equations (3) and (4), Electron conductivity,
σ = ne2τ / m........................(5)

We know resistivity ρ = 1/σ = m/ne2τ …................(6)

This leads to the constant value of ρ because n,m and e are constant and τ can be considered
to be a constant. Therefore,it is a microscopic view of Ohm's law.

Also from (5), σ = ne (eτ / m) = neμ..........................(7)

If vavg is the average thermal velocity of the electrons, which is combination of the thermal
velocity vrms and the drift velocity vd, we may write
τ = L /vavg , L= mean free path(The average distance travelled by the
free electron between two consecutive collisions is called mean free path)
Since, vd<<vrms in most cases, hence contribution of vd can be neglected.
Therefore, τ = L / v rms
Hence, ρ = (mv rms)/ne2L …...................................(8)
The behavior of free electron is similar to the gas molecules and thus,the free electron are
generally called free electron gas. Thus ,we have
(1/2)mv2avg=(3/2)kT...........(9)
Where k is Boltzmann constant ant Tis the absolute temperature of the metallic conductor.
From above, we have ρ = 3kT/ne2Lv...........................(9)
It shows that resistivity of a material of conductor is proportional to the absolute temperature
being other quantities constant.
Semiconductor:
A semiconductor is a material whose electrical conductivity lies between those of
conductors and insulators at the room temperature. That is they are neither
conductor nor insulator. They are tetravalent elements because they have four
electrons in their outermost orbit (They have four valence electrons). Silicon and
germanium are example of semiconductors. They lie in group IV of periodic table. In
semiconductor there is narrow(about 1 eV or less) energy gap. At absolute zero
valence band is completely full and conduction band is completely empty. Thus s/c
are perfectly insulator at zero Kelvin(K). But at room temperature , some of the
valence electrons acquire enough thermal energy and jump to the conduction band.
They leave behind as equal number of empty states(holes) in the valence band. The
electrons in the conduction band and holes valence band contribute the electrical
conductivity. Thus semiconductor behaves as conductor at room temp. At room
temperature valence band and conduction band are partially filled.

In comparison to metal, semiconductor has

i) very high value of resistivity
ii) fewer charge carriers (holes and electrons)
iii) large and negative temperature coefficient of resistivity.

The resistance of semiconductor decreases(electrical conductivity of semiconductor

increases) with the increase of temperature and addition of impurity atoms. The
electrical properties of semiconductor are determined by
i) The presence of gap in the energy state and
ii) The presence of impurity atom
Because their electrical properties are very sensitive on adding small impurities,
they are widely used in electronic devices.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor and Extrinsic Semiconductor
The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is Intrinsic Semiconductor and other is
an Extrinsic semiconductor. The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the intrinsic
semiconductor and the semiconductor in which intentionally impurities is added for making it
conductive is known as the extrinsic semiconductor.
The conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor becomes zero at room temperature
while the extrinsic semiconductor is very less conductive at room temperature
There are two types of semiconductor. They are:
i) Intrinsic semiconductor
ii) Extrinsic semiconductor
When a few Pentavalent impurities such as Arsenic whose atomic number is 33, which is
categorized as 2, 8, 15 and 5. It has five valence electrons, which is added to germanium
crystal. Each atom of the impurity fits in four germanium atoms as shown in the figure
above.
Hence, each Arsenic atom provides one free electron in the Germanium crystal. Since an
extremely small amount of arsenic, impurity has a large number of atoms; it provides
millions of free electrons for conduction.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
An extremely pure semiconductor is called Intrinsic Semiconductor. On the basis of the energy
band phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is shown below:
Its valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty. When the
temperature is raised and some heat energy is supplied to it, some of the valence electrons
are lifted to conduction band leaving behind holes in the valence band as shown below:

The electrons reaching at the conduction band move randomly. The holes created in the
crystal also free to move anywhere. This behaviour of the semiconductor shows that they
have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
This means that with the increase in temperature, the resistivity of the material decreases and
the conductivity increases.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor to which an impurity at a controlled rate is added to make it conductive is
known as an extrinsic semiconductor.
An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room temperature,
but it is not useful for the preparation of various electronic devices. Thus, to make it
conducive a small amount of suitable impurity is added to the material.

Doping
The process by which an impurity is added to a semiconductor is known as Doping. The
amount and type of impurity which is to be added to the material have to be closely controlled
during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.
Generally, one impurity atom is added to 108 atoms of a semiconductor.
The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the number of free
electrons or holes to make it conductive. If a Pentavalent impurity, having five valence
electrons is added to a pure semiconductor a large number of free electrons will exist.
If a trivalent impurity having three valence electrons is added, a large number of holes will
exist in the semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor may be classified
as n type semiconductor and p type semiconductor.
N Type Semiconductor
When a small amount of Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor providing a
large number of free electrons in it, the extrinsic semiconductor thus formed is known as n-
Type Semiconductor. The conduction in the n-type semiconductor is because of the free
electrons denoted by the pentavalent impurity atoms.
These electrons are the excess free electrons with regards to the number of free electrons
required to fill the covalent bonds in the semiconductors.

The addition of Pentavalent impurities such as arsenic and antimony provides a large
number of free electrons in the semiconductor crystal. Such impurities which produce n-type
semiconductors are known as Donor Impurities.
They are called a donor impurity because each atom of them donates one free electron
crystal.
The Energy level diagram of the n-type semiconductor is shown in the figure below:
A large number of free electrons are available in the conduction band because of the addition
of the Pentavalent impurity. These electrons are free electrons which did not fit in the
covalent bonds of the crystal. However, a minute quantity of free electrons is available in the
conduction band forming hole-electron pairs.
P Type Semiconductor
The extrinsic p-Type Semiconductor is formed when a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor
in a small amount, and as a result, a large number of holes are created in it. A large number of holes are
provided in the semiconductor material by the addition of trivalent impurities like Gallium and Indium.
Such types of impurities which produce p-type semiconductor are known as an Acceptor
Impurities because each atom of them create one hole which can accept one electron.
A trivalent impurity like gallium, having three valence electrons is added to germanium crystal in a
small amount. Each atom of the impurity fits in the germanium crystal in such a way that its three
valence electrons form covalent bonds with the three surrounding germanium atoms as shown in the
figure below:
The energy band diagram of a p-type Semiconductor is shown below:
In the fourth covalent bonds, only the germanium atom contributes one valence electron,
while gallium atom has no valence bonds.Hence, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete,
having one electron short. This missing electron is known as a Hole. Thus, each gallium
atom provides one hole in the germanium crystal.As an extremely small amount of
Gallium impurity has a large number of atoms, therefore, it provides millions of holes in the
semiconductor.
A large number of holes or vacant space in the covalent bond is created in the crystal with
the addition of the trivalent impurity. A small or minute quantity of free electrons is also
available in the conduction band.They are produced when thermal energy at room
temperature is imparted to the germanium crystal-forming electron-hole pairs. But the holes
are more in number as compared to the electrons in the conduction band. It is because of
the predominance of holes over electrons that the material is called as a p-type
semiconductor.The word “p” stands for positive material.

Some semiconductors are doped with both N and P type impurities which are called
Compensated semiconductors. P and N types semiconductors are basic for fabrication of
Semiconductor devices. P-N junction diode, N-P-N, P-N-P transistors, light emitting diode
(LED), zener diode , photo voltaic cell or solar cell, LASER diode are few examples.
The mobility of semiconductor:

At room temperature, a semiconductor consist of two types of charge carrier, free electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band. When an external electric field is applied to a
semiconductor, there is flow of electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. Thus
both charge carrier contribute to the electric current. The drift velocities of two types of charge carrier
in the electric field are different because of their differing effective masses. Let n and p be the number
of free electrons and holes per unit volume(electron and hole densities) of the semiconductor. Let v e
and vp be the drift velocities of electrons and holes of the given semiconductor at a temperature T
then total current density is given by
J= Je + Jp (J = nev)
= neve + pevp......................(1)
Mobility(μ) can be defined as the drift velocity(vd) per unit external electric field(E).
μ= vd / E
vd = μ x E.............................(2)
Therefore equation (1) becomes J = neμeE + peμpE
= eE(nμe + pμp)
or, J/E = e(nμe + pμp).................(3)
But J/E= σ, the conductivity of material of semiconductor.
Therefore, equation (3) becomes σ = e(nμe + pμp).................(4)
This gives the conductivity of the semicondutor
Also, ρ = 1/σ
ρ = 1 / e(nμe + pμp)....................(5)
This gives the resistivity of the semiconductor
In intrinsic semiconductor, n = p then equation (4) becomes
σ=1 / ρ = en (μe + μp) …..................(6)
Superconductors:
Those material whose resistance(resistivity) goes on decreasing and equals to zero
below certain temperature are called superconductors. This phenomenon in which the
electrical resistivity suddenly drops to zero when the material is cooled to a sufficiently low
temperature is known as superconductivity. And the material that exhibits these properties
are called superconducting materials (superconductors).The current which flows during
superconductivity is famously known as a super current Simply because there is no loss of
energy in any form. The specific temperature at which resistance of the
conductors((materials) become zero is called critical temperature (Tc). At this temperature the
materials undergoes a phase transition from the normal state of a material to the
superconducting state. Superconductivity has been observed in many metals,alloys and
compounds. It is surprising that those metals which are the best conductors like silver,gold
and copper are not super conductors but some chemical compounds which are
semiconductors at ordinary temperatures becomes super conductor at low temperatures.

ideally, not all the materials, when cooled below the

threshold temperature behaves as superconducting
materials. Elements like Li, K, and Na when cooled
down to 0.08°K have not shown any kind of
R superconducting behavior. On the other hand, those
materials which show zero resistance behavior, have
their own value of superconducting transition
temperature.

T
Tc = 4.2K (For mercury)
 The electrical resistance of metal and alloys decreases with the decrease of
temperature. The thermal vibration of atoms decreases at lower temperature so due to
decrease in randomness of electrons resistance decreases. The electrical resistance of the
normal conductors like copper,iron,silver etc. decreases with a decrease in temperature and
possesses some finite value even at absolute zero tmperature.There are certain materials for
which resistance decreases with a decrese in temperature and the resistance drops abruptly
to zero when the temperature reaches a certain value.This phenomenon was first observed
by Dutch physicist H.K Onnes. He found that the electrical resistance of mercury drops to
zero at 4.18K. He found that Below 4.18K, the resistance of mercury remained effectively
zero an mercury has passed into a new state is called superconducting state. This
temperature is called critical temperature. Critical temperature is 7.2K for lead, 0.85K for
zinc etc.
scientists are working to obtain high temperature superconductors. Now 164K critical
temperature has obtained ina compound HgBa2Ca2Cu3O (HBCCO) at high pressure. The
highest Tc that has been obtained to date is in a hydrogen based superconductor (hydrogen
sulfide) is 203 K in 2015 at 150 Gpa pressure.
Critical magnetic field:

Superconducting state of a matter can be changed into a normal state either by

increasing temperature or by the application of magnetic field. That is a sufficiently
strong magnetic field will destroy the superconductivity(superconductor).
The threshold value of magnetic field which destroys the superconductivity of a
matter is called critical magnetic field. It is represented by Hc (T). It is a function of
temperature. The critical magnetic field increases with a decrease in temperature. The
variation of critical magnetic field with temperature is shown in the figure.In the figure S
and N represents superconducting state and normal state. The nature of curve is
approximately parabolic and satisfy the parabolic relation
Hc (T) = Hc(0) [ 1 – (T / Tc)2 ]
where Hc (0) is the critical field at 0k. Thus we find the superconducting state is stable
only in some definite ranges of magnetic fields and temperatures. For higher fields and
temperatures, normal state is more stable.
At critical temperature the critical field is zero i.e. Hc(T) = 0
 The Meissner Effect:
If a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field below the transition temperature
then at the transition temperature, the lines of induction of B are pushed out. This
phenomenon is called the Meissner effect. The Meissner effect shows that a bulk
superconductor behaves in an applied external field as it inside the specimen B=0.
That is perfect diamagnetic effect.
We know,
B = µ0 (H + M) Inside the superconductor B=0.
H = -M
or, χ = M / H = -1

This shows that a superconductor exhibits perfect diamagnetism.

But B is constant in perfect conductor, which is contradiction to the Meissner effect. Th
behavior of superconductor is different from that of perfect conductor.
The BCS theory
Bardeen, Coper and Schrieffer( BCS) provided a theoretical explanation of
superconductivity and they investigated that the formation of the superconducting
state and energy of the electron-phonon interaction called BCS theory. This theory
explains the microscopic origin of a low temperature superconductivity.
The main component of BCS theory was Leon Cooper's derivation of the bound
states of two electrons of opposite spin k and -k subject to an attractive force by
means of the electron-phonon interaction to form a pair called Cooper pair. But Two
electrons near the Fermi level are unstable towards the formation of a Cooper pair for
an arbitrarily small attractive interaction. Thus Schrieffer formulated a many-particle
wave function which all the electrons near the Fermi surface are paired up. In 1957,
Bardeen and Cooper along with Schrieffer combined all these and formulated a
theory to describe the microscopic nature of the superconductor. This theory is known
as the BCS theory of superconductivity.
 This theory explains that the two electrons with opposite spin experience attractive
interaction rather than Coulomb repulsion to form Cooper pair as shown in the figure. At low
temperature, the Cooper pairs, behave as Boson instead of Fermion, move through the
lattice sites without scattering so that the pairs experience no electrical resistance and the
material become a superconductor.
Characteristic lengths

Penetration depth is a characteristic length is a superconductor which refers to the

exponential decay of the magnetic field at the interior surface of a superconductor and
depends on the number density of electron. The formula for penetration depth λL is

λL=(ε0mc2/nq2) ½
Where q is charge ,m is the mass, and n is the number density of electrons
Coherence length ξ is another characteristic length in a superconductor, which depends on
the Fermi velocity of material and the band gap associated with the condensation to the
superconducting stage. ξ is a measure of the minimum distance over which number density of
superconducting electron cannot change drastically in a spatially varying magnetic field.
Mathematically,
ξ =2ħvf / πEg
Where ħ(=h/2π) is reduced Planck constant, vf is Fermi-velocity, Eg is the energy gap needed
to destroy the superconductor. It is the intrinsic coherence length of pure superconductor
where coherence length of impure and and alloys is less than of the pure superconductor.
Types of superconductors
Based on the nature of the transition of superconducting state to the normal state under the
application of magnetic field, there are two types of superconductor. They are:
1) Type-I superconductor
2) Type-II superconductor
 Type-I superconductor: The superconductor in which the Meissner effect is complete up to
critical field Hc is called type-I superconductor. The magnetic behavior of a typical type-I
superconductor is shown in the figure 1, where magnetization drops suddenly to zero and
there is a direct transition to superconducting state to normal state. These material give
away their superconductivity at lower field strength so these are referred to as soft
superconductors. Pure specimens of various metals exhibits this type of behavior. Surface
energy of a material is a result of magnetic field which is positive for type-I superconductor.
The indium show type-I nature of superconductor, but when some amount of indium is
doped to the lead, the behavior will no longer type-I.
Type-II superconductor:
The superconductor which doesn't exhibit the complete Meissner effect and possess a
mixed state is called type-II superconductor. A plot between the intensity and
magnetization(M) and applied magnetic field(H) for a compound or alloy(impure)
semiconductor is shown in figure 2 where magnetization drops gradually to zero and there is
a gradual transition from superconducting to a normal state. This type of semiconductor is
known as type-II superconductor or hard superconductor.
 Decreasing of magnetization starts from the lower magnetic field Hc1 and vanishes
completely at upper higher magnetic field Hc2. The region between the lower and upper
magnetic field is known as vortex state. These superconductors are also called hard or
impure superconductor.
Hard superconductors (Type II) with large magnetic hysteresis are used in making
electromagnets for producing high steady magnetic fields.

● Type-I superconductors strictly follow the Meissner effect. On the other hand, Type II
superconductors do not follow the Meissner effect.
● Type-I superconductors have only one critical field i.e Hc. On the other hand, Type II
superconductors have two critical fields i.e Hc1 and Hc2.
● Last but not least one, Type-I superconductors act as a good conductor at room
temperature. On the other hand, Type II superconductors are not particularly good
conductors at room temperature.
 Application of superconductor
● Superconducting magnets are used for accelerating the particles in the Large Hadron Collider.
● SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices) are being used in the production of highly
sensitive magnetometers. They are generally used for the detection of land mines.
● Superconducting magnets are also used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) machines.
● As we know due to the electrical resistance, there is a power loss while power transmission. So
nowadays, superconducting cables are used in place of ordinary cable lines to avoid power loss.
● Superconductors are also being used for the development of high-intensity Electro Magnetic
Impulse (EMP). They are used to paralyze all the electronic equipment within the range.

(i) Superconductors form the basis of energy saving power systems, namely the
superconducting generators, which are smaller in size and weight, in comparison with
conventional generators.
(ii) Superconducting magnets have been used to levitate trains above its rails. They can be driven
at high speed with minimal expenditure of energy.
(iii) Superconducting magnetic propulsion systems may be used to launch satellites into orbits
directly from the earth without the use of rockets.
(iv) High efficiency ore-separating machines may be built using superconducting magnets which
can be used to separate tumor cells from healthy cells by high gradient magnetic separation
method.
(v) Since the current in a superconducting wire can flow without any change in magnitude, it can
be used for transmission lines.