Swami Vivekananda Subharti University

MEERUT, UP

Subject: Humanitarian Refuge Law

UN PEACE MAKING MISSIONS &
ENFORCEMENT

Submitted to Submitted by

Afreen Almas Sherab Dorji

Assistant Professor, BALLB 8th Semester
Sardar Patel Subharti Institute of Law

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 Contents
SL. No
TOPIC Page No

1 Acknowledgement 3
2 Introduction 4
3 Global Partnership 5
4 Principles of international peace and security 7
5 UN Charter 9
6 Peace Keeping Mandates 10
7 Peace Keeping Missions 11
8 Peace Keeping, Peace Making and Peace Building 13
9 Sanctions and Military Actions 14
10 Arms Control and Disarmament 15
11 Economic Reconstruction 18
12 Trade and Development 19
13 Refugees 20
14 Human Rights 20
15 Health and Welfare Issues 22
16 The environment 22
17 Development of International Law 24
18 Assessment 25
19 Conclusion 26
20 References 27

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 Acknowledgement

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and
assistance from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all
along the completion of my project. All that I have done is only due to such
supervision and assistance and I would not forget to thank them.

I respect and thank Ms. Afreen Almas(Assistant Professor), for providing me an

opportunity to do the project work at home and giving us all support and
guidance which made me complete the project duly. I am extremely thankful to
her for providing such a nice support and guidance, although she had busy
schedule managing the corporate affairs.

Also I would thank my family member for all the support , love and care they have
showered upon me.

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 INTRODUCTION

What is PEACE KEEPING ?

United Nations Peacekeeping helps countries torn by conflict create conditions for lasting peace.

Peacekeeping has proven to be one of the most effective tools available to the UN to assist host
countries navigate the difficult path from conflict to peace.

Peacekeeping has unique strengths, including legitimacy, burden sharing, and an ability to deploy and
sustain troops and police from around the globe, integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to advance
multidimensional mandates.

UN peacekeepers provide security and the political and peacebuilding support to help countries make
the difficult, early transition from conflict to peace.

Global partnership

UN peacekeeping is a unique global partnership. It brings together the General Assembly, the Security
Council, the Secretariat, troop and police contributors and the host governments in a combined effort to
maintain international peace and security. Its strength lies in the legitimacy of the UN Charter and in the
wide range of contributing countries that participate and provide precious resources

UN Peacekeeping helps countries navigate the difficult path from conflict to peace. We have unique
strengths, including legitimacy, burden sharing, and an ability to deploy troops and police from around
the world, integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to address a range of mandates set by the UN
Security Council and General Assembly.

Peacekeeping is one among a range of activities undertaken by the United Nations to maintain
international peace and security throughout the world.

The other activities are:

 conflict prevention and mediation

 peacemaking
 peace enforcement
 peace building

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Conflict prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping and peace enforcement rarely occur in a linear or
sequential way. Experience has shown that they should be seen as mutually reinforcing. If they are used
piecemeal or in isolation, they fail to provide the comprehensive approach required to address the root
causes of conflict and hence reduce the risk of conflict recurring.

Conflict prevention

Conflict prevention involves diplomatic measures to keep intra-state or inter-state tensions and disputes
from escalating into violent conflict.

It includes early warning, information gathering and a careful analysis of the factors driving the conflict.
Conflict prevention activities may include the use of the Secretary-General’s “good offices,” preventive
deployment of UN missions or conflict mediation led by the Department of Political Affairs.

Peacemaking

Peacemaking generally includes measures to address conflicts in progress and usually involves
diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated agreement.

The UN Secretary-General may exercise his or her “good offices” to facilitate the resolution of the
conflict. Peacemakers may also be envoys, governments, groups of states, regional organizations or the
United Nations. Peacemaking efforts may also be undertaken by unofficial and non-governmental
groups, or by a prominent personality working independently.

Peace enforcement

Peace enforcement involves the application of a range of coercive measures, including the use of
military force. It requires the explicit authorization of the Security Council.

It is used to restore international peace and security in situations where the Security Council has decided
to act in the face of a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression. The Council may
utilize, where appropriate, regional organizations and agencies for enforcement action under its
authority and in accordance with the UN Charter.

Peace building

Peace building aims to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national
capacities at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundation for sustainable peace and
development. It is a complex, long-term process of creating the necessary conditions for sustainable
peace. Peace building measures address core issues that effect the functioning of society and the State,
and seek to enhance the capacity of the State to effectively and legitimately carry out its core functions.

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Role of peacekeeping

The boundaries between conflict prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping, peacebuilding and peace
enforcement have become increasingly blurred. Peace operations are rarely limited to one type of
activity.

While UN peacekeeping operations are, in principle, deployed to support the implementation of a

ceasefire or peace agreement, they are often required to play an active role in peacemaking efforts and
may also be involved in early peace building activities.
Today's multidimensional peacekeeping operations facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist
in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former combatants; support the organization
of elections, protect and promote human rights and assist in restoring the rule of law.

UN peacekeeping operations may use force to defend themselves, their mandate, and civilians,
particularly in situations where the State is unable to provide security and maintain public order.

There are three basic principles that continue to set UN peacekeeping operations apart as a tool for
maintaining international peace and security.

These three principles are inter-related and mutually reinforcing:

 Consent of the parties

 Impartiality
 Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate

1. Consent of the parties

UN peacekeeping operations are deployed with the consent of the main parties to the conflict. This
requires a commitment by the parties to a political process. Their acceptance of a peacekeeping
operation provides the UN with the necessary freedom of action, both political and physical, to carry out
its mandated tasks.

In the absence of such consent, a peacekeeping operation risks becoming a party to the conflict; and
being drawn towards enforcement action, and away from its fundamental role of keeping the peace.

The fact that the main parties have given their consent to the deployment of a United Nations
peacekeeping operation does not necessarily imply or guarantee that there will also be consent at the
local level, particularly if the main parties are internally divided or have weak command and control
systems. Universality of consent becomes even less probable in volatile settings, characterized by the
presence of armed groups not under the control of any of the parties, or by the presence of other
spoilers.

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2. Impartiality

Impartiality is crucial to maintaining the consent and cooperation of the main parties, but should not be
confused with neutrality or inactivity. United Nations peacekeepers should be impartial in their dealings
with the parties to the conflict, but not neutral in the execution of their mandate.

Just as a good referee is impartial, but will penalize infractions, so a peacekeeping operation should not
condone actions by the parties that violate the undertakings of the peace process or the international
norms and principles that a United Nations peacekeeping operation upholds.

Notwithstanding the need to establish and maintain good relations with the parties, a peacekeeping
operation must scrupulously avoid activities that might compromise its image of impartiality. A mission
should not shy away from a rigorous application of the principle of impartiality for fear of
misinterpretation or retaliation.

Failure to do so may undermine the peacekeeping operation’s credibility and legitimacy, and may lead
to a withdrawal of consent for its presence by one or more of the parties.

3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defense of the mandate

UN peacekeeping operations are not an enforcement tool. However, they may use force at the tactical
level, with the authorization of the Security Council, if acting in self-defence and defence of the
mandate.

In certain volatile situations, the Security Council has given UN peacekeeping operations “robust”
mandates authorizing them to “use all necessary means” to deter forceful attempts to disrupt the
political process, protect civilians under imminent threat of physical attack, and/or assist the national
authorities in maintaining law and order.

Although on the ground they may sometimes appear similar, robust peacekeeping should not be
confused with peace enforcement, as envisaged under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.

Robust peacekeeping involves the use of force at the tactical level with the authorization of the Security
Council and consent of the host nation and/or the main parties to the conflict.

By contrast, peace enforcement does not require the consent of the main parties and may involve the
use of military force at the strategic or international level, which is normally prohibited for Member
States under Article 2(4) of the Charter, unless authorized by the Security Council.

A UN peacekeeping operation should only use force as a measure of last resort. It should always be
calibrated in a precise, proportional and appropriate manner, within the principle of the minimum force
necessary to achieve the desired effect, while sustaining consent for the mission and its mandate. The
use of force by a UN peacekeeping operation always has political implications and can often give rise to
unforeseen circumstances.

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Judgments concerning its use need to be made at the appropriate level within a mission, based on a
combination of factors including mission capability; public perceptions; humanitarian impact; force
protection; safety and security of personnel; and, most importantly, the effect that such action will have
on national and local consent for the mission.

Peacekeeping mandates

UN peace operations are deployed on the basis of mandates from the United Nations Security Council.
Over the years, the range of tasks assigned to UN peace operations has expanded significantly in
response to shifting patterns of conflict and to best address threats to international peace and security.

Although each UN peace operation is different, there is a considerable degree of consistency in the
types of mandated tasks assigned by the Security Council. Depending on their mandate, peace
operations may be required to:

 Deploy to prevent the outbreak of conflict or the spill-over of conflict across borders;
 Stabilize conflict situations after a ceasefire, to create an environment for the parties to reach a
lasting peace agreement;
 Assist in implementing comprehensive peace agreements;
 Lead states or territories through a transition to stable government, based on democratic
principles, good governance and economic development.
 Depending on the specific set of challenges, UN peacekeepers are often mandated to play a
catalytic role in the following essentially peace building activities:
 Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants;
 Mine action;
 Security sector reform and other rule of law-related activities;
 Protection and promotion of human rights;
 Electoral assistance;
 Support for the restoration and extension of State authority;
 Promotion of social and economic recovery and development. 
 Security Council mandates also reflect a number of cross-cutting, thematic tasks that are
regularly assigned to UN peace operations on the basis of the following landmark Security
Council resolutions:
 Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) on women, peace and security;
 Security Council resolution 1612 (2005) on children and armed conflict;
 Security Council resolution 1674 (2006) on the protection of civilians in armed conflict.

Peace Keeping Missions

Peacekeeping operations have had mandates ranging from traditional methods of resolving disputes
peacefully under Chapter VI, such as promoting reconciliation, assisting with the implementation of a
peace agreement, or performing mediation and good offices, and more forceful action as authorized

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under Chapter VII which can authorize a range of measures including the use of force under Article 42 of
the Charter. Below is a list of all sixty-two peacekeeping operations as well as three advance or observer
missions established by the Security Council, with a short description on the basis of the content of the
Repertoire as well as links to the sections covering them in the Repertoire. They are organized by region,
and then under relevant areas or subregions, placed chronologically starting with those established
most recently. Studies on the thematic agenda items relating to peacekeeping can be found here

Some of the peace keeping missions worldwide are as follows:

Africa

 Angola
 Aouzou Strip
 Burundi
 Central African Republic
 Central African Republic / Chad
 Côte d’Ivoire
 Democratic Republic of the Congo
 Eritrea/Ethiopia
 Liberia
 Mali
 Mozambique
 Namibia
 Rwanda
 Rwanda / Uganda
 Sierra Leone
 Somalia
 South Africa
 South Sudan
 Sudan
 Western Sahara

Asia

 Afghanistan / Pakistan
 Cambodia
 India / Pakistan
 Tajikistan
 Timor Leste

Americas

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  Central America
 El Salvador
 Guatemala
 Haiti

Europe

 Cyprus
 Georgia


Middle East

 Iran / Iraq
 Iraq / Kuwait
 Lebanon
 Syrian Arab Republic
 Yemen

Economic welfare and cooperation

The General Assembly, ECOSOC, the Secretariat, and many of the subsidiary organs and specialized
agencies are responsible for promoting economic welfare and cooperation in areas such as postwar
reconstruction, technical assistance, and trade and development.

Economic reconstruction

The devastation of large areas of the world and the disruption of economic relations during World War
II resulted in the establishment (before the UN was founded) of the United Nations Relief and
Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) in 1943. The UNRRA was succeeded by the International Refugee
Organization, which operated from 1947 to 1951.

To assist in dealing with regional problems, in 1947 ECOSOC established the Economic Commission for
Europe and the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East. Similar commissions were established
for Latin America in 1948 and for Africa in 1958. The major work of economic reconstruction, however,
was delegated to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), one of the
major financial institutions created in 1944 at the UN Monetary and Financial Conference (commonly
known as the Bretton Woods Conference). Although the World Bank is formally autonomous from the
UN, it reports to ECOSOC as one of the UN’s specialized agencies. The World Bank works closely with
donor countries, UN programs, and other specialized agencies.

Financing economic development

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The World Bank is also primarily responsible for financing economic development. In 1956
the International Finance Corporation was created as an arm of the World Bank specifically to stimulate
private investment flows. The corporation has the authority to make direct loans to private enterprises
without government guarantees and is allowed to make loans for other than fixed returns. In 1960
the International Development Association (IDA) was established to make loans to less-developed
countries on terms that were more flexible than bank loans.

The UN itself has played a more limited role in financing economic development. The General Assembly
provides direction and supervision for economic activities, and ECOSOC coordinates different agencies
and programs. UN development efforts have consisted of two primary activities. First, several regional
commissions (for Europe, Asia and the Pacific, Latin America, and Africa) promote regional approaches
to development and undertake studies and development initiatives for regional economic projects.
Second, UN-sponsored technical assistance programs, funded from 1965 through the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), provide systematic assistance in fields essential to technical,
economic, and social development of less-developed countries. Resident representatives of the UNDP in
recipient countries assess local needs and priorities and administer UN development programs.

Social welfare and cooperation

The United Nations is concerned with issues of human rights, including the rights of women and
children, refugee resettlement, and narcotics control. Some of its greatest successes have been in the
area of improving the health and welfare of the world’s population. In the 1990s, despite severe strains
on the resources of UN development programs and agencies resulting from massive refugee movements
and humanitarian crises, the UN increased its emphasis on social development.

Human rights

Unlike the League of Nations, the United Nations incorporated the principle of respect for human rights
into its Charter, affirming respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without regard
to race, sex, language, or religion. According to the Charter, the General Assembly is charged with
initiating studies and making recommendations, and ECOSOC is responsible for establishing commissions
to fulfill this purpose. Consequently, the Commission on Human Rights, originally chaired by Eleanor
Roosevelt, was created in 1946 to develop conventions on a wide range of issues, including an
international bill of rights, civil liberties, the status of women (for which there is now a separate
commission), freedom of information, the protection of minorities, the prevention of discrimination on
the grounds of race, sex, language, or religion, and any other human rights concerns. The commission
prepared the nonbinding Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the General
Assembly in 1948.

After the declaration, the commission began drafting two covenants, one on civil and political rights and
another on economic and cultural rights. Differences in economic and social philosophies hampered
efforts to reach agreement, but the General Assembly eventually adopted the International Covenant on

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Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1966.
The covenants, which entered into force in 1976, are known collectively, along with the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, as the international bill of rights. Although all countries have stated
support for the 1948 declaration, not all observe or have ratified the two covenants.

In general, Western countries have favoured civil and political rights (rights to life, liberty, freedom
from slavery and arbitrary arrest, freedom of opinion and peaceful assembly, and the right to vote), and
developing countries have stressed economic and cultural rights such as the rights to employment,
shelter, education, and an adequate standard of living.

The Commission on Human Rights and its subcommission meet annually in Geneva to consider a wide
range of human rights issues. Human rights violations are investigated by a Human Rights Committee set
up according to the provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The
commission and subcommission also carry out special responsibilities delegated by the General
Assembly or by ECOSOC. The commission and subcommission have strengthened human rights norms
and expanded the range of recognized rights, in part by drafting additional conventions on matters such
as women’s rights, racial discrimination, torture, labour laws, apartheid, and the rights
of indigenous peoples.

In particular, the UN has acted to strengthen recognition of the rights of women and children. It
established a special Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women,
which was approved in 1979 and has been ratified by some 170 countries, and the 1989 Convention on
the Rights of the Child, which has been ratified by more than 190 countries. In 1995 the Fourth World
Conference on Women, held in Beijing, developed a Platform for Action to recognize women’s rights and
improve women’s livelihood worldwide, and follow-up meetings monitored progress toward meeting
these goals. UNIFEM, the United Nations Development Fund for Women, has worked since 1995
to implement the Beijing Platform for Action.

The UN, through special rapporteurs and working groups, monitors compliance with human rights
standards. In 1993 the General Assembly established the post of United Nations High Commissioner for
Human Rights (UNHCHR), which is the focal point within the UN Secretariat for human rights activity.

The environment

In response to growing worldwide concern with environmental issues, the General Assembly organized
the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, which was held in Stockholm in 1972 and
led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in the same year. UNEP has
attempted to find solutions to various environmental problems, including pollution in
the Mediterranean Sea; the threat to aquatic resources posed by human economic
activity; deforestation, desertification, and drought; the depletion of the Earth’s ozone layer by human-
produced chemicals; and global warming.

Much disagreement has arisen regarding the scientific bases of environmental concerns and the
question of how to combine the goals of environmental protection and development. Although both

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developed and developing countries recognize the need to preserve natural resources, developing
countries often charge that the environment has been despoiled primarily by the advanced
industrialized states, whose belated environmental consciousness now hampers development for other
countries. In other instances, developed countries have objected to the imposition of environmental
standards, fearing that such regulations will hamper economic growth and erode their standard of living.

UNEP succeeded in establishing, through the General Assembly, a World Commission on Environment
and Development and in 1988 outlined an environmental program to set priorities for the 1990–95
periods.

International conferences, such as the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (the “Earth Summit”), held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, have continued to focus attention on
environmental issues. The Earth Summit, which was far larger than any previous intergovernmental
global conference, incorporated input from numerous NGOs. It produced a Convention on Biological
Diversity; a Framework Convention on Climate Change, or Global Warming Convention; the Rio
Declaration on Environment and Development (the Rio Declaration); a Statement of Principles on
Forests; and a plan for the sustainable development of the Earth’s resources into the 21st century
(Agenda 21). The Global Warming Convention was amended in 1997 by the Kyoto Protocol and in 2015
by the Paris Agreement on climate change, both of which aimed to limit global average temperature
increases through reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

Development of international law

The United Nations, like the League of Nations, has played a major role in defining, codifying, and
expanding the realm of international law. The International Law Commission, established by the General
Assembly in 1947, is the primary institution responsible for these activities. The Legal Committee of the
General Assembly receives the commission’s reports and debates its recommendations; it may then
either convene an international conference to draw up formal conventions based on the draft or merely
recommend the draft to states.
The International Court of Justice reinforces legal norms through its judgments. The commission and the
committee have influenced international law in several important domains, including the laws of war,
the law of the sea, human rights, and international terrorism.

The work of the UN on developing and codifying laws of war was built on the previous accomplishments
of the Hague Conventions (1899–1907), the League of Nations, and the Kellog-Briand Pact (1928). The
organization’s first concern after World War II was the punishment of suspected Nazi war criminals.

The General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to formulate the principles of
international law recognized at the Nürnberg trials, in which German war criminals were prosecuted,
and to prepare a draft code of offenses against the peace and security of mankind. In 1950 the
commission submitted its formulation of the Nürnberg principles, which covered crimes against
peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. In the following year the commission presented to the
General Assembly its draft articles, which enumerated crimes against international law, including any act
or threat of aggression, annexation of territory, and genocide. Although the General Assembly did not

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adopt these reports, the commission’s work in formulating the Nürnberg principles influenced the
development of human rights law.

The UN also took up the problem of defining aggression, a task attempted unsuccessfully by the League
of Nations. Both the International Law Commission and the General Assembly undertook prolonged
efforts that eventually resulted in agreement in 1974. The definition of aggression, which passed
without dissent, included launching military attacks, sending armed mercenaries against another state,
and allowing one’s territory to be used for perpetrating an act of aggression against another state. In
1987 the General Assembly adopted a series of resolutions to strengthen legal norms in favour of the
peaceful resolution of disputes and against the use of force.

The UN has made considerable progress in developing and codifying the law of the sea as well. The
International Law Commission took up the law of the sea as one of its earliest concerns, and in 1958 and
1960, respectively, the General Assembly convened the First and the Second United Nations
Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The initial conference approved conventions on
the continental shelf, fishing, the high seas, and territorial waters and contiguous zones, all of which
were ratified by the mid-1960s. During the 1970s it came to be accepted that the deep seabed is the
“common heritage of mankind” and should be administered by an international authority.

In 1973 the General Assembly called UNCLOS III to discuss the conflicting positions on this issue as well
as on issues relating to navigation, pollution, and the breadth of territorial waters. The resulting Law of
the Sea Treaty (1982) has been ratified by some 140 countries. The original treaty was not signed by
the United States, which objected to the treaty’s restrictions on seabed mining. The United States signed
a revised treaty after a compromise was reached in 1994, though the agreement has yet to be ratified by
the U.S. Senate.

The UN has worked to advance the law of treaties and the laws regulating relations between states. In
1989 the General Assembly passed a resolution declaring 1990–99 the UN Decade of International Law,
to be dedicated to promoting acceptance and respect for the principles and institutions of international
law. In 1992 the General Assembly directed the International Law Commission to prepare a draft statute
for an International Criminal Court. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) was
adopted in July 1998 and later signed by more than 120 countries. The ICC, which was located at The
Hague following ratification of the statute by at least 60 signatory countries, has jurisdiction over crimes
against humanity, crimes of genocide, war crimes, and crimes of aggression. Under the terms of the
convention, no person age 18 years or older is immune from prosecution, including presidents or heads
of state.

Since 1963 the United Nations has been active in developing a legal framework for combating
international terrorism. The General Assembly and specialized agencies such as the International Civil
Aviation Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency established conventions on issues
such as offenses committed on aircraft, acts jeopardizing the safety of civil aviation, the unlawful taking
of hostages, and the theft or illegal transfer of nuclear weapons technology. In 2001, in the wake of
devastating terrorist attacks that killed thousands in the United States, the General Assembly’s Ad Hoc

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Committee on Terrorism continued work on a comprehensive convention for the suppression of
terrorism.

Conclusion

Peace enforcement is the use of military force to compel peace in a conflict, generally against the will of
combatants. To do this, it generally requires more military force than peacekeeping operations. The
United Nations, through its Security Council per Chapter VII of its charter, has the ability to authorize
force to enforce its resolutions and ceasefires already created.

Peace enforcement differs from peacekeeping as peace enforcement activities are generally used to
create a peace from a broken ceasefire or to enforce a peace demanded by the United Nations.
Compared to peacekeeping, peace enforcement requires more military force and is thereby best done
by heavily armed forces. However, it is generally unable to create lasting peace, as it does nothing to
deal with the underlying problems which caused the conflict itself.

One of the most famous examples of peace enforcement was the UN intervention during the Gulf War
to force Saddam Hussein's Iraqi army from Kuwait. The United Nations was thereby able to compel
Iraq's compliance with the UN Resolutions which demanded its withdrawal from the region.

A report on peacekeeping and peace enforcement in the 1990s for the United States Army established
this difference between peace enforcement and peacekeeping:

Peacekeeping, a role the U.N. has played over the years is relatively straightforward and, despite its
difficulties, comparatively easy. Peacekeeping involves monitoring and enforcing a cease-fire agreed to
by two or more former combatants. It precedes in an atmosphere where peace exists and where the
former combatants minimally prefer peace to continued war.

Peace-enforcement, as it is used by the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff, entails the physical
interposition of armed forces to separate ongoing combatants to create a cease-fire that does not exist.
Boutros-Ghali, on the other hand, uses the term to refer to actions to keep a cease-fire from being
violated or to reinstate a failed cease-fire. It is a subtle difference, but it does imply the existence of
some will for peace.

The American version more realistically portrays another, far more difficult matter. By definition, in a
situation for which peace-enforcement is a potentially appropriate response, war and not peace
describes the situation, and one or more of the combatants prefer it that way. This means that, unlike
peacekeepers, peace enforcers are often not welcomed by one or either side(s). Rather, they are active
fighters who must impose a cease-fire that is opposed by one or both combatants; in the process, the
neutrality that distinguishes peacekeepers will most likely be lost.

References

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UN Website

Wikipedia

Kaplan, Richard. "Peacekeeping / Peace Enforcement | Encyclopedia Princetoniensis". Princeton

Encyclopedia of Self-determination. Princeton University. Retrieved 2015-11-07.

Nau, Henry R (2015). Perspectives on International Relations. Washington DC: CQ Press. ISBN 978-1-
4522-4148-7.

Lundgren, Magnus (2016). "Conflict management capabilities of peace-brokering international

organizations, 1945–2010: A new dataset". Conflict Management and Peace Science. 33 (2): 198–223.
doi:10.1177/0738894215572757.

"CHAPTER III -- PEACE ENFORCEMENT". www.globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2015-11-07.

"Peacekeeping, Peacemaking and Peace-Enforcement: The U.S. Role in the New International Order"
(PDF). Retrieved 2011-07-03.

Mohamed Awad Osman, The United Nations and Peace Enforcement, wars, Terrorism and Democracy,
Aldershot, Ashgate 2002.

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