Polynomial Function Limits

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY
BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Polynomial Function Limits

C HAPTER
1 Polynomial Function Limits
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn several important theorems involving limits, and you will explore the use of those theorems in
finding the limits of polynomial functions.
You may recall that many of the rules you have learned to use when solving basic algebra equations often apply to
the manipulation of complex equations also. You will find in this lesson that a similar concept applies to operations
on limits.

Polynomial Function Limits

In this lesson, you will evaluate the limits of functions from an algebraic perspective. First you will require the
proper tools for the job, the theorems necessary to calculate limits. These theorems are outlined in the two boxes
below.

TABLE 1.1:
Box #1: Important Theorems of Limits
Let a be a real number and suppose that limx→a f (x) = L1 and limx→a g(x) = L2 .
Then:
1. limx→a [ f (x) + g(x)] = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g(x) = L1 + L2 , meaning the limit of the sum is the sum of the
limits.
2. limx→a [ f (x)−g(x)] = limx→a f (x)−limx→a g(x) = L1 −L2 , meaning the limit of the difference is the difference
of the limits.
3. limx→a [ f (x)g(x)] = (limx→a f (x))(limx→a g(x)) = L1 L2 , meaning the limit of the product is the product of the
limits.
f (x) x→a f (x)
4. limx→a g(x) = lim L1
limx→a g(x) = L2 L2 6= 0, meaning the limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided that
the denominator doesqnot equal zero.)√n
p
5. limx→a n f (x) = n lim f (x) = L1 L1 > 0 if n is even, meaning the limit of the nth root is the nth root of the
x→a
limit.

Other useful results follow from the above theorems:

TABLE 1.2:
Box #2
1. If a and k are real numbers, then limx→a k = k. That is, if f (x) = k, a constant function, then the values of f (x)
do not change as x is varied, thus the limit of f (x) is k.
2. If a is a real number then limx→a x = a. That is, since f (x) = x is an identity function (its input equals its output),
then as x → a, f (x) = x → a.
3. limx→a (k · f (x)) = (limx→a k) · (limx→a f (x)) = k · (limx→a f (x))
4. limx→a xn = (limx→a x)n = an

Finally, we have one more theorem:

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TABLE 1.3:
Theorem: The limit of a polynomial

For any polynomial f (x) = cn xn + . . . + c1 x + c0 and any real number a,

limx→a f (x) = cn (a)n + ... + c1 (a) + c0
limx→a f (x) = f (a)
In other words, the limit of the polynomial is simply equal to f (a).

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Examples

Example 1

Use the theorems above to find limx→1 (x2 − 3x + 4) and justify each step.
You can verify your practice application of the theorems described above by simply substituting x = 1 directly into
the polynomial.
Using Equation (1) of Box #1 (the limit of the sum is the sum of the limits) we get

TABLE 1.4:
limx→1 (x2 − 3x + 4) = limx→1 x2 + limx→1 (−3x) +
limx→1 4

From Equation (4) of Box #2, the first term becomes

TABLE 1.5:
limx→1 x2 = (1)2 = 1

From Equations (2) and (3) of Box #2, the second term becomes

TABLE 1.6:
limx→1 (−3x) = −3 limx→1 x = (−3)(1) = −3

Finally, from Equation (1) of Box #2, the third term becomes

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Polynomial Function Limits

TABLE 1.7:
limx→1 4 = 4

Thus the limit of the above polynomial is

TABLE 1.8:
limx→1 (x2 − 3x + 4) = 1 + (−3) + 4 = 2

Example 2

Find limx→3 (4x3 − 4x − 5).

According to the theorem above, limx→3 (4x3 − 4x − 5) = 4(3)3 − 4(3) − 5 = 91

Example 3
2
x −4
Find limx→5 3x 2 −2 .

Using Equation (4) of Box #1 (the limit of the quotient is the quotient of the limit),

TABLE 1.9:
2
x −4 limx→5 (x2 −4)
limx→5 3x 2 −2 = limx→5 (3x2 −2)

Making use of the limit of the polynomials theorem, we obtain

TABLE 1.10:
2 2
(5) −4
x −4
limx→5 3x 2 −2 = 3(5) 2 −2
21
= 73

Example 4
 2 
+3x
Find the limit: limx→−3 xx+3 .
 
x(x+3)
x+3 ..... First factor the numerator
Since both numerator and denominator contain (x + 3) the function output is the same as the input for any number
except where (x + 3) was undefined, -3.
Since x = y for any number other than -3, as we get closer and closer to -3 on the input, we get closer and closer to
-3 on the output (we can get as close as we like, we just can’t hit it!).
 2 
+3x
∴ limx→−3 xx+3 = −3

Example 5

Given:
limx→c f (x) = 7

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limx→c g(x) = 3
Find: limx→c f (x)g(x)
This example uses rule #3 from above: the limit of the product is the product of the limits. Which means that we
need to find the limit of each function, then multiply the limits.
limx→c f (x) = 7
limx→c g(x) = 3
Since we are given the limits, we simply multiply 7 · 3 = 21
∴ limx→c f (x)g(x) = 21

Example 6

Given:
f (x) = 4x2 + 3x + 4
g(x) = 2x2 − 5x − 2
Find: limx→−2 f (g(x))
Since these are both continuous functions, we can use lim f (g(x)) = f (lim g(x))
limx→−2 2x2 − 5x − 2 = 16
f (16) = 4(16)2 + 3(16) + 4 = 1076
∴ limx→−2 f (g(x)) = 1076

Review

Find the limit:

1. limx→2 −5x − 2 =
2. limx→ π6 csc(x) =
√
3. limx→256 4 x =
2
4. limx→0 x −2xx =
5. limx→1 4x =

Find the limit:

√
6. limx→−2 −3x + 3 =

4
Limits Involving Radical
Functions

ACLC COLLEGE

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Limits Involving Radical Functions

C HAPTER
1
Limits Involving Radical
Functions
There are many problems that will involve taking the nth root of a variable expression, so it is natural that there may
sometimes be a need to find the limit of a function involving radical expressions, using square or cube roots, or other
roots. Do you think that finding the limit of a function involving radicals would be any different than finding the
limit of polynomial or rational functions? Can you think of any ways that radicals might present different problems
than polynomials?

Limits with Radical Functions

When evaluating a limit involving a radical function, use direct substitution to see if a limit can be evaluated
whenever possible. If not, other methods to evaluate the limit need to be explored.
√ √
Take the following function f (x) = x − 3. Find limx→9 x − 3.

√ √
lim x − 3 = lim x − lim 3
x→9 x→9 x→9
√ √
lim x − 3 = lim x − lim 3
x→9 x→9 x→9
√
= 9−3
=0

√
Therefore, limx→9 x − 3 = 0, which could have been determined by directly evaluating f (x) at x = 9, i.e., by using
direct substitution.
√
Now, find limx→∞ x − 3.
√
Evaluating f (x) at ever increasing positive values of x shows that f (x) increase without bound. Therefore, limx→∞ x−
3 = ∞.
In both of the above cases, direct substitution could be used to evaluate the limits and there is no need for alternative
methods.

√ √
Take a look at the function g(x) = x2 + 3 . Find lim x2 + 3
7x+5 x→∞ 7x+5 .

First we notice that we should exclude x = − 57 in any evaluation. Using direct substitution to find the limit results
∞
in the indeterminate form ∞ . To transform the radical expression to a better form, use the fact that the value of x is
going to larger and larger positive values. This allows the following:

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√
q
x2 1 + x32


x2 + 3
lim = lim
x 7 + 5x


x→∞ 7x + 5 x→∞

√
q
x2 1 + x32


2
x +3
lim = lim
x 7 + 5x


x→∞ 7x + 5 x→∞
q
1 + x32


|x|
= lim
x 7 + 5x


x→∞
q
1 + x32


lim
x→∞
=
lim 7 + 5x


x→∞
1
=
7

√
Therefore, limx→∞ x2 + 3 = 1 .
7x+5 7
√
Now, find limx→−∞ x2 + 3 .
7x+5
The solution to evaluating the limit at negative infinity is similar to the above approach except that x is always
negative.

√
q
x2 1 + x32


x2 + 3
lim = lim
x 7 + 5x


x→−∞ 7x + 5 x→−∞
q
1 + x32


|x|
= lim
x 7 + 5x


x→−∞
q
1 + x32


lim
x→−∞
= . . . Note the denominator has a - because x < 0
− lim 7 + 5x


x→−∞
1
=−
7

√
Therefore, limx→−∞ x2 + 3 = − 1 .
7x+5 7
So far, you have been able to find the limit of rational functions
√ using methods shown earlier. However, there are
x−3
times when this is not possible. Take the function h(x) = x−9 . Find limx→9 h(x).
Using direct substitution to find the limit results in the indeterminate form 00 . In order to evaluate the limit, we need
to transform the expression to remove the indeterminate form. This is accomplished by using the relationship for the
difference of squares of real numbers: x2 − y2 = (x + y)(x − y).
We then rewrite and simplify the original function as follows:

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ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Limits Involving Radical Functions

√ √
x−3 x−3
lim = lim √ √ . . . Use the difference of squares factoring to remove the 0 in the denominator.
x→9 x−9 x→9 ( x − 3) ( x + 3)
1
= lim √
x→9 ( x + 3)
1
= √

limx→9 9+3
1
=
6

√
x−3
Hence limx→9 x−9 = 16 .
Now, find the end behavior of the same function, i.e. find limx→∞ h(x).
As x increases to large positive values, the function takes on the indeterminate form ∞
∞ . The transformation above
can also be used to evaluate the limit (Approach 1), as well as the technique used in evaluating rational functions
(Approach 2).

Approach 1 Approach 2
√ √ √  
x−3 x−3 x 1 − √3x
lim = lim √ √ = lim
x→∞ x−9 x→∞ ( x − 3)( x + 3) x→∞ x 1 − 9x

 
3
1 1 1− x
√
= lim √ = lim √ · lim
x→∞ ( x + 3) x→∞ x x→∞ 1 − 9x

1
= √ = 0·1
lim ( x + 3)
x→∞
=0 =0

√
x−3
Hence limx→∞ x−9 = 0.
Finally, find limx→−∞ h(x). The solution to this problem is that limx→−∞ h(x) does not exist because the domain
of h(x) does not include x < 0.

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if the methods for evaluating limits involving polynomials and rational functions can be
used to find the limits of radical functions. Some of the methods do work for radical functions. The use of direct
substitution is a common method. Transforming indeterminate or undefined forms by finding and canceling common
factors in the numerator and denominator, or factoring and simplifying the highest degree powers of variables
represent common approaches.
One of the noteworthy differences between polynomial and radical functions is that the domain √ of polynomials can
include all real values of the independent variable, but the domain of radical functions, e.g., x, is restricted.

Example 2
√
Find limx→0 x + 4−2 .
x
Using direct substitution to find the limit of the function results in the indeterminate form 00 . To transform the radical
expression to a better form, do the following:

√ √ √ 
x+4−2 x+4−2 x+4+2
lim = lim · √ . . . Rationalize the numerator: multiply by
x→0 x x→0 x x+4+2
 
x+4−4
= lim √ the conjugate of the numerator.
x→0 x · x+4+2
 
x
= lim √
x→0 x · x+4+2
1
= lim √
x→0 x+4+2
1
=
4
√
Therefore, limx→0 x +
x
4−2 = 1 .
4

Review

Find each of the following limits if they exist.

√
1. limx→3 √x
2. limx→8 √x − 7
x−2
3. limx→4 x−4
√
4. limx→1 xx−1+ 3−2
√
x
5. limx→0+ p √
p 1 + x−1 
6. limx→∞ x2 − 5x − x
√
6 + 3x2 + 1
7. limx→∞ x 4x 3 +3
√ √
8. limx→0  x + 5 − 5
p x 
9. limx→3 x2 + 4x

4
Rational Function Limits

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Rational Function Limits

C HAPTER
1 Rational Function Limits
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn a theorem for calculating the limit of a rational function, and you will explore the use of that
theorem on multiple different types of rational functions.
Finding the limit of a rational function is actually much less complex than it may seem, in fact many of the limits
you have already evaluated have been rational functions.
In this lesson, you will gain more experience working with rational function limits, and will use another theorem
which simplifies the process of finding the limit of some rational functions.

Rational Function Limits

Sometimes finding the limit of a rational function at a point a is difficult because evaluating the function at the point
a leads to a denominator equal to zero. The box below describes finding the limit of a rational function.

TABLE 1.1:
Theorem: The Limit of a Rational Function
p(x)
For the rational function f (x) = q(x) and any real number a,
p(a)
limx→a f (x) = q(a) if q(a) 6= 0.

However, if q(a) = 0 then the function may or may not have any outputs that exist.

Examples

Example 1

Find limx→3 2−x

x−2 .

Using the theorem above, we simply substitute x = 3: limx→3 2−x

x−2 =
2−3
3−2 = −1

Example 2

Find limx→3 x+1

x−3 .
Notice that the domain of the function is continuous (defined) at all real numbers except at x = 3. If we check the
x+1 x+1
one-sided limits we see that limx→3+ x−3 = ∞ and limx→3− x−3 = −∞. Because the one-sided limits are not equal,
the limit does not exist.

Example 3
2
−4
Find limx→2 xx−2 .

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Notice that the function here is discontinuous at x = 2, that is, the denominator is zero at x = 2. However, it is
possible to remove this discontinuity by canceling the factor x - 2 from both the numerator and the denominator and
then taking the limit:

TABLE 1.2:
2−4
limx→2 xx−2 = limx→2 (x−2)(x+2)
x−2 = limx→2 (x + 2) = 4

This is a common technique used to find the limits of rational functions that are discontinuous at some points. When
finding the limit of a rational function, always check to see if the function can be simplified.

Example 4

Find limx→3 x22x−6

+x−12
.
The numerator and the denominator are both equal to zero at x = 3, but there is a common factor x - 3 that can be
removed (that is, we can simplify the rational function):

TABLE 1.3:
2(x−3)
limx→3 x22x−6
+x−12
= limx→3 (x+4)(x−3)
2
= limx→3 x+4
= 72

Example 5
2
Find limx→1 −5xx−1
+x+4
.
(−5x−4)(x−1)
(x−1) ..... Start by factoring the numerator
Since we have (x - 1) in both numerator and denominator, we know that the original function is equal to just −5x − 4
except where it is undefined (1).
Therefore the closer we get to inputing 1, the closer we get to the same value, whether from the + or - side.
To find the value, just solve −5x − 4 for x = 1.
2
∴ limx→1 −5xx−1
+x+4
= −5 · 1 − 4 → −9

Example 6
2
Find limx→−2 −x x+2
+2x+8
.
(−x+4)(x+2)
(x+2) ..... Start by factoring the numerator
Since we have (x + 2) in both numerator and denominator, we know that the original function is equal to just −x + 4
except where it is undefined (-2).
Therefore the closer we get to substituting -2, the closer we get to the same output value, whether from the + or -
side.
To find the value, just solve −x + 4 for x = −2.
2
∴ limx→−2 −x x+2
+2x+8
= −(−2) + 4 → 6

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ACLC COLLEGE Chapter 1. Rational Function Limits

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Review

Solve the following rational function limits.

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1. limx→1 −12x +12
4x−4
3 11
x+3 − 9
2. limx→2 2x−4
−5x−3 13
2x+3 − 6
3. limx→ −57 −56x−57
56
2x2 −5x+2
4. limx→2 −x+2
2 +5x−6
5. limx→ 3 4x 4x−3
4
−3
− 35
6. limx→4 −2x+3
6x−24
−4x−3
− 52
7. limx→ −3 −2x+2
−2x−3
2
2
8. limx→4 x −8x+16
x−4
3x+3 7
−3x+4 − 6
9. limx→ 10 39x−10
39
2 +7x−20
10. limx→−4 3x −x−4
2
11. limx→−4 4x +14x−8 x+4
−4x+1
−3x+5 − 57
12. limx→ −18 −13x−18
13
3 3
x+4 − 2
13. limx→−2 −3x−6
−x+3
− 11
14. limx→ −3 4x+3−4x−3
2
4
2 −2x+1
15. limx→ 1 −8x−4x+1
4
2 −16x+3
16. limx→ 1 16x−4x+1
4
2
17. limx→0 x +3xx

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.5.

Resources

3
Trigonometric Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Trigonometric Functions

C HAPTER
1 Trigonometric Functions
You’ve been working hard in your math class, and are getting to be quite the expert on trigonometric functions. Then
one day your friend, who is a year ahead of you in school, approaches you.
“So, you’re doing pretty well in math? And you’re good with trigonometric functions?” he asks with a smile.
“Yes,” you reply confidently. “I am.”
“Alright, then what’s the sine of 150◦ ?” he asks.
"What? That doesn’t make sense. No right triangle has an angle like that, so there’s no way to define that function!”
you say.
Your friend laughs. “As it turns out, it is quite possible to have trigonometric functions of angles greater than 90◦ .”
Is your friend just playing a joke on you, or does he mean it? Can you actually calculate sin 150◦ ?
At the conclusion of this Concept, you’ll be able to answer this question.

Watch This

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Guidance

Just as it is possible to define the six trigonometric functions for angles in right triangles, we can also define the
same functions in terms of angles of rotation. Consider an angle in standard position, whose terminal side intersects
a circle of radius r. We can think of the radius as the hypotenuse of a right triangle:

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The point (x, y) where the terminal side of the angle intersects the circle tells us the lengths of the two legs of the
triangle. Now, we can define the trigonometric functions in terms of x, y, and r:

cos θ = rx sec θ = xr

y r
sin θ = r cosec θ = y

y x
tan θ = x cot θ = y

And, we can extend these functions to include non-acute angles.

Consider an angle in standard position, such that the point (x, y) on the terminal side of the angle is a point on a
circle with radius 1 unit.

This circle is called the unit circle. With r = 1, we can define the trigonometric functions in the unit circle:

1
cos θ = xr = x
1 =x sec θ = xr = x

sin θ = yr = y
1 = y cosec θ = yr = 1
y

tan θ = yx cot θ = xy

Notice that in the unit circle, the sine and cosine of an angle are the y and x coordinates of the point on the terminal
side of the angle. Now we can find the values of the trigonometric functions of any angle of rotation, even the
quadrantal angles, which are not angles in triangles.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Trigonometric Functions

We can use the figure above to determine values of the trigonometric functions for the quadrantal angles. A quad-
rantal angle is an angle that has its terminal side on one of the four lines of axis: positive “x”, negative “x”, positive
“y”, or negative “y”. For example, sin 90◦ = y = 1.

Example 1

The point (-3, 4) is a point on the terminal side of an angle in standard position. Determine the values of the six
trigonometric functions of the angle.
Solution:
Notice that the angle is more than 90 degrees, and that the terminal side of the angle lies in the second quadrant.
This will influence the signs of the trigonometric functions.

−3 5
cos θ = 5 sec θ = −3

4 5
sin θ = 5 cosec θ = 4

4 −3
tan θ = −3 cot θ = 4

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Notice that the value of r depends on the coordinates of the given point. You can always find the value of r using the
Pythagoras Theorem. However, often we look at angles in a circle with radius 1. As you can see, doing this allows
us to simplify the definitions of the trigonometric functions.

Example 2

Use the unit circle above to find the value of cos 90◦
Solution:
cos 90◦ = 0
The ordered pair for this angle is (0, 1). The cosine value is the x coordinate, 0.

Example 3

Use the unit circle above to find the value of cot 180◦
Solution:
cot 180◦ is undefined
x −1
The ordered pair for this angle is (-1, 0). The ratio y is 0 , which is undefined.

Guided Practice

Use this figure:

to answer the following questions.

1. Find cos θ on the circle above.
2. Find cot θ on the circle above.
3. Find cosec θ on the circle above.
Solutions:

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ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Trigonometric
Functions √
1. We can see from the “x” and “y” axes that the “x” coordinate is − 3 , the “y” coordinate is 1 , and the hypotenuse
2 2
has a length of 1. This means that the cosine function is:

√ √
− 3
base 2 − 3
cos θ = = =
hypotenuse 1 2
√
2. We know that cot θ = 1
= 1
= base − 3 and the opposite
tan θ perpendicular perpendicular . The adjacent side to θ in the circle is 2
base
side is 12 . Therefore,

√
− 3 √
2
cot θ = 1
=− 3
2

hypotenuse
3. We know that cosec θ = sin1 θ = 1
perpendicular = perpendicular . The opposite side to θ in the circle is 21 and the hypotenuse
hypotenuse
is 1. Therefore,

hypotenuse 1
cosec θ = = 1 =2
perpendicular 2

Concept Problem Solution

Since you now know that it is possible to apply trigonometric functions to angles greater than 90◦ , you can calculate
the sin 150◦ . The easiest way to do this without difficulty is to consider that an angle of 150◦ is in the same position
as 30◦ , except it’s in the second quadrant. This means that it has the same “x” and “y” values as 30◦ , except that the
“x” value is negative.
Therefore,

1
sin 150◦ =
2
√
Recall special right triangles from Geometry. In a (30◦ − 60◦ − 90◦ ) triangle, the sides are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 2.
√
In an isosceles triangle (45◦ − 45◦ − 90◦ ), the congruent sides and the hypotenuse are in the ratio 1 : 1 : 2.

√
In a (30◦ − 60◦ − 90◦ ) triangle, the sides are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 2.

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Now let’s make the hypotenuse equal to 1 in each of the triangles so we’ll be able to put them inside the unit circle.
Using the appropriate ratios, the new side lengths are:

Using these triangles, we can evaluate sine, cosine and tangent for each of the angle measures.

√ √
◦ 2 ◦3 1
sin 45 = sin 60 = sin 30◦ =
2
√ 2 2√
2 1 3
cos 45◦ = cos 60◦ = cos 30◦ =
2 2
√
2
3
√
◦ ◦ 2
√ ◦
1
2 3
tan 45 = 1 tan 60 = 1
= 3 tan 30 = √ =
2
3 2
2

These triangles can now fit inside the unit circle.

Putting together the trigonometric ratios and the coordinates of the points on the circle, which represent the lengths of
the legs of the triangles, (∆x, ∆y), we can see that each point is actually (cos θ, sin θ), where θ is the reference angle.

6
ACLC COLLEGE Chapter 1. Trigonometric
Functions √
For example, sin 60◦ = 2 3 is the y - coordinate of the point on the unit circle in the triangle with reference angle 60◦ .
By reflecting these triangles across the axes and finding the points on the axes, we can find the trigonometric ratios
of all multiples of 0◦ , 30◦ and 45◦ (or 0, π6 , π4 radians).

Example 4

Find sin 3π
2 .
Solution:
Find 3π2 on the unit circle and the corresponding point is (0, −1). Since each point on the unit circle is (cos θ, sin θ).,
3π
sin 2 = −1

Example 5

Find tan 7π
6 .
Solution:
√
This time we need to look at the ratio sin θ
cos θ . We can use the unit circle to find sin 7π
= − 21 and cos 7π
= − 2 3 . Now,
√ 6 6
− 12
7π
tan 6 = √
3
= √1
= 33 .
− 2 3
Another way to approach these exact value problems is to use the reference angles and the special right triangles.
The benefit of this method is that there is no need to memorize the entire unit circle. If you memorize the special
right triangles, can determine reference angles and know where the ratios are positive and negative you can put the
pieces together to get the ratios. Looking at the unit circle above, we see that all of the ratios are positive in Quadrant
I, sine is the only positive ratio in Quadrant II, tangent is the only positive ratio in Quadrant III and cosine is the only
positive ratio in Quadrant IV.
Keeping this diagram in mind will help you remember where cosine, sine and tangent are positive and negative. You
can also use the pneumonic device - All Students Take Calculus, or ASTC, to recall which is positive (all the others
would be negative) in which quadrant.
The coordinates on the vertices will help you determine the ratios for the multiples of 90◦ or π2 .

7
 ACLC COLLEGE

Example 6

Find the exact values for the following trigonometric functions.

a) cos 120◦
b) sin 5π
3
c) tan 7π
2
Solution:
a) First, we need to determine in which quadrant the angles lies. Since 120◦ is between 90◦ and 180◦ it will
lie in Quadrant II. Next, find the reference angle. Since we are in QII, we will subtract from 180◦ to get 60◦ .
We can use the reference angle to find the ratio, cos 60◦ = 12 . Since we are in QII where only sine is positive,
cos 120◦ = cos(180◦ − 60◦ ) = − cos 60◦ = − 12 .
b) This time we will need to work in terms of radians but the process is the same. The angle 5π3√lies in QIV and the
√
reference angle is π . This means that our ratio will be negative. Since sin π = 3 , sin 5π = − 3 .
3 3 2 3 2
7π
c) The angle 2 represents more than one entire revolution and it is equivalent to 2π+ 3π
2 .
Since our angle is a multiple
sin θ 7π −1
of π2 we are looking at an angle on an axis. In this case, the point is (0, −1). Because tan θ = cos θ , tan 2 = 0 , which
7π
is undefined. Thus, tan 2 is undefined.

Guided Practice

Evaluate the following:

1. cos 7π
3
2. tan 9π
2
3. sin 405◦
4. tan 11π
6
5. cos 2π
3
Answers:
7π 1
1. 3 has a reference angle of π
3 in QI. cos π3 = 2 and since cosine is positive in QI, cos 7π 1
3 = 2.
9π sin 9π
2. 2 is coterminal to π
2 which has coordinates (0, 1). So tan 9π
2 =
2
cos 9π
= 1
0 which is undefined.
2

8
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Trigonometric
Functions √ √
3. 405◦ has a reference angle of 45◦ in QI. sin 45◦ = 2 2 and since sine is positive in QI, sin 405◦ = 2 2 .
√ √
4. 11π is coterminal to π
in QIV. tan π
= 3 and since tangent is negative in QIV, tan 11π = − 3 .
6 6 6 3 6 3
2π 1
5. 3 is coterminal to π
3 in QII. cos π3 = 2 and since cosine is negative in QII, cos 2π 1
3 = 2.

Explore More

Find the values of the six trigonometric functions for each angle below.
1. 0◦
2. 90◦
3. 180◦
4. 270◦
√ √
5. Find the sine of an angle that goes through the point ( 2 2
2 , 2 ).
√ √
6. Find the cosine of an angle that goes through the point ( 2 2 , 2 2 ).
√ √
7. Find the tangent of an angle that goes through the point ( 2 2 , 2 2 ).
√
8. Find the secant of an angle that goes through the point (− 2 3 , 21 ).
√
9. Find the cotangent of an angle that goes through the point (− 2 3 , − 12 ).
√
10. Find the cosecant of an angle that goes through the point ( 2 3 , 21 ).
√
11. Find the sine of an angle that goes through the point ( 2 , − 2 3 ).
1
√
12. Find the cosine of an angle that goes through the point (− 2 3 , 12 ).
13. The sine of an angle in the first quadrant is 0.25. What is the cosine of this angle?
14. The cosine of an angle in the first quadrant is 0.8. What is the sine of this angle?
15. The sine of an angle in the first quadrant is 0.15. What is the cosine of this angle?
Find the exact values for the following trigonometric functions.
16. sin 3π
4
17. cos 3π
2
18. tan 300◦
19. sin 150◦
20. cos 4π
3
21. tan π
22. cos − 15π


4
23. sin 225◦
24. tan 7π
6
25. sin 315◦
26. cos 450◦

9
Logarithmic Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Logarithmic Functions

C HAPTER
1 Logarithmic Functions
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about the log or logarithm function. You will explore the relationship between logs and
exponents, and will evaluate logarithmic functions by rewriting them as exponential functions.
Ears are amazing.
The average human ear can just as easily recognize the whisper of the person in the next chair as the roar of a jet
plane on takeoff. Most people know that, but many people do not realize that the difference in power between the
two is approximately 10,000,000,000 times!
If you look up the decibel ratings of these two sounds, you will find that the quietest whispers are apx 10 db, and
that a 747 on takeoff can hit 120 db.
That’s only a difference of 100 db, how can that be the same as 10 BILLION times?

Logarithmic Functions

Every exponential expression can be written in logarithmic form. For example, the equation x = 2y is written as
follows: y = log2 x. In general, the equation logb n = a is equivalent to the equation ba = n. That is, b is the base, a is
the exponent, and n is the power, or the result you obtain by raising b to the power of a. Notice that the exponential
form of an expression emphasizes the power, while the logarithmic form emphasizes the exponent. More simply
put, a logarithm (or “log” for short) is an exponent.

Perhaps the most common example of a logarithm is the Richter scale, which measures the magnitude of an
earthquake. The magnitude is actually the logarithm base 10 of the amplitude of the quake. That is, m = log10 A
. This means that, for example, an earthquake of magnitude 4 is 10 times as strong as an earthquake with magnitude
3. We can see why this is true of we look at the logarithmic and exponential forms of the expressions: An earthquake
of magnitude 3 means 3 = log10 A. The exponential form of this expression is 103 = A. Thus the amplitude of the
quake is 1,000. Similarly, a quake with magnitude 4 has amplitude 104 = 10,000.

Solving Logarithmic Equations

In general, to solve an equation means to find the value(s) of the variable that makes the equation a true statement.
To solve log equations, we have to think about what “log” means.

1
 ACLC COLLEGE

Consider the equation log2 x = 5 . What is the exponential form of this equation?
The equation log2 x = 5 means that 25 = x . So the solution to the equation is x = 25 = 32.
In some log equations, both sides of the equation contain a log. To solve these equations, use the following rule: logb
f (x) = logb g(x) → f (x) = g(x).
In other words, set the bases equal and solve for the variable in the exponent by treating the exponents on both sides
of the equation as simple polynomials.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/187428

Examples

Example 1

Rewrite each exponential expression as a log expression.

In order to rewrite an expression, you must identify its base, its exponent, and its power.

a. 34 = 81

The 3 is the base, so it is placed as the subscript in the log expression. The 81 is the power, and so it is placed after
the “log”. Thus we have: 34 = 81 is the same as log3 81 = 4. To read this expression, we say “the logarithm base 3 of
81 equals 4.” This is equivalent to saying “ 3 to the 4th power equals 81.”

b. b4 x= 52

The b is the base, and the expression 4x is the exponent, so we have: logb 52 = 4x . We say, “log base b of 52, equals
4x.”

Example 2

Evaluate the function f (x) = log2 x for the following values.

a. x = 2

If x = 2, we have: f (x) = log2 x f (2) = log2 2.

To determine the value of log2 2, you can ask yourself: “2 to what power equals 2?” Answering this question is often
easy if you consider the exponential form: 2? = 2.
The missing exponent is 1. So we have f (2) = log2 2 = 1.

b. x = 1

2
ACLC COLLEGE Chapter 1. Logarithmic Functions

If x = 1, we have: f (x) = log2 x f (1) = log2 1. As we did in (a), we can consider the exponential form: 2? = 1.
The missing exponent is 0. So we have f (1) = log2 1 = 0.

c. x = −2

If x = −2, we have: f (x) =log2 x f (-2) = log2 -2. Again, consider the exponential form: 2? = -2.
There is no such exponent. Therefore f (-2) = log2 -2 does not exist.

Example 3

Solve the equation log2 (3x-1) = log2 (5x - 7) for x.

Because the logarithms have the same base (2), the arguments of the log (the expressions 3x - 1 and 5x - 7) must be
equal. So we can solve as follows:

TABLE 1.1:
log2 (3x-1) = log2 (5x - 7)
3x - 1 = 5x - 7
+7 |+7
3x + 6 = 5x
-3x
6 = 2x
x =3

Example 4

Rewrite the following logarithmic expressions in exponential form.

a. log10 100 = 2

The base is 10, and the exponent is 2, so we have 102 = 100.

b. logb w = 5

The base is b, and the exponent is 5, so we have b5 = w.

Example 5

Solve each equation for x.

a. log4 x = 3

Writing the equation in exponential form gives us the solution: x = 43 = 64.

b. log5 (x + 1) = 2

Writing the equation in exponential form gives us a new equation: 52 = x + 1.

We can solve this equation for x:

3
 ACLC COLLEGE

TABLE 1.2:
52 =x+1
25 =x+1
x = 24

c. 1 + 2log3 (x - 5) = 7

First, we have to isolate the log expression:

TABLE 1.3:
1 + 2log3 (x - 5) =7
2log3 (x - 5) =6
log3 (x - 5) =3

Now, we can solve the equation by rewriting it in exponential form:

TABLE 1.4:
log3 (x - 5) =3
33 =x-5
27 =x-5
x = 32

Review

1. State the expression in English: log3 243.

2. Write the given equation in logarithmic form: ( 13 )−5 = 243.
3. Determine if the two equations below are equivalent and label them according to function family: y = loga x
and x = ay .

Evaluate the logarithms:

4. log4 625
5. log6 64
6. log3 216

Evaluate each logarithm at the indicated value of x.

7. f (x) = log2 x for x = 32

8. f (x) = log3 x for x = 1
9. f (x) = log4 x for x = 2
1
10. f (x) = log10 x for x = 100

Solve for x:

11. log3 (2x + 2) = log3 (x − 4)

12. log7 ( 3x ) = log7 (x − 4)
√3
13. log4 8x = log4 8
14. log5 (x + 9) = log5 3(x − 2)
15. Evaluate log4 x for (x+7)2 = 1204

4
Logarithmic Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE Chapter 1. Logarithmic Functions

C HAPTER
1 Logarithmic Functions
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about the log or logarithm function. You will explore the relationship between logs and
exponents, and will evaluate logarithmic functions by rewriting them as exponential functions.
Ears are amazing.
The average human ear can just as easily recognize the whisper of the person in the next chair as the roar of a jet
plane on takeoff. Most people know that, but many people do not realize that the difference in power between the
two is approximately 10,000,000,000 times!
If you look up the decibel ratings of these two sounds, you will find that the quietest whispers are apx 10 db, and
that a 747 on takeoff can hit 120 db.
That’s only a difference of 100 db, how can that be the same as 10 BILLION times?

Logarithmic Functions

Every exponential expression can be written in logarithmic form. For example, the equation x = 2y is written as
follows: y = log2 x. In general, the equation logb n = a is equivalent to the equation ba = n. That is, b is the base, a is
the exponent, and n is the power, or the result you obtain by raising b to the power of a. Notice that the exponential
form of an expression emphasizes the power, while the logarithmic form emphasizes the exponent. More simply
put, a logarithm (or “log” for short) is an exponent.

Perhaps the most common example of a logarithm is the Richter scale, which measures the magnitude of an
earthquake. The magnitude is actually the logarithm base 10 of the amplitude of the quake. That is, m = log10 A
. This means that, for example, an earthquake of magnitude 4 is 10 times as strong as an earthquake with magnitude
3. We can see why this is true of we look at the logarithmic and exponential forms of the expressions: An earthquake
of magnitude 3 means 3 = log10 A. The exponential form of this expression is 103 = A. Thus the amplitude of the
quake is 1,000. Similarly, a quake with magnitude 4 has amplitude 104 = 10,000.

Solving Logarithmic Equations

In general, to solve an equation means to find the value(s) of the variable that makes the equation a true statement.
To solve log equations, we have to think about what “log” means.

1
 ACLC COLLEGE

Consider the equation log2 x = 5 . What is the exponential form of this equation?
The equation log2 x = 5 means that 25 = x . So the solution to the equation is x = 25 = 32.
In some log equations, both sides of the equation contain a log. To solve these equations, use the following rule: logb
f (x) = logb g(x) → f (x) = g(x).
In other words, set the bases equal and solve for the variable in the exponent by treating the exponents on both sides
of the equation as simple polynomials.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/187428

Examples

Example 1

Rewrite each exponential expression as a log expression.

In order to rewrite an expression, you must identify its base, its exponent, and its power.

a. 34 = 81

The 3 is the base, so it is placed as the subscript in the log expression. The 81 is the power, and so it is placed after
the “log”. Thus we have: 34 = 81 is the same as log3 81 = 4. To read this expression, we say “the logarithm base 3 of
81 equals 4.” This is equivalent to saying “ 3 to the 4th power equals 81.”

b. b4 x= 52

The b is the base, and the expression 4x is the exponent, so we have: logb 52 = 4x . We say, “log base b of 52, equals
4x.”

Example 2

Evaluate the function f (x) = log2 x for the following values.

a. x = 2

If x = 2, we have: f (x) = log2 x f (2) = log2 2.

To determine the value of log2 2, you can ask yourself: “2 to what power equals 2?” Answering this question is often
easy if you consider the exponential form: 2? = 2.
The missing exponent is 1. So we have f (2) = log2 2 = 1.

b. x = 1

2
ACLC COLLEGE Chapter 1. Logarithmic Functions

If x = 1, we have: f (x) = log2 x f (1) = log2 1. As we did in (a), we can consider the exponential form: 2? = 1.
The missing exponent is 0. So we have f (1) = log2 1 = 0.

c. x = −2

If x = −2, we have: f (x) =log2 x f (-2) = log2 -2. Again, consider the exponential form: 2? = -2.
There is no such exponent. Therefore f (-2) = log2 -2 does not exist.

Example 3

Solve the equation log2 (3x-1) = log2 (5x - 7) for x.

Because the logarithms have the same base (2), the arguments of the log (the expressions 3x - 1 and 5x - 7) must be
equal. So we can solve as follows:

TABLE 1.1:
log2 (3x-1) = log2 (5x - 7)
3x - 1 = 5x - 7
+7 |+7
3x + 6 = 5x
-3x
6 = 2x
x =3

Example 4

Rewrite the following logarithmic expressions in exponential form.

a. log10 100 = 2

The base is 10, and the exponent is 2, so we have 102 = 100.

b. logb w = 5

The base is b, and the exponent is 5, so we have b5 = w.

Example 5

Solve each equation for x.

a. log4 x = 3

Writing the equation in exponential form gives us the solution: x = 43 = 64.

b. log5 (x + 1) = 2

Writing the equation in exponential form gives us a new equation: 52 = x + 1.

We can solve this equation for x:

3
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.2:
52 =x+1
25 =x+1
x = 24

c. 1 + 2log3 (x - 5) = 7

First, we have to isolate the log expression:

TABLE 1.3:
1 + 2log3 (x - 5) =7
2log3 (x - 5) =6
log3 (x - 5) =3

Now, we can solve the equation by rewriting it in exponential form:

TABLE 1.4:
log3 (x - 5) =3
33 =x-5
27 =x-5
x = 32

Review

1. State the expression in English: log3 243.

2. Write the given equation in logarithmic form: ( 31 )−5 = 243.
3. Determine if the two equations below are equivalent and label them according to function family: y = loga x
and x = ay .

Evaluate the logarithms:

4. log4 625
5. log6 64
6. log3 216

Evaluate each logarithm at the indicated value of x.

7. f (x) = log2 x for x = 32

8. f (x) = log3 x for x = 1
9. f (x) = log4 x for x = 2
1
10. f (x) = log10 x for x = 100

Solve for x:

11. log3 (2x + 2) = log3 (x − 4)

12. log7 ( 3x ) = log7 (x − 4)
√3
13. log4 8x = log4 8
14. log5 (x + 9) = log5 3(x − 2)
15. Evaluate log4 x for (x+7)2 = 1204

4
 Limits Involving
Trigonometric Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

C HAPTER
1 Limits Involving
Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions can be a component of an expression and therefore subject to a limit process. Do you think
that the periodic nature of these functions, and the limited or infinity range of individual trigonometric functions
would make evaluating limits involving these functions difficult?

Limits with Trigonometric Functions

The limit rules presented in earlier concepts offer some, but not all, of the tools for evaluating limits involving
trigonometric functions.
Let’s find the following limits:

a. limx→0 sin(x)
b. limx→0 cos(x)
c. limx→±∞ sin(x)

We can find these limits by evaluating the function as x approaches 0 on the left and the right, i.e., by evaluating the
two one-sided limits. The graphs and tables values are shown below.

TABLE 1.1:

x(rad) -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001

sin(x) -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001

cos(x) 0.999 0.9999 1 0.9999 0.999

Inspection of the graph below, and table of values in the vicinity of x = 0, indicates that:

a. limx→0− sin(x) = limx→0+ sin(x) = 0, which means limx→0 sin(x) = 0.

1
 ACLC COLLEGE

b. limx→0− cos(x) = limx→0+ cos(x) = 1, which means limx→0 cos(x) = 1.

Note that the limits can be found using direct substitution.

c. Because sin(x) is a periodic function, as x gets larger (smaller) and larger (smaller), its value will oscillate
between 1 and -1, and never settle to a single value. Therefore, we can say that limx→±∞ sin(x) does not exist.

We can generalize and extend the findings above and present the following properties:

Limit Properties for Basic Trigonometric Functions

• Limit as x → a for any real a:

lim sin(x) = sin(a) lim cos(x) = cos(a)

x→a x→a
lim tan(x) = tan(a) lim cot(x) = cot(a)
x→a x→a
lim sec(x) = sec(a) lim csc(x) = csc(a)
x→a x→a

• Limit as x → ±∞:

lim sin(x) lim cos(x) Limits Do Not Exist

x→±∞ x→±∞
lim tan(x) lim cot(x) Limits Do Not Exist
x→±∞ x→±∞
lim sec(x) lim csc(x) Limits Do Not Exist
x→±∞ x→±∞

Let’s find find lim x→0f (x) for f (x) = x2 cos(10πx)

The graph of the function is shown below.

2
ACLC COLLEGE Chapter 1. Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

Since we know that the limit of x2 and cos(x) exist, we can find the limit of this function by applying the Product
Rule, or direct substitution:

lim x 2 cos(10πx) = (lim x2 ) · (lim cos(10πx))

x→0 x→0 x→0
= 0·1
=0

Hence, limx→0 x2 cos(10πx) = 0.

Also, from the graph of the function, we note that the function is bounded by the graphs of x2 and −x2 , which both
are 0 at x = 0. It makes sense that the original function’s limit should be 0.

The Squeeze Theorem

This feature, that a function’s limit can result from the function being bounded or squeezed by two other functions,
is the basis for the Squeeze Theorem. The Squeeze Theorem (also known as the Sandwich Theorem) states:
If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) for every x in an open interval containing a, and limx→a f (x) = limx→a h(x) = L, then
limx→a g(x) = L.
In other words, if we can find bounds for a function that have the same limit, then the limit of the function that they
bound must have the same limit. Note that a and L may be any constant or even ∞ or −∞.
One of the important trigonometric limits that can be proved, in part, using the Squeeze Theorem is:

 
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x

where x is in radian measure.

1−cos x


Another important trigonometric limit is limx→0 x .
Direct substitution cannot be used to evaluate the limit because it yields the indeterminate form 00 . Instead, transform
the problem to a different form and solve.

   
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x
lim = lim ·
x→0 x x→0 x 1 + cos x
2
 
1 − cos x
= lim
x→0 x(1 + cos x)

sin2 x
 
= lim
x→0 x(1 + cos x)
 
sin x sin x
= lim ·
x→0 x 1 + cos x
   
sin x sin x
= lim · lim
x→0 x x→0 1 + cos x
 
0
= (1)
2
 
1 cos x
lim =0
x→0 x

3
 www.ck12.org

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if the periodic nature of trigonometric functions and the limited or infinity range of individual
trigonometric functions make evaluating limits involving trigonometric functions difficult.
As you can imagine and have seen in this concept, some limits involving trigonometric functions can be easily
evaluated by direct substitution, and some evolve a lot of work to change form from an indeterminate or undefined
form. Determining the end behavior of an expression involving a trigonometric function can also be difficult, and
require application of principles like the Squeeze Theorem to obtain a result. No easy answer!

Example 2

10π
Find limx→0 x2 cos


x .
10π
Direct substitution cannot be used to evaluate the limit because x is undefined when x = 0.
However, the Squeeze Theorem can be used as follows:

1. We know that cosine stays between -1 and 1, so −1 ≤ cos 10π

x ≤ 1 for any x in the domain of the function
(i.e., any x 6= 0).
2. Since x2 is always non-negative, we can multiply the above inequality by x2 : −x2 ≤ cos 10π ≤ x2 .


x
3. The original function is bounded by x2 and −x2 and lim
x→0 −x2 = limx→0 x2 = 0.
4. Therefore, by the Squeeze Theorem: limx→0 x2 cos 10π x = 0.

Review

1. Find limx→ π6 sin(x)

2. Find limx→ π4 cot(x)
3. Find limx→ π3 sec2 (x)
4. Find limx→ π3 [sin(x) + cos(x)]
5. Find limx→ π2 [sec(x) + tan(x)]
6. Find limx→π cossinx+1
x

7. Find limx→0 sin(x)

3x
8. Find limx→0 2 cos(x)−2
x
sin(3x)
9. Find limx→0 x
Find limx→∞ x sin 1x


10.
2
−1)−1
11. Find limx→1 cos(xx2 −1

4
 Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
ACLC COLLEGE-ORMOC Chapter 1. Functions

C HAPTER
1 Functions
Suppose you wanted to get cash for your $250 stash of nickels, dimes and quarters that you had accumulated over
many years. To see where you could get the best deal, you went online to check out what banks would give you for
your coins, and you got the following redemption information:
Bank A: full cash value for customers with an account; otherwise 91.1% of your coins’ value.
Bank B: full cash value for customers with an account if the value is put on a merchant’s gift card that has use fees;
otherwise 92% of your coin’s value.
Bank C: full cash value for customers with an account if the value is $100 or less; otherwise 99% of the coins’ value.
When you told your friends about the redemption information, one of them said: “Oh, really! The money you’ll get
for your coins is not a function of their actual value.” Was your friend correct? Why or why not?

Functions and the Vertical Line Test

Consider two situations shown in the boxes below:

TABLE 1.1:
Situation 1: Situation 2:
You are selling raffle tickets for a school fundraiser. You collect data from several students in your class on
Each ticket costs $3.00 their ages and their heights: (18, 6500 ), (17, 6400 ), (18,
6700 ), (18, 6800 ), (17,6600 )

In the first situation, let the variable x represent the number of raffle tickets that you sell, and let y represent the
amount of money you make. If you sell x raffle tickets, you will make y = 3x dollars; there is one and only one
number representing your profit. Notice that you can use the number of raffle tickets you sell to predict how much
money you will make. This is an example of a function.
Now consider the second situation. Can you similarly use the data to predict specific height, based on age? No, this
is not the case in the second situation. For example, if a student is 18 years old, there are multiple heights that the
student could be. This situation is not a function.
A function is a relationship between an independent variable, the input, and a dependent variable, the output, where
each input value of the independent variable, corresponds to one and only one output value of the dependent
variable.
It is important to note that both situations above are relations. A relation is simply a relationship between two sets of
numbers or data. For example, in the second situation, we created a relationship between students’ ages and heights,
just by writing each student’s information as an ordered pair.
Functions may be presented in many ways. Some of the most common ways to represent functions include: sets of
ordered pairs (e.g., in a table), written or equation rules, and graphs.
The notation used to show that there is a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables
is called functional notation. The typical notation for a function is f (x), which is another way of representing the
dependent variable y in an equation. The function y = 3x would be represented using function notation as follows:

f (x) = 3x

The table below shows the different ways to represent a relation:

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 ACLC COLLEGE

TABLE 1.2:
Representation Example
Set of ordered pairs (1,3), (2,6), (3,9), (4,12) (a subset of the ordered pairs
for this function)

Equation y = 3x or f (x) = 3x

Graph

In the first representation above, we are given a set of ordered pairs. To verify that this is a function, we must ensure
that each x-value is associated with a single y-value. In this example, the first number in each pair (the x-value) is
different, so we can be certain that there are no cases where a particular x is associated with more than one y.
In the second representation, the equation of a line, it is apparent that any number put in place of x will result in a
different y, since the x number is simply being multiplied by 3.
The third representation above is a graph. A quick and effective visual to decide if a graph is a function is by doing
a “vertical line test”. If all possible vertical lines only cross the relation in one place, then the relation is a function.
If a vertical line can be drawn anywhere on the graph such that the line crosses the relation in two places, then the
relation is not a function.

Vertical Line Test

A graphed relation is a function if there are no vertical lines that intersect the graphed relation in more than one
point.
Are each of these graphed relations a function?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Functions

1.

2.

For graph 1, by drawing a vertical line (the red line) through the graph, we can see that the vertical line intersects
the circle more than once. Therefore, this graph is NOT a function.
For graph 2, No matter where a vertical line is drawn through the graph, there will be only one intersection.
Therefore, this graph is a function.

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked about getting cash for a $250 stash of coins and if the data you received from the banks
represent a function. Your friend thinks not but you are not sure.
If we were to organize the information received from the banks into ordered pairs (x, y), it might look something
like:
Bank A: ($250, $250), ($250, $250*0.911)
Bank B: ($250, $250-fees), ($250, $250*0.92)
Bank C: ($250, $250*0.99)
Each x value, the independent variable, represents the real value of coins, in this case $250, and each y value, the
dependent variable, represents the money the bank will give you for the coins.
Since there are many different y values for the one x value, the above relationships definitely are not a function. Your
friend was right.

Example 2

Determine if each relation is a function:

1. (2, 4), (3, 9), (5, 11), (5, 12)

2. Function defined as:

(2, 4), (3, 9), (5, 11), (5, 12) is not a function because 5 is paired with 11 and with 12.
The graph displaying a relation is a function because every xis paired with only one y. A vertical line through the
graph will always only encounter a single point.

For the following examples, determine if the relation is a function.

Example 3

(2, 0)(4, −1)(2.1, 4)(1, 4)(4, −1)

Don’t be fooled! This is a function, there is only one unique output for each input. The fact that both xvalues 2.1 and
1 are associated with yvalue 4 does not mean that 2.1 and 1 don’t have a specific associated value. Also, not matter
how close two x’s (2 and 2.1, for instance) may be, if they are not exactly the same, they don’t affect the definition
of a function.

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Example 4

y = 4x
Any value chosen for xhas one and only one associated value for y(4 times as big) and therefore is a function.

Example 5

x = |y|
This is not a function. This graph looks like a “<”, with the point on the origin. Any value chosen for x will have 2
associated y values. For instance: 4 = |−4| and 4 = |4|.

Review

1. What is the definition of a function?

2. Can a function definition be written in the form x = 3y instead of y = 3x?
3. Is it mandatory for a function to have both an input and an output?
4. Can a statement be a function if there is only one input and output?
5. Give an example of a relation that is not a function, and explain why it is not a function.

For #6-14, identify each relation as either a function, or not a function:

6. (2, 4)(4, 6)(6, 8)(3, 4)(5, 7)(8, 2)

7. (−1, 6)(0, 4)(−4, 0)(−1, −6)(−3, −8)

8.

9.
10. (Jim, Kitty) (Joe, Betty) (Brian, Alice) (Jesus, Anissa) (Ken, Kelli)
11. (Jim, Alice) (Joe, Alice) (Brian, Betty) (Jim, Kitty) (Ken, Anissa)

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12.

13.

14.
15. At a Prom dance, each boy pins a corsage on his date. Is this an example of a function?
16. Later, at the same dance, Cory shows up with two dates, does this change the answer?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 1.1.

6
Domain and Range of a
Function

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Domain and Range of a Function

C HAPTER
1 Domain and Range of a
Function
Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to find the domain and range of a function and you’ll make a table of values for a given
function.

Functions

A function is a rule for relating two or more variables. For example, the price you pay for phone service may depend
on the number of minutes you talk on the phone. We would say that the cost of phone service is a function of the
number of minutes you talk. Consider the following situation:
Josh goes to an amusement park where he pays $2 per ride.
There is a relationship between the number of rides Josh goes on and the total amount he spends that day: To figure
out the amount he spends, we multiply the number of rides by two. This rule is an example of a function. Functions
usually—but not always—are rules based on mathematical operations. You can think of a function as a box or a
machine that contains a mathematical operation.

Whatever number we feed into the function box is changed by the given operation, and a new number comes out the
other side of the box. When we input different values for the number of rides Josh goes on, we get different values
for the amount of money he spends.

The input is called the independent variable because its value can be any number. The output is called the
dependent variable because its value depends on the input value.
Functions usually contain more than one mathematical operation. Here is a situation that is slightly more complicated
than the example above:
Jason goes to an amusement park where he pays $8 admission and $2 per ride.
The following function represents the total amount Jason pays. The rule for this function is "multiply the number of
rides by 2 and add 8."

When we input different values for the number of rides, we arrive at different outputs (costs).

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These flow diagrams are useful in visualizing what a function is. However, they are cumbersome to use in practice.
In algebra, we use the following short-hand notation instead:

↓ f (x) = y ←
|{z}

First, we define the variables:

x = the number of rides Jason goes on
y = the total amount of money Jason spends at the amusement park.
So, x represents the input and y represents the output. The notation f () represents the function or the mathematical
operations we use on the input to get the output. In the last example, the cost is 2 times the number of rides plus 8.
This can be written as a function:

f (x) = 2x + 8

In algebra, the notations y and f (x) are typically used interchangeably. Technically, though, f (x) represents the
function itself and y represents the output of the function.

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Identify the Domain and Range of a Function

In the last example, we saw that we can input the number of rides into the function to give us the total cost for going
to the amusement park. The set of all values that we can use for the input is called the domain of the function, and
the set of all values that the output could turn out to be is called the range of the function. In many situations the
domain and range of a function are both simply the set of all real numbers, but this isn’t always the case. Let’s look
at our amusement park example.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Domain and Range of a Function

Finding the Domain and Range of a Function

1. Find the domain and range of the function that describes the situation:
Jason goes to an amusement park where he pays $8 admission and $2 per ride.
Here is the function that describes this situation:

f (x) = 2x + 8 = y

In this function, x is the number of rides and y is the total cost. To find the domain of the function, we need to
determine which numbers make sense to use as the input (x).

• The values have to be zero or positive, because Jason can’t go on a negative number of rides.
• The values have to be integers because, for example, Jason could not go on 2.25 rides.
• Realistically, there must be a maximum number of rides that Jason can go on because the park closes, he runs
out of money, etc. However, since we aren’t given any information about what that maximum might be, we
must consider that all non-negative integers are possible values regardless of how big they are.

For this function, the domain is the set of all non-negative integers.
To find the range of the function we must determine what the values of y will be when we apply the function to the
input values. The domain is the set of all non-negative integers: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...}. Next we plug these values
into the function for x. If we plug in 0, we get 8; if we plug in 1, we get 10; if we plug in 2, we get 12, and so on,
counting by 2s each time. Possible values of y are therefore 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20... or in other words all even
integers greater than or equal to 8.
The range of this function is the set of all even integers greater than or equal to 8.
2. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
a) A ball is dropped from a height and it bounces up to 75% of its original height.
Let’s define the variables:
x = original height
y = bounce height
A function that describes the situation is y = f (x) = 0.75x. x can represent any real value greater than zero, since
you can drop a ball from any height greater than zero. A little thought tells us that y can also represent any real value
greater than zero.
The domain is the set of all real numbers greater than zero. The range is also the set of all real numbers greater than
zero.
b) y = x2
Since there is no word problem attached to this equation, we can assume that we can use any real number as a value
of x. When we square a real number, we always get a non-negative answer, so y can be any non-negative real number.
The domain of this function is all real numbers. The range of this function is all non-negative real numbers.
In the functions we’ve looked at so far, x is called the independent variable because it can be any of the values from
the domain, and y is called the dependent variable because its value depends on x. However, any letters or symbols
can be used to represent the dependent and independent variables. Here are three different examples:

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y = f (x) = 3x
R = f (w) = 3w
v = f (t) = 3t

These expressions all represent the same function: a function where the dependent variable is three times the
independent variable. Only the symbols are different. In practice, we usually pick symbols for the dependent and
independent variables based on what they represent in the real world—like t for time, d for distance, v for velocity,
and so on. But when the variables don’t represent anything in the real world—or even sometimes when they do—we
traditionally use y for the dependent variable and x for the independent variable.

Make a Table For a Function

A table is a very useful way of arranging the data represented by a function. We can match the input and output
values and arrange them as a table. For example, the values from Example 1 above can be arranged in a table as
follows:

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
y: 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

A table lets us organize our data in a compact manner. It also provides an easy reference for looking up data, and it
gives us a set of coordinate points that we can plot to create a graph of the function.

Constructing a Table of Values

Make a table of values for the function f (x) = 1x . Use the following numbers for input values: -1, -0.5, -0.2, -0.1,
-0.01, 0.01, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.
Make a table of values by filling the first row with the input values and the next row with the output values calculated
using the given function.

TABLE 1.1: Function Table

x -1 -0.5 -0.2 -0.1 -0.01 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.5 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
f (x) = -1 -0.5 -0.2 -0.1 -0.01 0.01 0.1 0.2 0.5 1
1
x
y -1 -2 -5 -10 -100 100 10 5 2 1

When you’re given a function, you won’t usually be told what input values to use; you’ll need to decide for yourself
what values to pick based on what kind of function you’re dealing with. We will discuss how to pick input values
throughout these lessons.

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Example

Example 1

Identify the domain and then make a table of values for the function f (x) = √1 . Use the following numbers for
x
input values: 0.01, 0.16, 0.25, 1, 4.
Since you cannot compute the square root of negative numbers, these cannot be in the domain. Since we cannot have
0 in the denominator, 0 is also not in the domain. This means that the domain is all real numbers greater than zero.
Make a table of values by filling the first row with the input values and the next row with the output values calculated
using the given function.

TABLE 1.2: Function table 2

x 0.01 0.16 0.25 1 4
1 √1 √1 √1 √1 √1
f (x) = x
0.01 0.16 0.25 1 4
y 10 2.5 2 1 0.5

Review

For 1-6, identify the domain and range of the following functions.

1. Dustin charges $10 per hour for mowing lawns.

2. Maria charges $25 per hour for tutoring math, with a minimum charge of $15.
3. f (x) = 15x − 12
4. f (x) = 2x2 + 5
1
5. f (x) = √x
6. f (x) = 3 x
7. What is the range of the function y = x2 − 5 when the domain is -2, -1, 0, 1, 2?
8. What is the range of the function y = 2x − 43 when the domain is -2.5, -1.5, 5?
9. What is the domain of the function y = 3x when the range is 9, 12, 15?
10. What is the range of the function y = 3x when the domain is 9, 12, 15?
11. Angie makes $6.50 per hour working as a cashier at the grocery store. Make a table that shows how much she
earns if she works 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 hours.
12. The area of a triangle is given by the formula A = 21 bh. If the base of the triangle measures 8 centimeters,
make a table that shows the area of the triangle √
for heights 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 centimeters.
13. Make a table of values for the function f (x) = 2x + 3 for input values -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Review (Answers)

To view the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 1.10.

5
Discrete and Continuous
Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Discrete and Continuous Functions

C HAPTER
1 Discrete and Continuous
Functions
Here you will learn to identify discrete and non-discrete functions. You will also explore applications of each.
Is a bank account balance a continuous function? How about number of pets per household? Gallons of gas in your
car? Number of days that students rode bikes to school in a given week?
These are all functions, but they are different types of functions. This Concept is all about learning the difference.

Discrete and Continuous Functions

Imagine taking a poll to learn the most popular band in school. You interview a large and representative cross-section
of students, asking each one how many CD’s they have purchased supporting his/her favorite band. You decide that
the band with the most CD’s sold should be the ’winner’. Wouldn’t you be surprised to see numbers like 3.2 or 5.7
on your graph? Who buys .2 or .7 CD’s?
Now imagine comparing the CD count to the age of the students to see if some bands are more popular with particular
age groups. You add birthdate information to your graph. Would you be surprised to see an average student age of
15.4 or 16.7 years? Of course not, you would probably be a lot more surprised to see an average of exactly 15 or 16
years old.
The difference between these functions is the topic of this lesson. The number of CD’s in the first group is a discrete
function, since it is very unlikely that someone would purchase a fraction of a CD. The ages in the second count are
a continuous function, since people age constantly and particularly at younger ages keep track more accurately than
just "years old".

Discrete Functions

A discrete function is a function in which the domain and range are each a discrete set of values, rather than an
interval in R. Recall from a prior lesson that an interval includes all values between the specified minimum and
maximum. If a function is discrete, it does not include all of the values between two given numbers, but rather only
specific values in a particular range.

Non-Discrete Functions

A non-discrete function is one that is continuous either on its entire domain, or on intervals within its domain. The
term continuous refers to a function whose graph has no holes or breaks. (Note that this is not a formal definition.
To formally define continuity requires that we use the concept of limit, which we will examine in the next lesson.
For now it is sufficient to focus on what the graph looks like.)

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were given some examples of different types of functions.

Identify the examples given as either discrete or continuous:

a. A bank account

The balance in a bank account is counted in dollars and cents, any change is countable and quantifiable. This is an
example of a discrete function.

b. The number of pets in a household

Discrete function, since one does not generally have a fraction of a pet.

c. Age of students taking this class

Continuous function, there is no limit to the level of accuracy you could apply to the age of each student since time
is continuous.

d. Number of days that students rode bikes to school

Discrete, the question suggests a specific count of number of days.

Example 2

Identify the function as either continuous or discrete based on the graph:

This graph shows a continuous function, as there are no holes identified on the line, and also no endpoints.

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Example 3

Identify the function as either continuous or discrete based on the equation:

y = x3 − 3x

The function is continuous, as there is no restriction on the values which may be input for x.
Note that this is not a straight line, or even a simple curve like y = x2 . A graph need not be straight or simple to be
continuous.
For Examples 4 and 5, use the following information.
Mark is working at the local fast food restaurant and earns $7.15 per hour. The following table shows the amount of
money he earns by working a particular number of hours per week.

TABLE 1.1:
Hours Worked Money Earned
1 $7.15
3 $21.45
7 $50.05
12 $85.80
15 $107.25

Example 4

Does the table above represent data that is "continuous" or "discrete"? Explain your answer. Write an equation that
models the data.
The data can be considered continuous because Mark might work any length of time, resulting in any amount of
income.
Mark earns $7.15 in each hour he works. His income can be represented by: income = hours X $7.15 or y = $7.15x.

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Example 5

Use your equation to predict what Mark’s salary will be if he works 40 hours.
Mark’s income after 40 hours will be $7.15 · 40 = $286.00

Review

Identify each of the following variables as being either discrete or continuous.

1. The number of telephone calls received at school in a given week.

2. The weight of a bag of oranges.
3. The length of a piece of rope.
4. Speed of a truck.
5. The number of misdemeanor arrests in a town.
6. Number of flaws in a bolt of fabric.
7. The population of the Bald Eagle.
8. A person’s age.
9. Does the graph below represent a Continuous or a Discrete Domain?

10. The equation f = 0.305m can be used to convert meters into feet. Is the domain of this function discrete or
continuous?
11. Your local gardener tells you that your corn plant will grow 1.25” taller each month. It is now 6’ tall. Write
a formula that will tell you how tall your plant is at any time in the future. Is there a continuous or a discrete
domain?
12. You can buy T-shirts for $12.00, or hats for $15.00. Write an equation showing how much you will spend (y)
for any combination of hats (h) and t-shirts (t) that you purchase. Is the domain discrete or continuous?

For questions 13-15, use the following information:

A local neighborhood homeowners association is asking the community residents to participate in a recycling
initiative. At the end of each week, each resident is asked submit the number of plastic containers they recycle
to the HOA. The data collected was compiled into the following table:

TABLE 1.2:
House # Plastic Containers
1 28
2 49
3 35
4 62
5 41
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Properties of Continuous
Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Properties of Continuous Functions

C HAPTER
1 Properties of Continuous
Functions
In the previous concept, the continuity of a function was presented intuitively through the imagery of using a pencil
to draw a graph on a piece of paper (over a certain interval of the domain) and never lifting the pencil off the paper.
As long as the pencil is not lifted off the paper, the graph can be considered to be continuous over that drawing
interval. This is certainly not a rigorous description of continuity, but given this analogy, what expectations might
you have about arithmetic operations on two functions that are both continuous over a common interval; or the
existence of minima and maxima of a continuous function; or the existence of intermediate values between two
function values?

Properties of Continuous Functions

The previous concept identified the characteristics of a function that is continuous at a point, and over an interval.
Let’s explore Given two functions f (x) and g(x) that are continuous over a closed interval [a, b], would you expect
that arithmetic operations on these two functions would also yield functions continuous over [a, b]?
Given the functions f (x) = x + 3 and g(x) = −x + 0.5 in the closed interval [−1, 1], determine if f (x) and g(x) are
continuous in the interval.
The functions f (x) and g(x) are shown in the graph. Inspection of each function graph and its equation, shows that
they are each defined over the closed interval and the function limit at each point in the interval equals the function
value at the point. Both functions are continuous in the interval.

Using the same functions and interval as above, determine if h(x) = f (x) + g(x) is continuous in the interval.
The sum of the two functions is given by h(x) = 3.5, and is shown in the figure. The sum function, a constant, is
defined over the closed interval and the function limit at each point in the interval equals the constant function value
at each point. The sum function is continuous in the interval.

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Still using the interval and functions as above, determine if h(x) = f (x)g(x) is continuous in the interval.
The product of the two functions is given by h(x) = (x + 3)(−x + 0.5) = −x2 + 2.5x − 1.5, and is shown in the
figure. The product function, a parabola, is defined over the closed interval and the function limit at each point in
the interval equals the product function value at each point. The product function is continuous in the interval.

What about the quotient of two continuous functions?

f (x)
Given the functions f (x) = x + 3 and g(x) = −x + 0.5 in the closed interval [−1, 1], determine if g(x) is continuous
in the interval.
x+3
The quotient of the two functions is given by h(x) = −x+0.5 , and is shown in the figure.

In the closed interval [−1, 1], x = 0.5 is the only place where the function h(x) is undefined, and limx→0.5 h(x) does
not exist. The function h(x) is not continuous at x = 0.5, or in the closed interval.
The findings in the above simple functions can be generalized in the following properties.
If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at any real value c over the closed interval [a, b], then the following are also
continuous at any real value c over the closed interval [a, b]:

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Properties of Continuous Functions

1. f (x) + g(x)
2. f (x) − g(x)
3. f (x)g(x)
f (x)
4. g(x) , as long as g(c) 6= 0.

Intermediate Value Theorem and the Extreme Value (Min-Max) Theorem are two other properties of a function that
is continuous over a closed interval.

The Intermediate Value Theorem and Extreme Value Theorem

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that if a function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then the function
assumes every value between f (a) and f (b).
The Intermediate Value Theorem can be used to analyze and approximate zeros of functions.
Use the Intermediate Value Function to show that there is at least one zero of the function f (x) = 3x4 −3x3 −2x+1 in
the indicated interval [1, 2].
The graph of this function, shown below, is shaped somewhat like a parabola, and is continuous in the interval.

In order to apply the Intermediate Value Theorem, we need to find a pair of x-values that have function values with
different signs. A few values are shown in the table below.

TABLE 1.1:
x 1.1 1.2 1.3
f (x) -0.80 -0.36 0.37

We see that the sign of the function values changes from negative to positive somewhere between 1.2 and 1.3. Hence,
by the Intermediate Value theorem, there is some value c in the interval (1.2, 1.3) such that f (c) = 0.

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The Extreme Value (Min-Max Theorem) is a consequence of the Intermediate Value Theorem.
The Extreme Value (Min-Max) Theorem states that if a function f (x) is continuous in a closed interval I, then f (x)
has both a maximum value and a minimum value in I.

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked about your expectations for the continuity of functions formed by arithmetic operations on
two continuous functions. The conclusion of this section is that, except for the quotient of functions, arithmetic
operations on two functions that are continuous at a point or in an interval yield a new function that is continuous
at the point or in the interval. With the quotient of two functions, the concern is always to identify where the
denominator is 0; at this location the quotient function is not continuous.

Example 2

Consider f (x) = x3 + 1 and interval I = [−2, 2]. Determine minimum and maximum values.
Since the function is continuous on the closed interval I, this function has a minimum and a maximum on the interval.
The function graph shows that at x = −2 the function has a minimum value f (−2) = −7; and at x = 2, a maximum
value f (2) = 9.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Properties of Continuous Functions

Review

For #1-5, explain how you know that the function has a root in the given interval. (Hint: Use the Intermediate Value
Function to show that there is at least one zero of the function in the indicated interval.):

1. 3 + 2x2 − x + 1, in the interval [-3,-2].

f (x) = x√ √
2. f (x) = x − 3 x − 1, in the interval [9,10].
3. f (x) = x2 + x − 2, in the interval [-3,0].
2 −1
4. f (x) = x24x+3x+2 , in the interval [-1,0].
2
5. f (x) = x+3 − 4, in the interval [-3,0].
6. True or False: f (x) = sin(x) + cos(x) has a root on the interval [0, π].
7. True or False: By the Intermediate Value Theorem f (x) = sin(x) + cos2 (x) has no root on the interval [0, π]
since f (0) = f (π) = 1.
x2 +1
8. True or False: f (x) = cos(x) has a root on the interval [0, π].
9. On which interval is f (x) = x − sin(x) + 1 guaranteed by the IVT to have a root?
1. 0, 2π
 
3 
2. − π3 , π3 
3. − 2π3 ,0
4. [−π, π]
10. Find an interval on which f (x) = ex + x has a root.
11. Find intervals on which f (x) = x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 20 has a root.

For #12-15, use the Extreme Value Theorem to determine whether the given statement is true or false.
q
12. The Extreme Value Theorem guarantees that the function |sin(x3 )| has a minimum value on the interval [-3,
3].
13. The Extreme Value Theorem guarantees that the function (x − 1)3 has a maximum value on the interval [1, 3].
14. The Extreme Value Theorem guarantees that the function x2 + 3x + 2 has a minimum value on the interval
[-3, 0].
4x
15. The Extreme Value Theorem guarantees that the function x2 +3x+2 has a minimum value on the interval [-3, 0].

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 2.10.

References

1. . . CC BY-NC-SA
2. . . CC BY-NC-SA
3. . . CC BY-NC-SA
4. . . CC BY-NC-SA
5. . . CC BY-NC-SA
6. . . CC BY-NC-SA

5
Intermediate Value Theorem

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate Value Theorem

C HAPTER
1
Intermediate Value Theorem

Learning Objectives

Here you will learn to understand the statement of the Intermediate Value Theorem, apply the intermediate value
theorem to find bounds on the zeros of a function, and use numerical methods to find roots of a polynomial
This lesson introduces two theorems: The Intermediate Value Theorem, and The Bounds on Zeros Theorem. A
technical definition is given below, but what do these theorems really mean in ’ordinary language’?

Intermediate Value Theorem

The intermediate value theorem offers one way to find roots of a continuous function. An informal definition of
continuous is that a function is continuous over a certain interval if it has no breaks, jumps, asymptotes, or holes in
that interval. Polynomial functions are continuous for all real numbers x. Rational functions are often not continuous
over the set of real numbers because of asymptotes or holes in the graph, but for intervals without holes, rational
functions are continuous.
If we know a function is continuous over some interval [a, b], then we can use the intermediate value theorem:
If f (x) is continuous on some interval [a, b] and n is between f (a) and f (b), then there is some c ∈ [a, b] such that
f (c) = n.
The following
 graphs highlight
 how the intermediate value theorem works. Consider the graph of the function
1 3 5x2
f (x) = 4 x − 2 − 9x below on the interval [-3, -1].

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 www.ck12.org

f (−3) = −5.625 and f (−1) = 1.375. If we draw bounds on [-3, -1] and [ f (−3), f (−1)], then we see that for any
y−value between y = −5.625 and y = 1.375, there must be an x value in [-3, -1] such that f (x) = y.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate Value Theorem

So, for example, if we choose c = −2, we know that for some x ∈ [−3, −1], f (x) = −2, even though solving this by
hand would be a chore!

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 www.ck12.org

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The Bounds on Zeros Theorem is a corollary to the Intermediate Value Theorem:

Bounds on Zeros Theorem

If f is continuous on [a, b] and there is a sign change between f (a) and f (b) (that is, f (a) is positive and f (b) is
negative, or vice versa), then there is a c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
The bounds on zeros theorem is a corollary to the intermediate value theorem because it is not fundamentally
different from the general statement of the intermediate value theorem, just a special case where n = 0.
 2

Looking back at f (x) = 41 x3 − 5x2 − 9x above, because f (−3) < 0 and f (−1) > 0, we know that for some x ∈
[−3, −1], f (x) has a root. In fact, that root is at x = −2. and we can test that using synthetic division or by evaluating
f (−2) directly.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate Value Theorem

Approximate Zeros of Polynomial Functions

In calculus you will learn several methods for numerically approximating the roots of functions. In this section
we show one elementary numerical method for finding the zeros of a polynomial which takes advantage of the
Intermediate Value Theorem.
Given a continuous function g(x),

1. Find two points such that g(a) > 0 and g(b) < 0. Once you have found these two points, you can iteratively use
the steps below to find the root of g(x) on the interval [a, b]. (Note, we will assume a, but the same algorithm
works with minor
adjustments if b > a)
2. Evaluate g a+b2 .
a. If g a+b a+b


2
= 0, then the root is x = 2 .
b. If g a+b a+b
 a+b 
2
> 0, replace a with 2 . and repeat steps 1-2 using  2 , b
c. If g a+b
2 < 0, replace b with a+b
2 . and repeat steps 1-2 using a, 2
a+b

This algorithm will not usually find the exact root of g(x), but it will allow you to find a reasonably small interval
for the root. For example, you could repeat this process enough times so that you find an interval with |a − b|< 0.01,
and you will know the root of g(x) within a reasonably good approximation. The quality of the approximation you
use (and the number of steps you use) will depend on why you are looking for the root. For most applications
coming within 0.01 of the root is a reasonable approximation, but for some applications (such as building a bridge
or launching a rocket) you need much more accuracy.

An Interesting Corollary of the Intermediate Value Theorem

One surprising result of the Intermediate Value Theorem is that if you draw any great circle around the globe, then
there must two antipodal points on that great circle that have exactly the same temperature.
Recall that a great circle is a path around a sphere that gives the shortest distance between any two points on the
sphere. The equator is a great circle around the globe. Antipodal points are two points on opposite sides of the
sphere. In the diagram below, B and B0 are antipodal.

For an informal proof of this result, look at the image of a sphere with three great circles above. Suppose that the
temperature at B is 75◦ and the temperature B0 is 50◦ . The difference between the temperature at B and at B0 is
75 − 50 = 25. Now imagine rotating the segment BB0 around the blue great circle. When the segment has rotated

5
 www.ck12.org

180 degrees (i.e. when B has rotated to where B0 is), then the difference between the temperatures at these two points
is 50 − 75 = −25. Since temperatures vary continuously, by the intermediate value theorem, there must be some
point on that circle when the difference was 0, implying two antipodal points had the same temperature.
Notice that this little demonstration does not tell us which two antipodal points had the same temperature, only that
there must be two such points on any great circle.

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if you could write less formal definitions of the Intermediate Value Theorem and the
Bounds on Zeros Theorem.
One possibility might be:
The Intermediate Value Theorem simply states that if you know two points on a graph, and know that the graph
includes all the points between them, then any point between them must be on the graph.
The Bounds on Zeros Theorem suggests that if a graph contains all of the points between a positive and a negative
value, then a zero point between those two values is on the graph.

Example 2

Show that f (x) = −3x3 + 5x has at least one root in the interval [1, 2].
Since f (x) is a polynomial we know that it is continuous. f (1) = 2 and f (2) = −14. Let n = 0 ∈ [−14, 2]. Applying
the Intermediate Value Theorem, there must exist some point c ∈ [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0. This proves that f (x) has
a root in [1, 2].

Example 3

The table below shows several sample values of a polynomial p(x).

x −4 −2 0 1 4 6 8 10 15 18
p(x) 44.15 6.62 − 4.12 − 4.09 1.16 0 − 8.74 − 24.07 − 49.89 3.41

Based on the information in the table:

a. What is the minimum number of roots of p(x)?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate Value Theorem

b. What are bounds on the roots of p(x) that you identified in (a)?
Since p(x) is a polynomial we already know that it is continuous. We can use the Intermediate Value Theorem to
identify roots by looking at when p(x) changes from negative to positive, or from positive to negative.
a. There are four sign changes of p(x) in the table, so at minimum, p(x) has four roots.
b. The roots are in the following intervals x ∈ [−2, 0], x ∈ [1, 4], x ∈ [15, 18], and the table also tells us that one root
is at x = 6.

Example 4

Show the first 5 iterations of finding the root of h(x) = x2 − x − 1 using the starting values a = 0 and b = 2.

x = 0 and x = 2. h(0) = −1 and h(2) = 1 so we know there is a

1. First we verify that there is a root between
root in the interval [0, 2]. Check h 2+02 = h(1) = −1. Since −1 < 0 we know the root is between x = 1 and
x = 2, and we use the new interval [1,
2].
2. Now we use the interval [1, 2]. h 1+2 2 = h(1.5) = −0.25. Since −0.25 < 0, we use the interval [1.5, 2].
1.5+2


3. h 2 = h(1.75) = 0.31. Since 0.31 > 0, we know that the zero is in the interval [1.5, 1.75].
1.5+1.75


4. h 2 = h(1.625) = 0.02. Since 0.02 > 0, we know the root is between 1.5 and 1.625.
5. h 1.5+1.625


2 = h(1.5620) = −0.12. Since −0.12 < 0, we know the root is between 1.5620 and 1.625.

This example shows that after five iterations we have narrowed the possible location of the root to within 0.06 units.
Not bad!

Example 5

Use the image of the graph below to find the following:

a. Degree of the polynomial

b. Number of real zeros and their approximate values using the graph
c. Number of imaginary zeros

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 www.ck12.org

a. To identify the degree, recall that the degree of a polynomial is one number greater than the number of turns.
The image shows turns at apx x = -.6 and apx x = .75, therefore this is a 3rd degree function.
b. The image shows the line crossing the x axis 3 times, at (apx) -1.15, at 0 and at (apx) 1.4.
c. Since this is a 3rd degree equation there are 3 possible zeros, and since there are 3 real zeros there are no
imaginary ones.

Example 6

Show that f (x) = 8x3 − 5x2 − 7x − 5 has at least one root in the interval [1, 2].
Since f (x) is a polynomial we know that it is continuous. f (1) = −9 and f (2) = 25. Let n = 0 ∈ [−9, 25]. Applying
the Intermediate Value Theorem, there must exist some point c ∈ [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0. This proves that f (x) has
a root in [1, 2].
Note that since this is a 3rd degree polynomial, there are three zeros. Since there is only one real zero, the other two
must be imaginary.

MEDIA
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8
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate Value Theorem

Review

For questions 1 - 6, use the image of the graph to find the following:

a. Leading coefficient and degree of the polynomial

b. Number of real zeros and their approximate values using the graph
c. Number of imaginary zeros

1.

2.

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3.

4.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate Value Theorem

5.

6.

For questions 7-12, use the intermediate value theorem to show the bounds on the zeros of each function. (Your
bounds should be within the whole number)

7. f (x) = 2x3 − 3x + 4
8. g(x) = −5x2 + 8x + 12
9. h(x) = 12 x4 − x3 − 3x2 + 1
10. j(x) = − x22+1 + 21

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 www.ck12.org

11. k(x) is a polynomial and selected values of k(x) are given in the following table:

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
k(x) − 23.5 −1 0.5 −1 .5 −1 − 23.5
4x+1
12. Stephen argues the function r(x) = x+3.5 has two zeros based on the following table and an application of the
Bounds on Zeros Theorem. What is faulty about Stephen’s reasoning?

x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
r(x) 12.67 30 − 22 − 4.67 − 1.20 0.29 1.11 1.64 2.0 2.27

For questions 13-15, apply the numerical algorithm five times to find a bound on the zeros of the following functions
given the indicated starting values. Give a final estimate for the zero.

13. k(x) = x4 − 3x + 1 on [0, 1]

14. b(x) = −0.1x5 + 3x3 − 5x2 on [1, 3]
2 −2
15. c(x) = 3x
x4 +2
on [0, 2]

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 2.13.

12
Intermediate and Extreme
Value Theorems

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate and Extreme Value Theorems

C HAPTER
1 Intermediate and Extreme
Value Theorems
Here you will use continuity to explore the intermediate and extreme value theorems.
While the idea of continuity may seem somewhat basic, when a function is continuous over a closed interval like
x ∈ [1, 4], you can actually draw some major conclusions. The conclusions may be obvious when you understand
the statements and look at a graph, but they are powerful nonetheless.
What can you conclude using the Intermediate Value Theorem and the Extreme Value Theorem about a function that
is continuous over the closed interval x ∈ [1, 4]?

The Intermediate and Extreme Value Theorems

The Intermediate Value Theorem states that if a function is continuous on a closed interval and u is a value between
f (a) and f (b) then there exists a c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = u.

Simply stated, if a function is continuous between a low point and a high point, then it must be valued at each
intermediate height in between the low and high points.
The converse of an if then statement is a new statement with the hypothesis of the original statement switched with
the conclusion of the original statement. In other words, the converse is when the if part of the statement and the
then part of the statement are swapped. In general, the converse of a statement is not true.
The converse of the Intermediate Value Theorem is: If there exists a value c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = u for every u
between f (a) and f (b) then the function is continuous.

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 www.ck12.org

This statement is false. In order to show the statement is false, all you need is one counterexample where every
intermediate value is hit and the function is discontinuous.A counterexample to an if then statement is when the
hypothesis (the if part of the sentence) is true, but the conclusion (the then part of the statement) is not true.

This function is discontinuous on the interval [0, 10] but every intermediate value between the first height at (0, 0) and
the height of the last point (10, 5) is hit.

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The Extreme Value Theorem states that in every interval [a, b] where a function is continuous there is at least one
maximum and one minimum. In other words, it must have at least two extreme values.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate and Extreme Value Theorems

The converse of the Extreme Value Theorem is: If there is at least one maximum and one minimum in the closed
interval [a, b] then the function is continuous on [a, b].
This statement is false. In order to show the statement is false, all you need is one counterexample. The goal is to
find a function on a closed interval [a, b] that has at least one maximum and one minimum and is also discontinuous.

On the interval [0, 10], the function attains a maximum at (5, 5) and a minimum at (0, 0) but is still discontinuous.

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 www.ck12.org

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked to apply the Intermediate and Extreme Value Theorems to a function is continuous on the
interval x ∈ [1, 4]. You can conclude by the Intermediate Value Theorem that there exists a c ∈ [1, 4] such that
f (c) = u for every u between f (1) and f (4). You can also conclude that on this interval the function has both a
maximum and a minimum value by the Extreme Value Theorem.

Example 2

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the function f (x) = (x + 1)3 − 4 has a zero on the interval [0, 3].
First note that the function is a cubic and is therefore continuous everywhere.

• f (0) = (0 + 1)3 − 4 = 13 − 4 = −3
• f (3) = (3 + 1)3 − 4 = 43 − 4 = 60

By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there must exist a c ∈ [0, 3] such that f (c) = 0 since 0 is between -3 and 60.

Example 3

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the following equation has at least one real solution.
x 8 = 2x
First rewrite the equation: x8 − 2x = 0
Then describe it as a continuous function: f (x) = x8 − 2x
This function is continuous because it is the difference of two continuous functions.

• f (0) = 08 − 20 = 0 − 1 = −1
• f (2) = 28 − 22 = 256 − 4 = 252

By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there must exist a c such that f (c) = 0 because −1 < 0 < 252. The number c
is one solution to the initial equation.

Example 4

Show that there is at least one solution to the following equation.

sin x = x + 2
Write the equation as a continuous function: f (x) = sin x − x − 2
The function is continuous because it is the sum and difference of continuous functions.

• f (0) = sin 0 − 0 − 2 = −2
• f (−π) = sin(−π) + π − 2 = 0 + π − 2 > 0

By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there must exist a c such that f (c) = 0 because −2 < 0 < π − 2. The number c
is one solution to the initial equation.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Intermediate and Extreme Value Theorems

Example 5

When are you not allowed to use the Intermediate Value Theorem?
The Intermediate Value Theorem should not be applied when the function is not continuous over the interval.

Review

Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that each equation has at least one real solution.
1. cos x = −x
2. ln(x) = e−x + 1
3. 2x3 − 5x2 = 10x − 5
4. x3 + 1 = x
5. x2 = cos x
6. x5 = 2x3 + 2
7. 3x2 + 4x − 11 = 0
8. 5x4 = 6x2 + 1
9. 7x3 − 18x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
2x−3
10. Show that f (x) = 2x−5 has a real root on the interval [1, 2].
3x+1
11. Show that f (x) = 2x+4 has a real root on the interval [−1, 0].
12. True or false: A function has a maximum and a minimum in the closed interval [a, b]; therefore, the function is
continuous.
13. True or false: A function is continuous over the interval [a, b]; therefore, the function has a maximum and a
minimum in the closed interval.
14. True or false: If a function is continuous over the interval [a, b], then it is possible for the function to have more
than one relative maximum in the interval [a, b].
15. What do the Intermediate Value and Extreme Value Theorems have to do with continuity?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 14.7.

5
Need for Derivatives: Tangent
Lines to a Curve

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

C HAPTER
1 Need for Derivatives:
Tangent Lines to a Curve
Kevin is learning about the basis of calculus and what calculus is actually used for. Unfortunately, Kevin does not
understand why calculus is sometimes necessary to find the equation of a line. In Algebra 1, he learned you can find
the equation of a line if you are given two points. You find the slope of the line by dividing the up/down difference
in the points by the left/right difference, then you use one of the points and the slope to find the y-intercept.
Kevin’s teacher, Mr. Banner, offered him extra credit if he could find the slope of a line for the points (4,5) and (4,5)
using the method he learned in Algebra 1. Can you see what Mr. Banner did? What is Kevin going to find as he
works on those problems?

Tangents to a Curve

Recall from algebra, if points P(x0 ,y0 ) and Q(x1 ,y1 ) are two different points on the curve y = f (x), then the slope of
the secant line connecting the two points is given by

TABLE 1.1:
y1 −y0 f (x1 )− f (x0 )
msec = x1 −x0 = x1 −x0 (1)

Of course, if we let the point x1 approach xo then Q will approach P along the graph f and thus the slope of the
secant line will gradually approach the slope of the tangent line as x1 approaches x0 . Therefore, (1) becomes

TABLE 1.2:
msec = (2)
f (x1 )− f (x0 )
limx1 →x0 x1 −x0

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 www.ck12.org

To simplify our notation, if we let h = x1 −x0 , then x1 = x0 + h and x1 → x0 becomes equivalent to h → 0. This
means that (2) becomes

TABLE 1.3:
f (x0 +h)− f (x0 )
msec = limh→0 h

TABLE 1.4:
The Slope of a Tangent Line

If the point P(x0 ,y0 ) is on the curve f, then the tangent line at Phas a slope that is given by
f (x0 +h)− f (x0 )
mtan = limh→0 h

provided that the limit exist.

Recall that the equation of the tangent line through point (x0 , y0 ) with slope m is the point-slope form of a line: y −
y0 = mtan (x − x0 ).

MEDIA
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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were given a problem about Kevin, who is having trouble understanding calculus.
Mr. Banner asked Kevin to find the equation of a line given the points (4,5) and (4,5). The points (4, 5) and (4, 5)
0
are the same, so the rise
run would be 0 - Kevin was just introduced to the need for differential calculus!

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

Example 2

Find line tangent to the curve f (x) = x3 that passes through point P (2,8).
Since P(x0 , y0 ) = (2, 8), using the slope of the tangent equation we have

TABLE 1.5:
f (x0 +h)− f (x0 )
mtan = limh→0 h
and we get
mtan = limh→0 f (2+h)−
h
f (2)

= 3 2
limh→0 (h +6h +12h+8)−8
h
3 2
= limh→0 h +6hh +12h
= limh→0 (h2 + 6h + 12)
= 12

Thus the slope of the tangent line is 12. Using the point-slope formula above, we find that the equation of the tangent
line is y - 8 = 12 (x - 2) or y = 12x - 16.

Example 3

If f (x) = x2 − 3,find f’ (x) and use the result to find the slope of the tangent line at x = 2 and x = −1.
f (x+h)− f (x)
Since f 0 (x) = limh→0 h then

TABLE 1.6:
[(x+h)2 −3]−[x2 −3]
f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
=
2 2 2
limh→0 x +2xh+hh −3−x +3
2
= limh→0 2xh+h
h
= limh→0 (2x + h)
= 2x

To find the slope, we simply substitute x = 2 into the result f’ (x):

TABLE 1.7:
f ’(x) = 2x
f’(2) =2(2)
=4
and
f’(x) =2x
f’(-1) =2(-1)
= -2

Thus slope of the tangent line at x = 2 and x = −1 are 4 and −2 respectively.

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Example 4

Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = 1/x that passes through the point (1, 1).
Using the slope of the tangent formula,

TABLE 1.8:
f (x+h)− f (x)
f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
1
and substituting y = x
1
( x+h )− 1x
f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
x−x−h
x(x+h)
= limh→0 h
x−x−h
= limh→0 hx(x+h)
−h
= limh→0 hx(x+h)
−1
= limh→0 x(x+h)
= −1
x2
For x = 1, the slope is
f 0 (x) = −1
1 = −1
= −1

Thus the slope of the tangent line at x = 1 for the curve y = 1/x is m = −1. To find the equation of the tangent line,
we simply use the point-slope formula,

TABLE 1.9:
y - y0 = m(x - x0 )
Where (x0 , y0 ) = (1, 1).
y-1 = -1(x - 1)
y = -x + 1 + 1
y = -x + 2

So the equation of the tangent line is y = -x + 2.

Example 5

Given the function y = 12 x2 and the values of x0 = 3 and x1 = 4, find:

a. The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x0 , x1 ].

Identify the two points by substituting 3 and 4 in for x in the function f (x) = 12 x2
y1 −y0
Substitute the two points (3, 4.5) and (4, 8) into the average rate of change formula: m = x1 −x0
7
Average rate of change = 2

b. The slope of the secant line connecting x0 and x1.

The slope of the secant line between x0 and x1 is the slope between (3, 4.5)and (4, 8), which is 27 .

c. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x0 .

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

Instantaneous rate of change is the slope at x = 3.

f (x+h)− f (x)
Use the formula: h where f (x) = 21 x2 and x = 3
f (3+h)− f (3)
h ..... Substitute 3 for x
1 2 1 2
2 (3+h) − 2 (3)
h ..... Replace f (x) → 12 x2
1 1 1 2 1
2 (9)+ 2 (6h)+ 2 h − 2 9
h ..... FOIL and Distribute the 1/2
6h+h2
2h ..... Simplify
3 + h2 ..... Simplify again
3 ..... As h → 0
∴ the instantaneous slope at x = 3 is 3

d. The slope of the tangent line at x1 .

The slope of the tangent at 4 is the same as the instantaneous rate of change at x = 4
This is the same series of steps as with x = 3 above
∴ the slope at x = 4 is 4

Example 6

1
Given the function f (x) = x and the values x0 = 2 and x1 = 3, find:

a. The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x0 , x1 ].

1
Identify the two points by substituting 2 and 3 in for x in the function f (x) = x to get (2, 12 )|(3, 31 )
y1 −y0
Substitute the two points (2, 12 )|(3, 13 ) into the average rate of change formula: m = x1 −x0
−1
Average rate of change = 6

b. The slope of the secant line connecting x0 and x1 .

−1
The slope of the secant line between x0 and x1 is the slope between (2, 12 )and (3, 13 ), which is 6 .

c. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x0 .

Instantaneous rate of change at x0 is the slope at x= 2.

f (x+h)− f (x) 1
Use the formula: h where f (x) = x and x = 2
f (2+h)− f (2)
h ..... Substitute 2 for x
1 1
2+h − 2 1
h ..... Replace f (x) → x
1
( 2+h − 12 ) · 1h ..... We had a fraction divided by a fraction, invert to multiply
(2)(1)
2(2+h) − (2+h)(1) 1
2(2+h) · h ..... Set common denominators
(2)−(2+h)
(2+h)(2)(h) ..... Simplify
−h
4h+2h2
..... Simplify again

5
 www.ck12.org

−1
4+2h ..... once more (canceling the h)
−1
4 ..... As h → 0
−1
∴ the instantaneous slope at x = 2 is 4

d. The slope of the tangent line at x1 .

The slope of the tangent at 3 is the same as the instantaneous rate of change at x = 3
This is the same series of steps as with x = 2 above
−1
∴ the slope at x = 3 is 9

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/188228

Review

1. What is the line connecting two points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) on a curve called?
2. As (x0 , y0 ) gets immeasurably close to (x1 , y1 ) the term describing the line between them becomes: "the
____________ line"
3. The expression f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) is used to describe what distance in the process of finding the slope of a
tangent line?
4. When calculating the slope of a tangent, what value is assumed to go to 0 as the two chosen points get closer
and closer?
5. What does the concept of limit, discussed in prior lessons, have to do with finding the slope of a line tangent
to a curve?

Find the equation of the tangent line:

6. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = −3 assuming that r(−3) = −5 and r0 (−3) = 1?
7. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = 1 assuming that r(1) = 3 and r0 (1) = −5?
8. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = 2 assuming that g(2) = 1 and g0 (2) = −3?
9. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = 4 assuming that u(4) = 4 and u0 (4) = 3?
10. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = −4 assuming that t(−4) = 2 and t 0 (−4) = 5?

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

Find the equation of the tangent line:

11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of h(x) = −5x3 − 3x2 + x + 3 at x = 1
12. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of t(x) = −2x at x = −2
13. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of m(x) = 3x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 4 at x = 1
14. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of q(x) = −x3 − 4x2 + 4x + 3 at x = −2
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of t(x) = −4x2 + 2x − 4 at x = −1
16. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of h(x) = −4x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 3 at x = −1
17. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of m(x) = x at x = 0
18. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of s(x) = −3x2 − 2x + 3 at x = 0
19. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of c(x) = −3 at x = 0
20. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of b(x) = −5x4 + 3x3 − x2 + 5x − 3 at x = −1

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.7.

7
Need for Derivatives: Tangent
Lines to a Curve

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

C HAPTER
1 Need for Derivatives:
Tangent Lines to a Curve
Kevin is learning about the basis of calculus and what calculus is actually used for. Unfortunately, Kevin does not
understand why calculus is sometimes necessary to find the equation of a line. In Algebra 1, he learned you can find
the equation of a line if you are given two points. You find the slope of the line by dividing the up/down difference
in the points by the left/right difference, then you use one of the points and the slope to find the y-intercept.
Kevin’s teacher, Mr. Banner, offered him extra credit if he could find the slope of a line for the points (4,5) and (4,5)
using the method he learned in Algebra 1. Can you see what Mr. Banner did? What is Kevin going to find as he
works on those problems?

Tangents to a Curve

Recall from algebra, if points P(x0 ,y0 ) and Q(x1 ,y1 ) are two different points on the curve y = f (x), then the slope of
the secant line connecting the two points is given by

TABLE 1.1:
y1 −y0 f (x1 )− f (x0 )
msec = x1 −x0 = x1 −x0 (1)

Of course, if we let the point x1 approach xo then Q will approach P along the graph f and thus the slope of the
secant line will gradually approach the slope of the tangent line as x1 approaches x0 . Therefore, (1) becomes

TABLE 1.2:
msec = (2)
f (x1 )− f (x0 )
limx1 →x0 x1 −x0

1
 www.ck12.org

To simplify our notation, if we let h = x1 −x0 , then x1 = x0 + h and x1 → x0 becomes equivalent to h → 0. This
means that (2) becomes

TABLE 1.3:
f (x0 +h)− f (x0 )
msec = limh→0 h

TABLE 1.4:
The Slope of a Tangent Line

If the point P(x0 ,y0 ) is on the curve f, then the tangent line at Phas a slope that is given by
f (x0 +h)− f (x0 )
mtan = limh→0 h

provided that the limit exist.

Recall that the equation of the tangent line through point (x0 , y0 ) with slope m is the point-slope form of a line: y −
y0 = mtan (x − x0 ).

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/188226

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were given a problem about Kevin, who is having trouble understanding calculus.
Mr. Banner asked Kevin to find the equation of a line given the points (4,5) and (4,5). The points (4, 5) and (4, 5)
0
are the same, so the rise
run would be 0 - Kevin was just introduced to the need for differential calculus!

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

Example 2

Find line tangent to the curve f (x) = x3 that passes through point P (2,8).
Since P(x0 , y0 ) = (2, 8), using the slope of the tangent equation we have

TABLE 1.5:
f (x0 +h)− f (x0 )
mtan = limh→0 h
and we get
mtan = limh→0 f (2+h)−
h
f (2)

= 3 2
limh→0 (h +6h +12h+8)−8
h
3 2
= limh→0 h +6hh +12h
= limh→0 (h2 + 6h + 12)
= 12

Thus the slope of the tangent line is 12. Using the point-slope formula above, we find that the equation of the tangent
line is y - 8 = 12 (x - 2) or y = 12x - 16.

Example 3

If f (x) = x2 − 3,find f’ (x) and use the result to find the slope of the tangent line at x = 2 and x = −1.
f (x+h)− f (x)
Since f 0 (x) = limh→0 h then

TABLE 1.6:
[(x+h)2 −3]−[x2 −3]
f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
=
2 2 2
limh→0 x +2xh+hh −3−x +3
2
= limh→0 2xh+h
h
= limh→0 (2x + h)
= 2x

To find the slope, we simply substitute x = 2 into the result f’ (x):

TABLE 1.7:
f ’(x) = 2x
f’(2) =2(2)
=4
and
f’(x) =2x
f’(-1) =2(-1)
= -2

Thus slope of the tangent line at x = 2 and x = −1 are 4 and −2 respectively.

3
 www.ck12.org

Example 4

Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = 1/x that passes through the point (1, 1).
Using the slope of the tangent formula,

TABLE 1.8:
f (x+h)− f (x)
f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
1
and substituting y = x
1
( x+h )− 1x
f 0 (x) = limh→0 h
x−x−h
x(x+h)
= limh→0 h
x−x−h
= limh→0 hx(x+h)
−h
= limh→0 hx(x+h)
−1
= limh→0 x(x+h)
= −1
x2
For x = 1, the slope is
f 0 (x) = −1
1 = −1
= −1

Thus the slope of the tangent line at x = 1 for the curve y = 1/x is m = −1. To find the equation of the tangent line,
we simply use the point-slope formula,

TABLE 1.9:
y - y0 = m(x - x0 )
Where (x0 , y0 ) = (1, 1).
y-1 = -1(x - 1)
y = -x + 1 + 1
y = -x + 2

So the equation of the tangent line is y = -x + 2.

Example 5

Given the function y = 12 x2 and the values of x0 = 3 and x1 = 4, find:

a. The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x0 , x1 ].

Identify the two points by substituting 3 and 4 in for x in the function f (x) = 12 x2
y1 −y0
Substitute the two points (3, 4.5) and (4, 8) into the average rate of change formula: m = x1 −x0
7
Average rate of change = 2

b. The slope of the secant line connecting x0 and x1.

The slope of the secant line between x0 and x1 is the slope between (3, 4.5)and (4, 8), which is 27 .

c. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x0 .

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

Instantaneous rate of change is the slope at x = 3.

f (x+h)− f (x)
Use the formula: h where f (x) = 21 x2 and x = 3
f (3+h)− f (3)
h ..... Substitute 3 for x
1 2 1 2
2 (3+h) − 2 (3)
h ..... Replace f (x) → 12 x2
1 1 1 2 1
2 (9)+ 2 (6h)+ 2 h − 2 9
h ..... FOIL and Distribute the 1/2
6h+h2
2h ..... Simplify
3 + h2 ..... Simplify again
3 ..... As h → 0
∴ the instantaneous slope at x = 3 is 3

d. The slope of the tangent line at x1 .

The slope of the tangent at 4 is the same as the instantaneous rate of change at x = 4
This is the same series of steps as with x = 3 above
∴ the slope at x = 4 is 4

Example 6

1
Given the function f (x) = x and the values x0 = 2 and x1 = 3, find:

a. The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x0 , x1 ].

1
Identify the two points by substituting 2 and 3 in for x in the function f (x) = x to get (2, 12 )|(3, 31 )
y1 −y0
Substitute the two points (2, 12 )|(3, 13 ) into the average rate of change formula: m = x1 −x0
−1
Average rate of change = 6

b. The slope of the secant line connecting x0 and x1 .

−1
The slope of the secant line between x0 and x1 is the slope between (2, 12 )and (3, 13 ), which is 6 .

c. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x0 .

Instantaneous rate of change at x0 is the slope at x= 2.

f (x+h)− f (x) 1
Use the formula: h where f (x) = x and x = 2
f (2+h)− f (2)
h ..... Substitute 2 for x
1 1
2+h − 2 1
h ..... Replace f (x) → x
1
( 2+h − 12 ) · 1h ..... We had a fraction divided by a fraction, invert to multiply
(2)(1)
2(2+h) − (2+h)(1) 1
2(2+h) · h ..... Set common denominators
(2)−(2+h)
(2+h)(2)(h) ..... Simplify
−h
4h+2h2
..... Simplify again

5
 www.ck12.org

−1
4+2h ..... once more (canceling the h)
−1
4 ..... As h → 0
−1
∴ the instantaneous slope at x = 2 is 4

d. The slope of the tangent line at x1 .

The slope of the tangent at 3 is the same as the instantaneous rate of change at x = 3
This is the same series of steps as with x = 2 above
−1
∴ the slope at x = 3 is 9

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/188228

Review

1. What is the line connecting two points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ) on a curve called?
2. As (x0 , y0 ) gets immeasurably close to (x1 , y1 ) the term describing the line between them becomes: "the
____________ line"
3. The expression f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) is used to describe what distance in the process of finding the slope of a
tangent line?
4. When calculating the slope of a tangent, what value is assumed to go to 0 as the two chosen points get closer
and closer?
5. What does the concept of limit, discussed in prior lessons, have to do with finding the slope of a line tangent
to a curve?

Find the equation of the tangent line:

6. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = −3 assuming that r(−3) = −5 and r0 (−3) = 1?
7. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = 1 assuming that r(1) = 3 and r0 (1) = −5?
8. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = 2 assuming that g(2) = 1 and g0 (2) = −3?
9. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = 4 assuming that u(4) = 4 and u0 (4) = 3?
10. What is the equation of the tangent line at x = −4 assuming that t(−4) = 2 and t 0 (−4) = 5?

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Need for Derivatives: Tangent Lines to a Curve

Find the equation of the tangent line:

11. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of h(x) = −5x3 − 3x2 + x + 3 at x = 1
12. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of t(x) = −2x at x = −2
13. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of m(x) = 3x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 4 at x = 1
14. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of q(x) = −x3 − 4x2 + 4x + 3 at x = −2
15. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of t(x) = −4x2 + 2x − 4 at x = −1
16. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of h(x) = −4x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 3 at x = −1
17. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of m(x) = x at x = 0
18. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of s(x) = −3x2 − 2x + 3 at x = 0
19. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of c(x) = −3 at x = 0
20. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of b(x) = −5x4 + 3x3 − x2 + 5x − 3 at x = −1

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.7.

7
 The Derivative

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. The Derivative

C HAPTER
1 The Derivative
Track star Becca decided that she needed a better way to figure out her instantaneous speed during her training runs
than having her boyfriend Jim taking pictures of her at different parts of the run. She had an idea! She purchased
a GPS receiver she could wear on her arm during her long training runs that would give her position data once per
second that could be recorded on her laptop. She was determined to get good instantaneous speed data from the GPS
recordings, and had a plan to do it.
Can you figure out what Becca’s plan was?
Becca successfully implemented her plan. On reviewing the laptop data from one of her long training runs, she
saw the speed estimates go “haywire” during a 5 second time interval, before returning to normal values. Becca
remembered running through a tunnel at the time.
Can you explain why Becca’s speed estimates went haywire?

The Derivative

In the previous two concepts, the function f 0 (x) was shown to represent two important characteristics of the func-
tion y = f (x):

1. The slope of the tangent line at x, and

2. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to at x.

These two characteristics of a function are so important that f 0 (x) has it’s own name, the derivative.
The derivative of a function f (x) is the function f 0 (x) whose value at x is given by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h

provided that the limit exists.

The domain of f 0 (x) consists of all the values of x for which the limit exists.
If the limit exists, and therefore the derivative, the function f (x) is said to be differentiable at x(x0 ).
Note: the following was also used to define f 0 (x):

f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
x→x0 x − x0

Calculus, just like all branches of mathematics, is rich with notation. There are many ways to denote the derivative
of the function y = f (x). Here are some of the ways:

dy df d f (x)
f 0 (x) y0 and Dx f (x) Dx y
dx dx dx

d
where the symbols dx and Dx are differential operators that act on the function to produce the derivative with respect
to x.

1
 www.ck12.org

In addition, when substituting the point x0 into the derivative we denote the substitution by one of the following
notations:


0 dy d f  d f (x0 )
f (x0 ) |x − x0 x − x0
dx dx  dx

√
Apply the appropriate notation and find the equation of the tangent line to f (x) = x at x0 = 1.
Using the definition of the derivative,

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √
x+h− x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
1 x+h−x
= lim √ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1
= √ .
2 x

Thus the slope of the tangent line at x0 = 1 is

1 1
f 0 (1) = √ = .
2 1 2

For x0 = 1, we can find y0 by simply substituting into f (x).

f (x0 ) ≡ y0
√
f (1) = 1 = 1
y0 = 1.

Thus the equation of the tangent line is

y − y0 = m(x − x0 )
1
y − 1 = (x − 1)
2
1 1
y = x+ .
2 2

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. The Derivative

Existence of the Derivative and Differentiability of a Function

The above definition of the derivative of a function says that if the limit exists then the derivative exists at x, and
the function is differentiable at x. If, at the point (x0 , f (x0 )), the limit does not exist, then the derivative of the
function f (x) at this point does not exist either, and the function is not differentiable at x.
The following are four cases where the derivative fails to exist.

TABLE 1.1:
a. Derivative at a corner.
Consider the function f (x) = |x|.
What is the derivative of f (x) at x0 = 0?

f (x) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (0)

lim− = lim−
x→x0 x − x0 x→0 x−0
x Corner: Both one-sided limits are finite, but different.
= lim+ = −1
x→0 x
f (x) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (0)
lim = lim+
x→x0 + x − x0 x→0 x−0
x
= lim+ =1
x→0 x

Since the limits on both sides of x = 0 are different,

the derivative does not exist at x = 0 even though the
function is continuous at x = 0.
b. Derivative at a cusp.
2
Consider the function f (x) = x 3 .
2
f (x) − f (x0 ) x3
lim− = lim−
x→x0 x − x0 x→0 x
−1
= lim− x 3 = −∞ Cusp: Both one-sided limits are infinite, but one is
x→0
f (x) − f (x0 ) positive and the other is negative.
and lim+ = +∞.
x→x0 x − x0

Since the limits on both sides of x = 0 are different,

the derivative does not exist at x = 0 even though the
function is continuous at x = 0.
c. Derivative at a vertical tangent.
1
Consider the function f (x) = x 3 .

f (x) − f (x0 ) −2
lim− = lim− x 3 = +∞
x→x0 x − x0 x→0
f (x) − f (x0 ) −2
lim+ = lim+ x 3 = +∞ Vertical tangent: Both one-sided limits at x = a are +∞.
x→x0 x − x0 x→0

Because the limits on both sides of x = 0 are infinity,

the derivative does not exist at x = 0 even though the
function is continuous at x = 0.

3
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.1: (continued)

d. Derivative at a jump discontinuity.
Consider the step function
(
−2, x < 0
f (x) =
2, x≥0

Jump discontinuity: Both one-sided limits are different

f (x) − f (x0 ) −2 − 2 and the function is not continuous at x = a.
lim− = lim− = +∞
x→x0 x − x0 x→0 x
f (x) − f (x0 ) 2−2
lim+ = lim+ =0
x→x0 x − x0 x→0 x

Since the limits on both sides of x = 0 are different,

the derivative does not exist at x = 0 even though the
function is defined at x = 0. But the function is not
continuous at x = 0.

Differentiability and Continuity

The cases above show that a function may or may not have a derivative at a particular value of x, i.e., the function
may or may not be differentiable at x. Cases a-c above show that not every continuous function is differentiable.
But in all cases we have examined, when the derivative exists, the function is continuous at the point the derivative
is being evaluated. We have not seen any cases where the derivative exists and the function is not continuous. Are
there any such cases? The answer is no. This fact is expressed by the following theorem, one of the most important
theorems in calculus:
If f is differentiable at x0 , then f is also continuous at x0 .
Note the equivalent: If f is not continuous at x0 , then f is not differentiable at x0 .
We have already seen that the converse is not true in some cases. The function can have a cusp, a corner, or a vertical
tangent and still be continuous, but is not differentiable.
Using the derivative, give an argument for why the function f (x) = x2 is continuous at x = −5.
Using the definition of the derivative:

(x + h)2 − x2
f 0 (x) = lim
x→−5 h
x + 2xh + h2 − x2
2
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h 2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h)
h→0
= 2x

Thus, f 0 (−5) = 2(−5) = −10. Because f (x) = x2 is differentiable at x = −5, f (x) is continuous at x = −5.

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. The Derivative

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/79268

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked about Becca’s plan to determine her instantaneous running speed by using a GPS receiver to
send once-per-second position signals to her laptop. Did you figure out her plan?
Becca knew that the recorded GPS position data could be used to determine how far she had run at any time. She was
able to use a laptop program to accurately model these running distance versus time estimates with a mathematical
function. Using her recent knowledge of derivatives, Becca was able to determine her speed at any time by computing
the derivative of the math function. It worked really well!
But what happened to cause the 5-seconds of “haywire” results?
Becca soon came to the realization that she lost GPS position data during her run in the tunnel because it blocked
receiving the signal. The math model of distance vs time was therefore discontinuous during the 5-second interval
(jump discontinuity?), and the speed estimate (derivative) during the time was not reliable.

Example 2

x
Find the derivative of f (x) = x+1 at x = 0 and x = −1; use the results to say something about the continuity of f (x)
at those points.
We begin with the definition of the derivative,

f (x + h) − f (x) 1
f 0 (x) = lim = lim [ f (x + h) − f (x)],
h→0 h h→0 h

where

x
f (x) =
x+1
x+h
f (x + h) =
x+h+1

Substituting into the derivative formula,

5
 www.ck12.org

 
0 1 x+h x
f (x) = lim −
h→0 h x + h + 1 x+1
 
1 (x + h)(x + 1) − x(x + h + 1)
= lim
h→0 h (x + h + 1)(x + 1)
1 x + x + hx + h − x2 − xh − x
 2 
= lim
h→0 h (x + h + 1)(x + 1)
 
1 h
= lim
h→0 h (x + h + 1)(x + 1)
1
= lim
h→0 (x + h + 1)(x + 1)
1
= .
(x + 1)2

Evaluating the derivative at x = 0: f 0 (0) = 1. Because the function is differentiable at x = 0, the function is
continuous at x = 0.
Evaluating the derivative at x = −1: f 0 (−1) = ∞. Because the function is not differentiable at x = −1, the function
is not continuous at x = −1.

Review

In #1-6, use the definition of the derivative to find f 0 (x) and then find the equation of the tangent line at x = x0 .

f (x) = 6x 2
1. √ ; x0 = 3
2. f (x) = x + 2; x0 = 8
3. f (x) = 3x3 − 2; x0 = −1
1
4. f (x) = x+2 ; x0 = −1
5. f (x) = ax2 − b, (where a and b are constants); x0 = b
1
6. f (x) = x 3 ; x0 = 1
dy
7. Find dx |x=1 given that
√ y = 5x2 − 2.
3
8. Show that f (x) = ( x is continuous at x = 0 but it is not differentiable at x = 0. Sketch the graph.
x2 + 1 x ≥ 1
9. Show that f (x) = is continuous and differentiable at x = 1. Sketch the graph of f .
2x x>1
f (h)
10. Suppose that f is a differentiable function and has the property that f (x+y) = f (x)+ f (y)+3xy and limh→0 h =
4. Find f (0) and f 0 (x).
11. Use the definition of derivative to calculate the derivative of f (x) = 2x2 + x at x = 2.
12. Write the formula for the derivative of f (x) =√ 3(x − 1)2 + 7
13. Find the formula for the derivative of f (x) = x − 1 √
14. Use the definition of derivative to calculate the derivative of f (x) = 6 − 2x at x = −5.
1
15. Find the formula for the derivative of f (x) = x+1 .

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 3.3.

6
Derivatives of Sums and
Differences

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Sums and Differences

C HAPTER
1 Derivatives of Sums and
Differences
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about finding the derivative of functions that are added, subtracted, or multiplied. You will also
explore another theorem: The Product Rule.
Juan has been out playing with his model rocket all afternoon. Partway through the day, he started taking videos of
the flights using his cell phone. Watching the video, he notices that the rockets actually seem to be getting faster
after the launch instead of starting off at full speed and slowing down due to gravity.
Juan figures it is reasonable to assume it takes a bit for the engines to get the rocket up to full speed, but the
acceleration seems to continue past when he figures that would continue.
After considering for a while, he wonders if the decreased mass of the rocket as it burns fuel might be the cause,
assuming he knows the force generated by the engines and the starting and ending weight of the rocket, is there a
way he could conjecture whether the increased acceleration might be a result of the decreased mass?

Derivatives of Sums and Differences

TABLE 1.1:
Theorem: If f and g are two differentiable functions at x then
d d d
dx [ f (x) + g(x)] = dx [ f (x)] + dx [g(x)]

and
d d d
dx [ f (x) − g(x)] = dx [ f (x)] − dx [g(x)]

In simpler notation

( f ± g)0 = f 0 ± g0 .

The Product Rule

TABLE 1.2:

1
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.2: (continued)

Theorem: (The Product Rule) If f and g are differentiable at x, then
d d d
dx [ f (x) · g(x)] = f (x) dx g(x) + g(x) dx f (x)

In a simpler notation

( f · g)0 = f · g0 + g · f 0

In words, The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first function times the derivative of the
second plus the second function times the derivatives of the derivative of the first.
Keep in mind that ( f · g)0 6= f 0 + g0

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if Juan could make a conjecture about whether increased acceleration might be a result of
decreased mass.
Yes, he can make the conjecture. Assuming that the force is equal to the change in mass times velocity (momentum)
over change in time, then using the power rule and simplifying, he can discover that the acceleration of the rocket is
equal to the force minus the velocity multiplied by change in mass over time, all divided by mass, in mathematics
this looks like:
 
F−v( δm
δt )
a= m

Looking at the upper-right portion of the equation, we can see that as mass decreases, the fraction δm
δt goes negative.
Since −v is multiplied by that fraction, it goes positive, and the overall function increases, meaning the rocket
accelerates.
Looks like Juan was right.

Example 2

Find the derivative: f (x) = 3x2 + 2x.

Use the power rule to help:

TABLE 1.3:
d d
 2   2 d
dx 3x + 2x = dx  2  + dxd[2x]
3x
d
= 3 dx x + 2 dx [x]
= 3 [2x] + 2 [1]
= 6x + 2

Example 3

Find the derivative: f (x) = x3 − 5x2 .

Again, use the power rule to help:

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Sums and Differences

TABLE 1.4:
d d d
 3
x − 5x2
  3  2
dx = dx x − 5 dx x
= 3x2 − 5 [2x]
= 3x2 − 10x

Example 4
dy
Find dx for y = (3x4 + 2)(7x3 − 1).
There two methods to solve this problem. One is to multiply to find the product and then use the derivative of the
sum rule. The second is to directly use the product rule. Either rule will produce the same answer. We begin with
the sum rule.

TABLE 1.5:
y = (3x4 + 2)(7x3 − 1)
= 21x7 − 3x4 + 14x3 − 2

Taking the derivative of the sum yields

TABLE 1.6:
dy
dx =
147x6 − 12x3 + 42x2 + 0
= 147x6 − 12x3 + 42x2

Now we use the product rule.

TABLE 1.7:
y0 = (3x4 + 2) · (7x3 − 1)0 +
(3x4 + 2)0 · (7x3 − 1)
= (3x4 + 2)(21x2 ) +
(12x3 )(7x3 − 1)
= (63x6 +42x2 )+(84x6 −
12x3 )
= 147x6 − 12x3 + 42x2

Which is the same answer.

Example 5

dt
Given: t(x) = x − 1. What is dx when x = 0?
By the difference rule: (x − 1)0 = (x)0 − (1)0 = 0
x0 = 1 ..... By the power rule
10 = 0 ..... The derivative of a constant = 0
So when we evaluate this at x = 0, we get 1, since 1 - 0 = 1

3
 www.ck12.org

Example 6

What is the derivative of g(x) = (−x − 1)(x + 1)?

We’ll use the difference rule
First, expand (−x − 1)(x + 1) → −x2 − 2x − 1.
By the difference rule: (−x2 − 2x − 1)0 = (−x2 )0 − (2x)0 − (1)0 = −2x − 2

Example 7

dy
Given a(x) = −πx−0.54 + 6x4 . What is dx ?
We’ll use the difference and power rules:
d −0.54 + 6x4 )
dx (−πx =
d −0.54 ) + d (6x4 ) ..... By the difference
dx (−πx dx rule
→ 0.54πx −1.54 + 24x3 ..... By the power rule

Example 8

d
What is dx [(−5x)cos(x)]?
We’ll use the product rule:
(pq)0 = p0 q + pq0 .
p(x) = −5x → p0 (x) = −5 .... By the power rule
q(x) = cos(x) → q0 (x) = −sin(x) ..... By the power rule and simplifying
So we get [(−5x)cos(x)]0 = (−5)cos(x) + (−5x)[−sin(x)]
= −5cos(x) + (5x)sin(x)

MEDIA
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URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/188245

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Sums and Differences

Review

Find the derivative using the sum/difference rule.

1. y = 21 (x3 − 2x2 + 1)
√ √
2. y = 2x3 − √1 x2 + 2x + 2
2
3. y = a2 − b2 + x2 − a − b + x (where a, b are constants)
4. y = x−3 + x17
√
5. y = x + √1
x
6. f (x) = (−3x + 4)2
−5
7. f (x) = −0.93x10 + (π3 x) 12
d
8. What is dx (2x + 1)2 ?
dy
9. Given: a(x) = (−5x + 3)2 , what is dx ?
10. If v(x) = −3x + 5x − 2x − 3, what is v0 (0)?
3 2

Find the derivative using the product rule.

11. y = (x3 − 3x
2 + x) · (2x3 + 7x4 )

12. y = 1x + x12 (3x4 − 7)
13. What is the derivative of [(−3x2 + x + 4)(−3x − 3)]?
14. v(x) = (3x − 3) · cos(x)
15. Given: k(−2) = 0, k0 (−2) = 18, find r(−2) when (kr)0 (−2) = 54.
16. Given g(x) = (4x2 − 4x − 5)(3x − 3), find g0 (2).
d
17. Find dx [(−4x + 3) · sin(x).
d
18. Find dx [(x2 − 3)(−2x2 + 4x − 1)].
19. Given t(1) = 0, t 0 (1) = 17, find a(1) when (ta)0 (1) = 272.
20. Given d(x) = (2x2 + 3x − 1)(2x + 1), find d 0 (−1).

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.10.

5
Constant Derivatives and the
Power Rule

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Constant Derivatives and the Power Rule

C HAPTER
1 Constant Derivatives and
the Power Rule
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn how to quickly identify the derivatives of constant terms, and you will explore the use of the
power rule for finding the derivatives of higher-order functions.
The power rule is a fantastic "shortcut" for finding the derivatives of basic polynomials. Between the power rule and
the basic definition of the derivative of a constant, a great number of polynomial derivatives can be identified with
little effort - often in your head!

Constant Derivatives and the Power Rule

In this lesson, we will develop formulas and theorems that will calculate derivatives in more efficient and quick
ways. Look for these theorems in boxes throughout the lesson.

The Derivative of a Constant

TABLE 1.1:
Theorem: If f (x) = c where c is a constant, then f 0 (x) = 0.
Proof: f 0 (x) = limh→0 f (x+h)−
h
f (x)
= limh→0 c−c
h = 0.

TABLE 1.2:
d d
Theorem: If c is a constant and f is differentiable at all x, then dx [c f (x)] = c dx [ f (x)]. In simpler notation
(c f )0 = c( f )0 = c f 0

The Power Rule

TABLE 1.3:
Theorem: (The Power Rule) If n is a positive integer, then for all real values of x
d n
dx [x ] = nxn−1 .

MEDIA
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1
 www.ck12.org

Examples

Example 1

Find f 0 (x) for f (x) = 16.

If f (x) = 16 for all x, then f 0 (x) = 0 for all x.
d
We can also write dx 16 = 0.

Example 2

Find the derivative of f (x) = 4x3 .

d
 3
dx 4x ..... Restate the function
d
 3
4 dx x ..... Apply the commutative law
 2
4 3x ..... Apply the power Rule
12x2 ..... Simplify

Example 3

Find the derivative of f (x) = −2

x4
.
d −2
 
dx x4 ..... Restate
d −4 ..... Rules of exponents
 
dx −2x
d
 −4 
−2 dx x ..... By the commutative law
−2 −4x−4−1 ..... Apply the power rule
 

−2 −4x−5 ..... Simplify

 

8x−5 ..... Simplify again

8
x5
..... Use rules of exponents

Example 4

Find the derivative of f (x) = x.

Special application of the power rule:
d
dx [x] = 1x1−1 = x0 = 1

Example 5
√
Find the derivative of f (x) = x.
d
√
Restate the function: dx [ x]
d 1/2
Using rules of exponents (from algebra): dx [x ]
Apply the power rule: 21 x1/2−1

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Constant Derivatives and the Power Rule

Simplify: 12 x−1/2
1
Rules of exponents: 2x1/2
1
Simplify: √
2 x

Example 6

1
Find the derivative of f (x) = x3
.
d 1
 
Restate the function: dx x3
d
 −3 
Rules of exponents: dx x
Power rule: −3x−3−1
Simplify: −3x−4
−3
Rules of exponents: x4

MEDIA
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Review

1. State the power rule.

Find the derivative:

2. y = 5x7
3. y = −3x
4. f (x) = 13 x + 43 √
5. y = x4 − 2x3 − 5 x + 10
6. y = (5x2 − 3)2
2
7. Given y(x) = x−4π , find the derivative when x = 1.
8. y(x) = 5
3
9. Given u(x) = x−5π , what is u0 (2)?
10. y = 51 when x = 4
11. Given d(x) = x−0.37 , what is d 0 (1)?
12. g(x) = x−3
13. u(x) = x0.096
14. k(x) = x − 0.49
3
15. y = x−5π

3
Derivatives of Sums and
Differences

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Sums and Differences

C HAPTER
1 Derivatives of Sums and
Differences
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about finding the derivative of functions that are added, subtracted, or multiplied. You will also
explore another theorem: The Product Rule.
Juan has been out playing with his model rocket all afternoon. Partway through the day, he started taking videos of
the flights using his cell phone. Watching the video, he notices that the rockets actually seem to be getting faster
after the launch instead of starting off at full speed and slowing down due to gravity.
Juan figures it is reasonable to assume it takes a bit for the engines to get the rocket up to full speed, but the
acceleration seems to continue past when he figures that would continue.
After considering for a while, he wonders if the decreased mass of the rocket as it burns fuel might be the cause,
assuming he knows the force generated by the engines and the starting and ending weight of the rocket, is there a
way he could conjecture whether the increased acceleration might be a result of the decreased mass?

Derivatives of Sums and Differences

TABLE 1.1:
Theorem: If f and g are two differentiable functions at x then
d d d
dx [ f (x) + g(x)] = dx [ f (x)] + dx [g(x)]

and
d d d
dx [ f (x) − g(x)] = dx [ f (x)] − dx [g(x)]

In simpler notation

( f ± g)0 = f 0 ± g0 .

The Product Rule

TABLE 1.2:

1
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.2: (continued)

Theorem: (The Product Rule) If f and g are differentiable at x, then
d d d
dx [ f (x) · g(x)] = f (x) dx g(x) + g(x) dx f (x)

In a simpler notation

( f · g)0 = f · g0 + g · f 0

In words, The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first function times the derivative of the
second plus the second function times the derivatives of the derivative of the first.
Keep in mind that ( f · g)0 6= f 0 + g0

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if Juan could make a conjecture about whether increased acceleration might be a result of
decreased mass.
Yes, he can make the conjecture. Assuming that the force is equal to the change in mass times velocity (momentum)
over change in time, then using the power rule and simplifying, he can discover that the acceleration of the rocket is
equal to the force minus the velocity multiplied by change in mass over time, all divided by mass, in mathematics
this looks like:
 
F−v( δm
δt )
a= m

Looking at the upper-right portion of the equation, we can see that as mass decreases, the fraction δm
δt goes negative.
Since −v is multiplied by that fraction, it goes positive, and the overall function increases, meaning the rocket
accelerates.
Looks like Juan was right.

Example 2

Find the derivative: f (x) = 3x2 + 2x.

Use the power rule to help:

TABLE 1.3:
d d
 2   2 d
dx 3x + 2x = dx  2  + dxd[2x]
3x
d
= 3 dx x + 2 dx [x]
= 3 [2x] + 2 [1]
= 6x + 2

Example 3

Find the derivative: f (x) = x3 − 5x2 .

Again, use the power rule to help:

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Sums and Differences

TABLE 1.4:
d d d
 3
x − 5x2
  3  2
dx = dx x − 5 dx x
= 3x2 − 5 [2x]
= 3x2 − 10x

Example 4
dy
Find dx for y = (3x4 + 2)(7x3 − 1).
There two methods to solve this problem. One is to multiply to find the product and then use the derivative of the
sum rule. The second is to directly use the product rule. Either rule will produce the same answer. We begin with
the sum rule.

TABLE 1.5:
y = (3x4 + 2)(7x3 − 1)
= 21x7 − 3x4 + 14x3 − 2

Taking the derivative of the sum yields

TABLE 1.6:
dy
dx =
147x6 − 12x3 + 42x2 + 0
= 147x6 − 12x3 + 42x2

Now we use the product rule.

TABLE 1.7:
y0 = (3x4 + 2) · (7x3 − 1)0 +
(3x4 + 2)0 · (7x3 − 1)
= (3x4 + 2)(21x2 ) +
(12x3 )(7x3 − 1)
= (63x6 +42x2 )+(84x6 −
12x3 )
= 147x6 − 12x3 + 42x2

Which is the same answer.

Example 5

dt
Given: t(x) = x − 1. What is dx when x = 0?
By the difference rule: (x − 1)0 = (x)0 − (1)0 = 0
x0 = 1 ..... By the power rule
10 = 0 ..... The derivative of a constant = 0
So when we evaluate this at x = 0, we get 1, since 1 - 0 = 1

3
 www.ck12.org

Example 6

What is the derivative of g(x) = (−x − 1)(x + 1)?

We’ll use the difference rule
First, expand (−x − 1)(x + 1) → −x2 − 2x − 1.
By the difference rule: (−x2 − 2x − 1)0 = (−x2 )0 − (2x)0 − (1)0 = −2x − 2

Example 7

dy
Given a(x) = −πx−0.54 + 6x4 . What is dx ?
We’ll use the difference and power rules:
d −0.54 + 6x4 )
dx (−πx =
d −0.54 ) + d (6x4 ) ..... By the difference
dx (−πx dx rule
→ 0.54πx −1.54 + 24x3 ..... By the power rule

Example 8

d
What is dx [(−5x)cos(x)]?
We’ll use the product rule:
(pq)0 = p0 q + pq0 .
p(x) = −5x → p0 (x) = −5 .... By the power rule
q(x) = cos(x) → q0 (x) = −sin(x) ..... By the power rule and simplifying
So we get [(−5x)cos(x)]0 = (−5)cos(x) + (−5x)[−sin(x)]
= −5cos(x) + (5x)sin(x)

MEDIA
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MEDIA
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URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/188245

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Sums and Differences

Review

Find the derivative using the sum/difference rule.

1. y = 21 (x3 − 2x2 + 1)
√ √
2. y = 2x3 − √1 x2 + 2x + 2
2
3. y = a2 − b2 + x2 − a − b + x (where a, b are constants)
4. y = x−3 + x17
√
5. y = x + √1
x
6. f (x) = (−3x + 4)2
−5
7. f (x) = −0.93x10 + (π3 x) 12
d
8. What is dx (2x + 1)2 ?
dy
9. Given: a(x) = (−5x + 3)2 , what is dx ?
10. If v(x) = −3x + 5x − 2x − 3, what is v0 (0)?
3 2

Find the derivative using the product rule.

11. y = (x3 − 3x
2 + x) · (2x3 + 7x4 )

12. y = 1x + x12 (3x4 − 7)
13. What is the derivative of [(−3x2 + x + 4)(−3x − 3)]?
14. v(x) = (3x − 3) · cos(x)
15. Given: k(−2) = 0, k0 (−2) = 18, find r(−2) when (kr)0 (−2) = 54.
16. Given g(x) = (4x2 − 4x − 5)(3x − 3), find g0 (2).
d
17. Find dx [(−4x + 3) · sin(x).
d
18. Find dx [(x2 − 3)(−2x2 + 4x − 1)].
19. Given t(1) = 0, t 0 (1) = 17, find a(1) when (ta)0 (1) = 272.
20. Given d(x) = (2x2 + 3x − 1)(2x + 1), find d 0 (−1).

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.10.

5
Constant Derivatives and the
Power Rule

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Constant Derivatives and the Power Rule

C HAPTER
1 Constant Derivatives and
the Power Rule
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn how to quickly identify the derivatives of constant terms, and you will explore the use of the
power rule for finding the derivatives of higher-order functions.
The power rule is a fantastic "shortcut" for finding the derivatives of basic polynomials. Between the power rule and
the basic definition of the derivative of a constant, a great number of polynomial derivatives can be identified with
little effort - often in your head!

Constant Derivatives and the Power Rule

In this lesson, we will develop formulas and theorems that will calculate derivatives in more efficient and quick
ways. Look for these theorems in boxes throughout the lesson.

The Derivative of a Constant

TABLE 1.1:
Theorem: If f (x) = c where c is a constant, then f 0 (x) = 0.
Proof: f 0 (x) = limh→0 f (x+h)−
h
f (x)
= limh→0 c−c
h = 0.

TABLE 1.2:
d d
Theorem: If c is a constant and f is differentiable at all x, then dx [c f (x)] = c dx [ f (x)]. In simpler notation
(c f )0 = c( f )0 = c f 0

The Power Rule

TABLE 1.3:
Theorem: (The Power Rule) If n is a positive integer, then for all real values of x
d n
dx [x ] = nxn−1 .

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/188239

1
 www.ck12.org

Examples

Example 1

Find f 0 (x) for f (x) = 16.

If f (x) = 16 for all x, then f 0 (x) = 0 for all x.
d
We can also write dx 16 = 0.

Example 2

Find the derivative of f (x) = 4x3 .

d
 3
dx 4x ..... Restate the function
d
 3
4 dx x ..... Apply the commutative law
 2
4 3x ..... Apply the power Rule
12x2 ..... Simplify

Example 3

Find the derivative of f (x) = −2

x4
.
d −2
 
dx x4 ..... Restate
d −4 ..... Rules of exponents
 
dx −2x
d
 −4 
−2 dx x ..... By the commutative law
−2 −4x−4−1 ..... Apply the power rule
 

−2 −4x−5 ..... Simplify

 

8x−5 ..... Simplify again

8
x5
..... Use rules of exponents

Example 4

Find the derivative of f (x) = x.

Special application of the power rule:
d
dx [x] = 1x1−1 = x0 = 1

Example 5
√
Find the derivative of f (x) = x.
d
√
Restate the function: dx [ x]
d 1/2
Using rules of exponents (from algebra): dx [x ]
Apply the power rule: 21 x1/2−1

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Constant Derivatives and the Power Rule

Simplify: 12 x−1/2
1
Rules of exponents: 2x1/2
1
Simplify: √
2 x

Example 6

1
Find the derivative of f (x) = x3
.
d 1
 
Restate the function: dx x3
d
 −3 
Rules of exponents: dx x
Power rule: −3x−3−1
Simplify: −3x−4
−3
Rules of exponents: x4

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Review

1. State the power rule.

Find the derivative:

2. y = 5x7
3. y = −3x
4. f (x) = 13 x + 43 √
5. y = x4 − 2x3 − 5 x + 10
6. y = (5x2 − 3)2
2
7. Given y(x) = x−4π , find the derivative when x = 1.
8. y(x) = 5
3
9. Given u(x) = x−5π , what is u0 (2)?
10. y = 51 when x = 4
11. Given d(x) = x−0.37 , what is d 0 (1)?
12. g(x) = x−3
13. u(x) = x0.096
14. k(x) = x − 0.49
3
15. y = x−5π

3
 Chain Rule

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Chain Rule

C HAPTER
1 Chain Rule
We want to derive a rule for the derivative of a composite function of the form f ◦ g in terms of the derivatives
of f and g. This rule allows us to differentiate complicated functions in terms of known derivatives of simpler
functions.
If g is a differentiable function at x and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composition function f ◦ g = f (g(x)) is
differentiable at x. The derivative of the composite function is:

( f ◦ g)0 (x) = f 0 (g(x))g0 (x).

Another way of expressing, if u = u(x) and f = f (u), then

d du
[ f (u)] = f 0 (u) .
dx dx

And a final way of expressing the chain rule is the easiest form to remember: If y is a function of u and u is a function
of x, then

dy dy du
= . .
dx du dx

Example 1

Differentiate f (x) = (2x3 − 4x2 + 5)2 .

Solution:
Using the chain rule, let u = 2x3 − 4x2 + 5. Then

d d
[(2x2 − 4x2 + 5)2 ] = [u2 ]
dx dx
du
= 2u
dx
= 2(2x3 − 4x2 + 5)(6x2 − 8x).

The example above is one of the most common types of composite functions. It is a power function of the type

y = [u(x)]n .

The rule for differentiating such functions is called the General Power Rule. It is a special case of the Chain Rule.

1
 www.ck12.org

The General Power Rule

If

y = [u(x)]n

then

dy
= n[u(x)]n−1 u0 (x).
dx

In simpler form, if

y = un

then

y0 = nun−1 · u0 .

Example 2
p
What is the slope of the tangent line to the function y = x2 − 3x + 2 that passes through point x = 3?
Solution:
We can write y = (x2 −3x+2)1/2 . This example illustrates the point that n can be any real number including fractions.
Using the General Power Rule,

dy 1 2 1
= (x − 3x + 2) 2 −1 (2x − 3)
dx 2
1
= (x2 − 3x + 2)−1/2 (2x − 3)
2
(2x − 3)
= √
2 x2 − 3x + 2

To find the slope of the tangent line, we simply substitute x = 3 into the derivative:

 √
dy  2(3) − 3 3 3 2
= p = √ = .
4

dx  2 3 2 − 3(3) + 2 2 2
x=3

Example 3

Find dy/dx for y = sin3 x.

Solution:
The function can be written as y = [sin x]3 . Thus

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Chain Rule

dy
= 3[sin x]2 [cos x]
dx
= 3 sin2 x cos x

Example 4

Find dy/dx for y = 5 cos(3x2 − 1).

Solution:
Let u = 3x2 − 1. By the chain rule,

d du
[ f (u)] = f 0 (u)
dx dx

where f (u) = 5 cos u. Thus

dy
= 5(− sin u)(6x)
dx
= −5(6x) sin u
= −30x sin(3x2 − 1)

Example 5

Find dy/dx for y = [cos(πx2 )]3 .

Solution:
This example applies the chain rule twice because there are several functions embedded within each other.
Let u be the inner function and w be the innermost function.

y = (u(w))3
u(x) = cos x
w(x) = πx2 .

Using the chain rule,

d du
[ f (u)] = f 0 (u)
dx dx
d 3 d
[u ] = [cos3 (πx2 )]
dx dx
d
= [cos(πx2 )]3
dx
= 3[cos(πx2 )]2 [− sin(πx2 )](2πx)
= −6πx[cos(πx2 )]2 sin(πx2 ).

Notice that we used the General Power Rule and, in the last step, we took the derivative of the argument.

3
 www.ck12.org

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Review Questions

Find f 0 (x).
1. f (x) = (2x2 − 3x)39

−3
2. f (x) = x3 − x52
3. f (x) = √ 2 1
3x − 6x + 2
4. f (x) = sin3 x
5. f (x) = sin x3
6. f (x) = sin3 x3
7. f (x) = tan(4x5 )
p
8. f (x) = 4x − sin2 2x
sin x
9. f (x) = cos(3x−2)

10. f (x) = (5x + 8)3 (x3 + 7x)13

x−3 3


11. f (x) = 2x−5

4
Differentiation Rules: The
Chain Rule

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Differentiation Rules: The Chain Rule

C HAPTER
1 Differentiation Rules: The
Chain Rule
The Chain Rule enables us to differentiate a composite function f ◦ g. But why is there the need to have a special
way to determine the derivative of a composite function? Intuitively, it is because the variation of the domain of f is
now governed by the function g(x) rather than just by x, and g’s rate of change with respect to x should somehow be
taken into account. Before proceeding, see if you find effect of g by comparing the derivative of f (x) = x2 with the
derivative of f (x) = (5x)2 where g(x) = 5x.

The Chain Rule

We want to derive a rule for the derivative of a composite function of the form f ◦ g in terms of the derivatives of
f and g. This rule would allow us to differentiate complicated functions in terms of known derivatives of simpler
functions.
The rule that enables this is called the Chain Rule:
If g is a differentiable function at x, and f is differentiable at g(x), then the composition function f ◦ g = f (g(x)) is
differentiable at x. The derivative of the composite function is:

( f ◦ g)0 (x) = f 0 (g(x))g0 (x).

Or an equivalent statement:
If u = u(x) and f = f (u), then d
dx [ f (u)] = f 0 (u) du
dx
Or another equivalent statement:
If y is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then

dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx

Apply the chain rule to find the derivative of f (x) = (2x3 − 4x2 + 5)2 .
Using the chain rule, let u = 2x3 − 4x2 + 5. Then

d d
[(2x2 − 4x2 + 5)2 ] = [u2 ]
dx dx
du
= 2u
dx
= 2(2x3 − 4x2 + 5)(6x2 − 8x).

The problem above is one of the most common types of composite functions. It is a power function of the type
y = [u(x)]n .
The rule for differentiating such functions is special case of the Chain Rule called the General Power Rule:
dy d
If y = [u(x)]n , then dx = n[u(x)]n−1 dx u(x)

1
 www.ck12.org

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if you find the effect of g on the derivative by comparing the derivative of f (x) = x2 with
the derivative of f (x) = (5x)2 where g(x) = 5x. The derivative of f (x) = x2 is f 0 (x) = 2x, and the derivative of
f (x) = (5x)2 is f 0 (x) = 2(5x)5 = 2x · 25. The effect of gin the composite function is to modify the rate of change of
f (x) = x2 .

Example 2
p
What is the slope of the tangent line to the function y = x2 − 3x + 2 that passes through point x = 3?
1
We can write y = (x2 − 3x + 2) 2 . This example illustrates the point that n can be any real number including fractions.
Using the General Power Rule,

dy 1 2 1
= (x − 3x + 2) 2 −1 (2x − 3)
dx 2
1 1
= (x2 − 3x + 2)− 2 (2x − 3)
2
(2x − 3)
= √
2 x2 − 3x + 2

To find the slope of the tangent line, we simply substitute x = 3 into the derivative:

 √
dy  2(3) − 3 3 3 2
= p = √ = .
dx x=3 2 32 − 3(3) + 2 2 2 4

Example 3
dy
Find dx for y = sin3 x.

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Differentiation Rules: The Chain Rule

The function can be written as y = [sin x]3 . Thus

dy d
= [sin x]3
dx dx
= 3[sin x]2 [cos x]
= 3 sin x2 cos x

Example 4
dy
Find dx for y = [cos(πx2 )]3 .
This example will show the application of the chain rule multiple times because there are several functions embedded
within each other.
The function y can be written in the form
y = (u(w))3 , where

u(w) = cos(w)
w(x) = πx2

Here are the steps for the solution:

dy d
= [u(w)3 ] . . . Use u and w substitutions.
dx dx
du
= 3 · u(w)2 · . . . After using the General Power Rule
dx
 
2 du dw du
= 3 · u(w) · · . . . After using the Chain Rule for
dw dx dx
du dw
= 3 · u(w)2 · [− sin(w) · 2πx] . . . After evaluating and
dw dx
= 3[cos(πx2 )]2 · (− sin(πx2 ) · 2πx) . . . After substituting for u and w.
= −6πx[cos(πx2 )]2 sin(πx2 ) . . . After simplification.

Notice that we first used the General Power Rule and then used the Chain Rule, in the last step, we took the derivative
of the argument.

Review

For #1-11, find f 0 (x).

1. f (x) = (2x2 − 3x)39

−3
2. f (x) = x3 − x52
3. f (x) = √ 2 1
3x − 6x + 2
4. f (x) = sin3 x
5. f (x) = sin x3
6. f (x) = sin3 x3

3
 www.ck12.org

7. f (x) = tan(4x 5)
p
8. f (x) = 4x − sin2 2x
sin x
9. f (x) = cos(3x−2)
10. f (x) = (5x + 8)3 (x3 + 7x)13
x−3 3


11. f (x) = 2x−5
dy
12. Find dx for y = 5 cos(3x2 − 1).
p
13. Find the derivative of x3 + x5 + 89.
14. Find the derivative of sin(sin(sin(x))).
15. By definition, any function composed with its inverse is just the identity: f ( f −1 (x)) = x. differentiate both
sides of this equation and solve algebraically for the derivative of the inverse.

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 3.8.

4
Exponential Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Functions

C HAPTER
1 Exponential Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn to sketch and recognize basic exponential functions. You will also learn a real world application
of exponential functions.
Roberta invested $600 into a mutual fund that paid 4% interest each year compounded annually.

1. Complete a table showing the value of the mutual fund for the first five years.
2. Write an exponential function of the form y = a · bx to describe the value of the mutual fund.
3. Use the exponential function to determine the value of the mutual fund in 15 years.

Exponential Functions

An exponential function is a function with a variable in the exponent. Two examples of exponential functions are
shown below:

y = 2x

 x
1
y=
2

1
 www.ck12.org

Here are some facts to notice about the functions and their graphs:

• The graph of y = 2x is an increasing curve. It shows growth.

• Each y-value of y = 2x is 2 times the previous y-value (for the integer values of x). For example, the points on
the graph go from (0, 1) to (1, 2) to (2, 4). The next point would be (3, 8). The y-values keep being multiplied
by 2.
x
• The graph of y = 21 is a decreasing curve. It shows decay.

x
• Each y-value of y = 21 is 21 the value of the previous y-value (for the integer values of x). For example, the
points on the graph go from (0, 1) to (1, 21 ) to (2, 14 ). The y-values keep being multiplied by 21 .
• Both graphs have a y-intercept of 1. This is because anything to the zero power is equal to 1.
• The domain of each function is D = {x|x ∈ R}.
• The range for each function is R = {y|y > 0, y ∈ R}.

Based on the above observations, you can deduce that an exponential function of the form y = abx where b > 0 has
the following properties:

Properties of an Exponential Function of the form y = abx (b > 0)

• ’b’ is the value of the common ratio. Within the function, as the x-value increases by 1, the y-value is
multiplied by the common ratio.
• If b > 1 then the curve will represent exponential growth.
• If 0 < b < 1 then the curve will represent exponential decay.
• Every exponential function of the form y = abx will pass through the point (0, a). a will always be the y-
intercept of the function, or its value at time 0.
• Every exponential function of the form y = abx will have the domain and range:
D = {x|x ∈ R} and R = {y|y > 0, y ∈ R}

Let’s determine the common ratio for the following tables of values that represent exponential
functions:
1.
x 0 1 2 3 4 ···
y 1 2 4 8 16 ···

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Functions

tn+1
The common ratio is a constant that is determined by r = tn .

tn+1 2
r= = =2
tn 1
tn+1 4
r= = =2
tn 2
tn+1 8
r= = =2
tn 4
tn+1 16
r= = =2
tn 8
The common ratio is 2.

2.
x 0 1 2 3 4 ···
y 100 50 25 12.5 6.25 ···

tn+1
The common ratio is a constant that is determined by r = tn .

tn+1
r=
tn
50 1
r= =
100 2
25 1
r= =
50 2
12.5 1
r= =
25 2
6.25 1
r= =
12 2
1
The common ratio is .
2

Now, for f (x) = 3x , let’s determine the value of each of the following:
1. f (2)
2. f (3)
3. f (0)
4. f (4)
5. f (−2)

Note that f (x) = 3x is another way to express y = 3x . To determine the value of the function for the given values,
replace the exponent with that value and evaluate the expression.

1.
f (x) = 3x
f (2) = 32
f (2) = 9
f (2) = 9

3
 www.ck12.org

2.

f (x) = 3x
f (3) = 33
f (3) = 27
f (3) = 27

3.

f (x) = 3x
f (0) = 30
f (0) = 1
f (0) = 1

4.

f (x) = 3x
f (4) = 34
f (4) = 81
f (4) = 81

5.

f (x) = 3x
f (−2) = 3−2
1
f (−2) = 2
3
1
f (−2) =
9

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were told that Roberta invested $600 into a mutual fund that paid 4% interest each year compounded
annually. You were asked to do the following:

a. Complete a table showing the value of the mutual fund for the first five years.
b. Write an exponential function of the form y = a · bx to describe the value of the mutual fund.
c. Use the exponential function to determine the value of the mutual fund in 15 years.

a. First, do all the calculations for the table:

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Functions

600(.04) = 24 624(.04) = 24.96 648.96(.04) = 25.96

600 + 24 = 624 624 + 24.96 = 648.96 648.96 + 25.96 = 674.92

674.92(.04) = 27.00 701.92(.04) = 28.08

674.92 + 27.00 = 701.92 701.92 + 28.08 = 730.00

Putting all the information in a table, we get:

Time (years) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Value ($) 600 624 648.96 674.92 701.92 730.00

b. To find the function, note that the initial value is $600 and the common ratio is 1.04 which represents the
initial investment and the interest rate of 4%. The exponent is the time in years. The exponential function is
y = 600(1.04)x or v = 600(1.04)t .
c. To find how much will be in the fund in 15 years, plug in 15 for t.

v = 600(1.04)t
v = 600(1.04)15
v = $1080.57
v = $1080.57

The value of the mutual fund in fifteen years will be $1080.57.

Example 2

On January 1, Juan invested $1.00 at his bank at a rate of 10% interest compounded daily.

a. Create a table of values for the first 8 days of the investment.

b. What is the common ratio?
c. Determine the equation of the function that would best represent Juan’s investment.
d. How much money will Juan have in his account on January 31?
e. If Juan had originally invested $100 instead of $1.00 at 10%, what exponential equation would describe the
investment. How much money would he have in his account on January 31?

a. First calculate the values and put them in a table:

1.00(.10) = 0.10 1.10(.10) = 0.11 1.21(.10) = 0.12 1.33(.10) = 0.13

1.00 + 0.10 = 1.10 1.10 + 0.11 = 1.21 1.21 + 0.12 = 1.33 1.33 + 0.13 = 1.46

1.46(.10) = 0.15 1.61(.10) = 0.16 1.77(.10) = 0.18 1.95(.10) = 0.20

1.46 + 0.15 = 1.61 1.61 + 0.16 = 1.77 1.77 + 0.18 = 1.95 1.95 + 0.20 = 2.15

5
 www.ck12.org

# of days 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Money ($) 1 1.10 1.21 1.33 1.46 1.61 1.77 1.95 2.15

tn+1
b. Then note that the common ratio is a constant that is determined by tn . Therefore, the common ratio for this
problem is r = tn+1 1.10 1.21 1.33
tn → 1 = 1.10 → 1.10 = 1.10 → 1.21 = 1.10.

The common ratio is 1.10.

c. The equation of the function to model Juan’s investment is y = 1.10x

d. To find how much Juan will have on January 31, plug in 31 for t.

y = 1.10x → y = 1.1031 → y = $19.19

On January 31, Juan will have $19.19 in his account.

e. If Juan invested $100 instead of $1.00, the initial value would change.

y = 100(1.10)x
y = 100(1.10)31 → y = $1919.43 → y = $1919.43 .

On January 31, Juan would have $1919.43 in his account if he had invested $100 instead of $1.00.

Example 2

The graph below shows the change in value of two comic books purchases in the year 2000. Both comics were
expected to be good investments, but one of them did not perform as expected. Use the graphs to answer the
questions.

a. What was the purchase price of each comic book?

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Functions

b. Which comic book shows exponential growth?

c. Which comic book shows exponential decay?
d. In what year were both comic books equal in value?
e. State the domain and range for each comic.

a. The purchase price of each comic book is the y-intercept. The y-intercept is the initial value of the books. The
Spiderman comic book cost $30.00 and the Superman comic book cost $5.00.
b. The Superman comic book shows exponential growth.
c. The Spiderman comic book shows exponential decay.
d. In 2005 both comic books were equal in value. The graphs intersect at approximately (5, $12.50), where 5
represents five years after the books were purchased.
e. The domain and range for each comic is D = {x|x ∈ R} and R = {y|y > 0, y ∈ R}

Example 3

Paulette bought a Bobby Orr rookie card for $300. The value of the card appreciates (increases) by 30% each year.

a. Complete a table of values to show the first five years of the investment.
b. Determine the common ratio for the successive terms.
c. Determine the equation of the exponential function that models this investment.

a. First, calculate the values and create the table:

300(.30) = 90 390(.30) = 117 507(.30) = 152.10

300 + 90 = 390 390 + 117 = 507 507 + 152.10 = 659.10

659.10(.30) = 197.73 856.83(.30) = 257.05

659.10 + 197.73 = 856.83 856.83 + 257.05 = 1113.88

Time (years) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Value ($) 300 390 507 659.10 856.83 1113.88

b. To find the common ratio, use the formula and simplify:

7
 www.ck12.org

tn+1
r=
tn
390
r= = 1.3
300
507
r= = 1.3
390
659.10
r= = 1.3
507
856.83
r= = 1.3
659.10
1113.88
r= = 1.3
856.83

c. Putting it all together, the exponential function that would model Paulette’s investment is:

y = 300(1.3)x or v = 300(1.3)t

Example 4

Due to the closure of the pulp and paper mill, the population of the small town is decreasing at a rate of 12% annually.
If there are now 2400 people living in the town, what will the town’s projected population be in eight years?
The town’s population is decreasing by 12% annually. The simplest way to use this in an exponential function is to
use the percent of the population that still exists each year - 88%.

Therefore, the exponential function would consist of the present population (a), the common ratio is 0.88 (b) and
the time in years would be the exponent (x). The function is p = 2400(0.88)t The population in eight years would be

p = 2400(0.88)t
p = 2400(0.88)8
p = 863.123
p ≈ 863 people

Review

Brandon bought a car for $13,000. The value of the car depreciates by 20% each year.

1. Complete a table of values to show the car’s values for the first five years.
2. Determine the exponential function that would model the depreciation of Brandon’s car.

For each of the following exponential functions, identify the common ratio and the y-intercept, and tell if the function
represents a growth or decay curve.

3. y = 4(5)x

8
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Functions

4. y = 13(2.3)x
5. y = 0.85(0.16)x
6. y = 1.6(0.5)x
7. y = 0.4(2.1)x

Match each graph below with its corresponding equation:

8. y = 2x
9. y = 3x
10. y = 2(3)x
11. y = 3(2)x
12. Do these graphs represent growth or decay?

Match each graph below with its corresponding equation and identify if the graphs represent growth or decay.

13. y = 0.5x
14. y = 0.2x
15. y = 2(0.5)x
16. y = 3(0.2)x
17. Do these graphs represent growth or decay?
18. Jolene purchased a summer home for $120,000 in 2002. If the property has consistently increased in value by
11% each year, what will be the value of her summer home in 2012?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 6.9.

9
Higher Order Derivatives

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Higher Order Derivatives

C HAPTER
1 Higher Order Derivatives
You may recall hearing about Becca and her Track and Field competition in a prior concept. Her boyfriend had been
recording on her laptop the position signals from the GPS transmitter Becca was wearing during her race. She was
using a laptop program she had written to process the once per second GPS position signals so she could determine
how far she had run at time during the race. These distance and time points were plotted on her laptop. She had
created a program that also gave her a mathematical model of her distance so that she could take the derivative of
the math function at any time point to get her “instantaneous” speed.
What if, instead of just finding her speed at any time during the race, she wanted to find her acceleration? How
would that be done?

Higher Order Derivatives

If the function f has a derivative f 0 that is differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 , denoted by f 00 is called the second
derivative of f . We can continue the process of differentiating derivatives and obtain third, fourth, fifth and higher
derivatives of f . They are denoted as shown below:

TABLE 1.1: Notations for Higher Order Derivatives

1st 2nd 3rd 4th nth order

f0 f 00 f 000 f (4) f (n)
y0 y00 y000 y(4) y(n)
dy d2y d3y d4y dny
dx dx2 dx3 dx4 dxn
Dx y D2x y D3x y D4x y Dnx y

Given f (x) = −2x2 − 4x − 1. What is f 00 (x)?

Recall that f 00 (x) means “The second derivative of f (x)”, or “The derivative of the derivative of f (x)”. The
function f (x) must be differentiated twice as follows:

d
f 0 (x) = (−2x2 − 4x − 1) . . . Determine the 1st derivate.
dx
= −4x − 4
d
f 00 (x) = (−4x − 4) . . . Determine the 2nd derivate.
dx
= −4

Therefore, f 00 (x) = −4

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked about Becca would find her acceleration. Since Becca has already created a program to
calculate her instantaneous speed at a given point on the track by finding the derivative of the mathematical model
to her GPS position data, she could then take the derivative of that function, the second derivative, to find her
instantaneous acceleration at the same point in the race.
By finding her instantaneous speed and acceleration at different points in the race, she can learn a lot about her
performance during the race, and hopefully target areas she needs to work on to improve her overall success.

Example 2

Given f (x) = (−x4 − 4x3 − 5x2 + 3). Find f 00 (x) when x = 3.

Again, the function f (x) must be differentiated twice; then the 2nd derivative must be evaluated:

d
f 0 (x) = (−x4 − 4x3 − 5x2 + 3) . . . Determine the 1st derivate.
dx
= −4x3 − 12x2 − 10x
d
f 00 (x) = (−4x3 − 12x2 − 10x) . . . Determine the 2nd derivate.
dx
= −12x2 − 24x − 10
f 00 (3) = −12(3)2 − 24(3) − 10 . . . Evaluate the 2nd derivate
= −190

Therefore, f 00 (3) = −190.

Example 3

Show that y = x3 + 3x + 2 satisfies the differential equation y000 + xy00 − 2y0 = 0.

We need to obtain the first, second, and third derivatives and substitute them into the differential equation to check
for equality.

y = x3 + 3x + 2
y0 = 3x2 + 3
y00 = 6x
y000 = 6.

Substituting,

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Higher Order Derivatives

y000 + xy00 − 2y0 = 6 + x(6x) − 2(3x2 + 3)

= 6 + 6x2 − 6x2 − 6
=0

which satisfies the equation.

Example 4

Find the fifth derivative of f (x) = 2x4 − 3x3 + 5x2 − x − 1.

To find the fifth derivative, we must first find the first, second, third, and fourth derivatives as follows:

1. f 0 (x) = 8x3 − 9x2 + 5x − x

2. f (2) (x) = 24x2 − 18x + 5
3. f (3) (x) = 48x − 18
4. f (4) (x) = 48
5. f (5) (x) = 0

Review

1. Given: v(x) = −4x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 3. What is v00 (x)?

2. Given: m(x) = x2 + 5x. What is m00 (x)?
3. Given: d(x) = 3x4 ex . What is d 00 (x)?
d 2t
4. Given: t(x) = −2x5 sin(x). What is dx 2?
d2
5. What is dx2
3x5 ex ?
d3y 2
6. Find | , where
dx3 x=1
y= .
x3 
 0
7. Suppose u0 (0) = 98 and u
q (0) = 7. Find q(0) assuming u(0) = 0?
x2 −5x+4 0
8. Given: b(x) = −5x+2 . What is: b (2)?
ex dm
9. Given: m(x) = 3x+4 . What is dx ?
d sin(x)
10. What is dx · x−4 ?
11. x
Given q(x) = sin(x) . What is q00 (x) = sin(x)
x
?
12. The position of a certain nano particle can be approximated by the function t 3 + t. What function gives the
acceleration of the particle?
13. The position of a car is given by the function sin(t) + 3t 2 . Is the car accelerating or decelerating?
14. The position of a velociraptor chasing a triceratops is given by the function cos(−t). Is the raptor experiencing
positive or negative jerk at t = 3π
2 ?
1 4
15. The position of the moon is night sky given by the following function of time: 12 t − 36 t 3 − 5t 2 + ππ . Name a
time when the moon is experiencing no acceleration at all.
16. What is the maximum number of times one would have to differentiate a N-degree polynomial before the
derivative becomes zero?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 3.11.

3
Derivatives of Trigonometric
Functions

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

C HAPTER
1 Derivatives of
Trigonometric Functions
The functions sin x and cos x are periodic, with period 2π. You have learned that the derivative of a differentiable
function gives the slope of the tangent line at a point. Before proceeding with this lesson, look at the function curves
for the two functions, and see if you can identify any points where you know what the derivative will be. For each
function, do these sets of points repeat as x increases or decreases? How often? Can you make a general statement
about the derivatives of the trigonometric functions?

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

We now want to find an expression for the derivative of each of the six trigonometric functions:

sin x cos x tan x

csc x sec x cot x

We first consider the problem of differentiating sin x, using the definition of the derivative.

d sin(x + h) − sin x
[sin x] = lim
dx h→0 h

Since

sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β.

The derivative becomes

d sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x

[sin x] = lim
dx h→0
  h   
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
   
1 − cos h sin h
= − sin x · lim + cos x · lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= − sin x · (0) + cos x · (1)
= cos x.

d sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x

[sin x] = lim
dx h→0
  h   
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
   
1 − cos h sin h
= − sin x · lim + cos x · lim
h→0 h h→0 h

1
 www.ck12.org

Let’s look at limh→0 1−cos(h)

h and limx→0 sin(h)
h . While there are analytical methods that can be used to evaluate these
two limits, let’s look at function graphs and table data. The graphs of the two functions and some calculator table
data are shown below. Inspection of these near x = 0 appears to show that the limits are:
limx→0 cos(h)−1
h = 0 and limh→0 sin(h)
h =1
The above results can be confirmed analytically.

TABLE 1.1:
x(rad) -0.001 -0.0001 0 0.0001 0.0001
f (x) -0.0005 -0.00005 Error 0.00005 0.0005
g(x) 0.99999833 0.999999998 Error 0.999999998 0.99999833

Therefore,
d
dx [sin x] = cos x.
d
It will be left as an exercise to prove that dx [cos x] = − sin x.
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions are shown below.

d d d
[sin x] = cos x [cos x] = − sin x [tan x] = sec2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
[csc x] = − csc x cot x [sec x] = sec x tan x [cot x] = − csc2 x
dx dx dx

Keep in mind that the argument x for all the trigonometric functions is measured in radians.
All of the derivatives can be proved by the definition of the derivative, but the reciprocal functions can be found
d
using a simpler method. The proof of dx [tan x] = sec2 x is as follows:
Since

sin x
tan x = ,
cos x

then

 
d d sin x
[tan x] =
dx dx cos x

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Using the quotient rule,

(cos x)(cos x) − (sin x)(− sin x)

=
cos2 x
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
1
=
cos2 x
= sec2 x

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if there are any repeating points for the derivatives of trigonometric functions and if so, how
often they repeat.
First, see if you can identify any points where you know the derivative of sin x and cos x: Each function has two
places in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π where the tangent line has a slope of 0.
For each function, do these sets of points repeat as x increases or decreases? Yes, these 0 slope points do repeat for
each function.
How often? The pair of 0 slope points repeats with a period of 2π.
Can you make a general statement about the derivatives of the trigonometric functions? Because the function values
repeat every period, the derivative of each function at a specific point should also repeat with period 2π.

Example 2

Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = x2 cos x + sin x.

Using the product rule and the formulas above, we obtain

f 0 (x) = x2 (− sin x) + 2x cos x + cos x

= −x2 sin x + 2x cos x + cos x.

3
 www.ck12.org

Example 3
dy cos x
Find dx if y = 1−tan x . What is the slope of the tangent line at x = π3 ?
Using the quotient rule and the formulas above, we obtain

dy (1 − tan x)(− sin x) − (cos x)(− sec2 x)

=
dx (1 − tan x)2
− sin x + tan x sin x + cos x sec2 x
=
(1 − tan x)2

To calculate the slope of the tangent line, we simply substitute x = π3 :

sec2
π

π

π

π

π


− sin

dy  3 + tan 3 sin 3 + cos 3 3
= .
dx x= π π 2



1 − tan

3 3

We finally get the slope to be approximately


dy 
= 4.9.
dx x= π
3

Example 4
dy cot x
Find dx if y = sin x .

dy dy
[cot x] − cot x dx
 
d cot x sin x dx [sin x]
= 2
....Quotient Rule
dx sin x sin x
sin x · [− csc2 x] − cot x · [cos x]
= .....Trigonometric derivatives
sin2 x
− sin x · [csc x + cot2 x]
2
= .....Factor − sin x
sin2 x
= − csc x · [1 + cot2 x + cot2 x] ....Simplify and use trig identities
2
= − csc x · [1 + 2 cot x]

dy
Therefore, dx = − csc x · [1 + 2 cot2 x].

Review

For #1-10, find the derivative y0 .

1. y = x sin x + 2
2. y = x2 cos x − x tan x − 1
3. y = sin2 x
4. y = sin x−1
sin x+1
5. y = cos x+sin x
cos x−sin x

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
√
x
6. y = tan x + 2
7. y = csc x sin x + x
sec x
8. y = csc x
If y = csc x, find y0 π6 .


9.
10. y = x5 cos(x)?
11. What is the derivative of x2 csc(x)?
12. What is the derivative of csc(x) tan(x)?
13. Use the quotient rule to verify that
the derivative of sec(x) is sec(x) tan(x).
14. What is the derivative of cot π2 − x ?
15. What is the derivative of csc2 (x) − cot2 (x)?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 3.7.

References

1. . . CC BY-NC-SA

5
 Optimization

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Optimization

C HAPTER
1 Optimization
At this point, you know how to analyze a function to find its minima and maxima using the first and second
derivatives. Finding the solution to some real-world problem (such as in finance, science, and engineering) often
involves a process of finding the maximum or minimum of a function within an acceptable region of values. This
kind of problem is an optimization problem, and the solution that is the maximum or minimum value of the function
in the region is the optimal solution. Setting up the optimization problem is the important first step. See if you can
setup (but not solve) this problem: What dimensions will minimize the amount of metal required to construct a
storage tank of volume 1000 m3 that is in the shape of a right circular cylinder and has a top that is a hemisphere?

Optimization

In previous concepts, we discussed methods for finding maxima and minima (extrema) of functions, and these
methods are used in solving optimization problems. Suppose that f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b]. Recall
that we can find the absolute minimum and maximum of a function f that is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] as
follows:

1. Find the values of f for each critical value in (a, b);

2. Find the values of the function f at the endpoints of [a, b];
3. The absolute maximum will be the largest value of the numbers found in 1 and 2; the absolute minimum will
be the smallest number.

However, real-world problems often impose constraints that must be accounted for in finding the optimal solution.
Take a company that makes high-quality bicycle tires for both recreational and racing riders. The number of tires
that the company sells is a function of the price charged and can be modeled by the formula T (x) = −x3 + 36.5x2 +
50x + 250, where x is the priced charged for each tire in dollars. At what price is the maximum number of tires sold?
How many tires will be sold at that maximum price?
In this optimization problem, we are trying to find the maximum value of T (x). T (x) is the primary equation that
will be optimized. Let’s first look at a graph of the tire function and make some observations. Set the viewing
window ranges on your graphing calculator to [-10, 50] for x and [-500, 10000] for y.
The graph should appear as follows:

We first note that since this is a real-life application, both quantities, x and T (x), are positive or else the problem
makes no sense. These conditions, together with the fact that the zero of T (x) is located at x = 37.9, suggest that

1
 www.ck12.org

the actual domain of this function is 0 < x ≤ 37.9. This restricted domain, which we refer to as a feasible domain,
illustrates a common feature of optimization problems: that the real-life conditions of the situation under study
dictate the domain values.
We can use the calculator graph or use the First and Second Derivative Tests to find the absolute maximums and
minimums on the closed interval [0, 37.9].

TABLE 1.1:
1st Derivative f 0 (x) = −3x2 + 73x + 50 f 0 (x) = 0:
at x = − 23 ... not in domain;
at x = 25 ... in the domain.
2nd Derivative f 00 (x) = −6x + 73 f 00 (25) = 23
There is a function maximum at x = 25.

We see that the function attains an absolute maximum at x = 25 at the point (25, 8687.5). So, charging a price of
$25 will result in a total of 8687 tires being sold.
In many optimization problems, a secondary equation (or more than one) must be used to reduce the number of
variables in the primary equation before starting the optimization procedure (use of a graphing calculator; application
of derivative tests).
Suppose that Mary wishes to make an outdoor rectangular pen for her pet chihuahua. She would like the pen to
enclose an area in her backyard with one of the sides of the rectangle made by the side of Mary’s house as indicated
in the following figure. If she has 90 ft of fencing to work with, what dimensions of the pen will result in the
maximum area?

The dimensions of the pen are x and y in the figure. The primary equation is the function that models the area, A, of
the pen. We wish to maximize:

A = xy.

The secondary equation comes from the information concerning the fencing Mary has to work with. In particular,

2x + y = 90.

Solving for y we have

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Optimization

y = 90 − 2x.

We now substitute into the primary equation to get:

A = xy = x(90 − 2x), or
A(x) = −2x2 + 90x

It is always helpful to view the graph of the function to be optimized. Set the viewing window ranges on your
graphing calculator to [-10, 100] for x and [-500, 1200] for y. The graph should appear as follows:

The feasible domain of this function is 0 < x < 45, which makes sense because if x is 45 feet, then the figure will be
two 45-foot-long fences going away from the house with 0 feet left for the width y.
We can find the solution by using the graphing calculator, and/or the First and Second Derivative Tests and the
method for finding absolute maximums and minimums on a closed interval (in this problem, [0, 45]).

TABLE 1.2:
1st Derivative A0 (x) = −4x + 90 A0 (x) = 0:
at x = 22.5 ... in the domain.
2nd Derivative A00 = −4 A00 = −4
There is a function maximum at x = 22.5.

We see that the function attains an absolute maximum at x = 22.5 at the point (22.5, 1012.5).
So the dimensions of the pen should be x = 22.5, and y = 45; with those dimensions, the pen will enclose an area of
1012.5 f t 2 .
Optimization problems involving geometric shapes really help illustrate the problem solving process. Here is
another:
A certain brand of lemonade sells its product in 16-ounce aluminum cans that hold 473 ml (1 ml = 1 cm3 ). Find the
dimensions of the cylindrical can that will use the least amount of aluminum.
We need to develop the formula for the surface area of the can. This consists of the top and bottom areas, each πr2 ,
and the surface area of the side, 2πrh (product of circumference of the top and height of can). Hence the primary
equation is

3
 www.ck12.org

A = 2πr2 + 2πrh.

We observe that both our feasible domains require r, h > 0.

To reduce the number of variables in the primary equation, we need a secondary equation that will give us a
relationship between r and h. We note that the volume for a circular cylinder is given by V = πr2 h, which provides
a relationship between r and h. The secondary equation is:

V 473
h= 2
= 2.
πr πr

We substitute this expression for h into the primary equation to get:

 
2 473
A(r) = 2πr + 2πr , or
πr2
946
A(r) = 2πr2 + .
r

The graph of the function A(r) is shown below:

The feasible domain is r > 0.

TABLE 1.3:
1st Derivative A0 (r) = 4πr − 946
r2
A0 (r) =r0:
3 946
at r = ≈ 4.22 cm ... in the
4π
domain.
2nd Derivative A00 (r) = 4π + 1892
r3
A00 (r) > 0 for r > 0
There is a function minimum at r ≈
4.22 cm.

Hence we have a minimum surface area of 996.2 cm2 when r ≈ 9.06 cm and h ≈ 8.44 cm.

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Optimization

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked about what dimensions will minimize the amount of metal required to construct a storage
tank of volume 1000 m3 that is in the shape of a right circular cylinder and has a top that is a hemisphere.
The volume of the tank consists of
the volume of a cyclinder and the volume of a hemisphere. The volume can be
expressed as: V = πr2 h + 21 43 πr3 = 1000 where r is the radius of the tank (in meters), and h is the cyclinder’s
height (in meters).
You would like to minimize the amount of metal used, which is the same as asking to minimize the area of the tank.
This should be the optimization problem statement.
The area can be expressed as: A = 2πrh + 21 (4πr2 ). Because there are two variables, r and h, we should make h a
function r, i.e., h(r), using the equation for V .

1000 2
h(r) = − r
πr2 3

The optimization problem statement is then:

   
dA d 1 dh
=0= 2πrh(r) + (4πr2 ) = 2π h(r) + r + 2r , or
dr dr 2 dr
dh
h(r) + r + 2r = 0.
dr

The next step is to solve the optimization problem to see if there is a solution that makes sense. Can you do it?

Example 2

A storage bin is to be constructed having a rectangular base, rectangular sides, and open at the top. Its width is 4
meters and its volume is 36 cubic meters. If building the bin costs $10/sq. m. for the base and $5/sq. m. for the
sides, what is the cost of the least expensive bin? What are its dimensions?

5
 www.ck12.org

Let the dimensions of the bin be l length, w width, and h height. Note that w = 4 meters.
The primary equation is the function that models the cost, C, of the bin. We wish to minimize:

C = 10lw + 5[2lh + 2wh] = 10[lw + lh + wh] = 10[4l + lh + wh]

The secondary equation comes from the information concerning the volume of the bin:

V = lwh = 4lh = 36.

Using the secondary equation in the primary equation:

   
36 36 9
C = 10 [4l + lh + wh] = 10 4l + + = 40 l + 2.25 +
4 l l

We can find the solution by using the First and Second Derivative Tests and the method for finding absolute
maximums and minimums on a closed interval (in this problem, [0, 45]).

TABLE 1.4:
1st Derivative C0 (l) = 40 1 − l92 C0 (l) = 0: at l = 3 (in the domain)

and l = −3 (not in domain).

2nd Derivative C00 (l) = 720
l3
C00 (3) ≈ 26.7 . . . Cost function is
concave upward.
There is a function minimum at l =
3.

So the dimensions of the bin are: l = 3 meters, w = 4 meters, and h = 3 meters.

The cost to build the bin: C(3) = $40(3 + 2.25 + 3) = $330.

Review

For #1-4, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values, if they exist.

1. f (x) = 2x2 − 6x + 6 on [0, 5]

2. f (x) = x3 + 3x2 on [-2, 3]
2
3. f (x) = 3x 3 − 6x + x on [1, 8]
4. f (x) = x4 − x3 on [-2, 2]
5. Find the dimensions of a rectangle having area 2000 f t 2 whose perimeter is as small as possible.
6. Find two numbers whose product is 50 and whose sum is a minimum.
7. John is shooting a basketball from half-court. It is approximately 45 ft from the half court line to the hoop.
The function s(t) = −0.025x2 + x + 15 models the basketball’s height above the ground s(t) in feet, when it
is t feet from the hoop. How many feet from John will the ball reach its highest height? What is that height?
8. The height of a model rocket t seconds into flight is given by the formula h(t) = − 13 t 3 + 4t 2 + 25t + 4.
1. How long will it take for the rocket to attain its maximum height?
2. What is the maximum height that the rocket will reach?
3. How long will the flight last?

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Optimization

9. Show that of all rectangles of a given perimeter, the rectangle with the greatest area is a square.
10. Show that of all rectangles of a given area, the rectangle with the smallest perimeter is a square.
11. Eduardo wants to build a fence which will protect his rectangular tomato garden from the various hungry
critters roaming the landscape. He purchases 100 feet of fence. What should the dimensions of the tomato
garden be if it is to have the maximum area that can be contained by 100 feet of fence.
12. Hans has been challenged to find two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 36 so that the product of the two
numbers is maximal. How should he proceed?
13. Lucia needs to find two nonnegative numbers whose product is 25 so that the sum of one plus the square of
the other is minimized, in order to gain membership to a club. What numbers is she after?
14. Esmeralda wants to enclose a field with a rectangular fence to keep her goats from escaping. One side of
the field is against a building, so it will not require fencing. She has 50 feet of fencing material. What are
dimensions of the maximum area she can fence? √
15. Which point on the graph of the function y = x is closest to the point (1, 0)?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 4.9.

References

1. . . CC BY-NC-SA
2. . . CC BY-NC-SA
3. . . CC BY-NC-SA
4. . . CC BY-NC-SA

7
Implicit Differentiation

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Implicit Differentiation

C HAPTER
1 Implicit Differentiation
The differentiation techniques up to this point have been applied to function definitions (equations) of the form
y = f (x). Not all functions can be stated in this form, e.g., when products of x and y are involved. When they cannot,
finding the derivative of y may require a different technique.

Implicit Differentiation

Consider the equation 2xy = 1.

dy
We want to obtain the derivative dx . One way to do this is to first solve for y, to produce an explicit function of x,
1
y= 2x ,
and then take the derivative on both sides,

 
d 1
= =
dx 2x

dy
However, there is another way of finding dx that uses the original equation that is an implicit function of x. We can
directly differentiate both sides.
dy
Find the derivative dx of the equation 2xy = 1 without transforming it to an explicit function of x. To do this, directly
differentiate both sides:

d d
[2xy] = [1].
dx dx

Using the Product Rule on the left-hand side,

d d
y [2x] + 2x [y] = 0
dx dx
dy
y[2] + 2x = 0.
dx

dy
Note that the chain rule is applied when taking the derivative of a term with y and a dx is included for those
terms. Solving for dy
dx ,

dy −2y −y
= = .
dx 2x x

1
But since y = 2x , substitution gives

1
 www.ck12.org

dy −1
=
dx x(2x)
−1
= 2.
2x

This result agrees with the previous calculations. This second method of finding a derivative is called implicit
differentiation. You may consider the process and say that the first method is easier and faster and there is no
reason for the second method. That may be true for this example and some others, but consider the next problem.
dy
Find dx if 3y2 − cos y = x3 .
Good luck finding an explicit function representation of this equation. Let’s try implicit differentiation and see what
happens.
dy
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x and then solving for dx ,

d 3 d 2 d
= [x ]3 [y ] − [cos y]
dx dx dx

dy
Solving for dx , we finally obtain

dy 3x2
= .
dx 6y + sin y

In this problem, implicit differentiation provided a workable path to a solution.

Implicit differentiation can be used to calculate the slope of the tangent line as the problem below shows.
Find the equation of the tangent line that passes through the point (1, 2) on the graph of 8y3 + x2 y − x = 3.
The general approach to solving this problem is to:

dy
1. find dx , then
2. substitute the point (1, 2) into the derivative to find the slope, and then
3. use the equation of the line (either the slope-intercept form or the point-intercept form) to find the equation of
the tangent line.

For step 1, finding an explicit function representation of the equation is not obvious. Using implicit differentiation,
however, allows differentiation of both sides:

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Implicit Differentiation

d d
[8y3 + x2 y − x] = [3]
 dx  dx
dy dy
24y2 + (x2 )(1) + y(2x) − 1 = 0
dx dx
dy dy
24y2 + x2 + 2xy − 1 = 0
dx dx
 2  dy
24y + x2 = 1 − 2xy
dx
dy 1 − 2xy
= .
dx 24y2 + x2

Now, substituting point (1, 2) into the derivative to find the slope,

dy 1 − 2(1)(2)
=
dx 24(2)2 + (1)2
−3
= .
97

−3
So the slope of the tangent line is 97 , which is a small value. (What does this tell us about the orientation of the
tangent line?)
Next we need to find the equation of the tangent line. The slope-intercept form is

y = mx + b,

−3
where m = 97 and b is the y-intercept. To find b, simply substitute point (1, 2) into the line equation and solve:

 
−3
2= (1) + b
97
197
b= .
97

Thus the equation of the tangent line is

−3 197
y= x+ .
97 97

Note that we could have used the equivalent point-slope form y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).
To summarize, to find the derivative of an implicit function follow the following steps:

1. Differentiate both sides with respect to x

dy dy
2. Collect all dx terms on the left hand side of the equation and place the other terms without dx on the right hand
side.
dy
3. Factor common dx from all terms
dy
4. Solve for dx .

3
 www.ck12.org

dy
Note that the expression for the derivative dx may involve BOTH x AND y.

MEDIA
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Examples

Example 1

d2y
Use implicit differentiation to find dx2
if 5x2 − 4y2 = 9.

d d
[5x2 − 4y2 ] = [9]
dx dx
dy
10x − 8y = 0.
dx

dy
Solving for dx ,

dy 5x
= .
dx 4y

Differentiating both sides implicitly again (and using the quotient rule),

 
dy
d2y (4y)(5) − (5x) 4 dx
=
dx2 (4y)2
20y 20x dy
= 2
−
16y 16y2 dx
5 5x dy
= − .
4y 4y dx

dy 5x
But since dx = 4y , we substitute it into the second derivative:

d2y 5 5x 5x
= − ·
dx2 4y 4y 4y
d2y 5 25x2
= − .
dx2 4y 16y2

This is the second derivative of y.

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Implicit Differentiation

Example 2

d2y 
Use implicit differentiation to find dx2 (x,y)=(2,3)
.

d2y 
The next step is to find: dx 2 .
(x,y)=(2,3)

d 2 y  25(2)2

5
= −
dx (2,3) 4(2) 16(3)2
2 
5
=− .
72

Example 3

What does the second derivative represent?

Since the first derivative of a function represents the rate of change of the function y = f (x) with respect to x, the
second derivative represents the rate of change of the function. For example, in kinematics (the study of motion), the
speed of an object (y0 ) signifies the change of position with respect to time but acceleration (y00 ) signifies the rate of
change of the speed with respect to time.

Review

dy
For #1-6, find dx by implicit differentiation.

1. x2 + y2 = 500
2. x2 y + 3xy − 2 = 1
3. 1x + 1y = 21
√ √ √
4. x − y = 3
5. sin(25xy2 ) = x
6. tan3 (x2 − y2 ) = tan π


4

For #7-8, use implicit differentiation to find the slope of the tangent line to the given curve at the specified point.

7. x2 y − y2 x = −1 at (1,1)
8. sin(xy) = y at (π, 1)
9. Find y00 by implicit differentiation for x3 y3 = 5.
10. Use implicit differentiation to show that the tangent line to the curve y2 = kx at (x0 , y0 ) is given by y0 y =
1
2 k(x + x0 ), where k is a constant.
d
11. Find dx (x sin(y) + y sin(x)).
12. Find y0 if x2 + xy + y2 = 10.
13. Find the formula for the line tangent to the curve y3 + 2xy2 − x = 2 at the point (1, 1).
d √
14. Find dx ( xy)
d2y
15. y2 + sin(y) = x. Find dx2
in terms of x and y.

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 3.10.

5
CK-12 Calculus Study Guide -
Implicit Differentiation

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. CK-12 Calculus Study Guide - Implicit Differentiation

C HAPTER
1 CK-12 Calculus Study
Guide - Implicit Differentiation
Important Points – Implicit Differentiation

Explicit Functions:
Up to this point, we have been dealing with explicit functions. These are functions which have the dependent variable
isolated to one side of the equation and an expression containing the independent variable on the other side of the
equation.
√
Ex.y = x2 and f (x) = 2 + ex
Implicit Functions:
Implicit functions are defined through expressions called implicit equations. These equations do not have the
dependent variable isolated to one side of the equation.
Ex. y = y2 + ey = x + y and x2 + y2 = 1
A curve drawn through the entire set of points satisfying an implicit equation is not necessarily a function. For
example the set of points satisfying x2 + y2 = 1 represents a circle, but we know that it is not a function since it fails
the vertical line test.
2
The important thing to remember is that more than one function may be “implied” pequation. x +
pthrough an implicit
y2 = 1 is an implicit equation that actually implies two separate functions: y = 1 − x2 and y = − 1 − x2 .
Implicit Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation involves finding the derivative of an implicit function by differentiating an implicit equation.
The first step is to apply the differentiation operator to both sides of the implicit equation. The next step is to simplify
the resulting equation. The final step is to isolate for dy
dx .
Ex. x2 + y2 = 1

dy 2 2 dy
dx [x + y ] = dx [1]

dy
⇒ 2x dx
dx + 2y dx = 0

⇒ 2x + 2y dy
dx = 0

dy
⇒ dx = − xy

Derivatives found through implicit differentiation of an implicit equation are valid for
pall of the implicitp
functions
dy x
that are described by that implicit equation. In our example dx = − y is valid for y = 1 − x and y = − 1 − x2 .
2

Example 1

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

1
 www.ck12.org

 x 2  y 2
+ =1
a b

Analysis:
d
Let’s find the derivative with respect to x for both sides dx operator.

x 2

2
+ by


a = 1
h i
x 2

2
d
+ by d


⇒ dx a = dx [1]

h 2
i
x2
⇒ d
dx a2
+ by2 = d
dx [1]

⇒ 2x dx
a2 dx
+ 2y
b2
dy
dx = 0

dy
Let’s isolate for dx

 2
dy −2x b
dx = a2 2y

dy −xb2
dx = a2 y

Answer:
dy −xb2
dx = a2 y

Extension:

Example 2

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

yx = y + x

Analysis:

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. CK-12 Calculus Study Guide - Implicit Differentiation

yx = y + x

d d
dx [yx] = dx [y + x]
 
dy dx dy
⇒ dx x+y dx = dx + dx
dx

 
dy dy
dx x+y = dx +1

dy
⇒ dx (x − 1) = 1−y

dy 1−y
dx = x−1

Answer:
dy 1−y
dx = x−1

Example 3

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

y+3
= yx + 1 When x 6= −2
x+2

Analysis:

⇒ y + 3 = (x + 2)(yx + 1) and x 6= −2

⇒ y + 3 = yx2 + x + 2yx + 2 and x 6= −2

d d 2
dx [y + 3] = dx [yx + x + 2yx + 2] and 6= −2

dy
+ d(3) dy dx

dx
⇒ dx dx = x2 dx + y 2x dx + dx
 
dy d(2)
+2 x dx + y dx
dx + dx and x 6= −2

dy dy dy
⇒ dx = x2 dx + 2xy + 1 + 2x dx + y and x 6= −2

dy dy dy
⇒ dx − x2 dx − 2x dx = 1 + 2xy + y and x 6= −2

dy 2
⇒ dx (1 − x − 2x) = 2xy + 1 + y and x 6= −2

dy 2xy+1+y
⇒ dx = 1−x2 −2x
and x 6= −2

Note that some we rewrote

3
 www.ck12.org

y+3
= yx + 1 to (y + 3) = (x + 2)(yx + 1)
x+2

We lost the information that x 6= 2 is constraint on x. Therefore we needed to impose the additional constraint
that x 6= 2 to the answer

dy 2xy + 1 + y
=
dx 1 − x2 − 2x

We say additional because we are just adding the constraint x 6= 2 to any constraints that can be found from the
dy
derived form of dx .

p
22 − 4(1)(−1)
−2±
√ 2(1)
−2± 8
⇒ 2 √
⇒ −1 ± 2

Answer:
dy 2xy+1+y
dx = 1−x2 −2x
with the additional constraint that x 6= 2.

Example 4

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

x2 + y2 + cot(y) = y + ex

Analysis:

x2 + y2 + cot(y) = y + ex

d 2 2 d x
dx [x + y + cot(y)] = dx [y + e ]

dy dy dy
⇒ 2x dx 2
dx + 2y dx + (− csc (y)) dx = dx
dx
+ ex dx

dy dy dy
⇒ 2x + 2y dx + (− csc2 (y)) dx = dx + ex

dy 2
⇒ dx [2y − csc (y) − 1] = ex − 2x

dy ex −2x
⇒ dx = 2y−csc2 (y)−1

Answer:
dy ex −2x
dx = 2y−csc2 (y)−1

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. CK-12 Calculus Study Guide - Implicit Differentiation

Extension:

Example 5

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

cos(yx)
=5
x2

Analysis:

cos(yx)
x2
= 5
h i
d cos(yx) d
dx x2
= dx (5)

h i
(− sin(yx)) d(yx) 2 dx
dx x −(2x dx ) cos(yx)
⇒ x4
= 0

dy dx
[(− sin(yx))(x dx +y dx )]x2 −(2x) cos(yx)
⇒ x4
= 0

dy
[(− sin(yx))(x dx +y)]x2 −(2x) cos(yx)
x4
= 0

dy
[(− sin(yx))(x dx +y)]x2
x4
− (2x) cos(yx)
x4
= 0
 
dy (2x) cos(yx) x4
⇒ x dx +y = x4 (− sin(yx))x2

dy (2x) cos(yx)
⇒ dx = (− sin(yx))x2

dy −2 cot(yx)
⇒ dx = x

dy
Note that we didn’t lose any information about the constraint of x 6= 0 for dx by cancelling at the powers of x. This
dy
is because there is still a factor of x left in the denominator of dx from which we can extract the information about
the constraint.
Answer:
dy −2 cot(yx)
dx = x

Example 6

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

√
tan(x) + tan(y) = xy

5
 www.ck12.org

Analysis:

√
tan(x) + tan(y) = xy

d d √
dx [tan(x) + tan(y)] = dx [ xy]
h i
dy dy
⇒ (sec2 (x)) dx 2
dx + (sec (y)) dx = (0.5(xy)−0.5 ) y dx
dx + x dx

h i
dy dy
√0.5 y + x dx
⇒ sec2 (x) + (sec2 (y)) dx =
xy
 
dy √0.5 0.5x
√ dy
⇒ sec2 (x) + (sec2 (y)) dx = +
xy xy dx

 
dy 0.5x
√ dy 0.5y
√
⇒ (sec2 (y)) dx − = − sec2 (x)
xy dx xy
 
dy 0.5x 0.5y
⇒ (sec (y)) − √
2 = √ − sec2 (x)
dx xy xy
 
0.5y
√ −sec2 (x)
dy xy
⇒ dx =  
0.5x
sec2 (y)− √
xy

Answer:
 
0.5y
√ −sec2 (x)
dy xy
dx =  
0.5x
sec2 (y)− √
xy

Example 7

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

y = cos(ey ) + x

Analysis:

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. CK-12 Calculus Study Guide - Implicit Differentiation

y = cos(ey ) + x

d d y
⇒ dx (y) = dx [cos(e ) + x]

dy dy dx
⇒ dx = (− sin(ey )) (ey ) dx + dx

dy dy
⇒ dx = (− sin(ey )) (ey ) dx +1

dy
⇒ dx = [1 + (− sin(ey )) (ey )] = 1

dy 1
⇒ dx = 1+ey sin(ey )

Answer:
dy 1
⇒ dx = 1+ey sin(ey )

Extension:

Example 8

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

e(x+y) = (y + x)e + xy

Analysis:

ex+y = (y + x)e + xy

d (x+y) d e
dx [e ] = dx [(y + x) + xy]
   
dx dy dx dy dy
⇒ (e(x+y) ) dx + dx = e(y + x)e−1 dx + dx + y dx
dx + x dx

   
dy dy dy
⇒ (e(x+y) ) 1 + dx = e(y + x)e−1 1 + dx + y + x dx
 
dy (x+y) dy e−1 ) + e(y + x)e−1 + y + x dy
⇒ e(x+y) + dx (e ) = dx (e(y + x) dx

dy (x+y) − e(y + x)e−1 − x]

⇒ dx [(e = (e(y + x)e−1 ) + y − e(x+y)
h i
dy (e(y+x)e−1 +y−ex+y
⇒ dx = (ex+y −e(y+x)e−1 −x)

Answer:
h e−1 +y−ex+y
i
dy
⇒ dx = (e(e(y+x)
x+y −e(y+x)e−1 −x)

7
 www.ck12.org

Example 9

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

(yx)3 + cot(yx) = 5etan(x) − 9y

Analysis:

(yx)3 + cot(yx) = 5etan(x) − 9y

d 3 d tan(x) − 9y]
dx [(yx) + cot(yx)] = dx [5e
   
dy 2 (yx)) x dy + y dx dy
⇒ 3(yx)2 x dx + y dx
dx + (− csc dx dx = (5etan(x) )(sec2 (x)) − 9 dx
   
dy dy dy
⇒ 3(yx)2 x dx + y + (− csc2 (yx)) x dx +y = (5etan(x) )(sec2 (x)) − 9 dx
 
dy dy
⇒ x dx + y (3(yx)2 − csc2 (yx)) + 9 dx = (5etan(x) )(sec2 (x))

dy 2 3 2 3 2 2 dy
⇒ dx (3y x − x csc (yx)) + (3y x − y csc (yx)) + 9 dx = (5etan(x) )(sec2 (x))

dy (5etan(x) )(sec2 (x))−(3y3 x2 −y csc2 (yx))

⇒ dx = (3y2 x3 −x csc2 (yx)+9

Answer:
dy (5etan(x) )(sec2 (x))−(3y3 x2 −y csc2 (yx))
⇒ dx = (3y2 x3 −x csc2 (yx)+9

Example 10

Question:
dy
What is dx for the following relation?

√
2x = (x5 + y)sin(x)

Analysis:

√
2x = (x5 + y)sin(x)

d
√ d
2x ] = 5 sin(x) ]
dx [ dx [(x + y)

⇒ (0.5(2x )−0.5 (2x ln 2) dx

dx
= d 5
dx [(x + y)
sin(x) ]

√
2x ln 2 = d 5 sin(x) ]
2 dx [(x + y)

8
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. CK-12 Calculus Study Guide - Implicit Differentiation

Now before we analyze the right hand side, let’s find the derivative of the function y = f (x)(g(x) . since this will help
us perform the implicit differentiation involved in

d 5 sin(x) ]
dx [(x + y) :

d g(x) ]
dx [ f (x)

d ln[ f (x)g(x) ]
⇒ dx [e ]

d g(x) ln f (x)
⇒ dx [e ]]

d
⇒ [eg(x) ln f (x) ]


dx [g(x) ln( f (x)]

⇒ [eg(x) ln f (x) ] g0 (x) ln f (x) + (g(x)) dx

d


ln f (x)
 
⇒ [eg(x) ln f (x) ] g0 (x) ln f (x) + gx
fx f 0 (x)

⇒ ( f (x)g(x) )(g0 (x) ln f (x)) + ( f 0 (x))(g(x))( f (x)g(x)−1 )

Let’s use this approach in solving

d 5 sin(x) ]
dx [(x + y)
√
2x ln 2 = d 5 sin(x) ]
2 dx [(x + y)
√
⇒ 2x ln 2 = d ln(x5 +y)sin(x)
2 dx [e ]
√
⇒ 2x ln 2 = d sin(x) ln(x5 +y)
2 dx [e ]
√
x
⇒ 22 ln 2
5 +y) d
= (esin(x) ln(x ) dx [sin(x) ln(x5 + y)]
√
x
h   i
⇒ 22 ln 2
5 +y) dy
= (esin(x) ln(x ) cos(x) ln(x5 + y) + sin(x) x51+y 5x4 + dx
√
2x ln 2
  
dy
⇒ 2 = (x5 + y)sin(x) cos(x) ln(x5 + y) + sin(x)(x5 + y)sin(x)−1 5x4 + dx
√
2x ln 2 −(x5 +y)sin(x) cos(x) ln(x5 +y)
dy
dx = 2
sin(x)(x5 +y)sin(x)−1
− 5x4

Answer:
√
2x ln 2 −(x5 +y)sin(x) cos(x) ln(x5 +y)
dy
dx = 2
sin(x)(x5 +y)sin(x)−1
− 5x4

9
 Related Rates

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOCCITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Related Rates

C HAPTER
1 Related Rates
In the concept on implicit differentiation, you learned that given a relationship between two quantities, the relation-
ship between their respective rates of change can be determined. This is often an invaluable tool in applications,
since it allows us to find the rate at which some quantity is changing by relating it to other quantities whose rates of
change are known (or at least more easily found). For example, if you were at the scene of an accident where an oil
spill from a large tanker is spreading in a circular pattern whose radius you determine is increasing by about 1 ft per
second, would you be able to tell someone how fast the oil spill area was increasing when the radius was about 30
feet?

Related Rates

What do we mean by related rates? These are simply the derivatives, rates, of one or more parameters that are related
to each other through an equation. The relationship between the rates is obtained by taking the derivative of some
other relationship between the parameters.
A simple example with a familiar geometric shape should help illustrate the concept.
Consider the simple right triangle in the figure below with sides x, y, and z. The relationship between the sides is
governed by the Pythagorean Theorem.

x2 + y2 = z2

We could easily attach some real-life situation to this geometric figure. Say for instance that x and y represent
the paths of two people starting at point p and walking North and West, respectively, for two hours. The quantity
z represents the distance between them at any time t. Let’s now determine any relationships between the various
rates of change that we get by implicitly differentiating the original equation x2 + y2 = z2 with respect to time t.

d 2 d
[x + y2 ] = [z2 ]
dt dt
dx dy dz
2x + 2y = 2z
dt dt dt
dx dy dz
x +y = z . . . Equation 1
dt dt dt

1
 www.ck12.org

Implicit differentiation of the Pythagorean relationship between the side lengths has yielded relationships between
the side length derivatives, and since the derivatives are rates, this is an example of related rates.
How might the relationship above be used to solve or answer a problem?
Let’s say that person is walking in the x-direction at 5 mph, and that another person is walking in the y-direction at 3
mph. The distance, z, between the walkers is changing with time, and the time rate of change of, z, dz dt , is dependent
on the rates at which the two people are walking.
One problem that we could pose is:
dz
At what rate is the distance between x and y increasing after one hour? That is, what is dt after one hour?
Assume that they have walked for one hour. So x = 5 mi and y = 3.
√
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we find the distance between them after one hour is z = 34 = 5.83 miles.

If we substitute the values for x, y, and z into Equation 1 along with the individual rates we get

√ dz
5(5) + 3(3) = 34
dt
√ dz
34 = 34
dt
34 dz
√ = .
34 dt

Hence after one hour the distance between the two people is increasing at a rate of:
dz
dt = √34 ≈ 5.83 mph.
34
Suppose we have a rectangular field and we know that at an instant of time, the length is changing at the rate of 8
ft/hour and the perimeter is changing at a rate of 24 ft/hour. At what rate is the width changing at that instant? At
what rate is the area changing at that instant?
You are familiar with the formulas for Perimeter:
P = 2l + 2w
If we differentiate the perimeter equation, we have
dP
Equation 2: dt = 2 dl dw
dt + 2 dt .
Substituting our known information into Equation 2, we have

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Related Rates

dw
24 = (2 × 8) + 2 ×
dt
dw
8 = 2×
dt
dw
4= .
dt

The width is changing at a rate of 4 ft/hr.

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: https://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/79834

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked about being at the scene of an accident where an oil spill from a large tanker is spreading
in a circular pattern whose radius you determine is increasing by about 1 ft per second. Would you be able to tell
someone how fast the oil spill area was increasing when the radius was about 30 feet?
dA
Since the circular area of the spill is A = πr2 , the time rate of change of the area is dt = π2r dr
dt . This means that with
dr dA 2
dt = 1 f t/sec, when r = 30 f t, dt = 60π f t /sec.

Example 2

We have a water tank shaped as an inverted right circular cone. Suppose that water flows into the tank at the rate of
5 f t 3 /min. At what rate is the water level rising when the height of the water in the tank is 6 feet?

3
 www.ck12.org

We know that the volume of water in the water tank is:

V = 31 πr2 h
When we differentiate this equation we get:
dV
dt = 13 π(h)(2r) dr 1 2 dh
dt + 3 πr dt .
dV dr dh
This is a related rates equation. The rate dt is related to the rates dt and dt .
dV dr dh
We know dt = 5 f t 3 /min, do no know dt , but want to find dt . We need to somehow find a relationship between
h and r.
Let r1 be the radius of the surface of the water as it flows out of the tank.

Note that the two triangles are similar and thus corresponding parts are proportional. In particular,

r1 8
=
h 20
8h 2h
r1 = = .
20 5

We can write this as a general relationship between r and h.

2h dr 2 dh
r= 5, which means also that = 5 dt .
We have the relationships we need.
dt

Now we can solve the problem in a couple of ways: (a) substitute r = 2h

5 into the original equation for V , or (b)
substitute r = 2h dr 2 dh dV


5 and dt = 5 dt into the equation for dt . Let’s try approach (a).

 2
1 2h 4π
V= π h = h3
3 5 75

dV 12π 2 dh
Hence dt = 75 h dt , and by substitution,

12π dh
5= (36)
75 dt
dh 375 ft
= ≈ 0.28 .
dt 432π min

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Related Rates

Review

1. Make up a related rates problem about the area of a rectangle. Illustrate the solution to your problem.
2. Suppose that a particle is moving along the curve 4x2 + 16y2 = 32. When it reaches the point (2, 1), the x-
coordinate is increasing at a rate of 3 ft/sec. At what rate is the y-coordinate changing at that instant?
3. A regulation softball diamond is a square with each side of length 60 ft. Suppose a player is running from first
base to second base at a speed of 18 ft/sec. At what rate is the distance between the runner and home plate
changing when the runner is 23 of the way from first to second base?
4. At a recent Hot Air Balloon festival, a hot air balloon was released. Upon reaching a height of 300 ft, it was
rising at a rate of 20 ft/sec. Mr. Smith was 100 ft away from the launch site watching the balloon. At what
rate was the distance between Mr. Smith and the balloon changing at that instant?
5. Two trains left the St. Louis train station in the late morning. The first train was traveling East at a constant
speed of 65 mph. The second train traveled South at a constant speed of 75 mph. At 3 PM, the first train had
traveled a distance of 120 miles while the second train had traveled a distance of 130 miles. How fast was the
distance between the two trains changing at that time?
6. Suppose that a 17 ft ladder is sliding down a wall at a rate of -6 ft/sec. At what rate is the bottom of the ladder
moving when the top is 8 ft from the ground?
7. Suppose that the length of a rectangle is increasing at the rate of 6 ft/min and the width is increasing at a rate
of 2 ft/min. At what rate is the area of the rectangle changing when its length is 25 ft and its width is 15 ft?
8. Suppose that the quantity demand of new 4000 plasma TVs is related to its unit price by the formula p + x2 =
1200, where p is measured in dollars and x is measured in units of one thousand. How is the quantity demand
changing when x = 20, p = 1500, and the price per TV is decreasing at a rate of $10?
9. The volume of a cube with side s is changing. At a certain instant, the sides of the cube are 6 inches and
increasing at the rate of 14 in/min. How fast is the volume of the cube increasing at that time?
10. (1) Suppose that the area of a circle is increasing at a rate of 24 in2 /min. How fast is the radius increasing
when the area is 36π in2 ? (2) How fast is the circumference changing at that instant?
11. The radius of a circle is getting bigger at a rate of 5 centimeters per second. How fast is the area of the circle
increasing when the radius is equal to ten centimeters?
12. The area of a circle is expanding at a rate of 100 square centimeters a second at an instant when its radius is
expanding at a rate of 50 centimeters a second. What is the circle’s radius at that instant?
13. At a given instant, the volume of a cylinder with a cross sectional area of 6 square centimeters is increasing at
a rate of 10 cubic centimeters a second. What is the rate of increase of its height at that instant?
14. Express the rate of change of a cylinder’s volume as a function of its radius, its height, and the rate of change
of its radius, if its height is assumed to be held constant.
15. A four dimensional object whose momentum is given by the formula M = sin(πx1 )+δx2 3 +ln(x3 x4 )x1 5 , where
delta is a constant, is falling into a black hole. The resulting compression causes its x1 value to shrink at a rate
of 8 million miles a second (while the other variables remain constant.) If x3 = x54 , what is the instantaneous
change in its momentum when x1 = 1?

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 4.1.

References

1. . . CC BY-NC-SA
2. . . CC BY-NC-SA
3. . . CC BY-NC-SA
4. . . CC BY-NC-SA

5
Antiderivatives and the
Indefinite Integral

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Antiderivatives and the Indefinite Integral

C HAPTER
1 Antiderivatives and the
Indefinite Integral
You have spent many lessons learning about how to find the derivative, f 0 (x), of a function f (x), and the process
of differentiation. It should be know surprise then that there would be a name for the function f (x), or family of
functions, that can generate f 0 (x) when differentiated: f (x) and f 0 (x) are a pair of inverse functions, and f (x) is
called an antiderivative of f 0 (x). Before continuing with the lesson, try listing functions that are antiderivative and
derivative pairs?

The Antiderivative

Let’s start off and introduce the idea of the antiderivative of a function.
A function F(x) is called an antiderivative of a function f if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .
How is this definition used?
Consider the function f (x) = 3x2 .
Can you think of a function F(x) such that F 0 (x) = f (x)? You should be able to think of lots of them.
Since we differentiate F(x) to get f (x), we see that F(x) = x3 + C will work for any constant C. Graphically, we
can think of the set of all antiderivatives as vertical transformations of the graph of F(x) = x3 . The figure shows two
such transformations.

With our definition and initial example, we now look to formalize the definition and develop some useful rules for
computational purposes, and begin to see some applications.

Introduction to Indefinite Integrals

The process of finding antiderivatives is called antidifferentiation, more commonly referred to as integration. Here
is how the integration is indicated and how it works:
F 0 (x) = f (x) ... Start with the differential equation that represents the definition of the antiderivative
F 0 (x)dx =
R R R
f (x)dx ... Invoke the integration (antidifferentiation) operation using the special symbol .

1
 www.ck12.org

R
F(x) +C = f (x)dx ... Obtain the antiderivative F(x) and a constant of integration, C.
R
f (x)dx = F(x) +C ... Note that if we differentiate both sides, we get back the original equation:

Z 
d d
f (x)dx = f (x) = [F(x) +C] = F 0 (x)
dx dx
R
We refer to f (x)dx as “the indefinite integral of f (x) with respect to x”. The function f (x) is called the integrand
and the constant C is called the constant of integration. Finally the symbol dx indicates that we are to integrate
with respect to x.
Using this notation, we would summarize the last example as follows:

Z
3x2 dx = x3 +C

Now, consider the function f (x) = cos x

Can you think of a function F(x) such that F 0 (x) = f (x)?
If you said F(x) = sin x +C you would be correct and here is how this would be written.
f (x) = F 0 (x) . . . Start with the differential equation that represents the definition of the antiderivative
cos x = F 0 (x) . . . Substitute for f (x)
cos x dx = F 0 (x)dx . . . Invoke the integration (antidifferentiation) operation using the special symbol .
R R R
R
cos x dx = F(x) +C . . . Obtain the antiderivative F(x) and a constant of integration, C.
R
cos x dx = sin x + C . . . We know F(x) = sin x because if we differentiate both sides, we get back the original
equation.
We have looked at the derivatives of a number of functions through the calculus concepts and can put together a list
of functions and their antiderivatives as shown below.

TABLE 1.1: Summary of Basic Indefinite Integrals And Antiderivatives

R
Function f (x) Antiderivative f (x)dx = F(x) +C
1 x +C
x2
x 2 +C

x2 x3
+C
3

xn+1
xn , +C
n 6= −1 n+1
1
x ln x +C
sin x − cos x +C
cos x sin x +C
sec2 x tan x +C
csc2 x − cot x +C
sec x tan x sec x +C
csc x cot x − csc x +C

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Antiderivatives and the Indefinite Integral

TABLE 1.1: (continued)

ex ex +C
bx
bx ln b +C
b>0
1
x ln b logb x +C

As with differentiation, there are several rules for dealing with the sum and difference of integrable functions.

Basic Integration Rules

If f and g are integrable functions, and C is a constant, then:

Z Z Z
[ f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx,
Z Z Z
[ f (x) − g(x)]dx = f (x)dx − g(x)dx,
Z Z
[C f (x)]dx = C f (x)dx.

Compute the following indefinite integral.

Z  
3 3 1
2x + 2 − dx.
x x

Using our rules we have

Z  
3 1 1 1
Z Z Z
3
2x + 2 − dx = 2 x3 dx + 3 2
dx − dx
x x x x
 4  −1 
x x
=2 +3 − ln x +C
4 −1
x4 3
= − − ln x +C.
2 x

Note that sometimes our rules need to be modified slightly due to operations with constants.

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked to try listing functions that are antiderivative and derivative pairs. By doing so you are
presenting the results of differentiation and integration operations. If all you did was to list the function being
differentiated as the antiderivative, this is correct. By now you have realized that there is a family of antiderivatives
you could have chosen from, each differing by a constant of integration.

Example 2

Compute the following indefinite integral:

Z
e3x dx.

d 3x
We first note that our rule for integrating exponential functions does not work here since dx e = 3e3x . However, if
we remember to divide the original function by the constant then we get the correct antiderivative and have

e3x
Z
e3x dx = +C.
3
We can now re-state the rule in a more general form as

ekx
Z
ekx dx = +C.
3

Review

For #1-6, find an antiderivative of the function

1. f (x) = 1 − 3x2 − 6x
2
2. f (x) = x√− x 3
5
3. f (x) = 2x + 1
4. f (x) = cos x − x
5. f (x) = x5 − 7x2 + 2
6. f (x) = e−2x + ex

For #7-12, find the indefinite integral

R √ 
7. 2 + 5 dx
8. R 2(x −√3)
3 dx
R

9. x2 · 3 x dx
1
x+ 4√
R
10. dx
R x x
11. R (cos x + 2 sin x)dx
12. 2 sin x cos xdx
13. Solve the differential equation f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 + x − 3.
14. Find the antiderivative F(x) of the
R
function f (x) = 2e2x + x − 2 that satisfies F(0) = 5.
15. Evaluate the indefinite integral |x|dx (Hint: Examine the graph of f (x) = |x|.)

4
Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

C HAPTER
1 Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus
Here you will learn about the antiderivative, and you will explore the fundamental theorem of calculus.
Velocity due to gravity can be easily calculated by the formula: v = gt, where g is the acceleration due to gravity
(9.8m/s2 ) and t is time in seconds. In fact, a decent approximation can be calculated in your head easily by rounding
9.8 to 10 so you can just add a decimal place to the time.
Using this function for velocity, how could you find a function that represented the position of the object after a
given time? What about a function that represented the instantaneous acceleration of the object at a given time?

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Antiderivatives

If you think that evaluating areas under curves is a tedious process you are probably right. Fortunately, there is an
easier method. In this section, we shall give a general method of evaluating definite integrals (area under the curve)
by using antiderivatives.

TABLE 1.1:
Definition: The Antiderivative

If F ’ (x) = f (x), then F ’(x) is said to be the antiderivative of f (x).

There are rules for finding the antiderivatives of simple power functions such as f (x) = x2 . As you read through them,
try to think about why they make sense, keeping in mind that differentiation reverses integration.

1
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.2:
Rules of Finding the Antiderivatives of Power Functions

• The Power Rule

R n 1 n+1
x dx = n+1 x +C
where C is constant of integration and n is a rational number not equal to -1.

• A Constant Multiple of a Function Rule

1 n+1
kxn dx = k xn dx = k · n+1
R R
x +C
where k is a constant.

• Sum and Difference Rule

R R R
[ f (x) ± g(x)]dx = f (x)dx ± g(x)dx

• The Constant Rule

R
k · dx = kx +C

where k is a constant. (Notice that this rule comes as a result of the power rule above.)

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus makes the relationship between derivatives and integrals clear. Integration
performed on a function can be reversed by differentiation.

TABLE 1.3:
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If a function f (x) is defined over the interval [a, b] and if F(x) is the antidervative of f on [a, b], then
Rb
a f (x)dx = F(x)|ba
= F(b) − F(a)

We can use the relationship between differentiation and integration outlined in the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
to compute definite integrals more quickly.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

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Examples

Example 1
R2 2
Evaluate 1 x dx.
This integral tells us to evaluate the area under the curve f (x) = x2 , which is a parabola over the interval [1, 2], as
shown in the figure below.

To compute the integral according to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we need to find the antiderivative of
f (x) = x2 . It turns out to be F(x) = (1/3)x3 + C, where C is a constant of integration. How can we get this? Think
about the functions that will have derivatives of x2 . Take the derivative of F(x) to check that we have found such a
function. (For more specific rules, see the box after this example). Substituting into the Fundamental Theorem,

TABLE 1.4:
Rb
f (x)dx = F(x)|ba
Ra2 2 2
=  13 x3 +C 1  

1 x dx
=  13 (2)3 +C − 31 (1)3 +C


= 83 +C − 13 +C


= 37 +C −C
= 37
3
 www.ck12.org

So the area under the curve is (7/3) units2 .

Example 2

Evaluate x3 dx.
R

1 n+1
Since xn dx =
R
n+1 x +C, we have

TABLE 1.5:
R 3 1 3+1
x dx = 3+1 x +C
1 4
= 4 x +C

To check our answer we can take the derivative of 14 x4 +Cand verify that it is x3 , the original function in our integral.

Example 3

Evaluate 5x2 dx.

R

Using the constant multiple of a power rule, the coefficient 5 can be removed outside the integral:
5x2 dx = 5 x2 dx
R R

Then we can integrate:

TABLE 1.6:
1 2+1
= 5 · 2+1 x +C
5 3
= 3 x +C

Again, if we wanted to check our work we could take the derivative of 53 x3 +Cand verify that we get 5x2 .

Example 4

Evaluate (3x3 − 4x2 + 2)dx.

R

Using the sum and difference rule we can separate our integral into three integrals:
(3x3 − 4x2 + 2)dx =
R

3 x3 dx − 4 x2 dx + ( 2dx)
R
R
R

→ 3 · 14 x4 − 4 · 13 x3 + 2x +C→ 34 x4 − 34 x3 + 2x +C

Example 5

R5 √
Evaluate 2 xdx.
√
The evaluation of this integral represents calculating the area under the curve y = x from x = -2 to x = 3, shown in
the figure below.

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

TABLE 1.7:
R5 √ R 5 1/2
2h xdx = 2 x dx
i5
1 1/2+1
= 1
+1
x
h2 i5 2
1 3/2
= 3/2 x
2 3/2 5
  2
= 3 x 2
2 3/2 − 23/2

= 3 5
= 5.57

So the area under the curve is 5.57.

Example 6
R 6 dx
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to solve: 4 x .
1
Given what we know, that if F(x) = ln x, then F’(x) = x
Thus, we apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
−46 dx
R
x = lnx|−46
= F(6) - F(4) = [ln(6)] - [ln(4)] = 0.4055

Example 7
R 2p
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to solve: −2p 3cos(x)dx.
Given what we know, that if F(x) = 3sin(x), then F’(x) = 3cos(x)
So we apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
R 2p
−2p 3cosdx = 3sin(x)|2p
−2p
= F(8) - F(0) = [3sin(2p)] - [3sin(-2p)] = 1 - 0 = 0

5
 www.ck12.org

Review

Evaluate the integral:

1. Evaluate the integral 03 5xdx

R

2. Evaluate the integral 01 x4 dx

R

3. Evaluate the integral 14 (x − 3)dx

R

Find the integral:

4. Find the integral of (x

√ + 1)(2x - 3) from -1 to 2.
5. Find the
R0
integral of x from 0 to 9.
6. Find −1 −3dx
R3
7. Find −1 dx
R p
8. 2
Find −p −4cos(x)dx
R2
9. Find 0 −dx
Find 27 dx
R
10.
R0 x
11. Find −2 x + 5dx
R 3p
2
12. Find −p 6sin(x)dx
R 7 dx
13. Find 6 x

Challenge yourself:

14. Sketch y = x3 and y = x on the same coordinate system and then find the area of the region enclosed between
them (a) in the first quadrant
RR
and (b) in the first and third quadrants.
15. Evaluate the integral −R (πR − πx2 )dx where R is a constant.
2

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.13.

6
Definite Integration: Change of
Variable

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:\
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Definite Integration: Change of Variable

C HAPTER
1 Definite Integration:
Change of Variable
In computing an indefinite integral, the technique of performing
R
a change of variable,R or variable substitution (u-
substitution), is often a way to make a “difficult” integral f (x)dx easier to integral f (u)du evaluate. Once the
easier integration is performed to obtain an antiderivative, the “new” variable is replaced in the antiderivative by its
Rb
equivalent “old” variable expression. But, if the integral being evaluated is a definite integral f (x)dx, and we want
a
R?
to write the easier definite integral f (u)du, do the limits of integration change?
?

Integration by Substitution

The technique of u-substitution (or change of variable) can also be used when evaluating definite integrals, but
it requires the additional step of changing the limits of integration to be consistent. The required formulation is
summarized as follows:

Rb
1. Problem: Evaluate f (x)dx
a
2. Substitution: Let u = g(x), so that du = g0 (x)dx and f (x)dx = f (g(x))g0 (x)dx
Rb Rb g(b)
f (g(x))g0 (x)dx =
R
3. Transform Problem: f (x)dx = f (u)du
a a g(a)

g(b)
R Rb
The goal is to make f (u)du easier to evaluate than f (x)dx.
g(a) a

R3 dx
Take the definite integral 4x+5 .
0
Try to substitute u = 4x + 5. Then du = 4dx.
Lower limit: For x = 0, u = 4 · 0 + 5 = 5
Upper limit: For x = 3, u = 4 · 3 + 5 = 17.
Therefore

Z3 Z17
dx du
4x + 5 4u
0 5
1
= [ln u]17
5
4
Z3 Z17
dx du
4x + 5 4u
0 5
1
= [ln 17 − ln 5]
4

Let’s try the substitution method of definite integrals with a trigonometric integrand.

1
 www.ck12.org

π
R4
Evaluate sin 4xdx.
0
Let u = 4x. Then du = 4dx.
Lower limit: For x = 0, u = 4 · 0 = 0
Upper limit: For x = π4 , u = 4 π4 = π.
Therefore

π
Z4 Zπ
sin u
sin 4xdx du
4
0 0
1
= [− cos u]π0
4
1
= [−(−1) − (−1)]
4
π
Z4
1
sin 4xdx =
2
0

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked what the limits of integration for the new integral are after u-substitution. Are they different
from the old limits?
They can be! If the u-substitution is u = g(x), then

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Definite Integration: Change of Variable

Zb u=g(b)
Z
f (x)dx = f (u)du.
a u=g(a)

Example 2

R3
Evaluate √ x dx
1 2x − 1
du
Let u = 2x − 1. Then du = 2dx, or dx = 2 .
Before we substitute, we need to determine the new limits of integration in terms of the u variable. To do so, we
simply substitute the current limits of integration into u = 2x − 1:
Lower limit: For x = 1, u = 2(1) − 1 = 1.
Upper limit: For x = 3, u = 2(3) − 1 = 5.
We now substitute u and the associated limits into the integral:
R5 x du
√ 2
1 u
As you can see, the variable x still appears in the integrand. To write it in terms of u, we use the substitution u = 2x−1
and solve for x to get, x = (u+1)
2 .
Substituting back into the integral,

Z3 Z5
x u + 1 du
√ dx = √
2x − 1 2 u 2
1 1
Z5
1 u+1
= √ du
4 u
1
Z5 
1 1
− 12

= u +u
2 du
4
1
 5
1 2 3 1
= u 2 + 2u 2
4 3 1

Applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus by inserting the limits of integration and calculating and simplify-
ing, we get

Z3    
x 1 2 3 1 2 3 1
√ dx = 52 +2·52 − 12 +2·12
2x − 1 4 3 3
1
√
4 5−2
=
3
√
We could have chosen the substitution u = 2x − 1 instead. This is left as an exercise in the Review section.
Determine for yourself which is the easier approach.

3
 www.ck12.org

Example 3
π
R4
Evaluate tan x sec2 xdx.
0

Try u = tan x. Then du = sec2 xdx.

Lower limit: For x = 0, u = tan 0 = 0
Upper limit: For x = π4 , u = tan π4 = 1.
Thus,

π
Z4 Z1
2
tan x sec xdx udu
0 0
1
u2

=
2 0
1
=
2

Review

Evaluate the following definite integrals.

R3 √
1. √ x dx using the substitution u = 2x − 1.
1 2x − 1
R2 2
2. xex dx.
0√
Rπ
3. x sin x2 dx.
0
R1
4. x(x + 5)4 dx.
0
R5
5. 2x cos(x2 )dx.
0
R3
6. cos(x) sin(sin(x))dx.
2
R5π √
7. 2x + 1dx.
π
R4 2
8. √ x dx.
1 x3 − 8
√
R10 cos( x)
9. √ dx.
8 x
π
R2
10. 4 sin 3x dx.


0
R3 3
11. x2 e−x dx.
0
R1
12. (3x − 1)27 dx.
0

4
Solving Separable First-Order
Differential Equations

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Solving Separable First-Order Differential Equations

C HAPTER
1 Solving Separable
First-Order Differential Equations
In the concept question that introduced ordinary differential equations, you were asked to write a general differential
equation from a word statement that described the well known Malthusian model of population growth in an ideal
environment. The simple, linear differential equation was of the form dy dt = F(y) = ky. This is a separable ODE,
with general solution y = Ce .kt

Another well known problem that can be modeled by a separable differential equation involves how long it will take
to empty an initially full water tank (in the form of a right-circular cylinder standing on end) that is leaking water
through a small circular hole in its bottom. The Italian scientist Torricelli determined that water in an open tank will
flow out through a small
p hole in the bottom with the velocity, v, it would acquire in falling freely from the water level
to the hole, i.e. v = 2gh(t) (ideal) where h(t) is the height of the water in the tank. If the amount of water leaving
the tank over some time must be the cause of the water level decrease, can you determine the differential equation
which models the change with time in water level height for an H meter high tank with a radius of r meters, and hole
of radius s meters? How long does it take the tank to empty?

Solving ODE’s by Separation of Variables

With some first order ODEs, the dependence of x and y is separable, and the equation can be written in one of the
following forms:

dy
• dx = F(x, y) = f (x)g(y), or
dy f (x)
• dx = F(x, y) = g(y) , or
dy g(y)
• dx = F(x, y) = f (x)

The above forms are called a separable first order differential equation, and solutions can be formulated and obtained
by integrating both sides of the equation:

dy R dy R
• dx = F(x, y) = f (x)g(y) ⇒ g(y) = f (x)dx, or
dy f (x) R R
• dx = F(x, y) = g(y) ⇒ g(y)dy = f (x)dx, or
dy g(y) R dy
= dx
R
• dx = F(x, y) = f (x) ⇒ g(y) f (x)

Let’s solve the differential equation y0 = xy with the initial condition y(0) = 1.
For this problem, f (x) = x and g(y) = y.
dy
Separating x and y yields the differential form y = xdx, with the restriction y 6= 0.
Integrating both sides yields: ln|y|= 12 x2 +C.
1 2 1 2
This means that y = e 2 x +C = Ke 2 x .
1 2
If y(0) = 1, then 1 = K, and the particular solution is y = e 2 x .
Note that y ≥ 1, which is consistent with the restriction y 6= 0.
dy x+3
Let’s try another one. Solve the differential equation dx = y+4 with the initial condition y(0) = 0.
1
In this problem f (x) = x + 3 and g(y) = y+4 . Note that we must make sure that y 6= −4.
Separating f (x) and g(y) yields the differential form (y + 4)dy = (x + 3)dx.

1
 www.ck12.org

Integrating both sides yields:

Z Z
(y + 4)dy = (x + 3)dx
y2 x2
+ 4y = + 3x +C
2 2
y2 + 8y = x2 + 6x +C

To make a more compact form to solve for y, complete the square on both sides of the above equation:

y2 + 8y + 16 − 16 = x2 + 6x + 9 − 9 +C
(y + 4)2 − 16 = (x + 3)2 − 9 +C
(y + 4)2 = (x + 3)2 + 7 +C
q
y + 4 = ± (x + 3)2 + 7 +C
q
y = ± (x + 3)2 + 7 +C − 4

q
Using the initial condition y(0) = 0, we see that y = 0 = (3)2 + 7 +C − 4, so that C = 0.
q √ 
Therefore, y = (x + 3)2 + 7 − 4. Note that y ≥ 7 − 4 ≈ −1.35, so the restriction y 6= −4 is met.

Exponential and Logistics Growth

Separable first-order differential equations are evident in two models of population growth.
In the Exponential Growth model, the population, P, grows with time, without restrictions, at a rate proportional
to the current population, i.e.
dP
dt = kP, where k > 0 is the growth rate.
This separable differential equation has the general solution form P(t) = P0 ekt .
In the Logistics Growth model, the rate of growth is adjusted by another factor 1 − KP as follows:

 
dP P
= kP 1 −
dt K

where K is the carrier capacity. The factor 1 − KP is close to 1 when P P

K  1, but close to 0 when K ≈ 1.
P0 K−P0
This separable differential equation has the general solution form P(t) = 1+Aekt
, with A = P0 .
P0
Say the population on an island is given by the equation dP


dt = 0.05P 1 − 5000 , with t in years, and P0 = 1000. We
want to find the population sizes P(20) and P(30) as well as the time at which the population will first exceed 4000.
P0 5000−1000
The solution is given by P = 1−Ae0.05t
where A = 1000 = 4.
Therefore,

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Solving Separable First-Order Differential Equations

5000 5000
P(20) = = = 2023, and
1 + 4e −0.05(20) 1 + 4e−1
5000 5000
P(30) = = = 3785
1 + 4e −0.05(30) 1 + 4e−1.5

Solve for time,

5000
P(t) = 4000 = gives
1 + 4e−0.05(t)
5000
−1
e−0.05t = 4000 = 0.0625.
4

This means t = 56. The population first exceeds 4000 in the 56th year.

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Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked to determine the differential equation which models the change with time in water level
height for an H meter high tank with a radius of r meters, and hole of radius s meters for a tank that is emptying.
How long does it take the tank to empty?
p
The amount water leaving the tank over a time dt is πs2 vdt = πs2 2gh(t)dt.
The decrease in the water volume in the tank from the above is −πr2 dh.
h
p ip
s 2 s 2
p
p p
Equating the above two gives −πr2 dh = πs2 2gh(t)dt or dh dt = − r 2gh(t) = − r 2g h(t) = −k h(t).
The change in water level is proportional to its square root.
p
To solve this 1st -order, non linear ODE, rearrange and integrate: pdh = − kdt, or 2 h(t) = −kt + C0 ⇒
R R
h(t)
1

2
h(t) = C − 2 kt as the general solution.

2 √
The particular solution must satisfy h(0) = H = C − 21 k · 0 = C2 , so that C = H. The particular solution is
√ h
p i 2
2
h(t) = H − 12 rs 2g t
s
2H r
2
The tank will be completely empty when h(t) = 0, which occurs at the time given by t = · s .
g
Example 2

3
 www.ck12.org

Solve the differential equation y0 = −y sin x.

In this example f (x) = sin x and g(y) = −y.
dy
Separating f (x) and g(y) yields the differential form −y = sin xdx, which can then be integrated as follows:

dy
Z Z
− = sin xdx
y
− ln|y| = cos x +C
y = ±e− cos x−C
y = ±De− cos x . . . D = eC > 0

Example 3
Solve the differential equation 2xy0 = 1 − y2 .
1
In this example f (x) = 2x and g(y) = 1 − y2 .
2 dx R 2
Separating f (x) and g(y) yields the differential form 1−y2
dy = x , which can then be integrated to get 1−y2
dy =
R dx
x .
R 1 1
 R dx
The integrand on the left can be expanded as a partial fraction to become 1−y + 1+y dy = x .

Integrating both sides, we have

− ln|1 − y|+ ln|1 + y| = ln|x|+C

 
1+y
ln 
  = ln(eC |x|)
1−y
 
1+y
 1 − y  = D|x|
  . . . D = eC > 0
1+y
= ±Dx
1−y
Dx − 1
y=± ...D > 0
Dx + 1

Review

For #1-12, solve the differential equation using any stated conditions:

1. y0 = e1y with the condition y(e) = 0.

2. y0 = x(y2 + 1).
3. y0 = p x 2 .
1−y
4. dP
dt = kP.
5. dP
dt = kP with P(1) = 10, 000 and P(2) = 20, 000.
6. y0 = y2 .
7. y0 = ln(y).
8. y0 = 2y.
9. y0 = 1y .
10. y0 = ey .

4
Exponential Growth and Decay

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Growth and Decay

C HAPTER
1 Exponential Growth and
Decay
When the rate of change of the amount of a substance, or a population, is proportional to the amount present at any
time, we say that this substance or population is going through either a decay or a growth, depending on the sign of
the constant of proportionality. Do you know how to write a differential equation that expresses this condition? This
kind of growth or decay, common in nature and in the business world, is called exponential growth or exponential
decay and is characterized by rapid change.
If the solution to the differential equation that governs the quantity of your favorite things is y = 5 · 0.3t , is this a
growth or decay solution? Can you write the differential equation for which y = 5 · 0.3t is the solution?

Exponential Growth and Decay

In this section, we will look at a formulation of exponential growth and decay, and some applications that are
modeled by exponential growth or decay.
The concept of exponential growth or decay arises as the solution to the problem that the rate of change of a quantity,
y(t), with respect to time, t, varies directly as the quantity. The mathematical formulation of this differential equation
and general solution can be summarized as follows:
dy
Given the differential equation: dt = ky, where k is a constant.
Then, y = Cekt is a solution to the differential equation with y = C at t = 0.

• If k > 0: The function y represents exponential growth (increasing values).

• If k < 0: The function y represents exponential decay (decreasing values).

kt
The above formulation for y is expressed with a base b = e. The general formulation would be y = Cb ln b , where b is
any base such that b > 0 and b 6= 1.

The statement above comes from the solution to the differential equation:
dy
dt = ky
Separating variables,
dy
y = kdt
and integrating both sides,
R dy R
y= kdt,
gives us

ln y = kt +C
y = ekt+C
= ekt eC
= Ce kt · · · The general constant C is used as a replacement for eC .

1
 www.ck12.org

Applications of Exponential Growth and Decay: Radioactive Decay

In physics, radioactive decay is a process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation in
the form of electromagnetic radiation (like gamma rays) or particles (such as beta and alpha particles). During this
process, the nucleus will continue to decay, in a chain of decays, until a new stable nucleus is reached (called an
isotope). Physicists measure the rate of decay by the time it takes a sample to lose half of its nuclei due to radioactive
decay. Initially, as the nuclei begins to decay, the rate starts very fast and furious, but it slows down over time as more
and more of the available nuclei have decayed. The figure below shows a typical radioactive decay of a nucleus. As
you can see, the graph has the shape of an exponential function with k < 0.

The equation that is used to model radioactive decay is y = Cekt . To find an expression for the half-life of an isotope,
use the definition of half-life as the time it takes for a sample to lose half of its nuclei. If there is an initial mass
y = C (measured in grams) at t = 0, then at some later time t = t 1 , y, will become half the initial amount, or C2 . The
2
relationship is expressed in the decay model as
C kt 1
2 = Ce 2 , or
1 kt 1
2 =e 2

Solve for the half-life t 1 , by taking the natural logarithm of both sides,
2

1 kt 1
ln = ln e 2
2
− ln 2 = kt 1
2
ln 2
t1 = −
2 k

The half-life is then,

− ln 2 −0.693
t1 = k = k .
2

This is a famous expression in physics for measuring the half-life of a substance if the decay constant k is known. It
can also be used to compute k if the half-life t 1 is known.
2

Say that a radioactive sample contains 2 grams of nobelium. If you know that the half-life of nobelium is 25 seconds,
how much will remain after 3 minutes?

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Growth and Decay

Before we compute the mass of nobelium after 3 minutes, we need to first know its decay rate k. Using the half-life
formula,

− ln 2
t1 =
2 k
− ln 2
k=
t1
2
− ln 2
=
25
= −0.028 sec−1

So the decay rate is k = −0.028/sec. The common unit for the decay rate is the Becquerel (Bq): 1 Bq is equivalent
to 1 decay per sec.
To calculate the mass after 3 minutes (180 seconds), use the radioactive decay formula:

y = Cekt
= 2e(−0.028)(180)
= 0.013 grams

So after 3 minutes, the mass of the isotope is approximately 0.013 grams.

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Applications of Exponential Growth and Decay: Population Growth

The same formula y = Cekt can be used for population growth, except that k > 0 for an increasing function.
A certain population of bacteria increases continuously at a rate that is proportional to its present number. The initial
population of the bacterial culture is 140; it jumped to 720 bacteria in 4 hours. How many bacteria will be present
in 10 hours? How long will it take the population to double?
From reading the first sentence in the problem, we learn that the number of bacteria is increasing exponentially.
Therefore, the exponential growth formula y = Cekt is the correct model to use.
As in the previous problem, first find k, the growth rate:

3
 www.ck12.org

y = Cekt
720 = 140ek(4)
720
ln = k(4)
140
1.6376 = k(4)
0.409 = k

Therefore, k = 0.409.
Using the value of k, we can determine how many bacteria will be present after 10 hours.

y = Cekt
= 140e(0.409)(10)
= 8364 bacteria

To find the time required for the population to double means to find the time at which y = 2C.

y = Cekt
2C = Cekt
2 = ekt
ln 2 = kt

Solving for t,

ln 2
t=
k
ln 2
=
0.409
= 1.7 hours

After about 1.7 hours (102 minutes), the population of bacteria will double in number.

MEDIA
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4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Growth and Decay

Applications of Exponential Growth and Decay: Continuous Compound Interest

Investors and bankers depend on compound interest to increase their investment. Traditionally, banks added interest
after certain periods of time, such as a month or a year, and the phrase was “the interest is being compounded
monthly or yearly.” With the advent of computers, the compunding could be done daily or even more often. Our
exponential model represents continuous, or instantaneous, compounding, and it is a good model of current banking
practices. Our model states that

A = Pert ,

where P is the initial investment (present value) and A is the future value of the investment after time t at an interest
rate of r. The interest rate r is usually given in percentage per year. The rate must be converted to a decimal number,
and t must be expressed in years.
Say that an investor invests an amount of $10,000 and discovers that its value has doubled in 5 years. What is the
annual interest rate that this investment is earning? How long will it take the invested money to triple?
To find the interest rate, use the exponential growth model for continuously compounded interest,

A = Pert
20, 000 = 10, 000er(5)
2 = e5r

Thus,

ln 2
r=
5
= 0.139
r = 13.9%

The investment has grown at a rate of 13.9% per year.

To find out how long it will take the invested money to triple, use the growth model again:

A = Pert
30, 000 = 10, 000e(0.139)t
3 = e0.139 t
ln 3 = 0.139 t
ln 3
t=
0.139
= 7.9 years

5
 www.ck12.org

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Applications of Exponential Growth and Decay: Other Models

Not all exponential growth and decay models are of the form y = Cekt . Some use a base other than the natural base
dy
e; some are solutions to differential equations other than dx = ky. Actually, in everyday life most are constructed
from empirical data and regression techniques.
Suppose that in the business world the demand function for the price of a motorcycle is described by the formula
11,000
p = 12, 400 − 2.2+e −0.0003x

where p is the motorcycle price per unit and x is the number of units produced. If the business is interested in basing
the price of its unit on the number that it is projecting to sell, this formula becomes very helpful.
If a motorcycle factory is projecting to sell 7000 units in one month, what price should the factory set on each
motorcycle?

11, 000
p = 12, 400 −
2.2 + e0.0003x
11, 000
= 12, 400 −
2.2 + e0.0003(7000)
11, 000
= 12, 400 −
2.2 + 0.122
= 7, 663.

Thus the factory’s base price for each motorcycle should be set at $7,663.

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked if the solution to a growth/decay differential equation, y = 5 · 0.3t , is a growth or decay
solution. Can you write the differential equation for which y = 5 · 0.3t is the solution?
y = 5 · 0.3t is an exponential function of the kind f (x) = bx , where b = 0.3. As t increases, y = 5 · 0.3t decreases.
The function represents exponential decay. We can also write the equation in the following form: y = 5 · 0.3t =
5 · (eln 0.3 )t = 5 · e−1.2t . It is more clear that this is a decreasing function.
Since y = 5 · 0.3t is the solution to a differential equation where the rate of change of the function is proportional to
the function, we can write

d
(5 · 0.3t ) = k(5 · 0.3t )
dx
5 · ln 0.3 · (0.3t ) = k(5 · 0.3t )
k = ln 0.3 = −1.2

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Exponential Growth and Decay

dy
The differential equation is: dx = −1.2 y

Example 2

A medical researcher is studying the spread of the flu virus through a certain campus during the winter months. The
model for the spread is described by
4500
P= 1+4499e−0.8x
,x ≥0
where P represents the total number of infected students and x is the time, measured in days. How many students
will be infected in the next week (7 days)? How long it will take until 1000 students become infected with the flu
virus?
4500
Use the model P = 1+4499e−0.8x
with x = 7 to determine the number of students infected in the next week.

4500
P=
1 + 4499e−0.8x
4500
=
1 + 4499e−0.8(7)
4500
=
1 + 4499(0.004)
= 255.

According to the model, 255 students will become infected with the flu virus.
4500 4500
Use the model P = 1+4499e−0.8x
and solve for x in terms of P. P = 1+4499e−0.8x
.
Cross-multiplying,

P(1 + 4499e−0.8x ) = 4500

4500
1 + 4499e−0.8x =
P
4500
4499e−0.8x = −1
P
4500 − P
=
P
4500 −P
e−0.8x = .
4499 P

Taking the natural log of both sides,

 
4500 − P
−0.8x = ln
4499 P
 
4500 − P
x = ln ÷ (−0.8).
4499 P

Substituting for P = 1000,

x = 9 days.
So the flu virus will spread to 1000 students in 9 days.

7
 www.ck12.org

Review

1. In 1990, the population of the USA was 249 million. Assume that the annual growth rate is 1.8%.
1. According to this model, what was the population in the year 2000?
2. According to this model, in which year will the population reach 1 billion?
2. Prove that if a quantity A is exponentially
  growing and if A1 is the value at t1 and A2 at time t2 , then the growth
1 A1
rate will be given by k = t1 −t2 ln A2 .
3. Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of cooling of object with respect to the temperature of its
surroundings is proportional to the difference in temperature between the object and the surroundings.
1. Write the differential equation that expresses Newton’s Law of Cooling. Hint: Write the equation using
the dependent variable D = T (t) − Tr where Tr is the room temperature (the surroundings)
2. Show that the formula T (t) = (T0 − Tr )e−kt + Tr satisfies the equation, where T0 is the initial temperature
of the object at t = 0 and k is a constant that is unique for the measuring instrument (the thermometer)
called the time constant.
4. Suppose a liter of juice at 23◦C is placed in the refrigerator to cool. If the temperature of the refrigerator is
kept at 11◦C and k = 0.417, use Newton’s law of cooling to find the temperature of the juice after 3 minutes?
5. Referring to problem #3, if it takes an object 320 seconds to cool from 40◦C above room temperature to
22◦C above room temperature, how long will it take to cool another 10◦C after it reaches 22◦C above room
temperature?
6. Polonium-210 is a radioactive isotope with half-life of 140 days. If a sample has a mass of 10 grams, how
much will remain after 10 weeks?
7. A Logarithmic Model: In the physics of acoustics, there is a relationship between the subjective sensation of
loudness and the physically measured intensity of sound. This relationship is called the sound levelβ. It is
specified on a logarithmic scale and measured with units of decibels (dB). The sound level β (in decibels, dB)
of any sound is defined in terms of its intensity I (measured in watts per square meter, mW2 , in the SI-mks unit
I
system): β = 10 log II0 = 10 log 10−12 , where I0 = 10−12 mW2 is a standard threshold of human hearing at 1000
Hz. A β of 0 dB (I = I0 )is the threshold of hearing, i.e. the minimum sound that can be heard by humans. The
sound level 120 dB is considered the threshold of pain for the human ear.
1. If a decibel meter registered 130 dB at a heavy metal rock concert, what is the intensity I of this sound
level?
2. What is the sound level (in dB) of a sound whose intensity is 2.0 × 10−6 mW2 ?
8. Referring to problem #7, if a single mosquito 10 meters away from a person makes a sound that is barely
heard by the person (threshold 0 dB), what will be the sound level of 1000 mosquitoes at the same distance?
9. Referring to problem #7, if a noisy machine at a factory produces a sound level of 90 dB at a certain distance,
what is the combined sound level when an identical machine is placed beside it?
10. At the tail end of a news report, you hear that the fact that your town has been growing at a yearly rate of 5%
for the last 6 years means its population will, at this rate, be 50,000 people in 2 years. What was the population
3 years ago?
11. The mass of a radioactive substance is currently 20 grams, but was 25 grams two weeks ago. What is the
half-life of the substance?
12. A motorcycle is worth $10,000, and loses value at a rate of 6.5% per year, what will it be worth in 5 years?
13. A Logarithmic Model: On the Richter scale, the magnitude, R, of an earthquake of intensity I is given by
R = log II0 , where I0 = 1 is the reference intensity. Intensity is a measure of the wave energy of an earthquake.
For two earthquakes with Richter magnitudes of 4 and 7.9, what are there respective intensities?
14. On a high school campus of 2000 students, a student returns from a break with a contagious flu virus. The
spread of the virus is modeled by the logistic growth function

2000
y= for t ≥ 0
1 + 1999e−0.7t

8
Area Under the Curve

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Area Under the Curve

C HAPTER
1 Area Under the Curve
Learning Objectives

Here you will learn how to apply the concept of limits to calculate the area under a curve.
You probably remember Becca and her track meet from earlier lessons. She won her race after pulling away from
the pack in a hard push at the finish, and her boyfriend got a great picture of her just as she began pulling away. We
have learned that by using derivatives, she could actually calculate her speed at the moment the picture was taken,
and then with the second derivative she could calculate her acceleration similarly.
In this lesson we will discuss the integral, which is the process that would allow Becca to calculate the distance she
actually covered during a given interval of the race, even though her speed was not constant!

Area Under the Curve

To understand integration, consider the area under the curve y = f (x) for the interval from x = a to x = b in the figure
below.

One way to calculate the area is to fill the region with rectangles. If the region is curved, the rectangles will not
fit exactly, but we can improve the approximation by using rectangles of thinner width. If we continue to make
the rectangles thinner and thinner, the area under the curve would reach the exact area under the curve. This is
the limiting process that we discussed. In other words, the area under the curve is the limit of the total area of the
rectangles as the widths of the rectangles approach zero.
Consider again the figure above. The interval from x = a to x = b is subdivided into n equal subintervals. Rectangles
are drawn in each subinterval. Each rectangle touches the curve at its upper right corner. The height of the first
rectangle is f (x1 ), the second f (x2 ), and the last is f (xn ). Since the length of the entire interval from a to b is b - a,
then the width of each subinterval is b−a b . We will refer to this width as ∆ x. (The Greek letter ∆ is Delta and thus
“delta x”.) That is,

∆x = b−a
n

1
 www.ck12.org

is defined as the width of each subinterval. The area of the first rectangle is f (x1 )∆x, the second is f (x2 )∆x, and so
on. Thus the total area An of the n rectangles, is the sum of all areas:

TABLE 1.1:
An = f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + ... +
f (xn )∆x
= ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x

To make use of the concept of limit, we make the width of each rectangle approach 0 , which is equivalent to making
the number of rectangles, n, approach infinity. By doing so, we find the exact area under the curve,

limn→∞ An = limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x.

This limit is defined as the definite integral and it is denoted by

Rb
a f (x)dx.

The Definite Integral

A definite integral gives us the area between the x-axis and a curve over a defined interval.

TABLE 1.2:
The Definite Integral (The Limit Method)

The area between a curve f (x) and the x-axis over the interval [a, b] can be calculated by
Rb
A= a f (x)dx = limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x
where
b−a
∆x = n

is the width of the subintervals.

It is important to keep in mind that the area under the curve can assume positive and negative values. It is more
appropriate to call it “the net signed area”. Example 2 below illustrates this point.

Examples

Example 1

Calculate the area between the curve y = x2 and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 1.
We divide the region into n number of subintervals, each of width ∆x (see figure below).

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Area Under the Curve

First find ∆x.

TABLE 1.3:
b−a
∆x = n
1−0
= n
1
= n

The next step is to find xi .

TABLE 1.4:
xi = a + i∆x
= 0 + i · 1n
= ni

i 2
Therefore, f (xi ) = xi2 =


n Using the integration formula

TABLE 1.5:
= ab f (x)dx = limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x
R
A

2 1

= 01 x2 dx = limn→∞ ∑ni=1 ni
R
n
2
= limn→∞ ∑ni=1 ni 3

Since we are summing over i, not n, the summation becomes,

TABLE 1.6:
A = limn→∞ n13 ∑ni=1 i2
= limn→∞ n13 (12 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 )

n(n+1)(2n+1)
But since ∑ni=1 i2 = 6 then

3
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.7:
A = limn→∞ n13 n(n+1)(2n+1)
6

limn→∞ 61 2 + 3n + n12

Taking the limit,

TABLE 1.8:
A = 16 (2 + 3(0) + (0))
= 13

Thus the area under the curve is (1/3).

Example 2

Find the area between the curve y = x and the x-axis from x = -1 to x = 1.
As you can see in figure a, the integral represents the total areas of all the rectangles above and below the x-axis.
First, we divide the region into two regions, one above x-axis and one below the x-axis. Then we divide each region
into n subintervals, each of width ∆x (figure b).

4
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Area Under the Curve

Region I: Find ∆x and xi.

1−0 1
∆x = n = n

TABLE 1.9:
xi = a + i∆x

= 0 + i 1n = i
n

i
f (xi ) = n
Region II: Again, find ∆x and xi .
−1−0 −1
∆x= n = n

TABLE 1.10:
xi = b + i∆x
−1


= −1 + i n
= −1 − ni

f (xi ) = −1 − ni
The integral represents the net area of the two regions I and II:
A = A1 − A2 =(area above x-axis in [a, b]) − (area below x-axis in [a, b])Thus,

TABLE 1.11:
A = limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x −
limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x


= limn→∞ ∑ni=1
ni
1n −
limn→∞ ∑ni=1 −1 − ni 1n

= limn→∞ ∑ni=1 ni2 −
limn→∞ ∑ni=1 −1 i


n − n2
= limn→∞ n12 ∑ni=1 i −
limn→∞ −1 1 n
 
n + limn→∞ n2 ∑i=1 i

5
 www.ck12.org

TABLE 1.11: (continued)

A = limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x −
limn→∞ ∑ni=1 f (xi )∆x
= limn→∞ n12 n(n+1) −
h i 2
1 n(n+1)
0 + limn→∞ n2 2
= 12 − 21
 

=0

We conclude that the net area is zero.

Example 3

Approximate the definite integral between x = 0 and x = 40 by calculating the areas of rectangles which fill the area
in the image below. Use at least 3 successively narrower sizes of rectangles.
9 x
The equation of the curve in the image is: y = 60 − 40(1 − 10 ).

6
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Area Under the Curve

∴ the closest approximated area is 1173.44 units (The actual calculated area is 1174.0373)

Example 4

Approximate the area under y = x + 3 on the interval [5,6] using the middle Riemann Sum with 5 subintervals.
Sketch of graph:

7
 www.ck12.org

First, we divide the interval [5,6] into pieces:

Between x = 5 and x = 5.2, the middle value is 5.1 + 3 = 8.1
Between x = 5.2 and x = 5.4, the middle value is 5.3 + 3 = 8.3
Between x = 5.4 and x = 5.6, the middle value is 5.5 + 3 = 8.5
Between x = 5.6 and x = 5.8, the middle value is 5.7 + 3 = 8.7
Between x = 5.8 and x = 6, the middle value is 5.9 + 3 = 8.9
Adding these, we get 42.5.
To get the Riemann sum, take this answer and multiply by the width of each segment: 0.2
∴ 8.5 is our approximated area.

Example 5

Approximate the area between y = 3x2 + x + 5 and the x-axis on the interval between x = 2 and x = 5 using the right
Riemann Sum with 2 subintervals.
First, we divide the interval [2,5] into subintervals: Between x = 2 and x = 3.5, the right value is 3(3.5)2 + (2.5) + 5
= 42.25 Between x = 3.5 and x = 5, the right value is 3(5)2 + (5) + 5 = 85 Adding these, we get 127.25. Take this
answer and multiply by the width of each segment: 1.5.
∴≈ 190.88 is the area

Example 6

Use a definite integral to find the area under the curve y = 5x2 + 2x + 4 on the interval [0, 3].

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Area Under the Curve

R3
0 5x2 + 2x + 4dx = 53 x3 + x2 + 4x|54

Review

1. Use the limit method to find the area under the curve of f (x) = x2 in the interval [0, 2].

Find the area between the curve and the x-axis:

2. Curve y = x on the interval x = 1 to x = 3.

3. Curve y = -x from x = 1 to x = 3.
4. Curve y = x from x = -3 to x = 3.
5. Approximate the area under y = 2x + 3 on the interval [0,3] using the middle Riemann Sum for y with 6
subintervals.

Find the area under the curve:

6. y = 3 on [4, 5]
7. y = 3x + 1 on [1, 5]
8. y = 1x on [3, 4]
9. y = 2x + 4 on [5, 6]
10. y = 5x3 + 4x2 + x + 2 on [2, 5]
11. y = 1x on [3, 7]
12. y = 3x2 + 2x on [5, 6]
13. y = 4 on [2, 6]
14. y = 2x2 + 4x + 5 on [1, 5]
15. Sketch y = x2 and y = x on the same coordinate system and then find the area of the region enclosed between
them.

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 8.12.

9
The Definite Integral and the
Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus

ACLC COLLEGE
ORMOC CITY

BASIC CALCULUS

PREPARED BY:
ROELITO JORDAN
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. The Definite Integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

C HAPTER
1
The Definite Integral and the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Velocity due to gravity can be easily calculated by the formula: v = gt, where g is the acceleration due to grav-
ity (9.8 m/s2 ) and t is time in seconds. In fact, a decent approximation can be calculated in your head easily by
rounding 9.8 to 10 so you can just add a decimal place to the time.
Using this function for velocity, how could you find a function that represented the position of the object after a
given time? What about a function that represented the instantaneous acceleration of the object at a given time?

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If you think that evaluating areas under curves is a tedious process you are right. Finding the limit of a Riemann
Sum can be very tedious. Fortunately, there is an easier method. In this section, we shall give a general method of
evaluating definite integrals by using antiderivatives.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus makes the relationship between derivatives and integrals clear. Integration
performed on a function can be reversed by differentiation.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that if a function f (x) is defined over the interval [a, b] and if F(x) is
the antiderivative of f on [a, b], then

Zb
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a) = F(x)|ba
a

We can use the relationship between differentiation and integration outlined in the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
to compute definite integrals more quickly.
R2
Take the antiderivative x2 dx.
1

This integral tells us to evaluate the area under the curve f (x) = x2 , which is a parabola, over the interval [1, 2], as
shown in the figure below.

To compute the integral according to the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we need to find the antiderivative
f (x) = x2 . It turns out to be F(x) = 31 x3 + C, where C is a constant of integration. How can we get this? Think

1
 www.ck12.org

about the functions that will have derivatives of x2 . Take the derivative of F(x) to check that we have found such a
function.
Substituting into the fundamental theorem,

Zb
f (x)dx = F(x)|ba
a
Z2  2
2 1 3
x dx = x +C
3 1
1
   
1 3 1 3
= (2) +C − (1) +C
3 3
   
8 1
= +C − +C
3 3
7
= +C −C
3
7
=
3

7
units2 .


So the area under the curve is 3

MEDIA
Click image to the left or use the URL below.
URL: http://www.ck12.org/flx/render/embeddedobject/80414

Examples

Example 1

Earlier, you were asked how you could find a function that represented the position of the object after a given time
using the function v = gt for velocity. What about a function that represented the instantaneous acceleration of the
object at a given time?
The function, s(t), representing position is the antiderivative of the velocity because s0 (t) = v(t), orR s(t) = v(t)dt.
R

In the same way, the velocity v(t) is the antiderivative of the acceleration since v0 (t) = g, or v(t) = gdt.

Example 2

Evaluate x3 dx
R

1 n+1
Since xn dx =
R
n+1 x +C, we have

2
www.ck12.org Chapter 1. The Definite Integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

1 3+1
Z
x3 dx = x +C
3+1
1
= x4 +C
4

To check our answer, take the derivative of 14 x4 +C and verify that it is x3 , the original function in our integral.

Example 3

Evaluate 5x2 dx
R

Using the constant multiple of a power rule, the coefficient 5 can be removed outside the integral:

Z Z
2
5x dx = 5 x2 dx

Then we can integrate:

1 2+1
Z
5 x2 dx = 5 · x +C
2+1
5
= x3 +C
3

Again, to check our work take the derivative of 53 x3 +C and verify that we get 5x2 .

Example 4

R5 √
Evaluate xdx.
2
The evaluation of this integral represents calculating the area under the curve from x = 2 to x = 5, shown in the
figure below.

3
 www.ck12.org

Z5 5
√ Z
1
xdx = x 2 dx
2 2
" #5
1 1 +1
= 1 x2
2 + 1
2
" #5
1 3
= 3 x2
2 2
2 h 3 i5
= x2
3 2
2h 3 3
i
= 52 −22
3
Z5 5
√ Z
1
xdx = x 2 dx
2 2
= 5.57

So the area under the curve is 5.57.

Example 5

R2π
Use the fundamental theorem of calculus to solve: 3 cos(x)dx.
−2π

If F(x) = 3 sin(x), then F 0 (x) = 3 cos(x)

So we apply the fundamental theorem of calculus:
R2π
[3 cos dx = 3 sin(x)]2π
−2π = 3 sin(2π) − 3 sin(−2π) = 0.
−2π

Review

R3
1. Evaluate the integral 5xdx.
0
R1
2. Evaluate the integral x4 dx.
0
R4
3. Evaluate the integral (x − 3)dx.
1
√+ 1)(2x − 3) from -1 to 2.
4. Find the integral of (x
5. Find the integral of x from 0 to 9.
R0
6. Find the integral of −3dx =
−1
R3
7. Find the integral of dx =
−1
p
R2
8. Find the integral of −4 cos(x)dx =
−p

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. The Definite Integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

R2
9. Find the integral of −dx =
0
R7 dx
10. Find the integral of x
2
R0
11. Find the integral of x + 5dx =
−2
3p
R2
12. Find the integral of 6 sin(x)dx =
−p
R7
13. Find the integral of dxx
6
14. Sketch y = x3 and y = x on the same coordinate system and then find the area of the region enclosed between
them (a) in the first quadrant and (b) in the first and third quadrants.
RR
15. Evaluate the integral (πR2 − πx2 )dx where R is a constant.
−R

Review (Answers)

To see the Review answers, open this PDF file and look for section 5.6.

References

1. . . CC BY-NC-SA