TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

SYLLABUS:
UNIT- I Components Of The Traffic System: Human-Vehicle–Environment System;
characteristics of Road users, Vehicles, Highways and their classification, Traffic Studies:
Inventories, Volume studies; Speed, Travel time and Delay studies, Intersection studies,
Pedestrian studies; Parking studies; Accident studies.

UNIT- II Traffic Characteristics: Microscopic and macroscopic flow characteristics: Time

headways; Temporal, spatial and model flow patterns; Interrupted and Un interrupted traffic.
Microscopic and macroscopic speed characteristics: Vehicular speed Trajectories; Speed
characteristics – Mathematical distribution; Speed and travel time variations; Travel time and
delay studies. Microscopic and Macroscopic density characteristics: Distance headway
characteristics; Car-following theories; Density measurement techniques; Density contour
maps

UNIT- III Traffic Control Devices & Highway Safety: Traffic signs & Markings; Signal
Warrants; Signal phasing and Development of phase plans; Fixed and Vehicle activated
signals; Webster method; ARRB method; Drew’s Method; IRC method; Signal coordination;
Area Traffic control. Accident characteristics – Road – Driver – Vehicle; Accident recording
and Analysis; Highway Safety Improvement Program; Safety Audit.

UNIT-IV Environmental Considerations: Air pollution: Kinds of pollutants; Air pollution

standards; Measures of air quality; modeling and control. Noise pollution: Measurement of
sound levels; Acceptable limits, Prediction of noise levels, Traffic noise control.

UNIT- V Highway Capacity And Level Of Service: Capacity and level of service; Factors
affecting Capacity and LOS; Capacity of Rural Highways, Capacity of Urban Roads; HCM and
IRC standards.

UNIT- VI Intelligent Vehicle – Highway Systems: Traffic surveillance and monitoring; IVHS
programs, Role of IVHS, IVHS categories, Benefits and Costs of IVHS

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 Traffic System Components

•Road users-drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, and passengers

•Vehicles- private and commercial

•Streets and highways

•Traffic control devices

•The general environment

Road Users
•Physiological–Measurable and Usually Quantifiable
•Psychological–Much more difficult to measure and quantify

•Psychological: Desired speeds

Desired safety distances
•Physiological: Perception-Reaction time
Visual factors
Diversity (behaviors)

•Drivers and other road users have widely varying characteristics.

•Traffic controls could be easily designed if all drivers reacted to them in exactly the same way.

•Safety could be more easily achieved if all vehicles had uniform dimensions, weights, and
operating characteristics.

▫The traffic engineer must deal with elderly drivers as well as 18-year-olds, aggressive drivers
and timid drivers, and drivers subject to myriad distractions both inside and outside their
vehicles.

Diversity (behaviors)

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•Most human characteristics follow the normal distribution▫A normal distribution defines the
proportions of the population expected to fall into these ranges. Because of variation, it is not
practical to design a system for “average” characteristics. If a signal is timed, for example, to
accommodate the average speed of crossing pedestrians, about half of all pedestrians would walk
at a slower rate and be exposed to unacceptable risks.

•Thus, most standards are geared to the “85th percentile” (or “15th percentile”)

Diversity (Vehicles)

•Highways must be designed to accommodate motorcycles, the full range of automobiles, and a
wide range of commercial vehicles, including double-and triple-back tractor-trailer
combinations.

•Thus, lane widths, for example, must accommodate the largest vehicles expected to use the
facility.

Uniformity for Diversity

•design of roadway systems and traffic controls is in the core of their professional
practice.▫Roadways of a similar type and function should have a familiar “look” to drivers;
traffic control devices should be as uniform as possible. Traffic engineers strive to provide
information to drivers in uniform ways.

Drivers

•Visual Acuity factors

•Reaction Process

•Hearing

•Physical Strength

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•Personality and Psychology

Visual Acuity factors

•The most important characteristic of drivers is their ability to see!

•Field of Vision

•Color Blindness

Field of Vision

Field of Vision

•Acute or clear vision cone-3°to 10°around the line of sight; legend can be read only within this
narrow field of vision.

•Fairly clear vision cone-10°to 12°around the line of sight; color and shape can be identified in
this field.

•Peripheral vision-This field may extend up to 90°to the right and left of the centerline of the
pupil, and up to 60°above and 70°below the line of sight. Stationary objects are generally not
seen in the peripheral vision field, but the movement of objects through this field is detected.

•Objects or other vehicles located in the fairly clear and peripheral vision fields may draw the
driver’s attention to an important event occurring in that field, such as the approach ofa vehicle
on an intersection street or driveway or a child running into the street after a ball. Once noticed,
the driver may turn his/her head to examine the details of the situation.

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•Traffic Signs: Location, Height, Shapes, Colors

•The peripheral vision field narrows, as speed increases, to as little as 100°at 20 mi/h and to
40°at 60 mi/h.

Visual Difficult

•Some of the more common problems involve cataracts, glaucoma, peripheral vision deficits,
ocular muscle imbalance, depth perception deficits, and color blindness.

•Unfortunately, one of the most common forms of color blindness involves the inability to
discern the difference between red and green.

▫The location of colors on signal heads has long been standardized, with red on the top and green
on the bottom of vertical signal heads. On horizontal heads, red is on the left and green on the
right.

Perception-Reaction Time

•The second critical driver characteristic is perception-reaction time (PRT).

▫Detection. In this phase, an object or condition of concern enters the driver’s field of vision,
and the driver becomes consciously aware that something requiring a response is present.

▫Identification. In this phase, the driver acquires sufficient information concerning the object or
condition to allow the consideration of an appropriate response.

▫Decision. Once identification of the object or condition is sufficiently completed, the driver
must analyze the information and make a decision about how to respond.

▫Response. After a decision has been reached, the response is now physically implemented by
the driver.

PRT or PIEV

•Perception of cue or stimulus

•Interpretation

•Evaluation of appropriate response (i.e., decision)

•Volition or physical response (i.e., reaction)

Factors Affecting PRT

•Age

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•Fatigue

•Complexity of Reactions

•Presence of Drugs or Alcohol

•AASHTO Recommendations: ▫For braking reactions on Highways: Perception and Reaction

Time: 2.5 seconds (90th percentile)

For reaction time to traffic signal: Perception and Reaction Time: 1.0 Second (85th percentile)

Reaction Distance

•The most critical impact of perception-reaction time is the distance the vehicle travels while the
driver goes through the process

.•The reaction distance is simply the PRT multiplied by the initial speed of the vehicle.

d= reaction distance, m

t = reaction time,s

S= initial speed of vehicle, km/h

Reaction Distance

•The importance of this factor is illustrated in the following sample problem: A driver rounds a
curve at a speed of 60 mi/h and sees a truck overturned on the roadway ahead. How far will the
driver’s vehicle travel before the driver’s foot reaches the brake? Applying the AASHTO
standard of 2.5 s for braking reactions:

The vehicle will travel 220.5 ft (approximately 11-12 car lengths) before the driver even engages
the brake. The implication of this is frightening. If the overturned truck is closer to the vehicle
than 220.5 ft when noticed by the driver, not only will the driver hit the truck, he or she will do
so at full speed-60 mi/h. Deceleration begins only when the brake is engaged-after the
perception-reaction process has been completed.

Pedestrian Characteristics

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 •One of the most critical safety problems in any highway and street system involves the
interactions of vehicles and pedestrians.

•Walking Speeds▫1 to 1.2 m/s for 85%

•Gap Acceptance▫38 m

•Pedestrian Comprehension of Controls

Vehicle Categories
•AASHTO - Four main categories :▫Passenger curs-all passenger cars, SUVs, minivans, vans,
and pickup trucks.▫Buses-intercity motor coaches, transit buses, school buses, and articulated
buses▫Trucks-single-unit trucks, tractor-trailer, and tractor-semi-trailer combination
vehicles▫Recreational vehicles-motor homes, cars with various types of trailers (boat, campers,
motorcycles, etc.)
Vehicle Characteristics

•Braking and deceleration

•Acceleration

•Low-speed turning characteristics

•High-speed turning characteristics

•Size

•Weight

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•Safe Stopping Sight Distance

•Decision Sight Distance

•Change (Yellow) and Clearance (All Red) Intervals for a Traffic Signal

Safe Stopping Sight Distance

•One of the most fundamental principles of highway design is that the driver must be able to see
far enough to avoid a potential hazard or collision. Thus, on all roadway sections, the driver must
have a sight distance that is at least equivalent to the total stopping distance required at the
design speed.

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How are roads classified in India?

 The Nagpur Plan divides roads into 4 main categories: National Highways, State
Highways, and District Roads and Village roads.
 Expressways were added as an additional category.

 National Highways - Roads that are required for strategic movement, those that reduce
the travel time substantially, and those that open up backward areas and help economic
growth, are also classified as National Highways.
 They connect all major ports, state capitals, large industrial and tourist centres, and
foreign highways.
 State Highways – They are the arterial roads of a state that connect to National
Highways, district headquarters and important cities and are also linked to district roads.
 Major District Roads - They connect areas of production, main markets and the State
and National Highways crossing the state.
 Village Roads connect villages to each other or to the nearest District Roads.

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Other district Roads
 These provides link to village and serve a large rural population
 They should have good metalled surface and proper drainage
 Construction and maintenance are carried by district authority or Zilla parishad(Z.P)
VILLAGE RAODS
 These connects the village with each other and also town nearby
 These are generally established earth roads but metal surface is proffered
 The construction and maintenance are carried by local district boards

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TRAFFIC STUDIES
1. Traffic volume study
2. Speed study
3. Travel Time & Delay Studies
4. Intersection Studies
5. Pedestrian Studies
6. Parking study
7. Accident study
8. Inventories

1. Traffic Volume Study:

Traffic volume study is the quantity of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any
selected period.
The uses of traffic studies are as follows
 Planning
 Traffic operation and control
 Traffic pattern
 Structural design of pavement
Regulatory measures
1.1 Methods of volume study
 Automatically
 Manually

1.1.1 Automatic counters

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Automatic counters are also known as mechanical counters . They can automatically record the
total numbers of vehicles crossing a section of the road in desired period of time.
 Advantage:
It can work throughout the day and night for desired period, which is impractical in manual.

 Disadvantage:
It doesn’t give the detail of the traffic like various classes, stream and turning movement

1.1.2 Manually

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The manually method is the method in which a group of peoples are trained to record the total
numbers of vehicles crossing a section of the road in desired period of time on record sheets
manually.
 Advantage:
It gives the full detail of the traffic like various classes, stream and turning
movement etc of the vehicles.
 Disadvantage:
It cannot work throughout the day and night for all days of year.

1.2 Presentation of volume study data

The data can be presented by following forms, they are:
1.2.1 Traffic Flow Maps:
Show volume along various routes by using bands proportional to traffic volume carried.
Thickness of lines represent traffic volume.
1.2.2Intersection Flow Diagrams
Give direction and volume of traffic through an intersection.
1.2.3 Trend charts
Shows the hourly , daily or monthly changes in volume through an area.
Useful for planning future expansion, design and regulation

1.3 BASIC TERMS

1.3.1Annual Average Daily Traffic(AADT)

The total yearly volume divided by number of days in the year.
1.3.2 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
The total volume during a given time period, in whole days greater than one day and less than
one year, divided by number of days in that time period.

1.4 PASSENGER CAR UNIT

The different vehicle classes have a wide range of statics characteristics and dynamic
characteristics; apart from these the driver behavior of the different vehicle classes is also found
to vary considerable. Therefore mixed traffic flow characteristics are very much complex when
compare to homogeneous traffic and it is difficult to estimate the traffic volume, capacity of
roadway under the mixed
traffic flow, unless the different vehicle classes are converted to one common standard vehicle
unit.
•Therefore it is a common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to
convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called passenger car unit PCU.
1.4. Factor affecting Passenger Car Unit
Vehicle characteristics
Speed distribution of the mixed traffic stream, volume to capacity Ratio
Roadway characteristics.
Regulation and control of traffic.

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Environmental and climatic conditions.

2. TRAFFIC ROTARIES
2.1 Introduction
 Rotary intersections or round abouts are special form of at-grade intersections laid out for
the movement of traffic in one direction around a central traffic island.
 Essentially all the major conflicts at an intersection namely the collision between through
and right-turn movements are converted into milder conflicts namely merging and
diverging.
 The vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to move in a clockwise direction in
orderly fashion.
ADVANTAGES:

Traffic flow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe conflicts
between crossing movements.
1. All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to
move at slower speed. Thus, none of the vehicles need to be stopped, unlike in a
signalized intersection..
2. Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conflicts, accidents and
their severity are much less in rotaries
3. Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or traffic
signals.
4. They are ideally suited for moderate traffic, especially with irregular geometry, or
intersections with more than three or four approaches.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore, the
cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection.
2. Even when there is relatively low traffic, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed.
3. Rotaries require large area of relatively at land making them costly at urban areas.

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 4. The vehicles do not usually stop at a rotary. They accelerate and exit the rotary at
relatively high speed.
Not suitable when there is high
pedestrian movements.

2.2 GUIDELINES FOR THE SELECTION OF ROTARIES

1. Rotaries are suitable when the traffic entering from all the four approaches are relatively
equal.
2. A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour can be considered as the upper limiting
case and a volume of 500 vehicles per hour is the lower limit.
3. A rotary is very beneficial when the proportion of the right-turn traffic is very high;
typically if it is more than 30 percent.
4. Rotaries are suitable when there are more than four approaches or if there is no separate
lanes available for right-turn traffic. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection
geometry is complex.

2.3 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS IN A ROTARY

 Diverging:
It is a traffic operation when the vehicles moving in one direction is separated into different
streams according to their destinations.
 Merging:
Merging is the opposite of diverging.
 Weaving:
Weaving is the combined movement of both merging and diverging movements in the same
direction.

2.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS

 Design speed
 Radius at entry, Exit and the central island,
 Weaving length and width,
 Entry and exit widths

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 Fig.Design of Rotary

Design speed
1. All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary.
2. The geometry may lead to very large size incurring huge cost of construction.
3. The normal practice is to keep the design speed as 30 and 40 kmph for urban and rural
areas respectively.

Entry, exit and island radius

1. The radius at the entry depends on various factors like design speed, super-elevation, and
coefficient of friction.
2. The entry to the rotary is not straight, but a small curvature is introduced.
3. The entry radius of about 20 and 25 m is ideal for an urban and rural.
The exit radius should be higher than the entry radius and the radius of the rotary island so that
the vehicles will discharge from the rotary at a higher rate.
5. A general practice is to keep the exit radius as 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius.
6. The radius of the central island is governed by the design speed, and the radius of the
entry curve.
7. The radius of the central island which is about 1.3 times that of the entry curve is
adequate for all practical purposes
Width of the rotary
1. IRC suggests that a two lane road of 7 m width should be kept as 7 m for urban roads and
6.5 m for rural roads.

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 2. Further, a three lane road of 10.5 m is to be reduced to 7 m and 7.5 m respectively for
urban and rural roads.
3. The width of the weaving section should be higher than the width at entry and exit.
Normally this will be one lane more than the average entry and exit width.
Capacity
The capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section.
 Transportation road research lab (TRL)

 e is the average entry and exit width, i.e, (e1+e2)/2

 w is the weaving width,
 l is the length of weaving, and
 p is the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic

 Four types of movements at a weaving section, a and d are the non-weaving traffic and b
and c are the weaving traffic.

THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS ARE SATISFIED

 Weaving width at the rotary is in between 6 and 18 m.

 The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is in
the range of 0.4 to 1.
 The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and
0.4.
 The proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic in the rotary is in the range of
0.4 and 1.
 The weaving length available at the intersection is in between 18 and 90 m.
3. TRAFFIC INTERSECTIONS

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3.1INTRODUCTION

 Its main function is to guide vehicles to their respective directions.

 Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway
 A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents
 It also affects the capacity of the road
 the study of intersections very important for the traffic engineers especially in the case of
urban scenario

3.2 CONFLICTS AT AN INTERSECTION

3.2.1UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

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3.2.2 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

3.3 LEVELS OF INTERSECTION CONTROL:

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 1. Passive control,
2. Semi control,
3. Active control

3.3.1PASSIVE CONTROL

 When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required. Here the road users are
required to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road
markings etc.
NO CONTROL
 If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic rules of the road
 like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through movements will have
priority than turning movements.
 The driver is expected to obey these basic rules of the road.
TRAFFIC SIGNS
 Give way control, two-way stop control, and all-way stop control are some examples

TRAFFIC SIGNS PLUS MARKING:

 In addition to the traffic signs, road markings also complement the traffic
 Control at intersections. Some of the examples include stop line marking, yield lines,
arrow marking etc

3.3.2 SEMI CONTROL

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In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conflicts.
1. Channelization and
2. Traffic rotaries
3.3.3 ACTIVE CONTROL

Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by the traffic
control agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish.
1. Traffic signals and
2. Grade separated intersections

3.3.3.1 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS

 In at-grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same vertical level.
 Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels.
 They are usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways, freeways etc.
 These type of intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can flow with
high speed and accident potential is also reduced due to vertical separation of traffic.
 Different types of grade-separators are flyovers and interchange
3.3.3.2 FLYOVER:

1. Overpass and underpass.

2. When two roads cross at a point, if the road having major traffic is elevated to a higher
grade for further movement of traffic, then such structures are called overpass.
3. The major road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means of an under bridge
or tunnel, it is called under-pass.

3.4 INTERCHANGES
This system where traffic between two or more roadways flows at different levels in the grade
separated junctions.
Common types of interchange include
1. Trumpet interchange
2. Diamond interchange
3. Cloverleaf interchange.

3.4.1TRUMPET INTERCHANGE:
 Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange. If one of the legs of the
interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross it, then the interchange is
called trumpet interchange
3.4.2DIAMOND INTERCHANGE:

 This is a popular form of four-leg interchange found in the urban locations where major
and minor roads crosses. The important feature of this interchange is that it can be
designed even if the major road is relatively narrow

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 Fig. Trumpet Interchange:

Fig. Diamond Interchange Fig. Clover Leaf Interchange

3.4.3 CLOVER LEAF INTERCHANGE:

 It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways of high volume and speed
intersect each other with considerable turning movements.
 The main advantage of cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of
traffic. In addition, high speed at intersections can be achieved.
 The disadvantage is that large area of land is required.
 Cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly in rural areas.

3.4.4 CHANNELIZED INTERSECTION

 Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking

etc. and this method of control is called channelization.
 It is provides more safety and efficiency.

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  It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available in
the carriageway.

Fig.Channelization of traffic through a three-legged intersection

4. PARKING STUDIES

4.1 Introduction

 Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road traffic. It is an
impact of transport development.
 The availability of less space in urban areas has increased the demand for parking space
especially in areas like Central business district.
 This affects the mode choice also. This has a great economical impact.

4.2 PARKING STATISTICS

 Parking accumulation
 Parking volume
 Parking load
 Average Parking duration
 Parking turnover
 Parking index

PARKING ACCUMULATION:
 It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of time.
 expressed by accumulation curve.
 Plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.
 Parking volume:
 Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of time

PARKING LOAD :
 Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve.
 It is expressed as vehicle hours.

AVERAGE PARKING DURATION:

 It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles parked.

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  Parking duration = parking load/parking volume

PARKING TURNOVER:
 It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of parking bays
available.
 Parking turnover = parking volume/No.of bays available

PARKING INDEX:
 Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of number
 of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available.
 parking index = parking load/ parking capacity *100

EFFECTS OF PARKING
 Congestion:
 Accidents:
 Environmental pollution:
Obstruction to fire fighting operations

4.3 TYPES OF PARKING STUDIES

 Onstreet :
◦ Parallel parking
◦ 30˚ angle parking
◦ 45˚ angle parking
◦ 60˚ angle parking
◦ Right angle parking
 Offstreet :
◦ Mechanical car parking
◦ Multistory car parking
◦ Roof car parking
◦ Surface car parking
◦ Underground parking

4.3.1PARALLEL PARKING:
 The vehicles are parked along the length of the road.
 The length available to park N number of vehicles, L = N/5.9

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4.3.2 300 PARKING:
The vehicles are parked at 30 with respect to the road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can
be parked compared to parallel parking. Delay caused to the traffic is also minimum in this type
of parking
L = =0.58+5N

4.3.3 450 PARKING:

As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence compared to
parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this
type of parking.
L = 3.54 N+1.77

4.3.4 600 PARKING: The vehicles are parked at 60 to the direction of road. More number of
vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type. L=2.89N+2.16

4.3.5 RIGHT ANGLE PARKING:

90 parking, the vehicles are parked perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it
consumes maximum width kerb length required is very little.
L= 2.5N.

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4.3.6 OFF- STREET PARKING

In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some
distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is referred to as off-street parking.

5. ACCIDENT STUDIES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of accident is a very acute in highway transportation due to complex flow
pattern of vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic along with pedestrians. Traffic accident
leads to loss of life and property. Thus the traffic engineers have to undertake a big responsibility
of providing safe traffic movements to the road users and ensure their safety. Road accidents
cannot be totally prevented but by suitable traffic engineering and management the accident rate
can be reduced to a certain extent. For this reason systematic study of traffic accidents are
required to be carried out. Proper investigation of the cause of accident will help to propose
preventive measures in terms of design and control.

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5.2 OBJECTIVES OF ACCIDENT STUDIES
1. To study the causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures at potential location
2. To evaluate existing design
3. To compute the financial losses incurred To support the proposed design and provide
economic justification to the improvement suggested by the traffic engineer
5. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem.

5.3 CAUSES OF ROAD ACCIDENTS

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive
traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol,sleep etc.
2. Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst,lighting system .
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting,.
5. Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy
rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving unsafe.
6. Other causes -improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed
when required etc..

5.4 ACCIDENT STATISTICS

The statistical analysis of accident is carried out periodically at critical locations or road
stretches which will help to arrive at suitable measures to effectively decrease accident rates. It is
the measure (or estimates) of the number and severity of accident. These statistics reports are to
be maintained zone-wise. Accident prone stretches of different roads may be assessed by finding
the accident density per length of the road. The places of accidents are marked on the map and
the points of their clustering (BLACK SPOT) are determined. By statistical study of accident
occurrence at a particular road or location or zone of study for a long period of time it is possible
to predict with reasonable accuracy the probability of accident occurrence per day or relative
safety of different classes of road user in that location. The interpretation of the statistical data is
very important to provide insight to the problem.

5.5 ACCIDENT ANALYSIS

5.5.1Accident data collection

The accident data collection is the first step in the accident study. The data collection of
the accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are secondary data which
are filed by motorists themselves. The data to be collected should comprise all of these
parameters:

1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like fatal, serious,
minor
2.Location - Description and detail of location of accident

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3.Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading
detail,vehicular defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics,type of traffic,
traffic density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned)
which are the main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and casualty

5.5.2.These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following
purpose. The purposes are as follows:
1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of accident occur.
2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes of accidents.
3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large number of
accidents occurs.
4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident related factors to give insight
into general trends, common casual factors, driver profiles, etc.

5.6 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

The accident data collection involves extensive investigation which involves the
following procedure:
1. Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:
(a) Motorist accident report - It is filed by the involved motorist involved in all
accidents fatal or injurious.
(b) Police accident report - It is filed by the attendant police officer for all accidents at which an
officer is present. This generally includes fatal accidents or mostly accidents involving serious
injury required emergency or hospital treatment or which have incurred heavy property damage.
2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as measurement of
skid marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of final position of vehicles,
examination of condition and functioning of traffic control devices and other road equipments.
3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization and inter-
pretation of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight distance, preparing
drawing of after accident situation, determination of critical and design speed for curves is done.
4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step effort is made to determine from whatever data is
available how the accident occurs from the available data. This involves accident reconstruction
which has been discussed under Section No.7 in details. It is professionally referred as
determining behavioral or mediate causes of accident.
5. Cause Analysis: It is the effort made to determine why the accident occurred from the data
available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies.

5.7 ACCIDENT DATA ANALYSIS

The purpose is to find the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and
roadway. Accident analyses are made to develop information such as:

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1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships of accidents to
physical capacities and to psychological test results.
2.Vehicle - Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity, location and extent
of damage related to vehicles.
3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to characteristics of
the roadway and roadway condition and relative values of changes related to roadways.

It is important to compute accident rate which reflect accident involvement by type of

highway. These rates provide a means of comparing the relative safety of different highway and
street system and traffic controls. Another is accident involvement by the type of drivers and
vehicles associated with accidents.

1. Accident Rate per Kilometer :

On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents of all types per km
of each highway and street classification.
R =A/L
where, R = total accident rate per km for one year, A = total number of accident occur- ring in
one year, L = length of control section in kms

2. Accident involvement Rate :

It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain characteristics who were involved
in accidents per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel.
R =N × 100000000/V
where,R = accident involvement per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel, N = total number
of drivers of vehicles involved in accidents during the period of investigation and V =
vehicle-kms of travel on road section during the period of investigation

3. Death rate based on population :

The traffic hazard to life in a community is expressed as the number of traffic fatalities per
100,000 populations. This rate ref++lects the accident exposure for entire area.
R =B × 100000/P
where, R = death rate per 100,000 population, B = total number of traffic death in one year and P
= population of area

4.Death rate based on registration :

The traffic hazard to life in a community can also be expressed as the number of traffic
fatalities per 10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire
area and is similar to death rate based on population.
R =B × 10000/M
where, R = death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B = total number of traffic death
in one year and M = number of motor vehicles registered in the area

5. Accident Rate based on vehicle-kms of travel :

The accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents per 100 million vehicle km
of travel. The true exposure to accident is nearly approximated by the miles of travel of
the motor vehicle than the population or registration.
R =C × 100000000/V

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where, R = accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C = number of total
accidents in one year and V = vehicle kms of travel in one year

6. SPEED STUDIES
6.1 Spot Speed
Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.

6.1.2Average Speed
Average of the spot speeds of all vehicles passing a given point on the highway.

6.1.3Running Speed
Average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in motion.
Running speed= Length of course / Running time
= Length of course / (Journey time- Delays)

6.14Journey speed
Also known as overall travel speed
It is the effective speed between two points. It is the distance between two points divided by
the total time taken by the vehicle to complete the journey, including all delays.
Journey speed = Distance/ Total journey Time (including Delays).

6.1.5 Spacer mean speed: (Harmonic mean) average speed of vehicles in a certain road length
at a given instant.
1
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑛/ ∑𝑛𝑖=1( ) 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑛𝐿/ ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑡𝑖
𝑉𝑖
Where;
Vs = Space mean speed
N= No. Of vehicles
V= Speed of the vehicle
Time Mean Speed: (Arithmetic mean)
Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time or it is the average of
instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.
𝑛

𝑉 = (∑ 𝑉𝑖 ) /𝑛
𝑖=1

Where;
Vt= Time mean speed
n= No. of vehicles
V= Speed of the vehicle
Running speed: It is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of road,
while the vehicle is in motion; this is obtained by dividing the distance covered by the time
during which the vehicle is actually in motion.

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6.3 TYPES OF SPEED STUDY
1. Spot speed study
2. Speed and delay study
Use of spot speed study
 The use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulation.
 To use in geometric design for redesigning the existing highway.
 To use in accident studies.
 To study the traffic capacity.
6.3.1 Spot speed study
The methods available for measuring spot speed can be grouped as
 Those observations that require time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.
 It consist of
 long base methods- vehicles are timed over a long distance.
 Short base methods- vehicles are timed over a Short distance, say about 2m.
 Radar Speedometer which automatically records
 instantaneous speed.
 Photographic method
Those observations that require time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.
 Long base methods
 Direct timing Procedure
 Enoscope

i).DIRECT TIMING PROCEDURE

 Simplest method
 Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and an
observer starts and stops stopwatch as a vehicle crosses these two marks.
 From known distance and time, speed can be calculated.
 Disadvantage: errors due to parallax effect.
 Observation by two observers one at each reference points
 First observer standing at the point in which the vehicle pass first, signals and seconds
observer starts the stop watch. The second observer stops the stop watch when he
observes the same vehicle passing the reference point.
 Disadvantage: reaction time of two observers.

ii) ENOSCOPE
Also known as mirror box L-shaped box, open at both ends, with a mirror set at 45 ˚ to the arms
of the instrument. It bends the line of sight of the observer perpendicular to the path of vehicle.

 The instrument is placed directly opposite to the first reference point and the observer
stations himself at the second reference point.
 Stop watch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first point and is stopped as soon as
it passes the observer.
 If two enoscope is used, the observer stations himself midway between two reference
points.

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 Advantages:
 Eliminates parallax error.
 Equipment is of low cost, simple and can set up easily

46

iii) RADAR SPEED METER

 Works on the Doppler principle.
 Speed of a moving body is proportional to change in frequency between the Radio wave
transmitted to the moving body and the radio wave received back.
 Instrument directly measures speed.
 Instrument is setup near the edge of carriageway at a height of 1m.
 The speed meter is so kept that the angle between direction of travel of vehicle and axis
of transmission of radio wave is as low as possible, say within 20˚.
 Speed of vehicles in both directions can be observed.

iv) PHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD

 Time-lapse camera photography can be used.
 Photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time(say one second per frame) on a special
camera.

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  By projecting the film on a screen, the passage of any vehicle can be traced with
reference to time.
 Images by video cameras can be also used.

6.4 PRESENTATION OF SPOT SPEED DATA

Average speed of vehicles
From spot speed data, distribution tables are prepared by arranging the data in groups covering
various speed ranges and number of vehicles in each range.
Arithmetic mean is the average speed.
Cumulative speed of vehicles
Graph is plotted with average values of each group on Xaxis and cumulative % of vehicles
travelling at different speeds.
85th percentile speed: Speed at or below 85 % of vehicles are passing the point of highway.
Only 15 % of vehicles exceed the speed at that spot.
Drivers exceeding 85th percentile speed are considered to drive faster than the safe speed.
Hence 85th percentile speed is adopted for Safe speed limit at that zone.
50th percentile speed: median speed.
15th percentile speed: represents the lower speed limit

7. PEDESTRAIN STUDY

7.1INTRODUCTION
People walk for many reasons: to go to a neighbor’s house, to run errands, for school, or
to get to a business meeting. People also walk for recreation and health benefits or for the
enjoyment of being outside. Some pedestrians must walk to transit or other destinations if they
wish to travel independently. It is a public responsibility to provide a safe, secure, and
comfortable system for all people who walk. In this lecture we will discuss about the pedestrian
problems, pedestrian survey (data collection), characteristics, different level of services, and
design principles of pedestrian facilities. There are many problems related to safety security of
pedestrians. These are discussed below in brief.

7.2 PEDESTRIAN PROBLEMS

Accidents Circumstances - Pedestrian accidents occurs in a variety of ways; the most common
type involves pedestrian crossing or entering the street at or between intersections.
1. Darting: It is used to indicate the sudden appearance of a pedestrian from behind a vehicle or
other sight obstruction.
2. Dashing: It refers to the running pedestrians.

Special Problems
1. Age: Children under 15 years of age from the largest group of pedestrian victims and have the
highest in- jury rate per population in their age group, the elderly have the highest fatality rate
because of the lower probability of their recovery from injuries.
2. Intoxication and Drug effects: Alcohol and drugs impair the behavior of pedestrians to the
extent that they may be a primary cause of accident.
3. Dusk and Darkness: Special pedestrian safety problems arise during the hours of dusk and
darkness, when it is most difficult for motorists to see pedestrians.

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7.3DEFINITION OF A PEDESTRIAN
Any person afoot is the definition of Uniform Vehicle Code of pedestrian. However
expand this definition to explicitly include people with disabilities, such as who use wheelchairs
or other mobility devices. At the beginning and end of every motorist’s trip, he or she is
pedestrian. The driver and/or passenger walks to the vehicle, which is parked, drives to a
destination, parks the vehicle again, and walks to the final destination. In urban centers,
pedestrian flows can be significant, and they must be accommodated in planning and design of
traffic facilities and controls. Pedestrian safety is also a major issue, as the pedestrian is at a
visible disadvantage where potential pedestrian-vehicle conflict exist, such as at the
intersections. It is important to recognize the forces influencing the demand for provision of
more and better pedestrian facilities. Undoubtedly one important factor has been the in- creased
awareness of the environmental problems created by the rapid national and worldwide growth in
vehicle travel, but of equal important has been the recognition by many people of need for
physical fitness and the role that play in achieving this.

7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PEDESTRIAN DEMAND

The demand for pedestrian facilities is influenced by a number of factors of which some of the
most important are
 The nature of the local community- Walking is more likely to occur in a community that
has a high proportion of young people.
 Car ownership -The availability of the private car reduces the amount of walking, even
for short journey.
 Local land use activities- Walking is primarily used for short distance trips. Consequently
the distance between local origins and destinations (e.g. homes and school, homes and
shops) is an important factor influencing the level of demand, particularly for the young
and elderly.
 Quality of provision- If good quality pedestrian facilities are provided, then demand will
tend to increase.
 Safety and security- It is important that pedestrians perceive the facilities to be safe and
secure. For pedestrians this means freedom from conflict with motor vehicle, as well as a
minimal threat from personal attack and the risk of tripping on uneven surfaces.

7.5 TERMINOLOGY
1. Pedestrian speed is the average pedestrian walking speed, generally expressed in units of
meters per second.
2. Pedestrian flow rate is the number of pedestrians passing a point per unit of time, expressed as
pedestrians per 15 min or pedestrians per minute. Point refers to a line of sight across the width
of a walkway perpendicular to the pedestrian path.
3. Pedestrian flow per unit of width is the average flow of pedestrians per unit of effective
walkway width, expressed as pedestrians per minute per meter (p/min/m). Pedestrian density is
the average number of pedestrians per unit of area within a walk- way or queuing area, expressed
as pedestrians per square meter (p/m2).
4. Pedestrian space is the average area provided for each pedestrian in a walkway or queuing
area, ex- pressed in terms of square meters per pedestrian. This is the inverse of density, and is
often a more practical unit for analyzing pedestrian facilities.

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5. Platoon refers to a number of pedestrians walking together in a group, usually involuntarily, as
a result of signal control and other factors.

7.6 DATA COLLECTION

Before deciding on the appropriate extent and standard of pedestrian facilities, it is
important to assess the potential demand. The possible methods of obtaining such estimates are
manual count, video survey, and attitude survey described as follows.

7.6.1 Manual counts

Count the flow of pedestrian through a junction, across a road, or along a road
section/footway manually using manual clicker and tally marking sheet. Manual counts need to
satisfy the following conditions.
1. The time period(s) in the day over which the counts are undertaken must coincide with the
peak times of the activity of study.
2. The day(s) of the week and month(s) of the year when observations are made must be
representative of the demand. School holidays, early closing, and special events should be
avoided since they can result in non-typical conditions.
3. The survey locations need to be carefully selected in order to ensure that the total existing
demand is observed.

Advantages of this manual counting are that these are simple to set up and carry out, and flexible
to response observed changes in demand on site and disadvantages are that these are labour
intensive also simple information can be achieved and not detailed information.

7.6.2 Video survey

Cameras are setup at the selected sites and video record- ing taken of the pedestrians
during the selected observation periods. A suitable vantage point for the camera is important.
Such survey produces a permanent record of pedestrian movement and their interaction with
vehicles. In it the record of behavior pattern is also obtained which helps in analyzing the
crossing difficulties.

7.6.3 Attitude survey

Detailed questionnaire requires enabling complete information about pedestrian’s origins and
destination points, also can gather information on what new facilities, or improvements to
existing facilities, need to be provided to divert trips to walking, or increase the current
pedestrian activities.

Fig.7.1 Relationship between pedestrian speed and density

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7.7 PEDESTRIAN FLOW CHARACTERISTIC
In many ways pedestrian flow are similar to those used for vehicular flow because it can be
described in terms of familiar variables such as speed, volume, rate of flow and density. Other
measures related specifically to pedes- trian flow include the ability to cross a pedestrian traffic
stream, to walk in the reverse direction of a major pedestrian flow, to manoeuvre generally
without conflicts and changes in walking speed, and the delay experienced by pedestrians at
signalized and unsignalized intersections. It is dissimilar to the vehicular flow in that pedestrian
flow may be unidirectional, bidirectional, or multi-directional. Pedestrian do not always travel in
clear ”lanes” although they may do sometimes under heavy flow.

Pedestrian Speed-Density Relationships

The fundamental relationship between speed, density, and volume for pedestrian flow is
analogous to vehicular flow. As volume and density increase, pedestrian speed declines. As
density increases and pedestrian space de- creases, the degree of mobility afforded to the
individual pedestrian declines, as does the average speed of the pedestrian stream, it is shown in
Fig. 7.1

Flow-Density Relationships
The relationship among density, speed, and flow for pedestrians is similar to that for vehicular
traffic streams,

Figure 7.2: Relationship between pedestrian space & flow

and is expressed in equation.
Qped = Sped *Dped
where, Qped= unit flow rate (p/min/m), Sped= pedes- trian speed (m/min), and Dped= pedestrian
density (p/m2). Pedestrian density is an awkward variable in that it has fractional values in
pedestrian per square meter. This relationship often expressed in terms of Space module(M)
which is the inverse of pedestrian density. The inverse of density is more practical unit for
analyzing pedestrian facilities ,so expression becomes
Qed =Sped/M
where M in(m2/ped). The basic relationship between flow and space, recorded by several
researchers, is illustrated in the Fig. 7.2. The conditions at maximum flow represent the capacity
of the walkway facility. From Fig. 7.2, it is apparent that all observations of maximum unit flow
fall within a narrow range of density, with the average space per pedestrian varying between 0.4
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and 0.9 m2/p. Even the outer range of these observations indicates that maximum flow occurs at
this density, although the actual flow in this study is considerably higher than in the others. As
space is reduced to less than 0.4 m2/p, the flow rate declines precipitously. All movement effec-
tively stops at the minimum space allocation of 0.2 to 0.3 m2/p.

Speed-Flow Relationships
The following Fig. 68.3 illustrates the relationship between pedestrian speed and flow. These
curves, similar to vehicle flow curves, show that when there are few pedestrians on a walkway
(i.e., low flow levels), there is space available to choose higher walking speeds. As flow
increases, speeds decline because of closer interactions among pedestrians. When a critical level
of crowding occurs, movement becomes more difficult, and both flow and speed decline. The
Fig. 68.4 confirms the relation- ships of walking speed and available space, and suggests some
points of demarcation for developing LOS criteria. The outer range of observations indicates that
at an average space of less than 1.5 m2/p, even the slowest pedestrians cannot achieve their
desired walking speeds. Faster pedestrians, who walk at speeds of up to 1.8 m/s, are not able to
achieve that speed unless average space is 4.0 m2/p or more.

Fig.7.3 Relationships between Pedestrian Speed and Flow Fig.7.4: Relationships between
Pedestrian Speed and Space

Fig.7.5 Pedestrian body ellipse Fig7.6: Pedestrian walking space requirement

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Pedestrian Space Requirements
Pedestrian facility designers use body depth and shoulder breadth for minimum space
standards, at least implicitly. A simplified body ellipse of 0.50 m * 0.60 m, with total area of
0.30 m2 is used as the basic space for a single pedestrian, as shown in Fig. 68.5 this represents
the practical minimum for standing pedestrians. In evaluating a pedestrian facility, an area of
0.75 m2 is used as the buffer zone for each pedestrian. A walking pedestrian requires a certain
amount of forward space. This forward space is a critical dimension, since it determines the
speed of the trip and the number of pedestrians that are able to pass a point in a given time
period. The for- ward space in the Fig 68.6 is categorized into a pacing zone and a sensory zone.

Pedestrian Walking Speed

Pedestrian walking speed is highly dependent on the pro- portion of elderly pedestrians
(65 years old or more) in the walking population. If 0 to 20 per cent of pedestrians are elderly,
the average walking speed is 1.2 m/s on walkways. If elderly people constitute more than 20
percent of the total pedestrians, the average walking speed decreases to 1.0 m/s. In addition, a
walkway upgrade of 10 per cent or more reduces walking speed by 0.1 m/s. On sidewalks, the
free-flow speed of pedestrians is ap-proximately 1.5 m/s. There are several other conditions that
could reduce average pedestrian speed, such as a high percentage of slow-walking children in the
pedestrian flow.

Pedestrian Start-Up Time and Capacity

A pedestrian start-up time of 3 s is a reasonable midrange value for evaluating crosswalks
at traffic signals. A capacity of 75p/min/m or 4,500p/h/m is a reasonable value for a pedestrian
facility if local data are not available. At capacity, a walking speed of 0.8 m/s is considered a rea-
sonable value.
DESIGN PRINCIPLE OF PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
In the design facilities we will discuss the design criteria of sidewalk, street corner,
crosswalk, traffic island, over-pass and underpass and other facilities like as pedestrian signals
and signage. 68.4.1 Side walk Sidewalks are pedestrian lanes that provide people with space to
travel within the public right-of-way that is separated from roadway vehicles. They also provide
places for children to walk, run, skate, ride bikes, and play. Side- walks are associated with
significant reductions in pedestrian collisions with motor vehicles.
1. Width: The minimum clear width of a pedestrian access route shall be 1220 mm exclusive of
the width of curb. It varies according to pedestrian flow rate and different LOS. It is shown in
following Table.
2. Cross slope: The cross slope of the pedestrian access route shall be maximum 1:48.
3. Surfaces: Surface should be firm, stable, slip resistance and prohibit openings & avoid service
elements i.e. manholes etc. A buffer zone of 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) is desirable and should be
provided to separate pedestrians from the street. The buffer zone will vary according to the street
type. In downtown or commercial districts, a street furniture zone is usually appropriate.

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8.TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

8.1 PURPOSE
(1) The purpose of a Travel Time and Delay Study is to evaluate the quality of traffic movement
along a route and determine the locations, types, and extent of traffic delays by using a test vehicle,
vehicle observation or probe vehicle.
(2) This study can be used to compare and evaluate operational conditions before and after roadway
or intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool to assist in prioritizing
projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational deficiencies (such as delays and stops) for
each project under consideration.
(3) The Travel Time and Delay Study can also be used by planners to monitor system performance
measurements for local government comprehensive plans.
(4) The methodology presented herein provides the quantitative information with which the analyst
can develop recommendations for improvements such as traffic signal retiming, safety
improvements, turn lane additions, and channelization enhancements.

8.2 APPLICATIONS OF TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY DATA

 Efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
 Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes
 Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation improvements through before-and-after
studies
 Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or
congestion indices
 Determination of travel times for trip assignment models
 Compilation of travel time data for trend studies to evaluate the changes in efficiency and
level of service with time
 Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that
reduce travel time

8.3 DEFINITIONS
(1) Acceleration Noise (AN). Represents the degree of driver discomfort due to acceleration
and deceleration. It is computed (approximately) as the root mean square value of
acceleration (feet per second squared) considering each second of operation separately (The
Theory of Road Traffic Flow). Stopped times (e.g., speeds less than 5 mph) are excluded
from the computations.
(2) Control Point (CP). A node at the beginning or end of a link, usually the stop line at a
signalized intersection, but can be any physical feature, e.g., power pole. The stop line or
physical feature selected within the intersection must be located in the same direction of travel.
The control point may be different for each direction of travel. However, once a control point is
chosen it shall be used for each run in that particular direction.

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(3) Delay (D). The elapsed time (in seconds) spent driving at a speed less than 5 mph.
(4) Distance. The length of a link or the length of a run (feet for computerized method, miles for
manual method).
(5) Fuel Consumption Rate (FC). The miles per U.S. gallon computed from a mathematical
model which considers the length of the run, the total delay, and the effect of acceleration and
deceleration (NCHRP Report 111, Running Costs of Motor Vehicles as Affected by Road
Design and Traffic).
(6) Running Speed (RS). The test vehicle’s average speed (in miles per hour) while the vehicle
is in motion (does not include delay time) it can be calculated by the formula:
(7) Running Time (RT). The elapsed time (in seconds) excluding delay spent driving a distance.
(8) Special Control Points (SCP). Beginning and end points of the study route. They shall be
located outside the influence of a signalized intersection or other highway feature which might
cause delay. The vehicle must be at normal operating speed for the route when passing these
points.
(9) Stop (S). The average number of times per link or run that the test vehicle’s speed falls below
5 mph. After a stop, an additional stop will not be recorded unless the speed first exceeds 15 mph
(Institute of Transportation Engineers, Manual of Traffic Engineering Studies).
(10) Travel Speed (TS) or Average Speed (AS). The test vehicle’s average speed (in miles per
hour) over a distance.
(11) Travel Time (TT). The total elapsed time (in seconds) spent driving a specified distance.

8.4 METHODS TO CONDUCTION TRAVEL TIME/DELAY STUDIES

These methods can be grouped into:
A) Those using a test vehicle
B) Those not requiring test vehicles

A) THOSE USING A TEST VEHICLE

1. Floating-Car Technique:
 The test car is driven along the test section so that the test car “floats” with the traffic.
 Driver of the test vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass his test
vehicle
 Minimum number of test runs:

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The limit of acceptable error used depends on the purpose of the study:
 Before-and-after studies: 2-5 km/hr (1 to 3 mi/hr)
 Traffic operation, economic evaluations, and trend analyses: 3-6 km/hr (2 to 4 mi/hr)
 Highway needs and transportation planning studies: 5-8 km/hr (3 to 5 mi/hr)
2. Average-Speed Technique:
 Driving the test car at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the
traffic stream.
 The travel time is recorded.
 The test run is repeated for the minimum number of times as calculated by the equation to
find N
3. Moving-Vehicle Technique: the observer makes a round trip on a test section like the
one shown below:

The following data are collected

‒ Te (in minutes)
‒ Tw (in minutes)
‒ Ne : number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is traveling east
‒ Ow: number of vehicles that overtake the test car while the test car is traveling west
‒ Pw : number of vehicles that the test car passes while the test car is traveling west

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B) THOSE NOT REQUIRING TEST VEHICLES
1. License-Plate Observations: This requires that observers be positioned at the beginning and
end of the test section. Each observer records the last three or four digits of the license plate of
each car that passes together with the time at which the car passes. It has been suggested that a
sample size of 50 matched license plates will give reasonably accurate results.

2. Interviews: It is carried out by obtaining information from individuals who drive on the
Study site regarding their travel times and experience of delays. It facilitates the collection of a
large amount of data in a relatively short time. Results depends on the information given by the
Contacted people

3. ITS Advanced Technologies (TELEMATICS): The integrated use of telecommunications

and informatics.

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TRAFFIC ENGINEERING Page 43
 Other district Roads
 These provides link to village and serve a large rural population
 They should have good metalled surface and proper drainage
 Construction and maintenance are carried by district authority or Zilla parishad(Z.P)
VILLAGE RAODS
 These connects the village with each other and also town nearby
 These are generally established earth roads but metal surface is proffered
 The construction and maintenance are carried by local district boards
TRAFFIC STUDIES
1. Traffic volume study
2. Speed study
3. Travel Time & Delay Studies
4. Intersection Studies
5. Pedestrian Studies
6. Parking study
7. Accident study
8. Inventories

1. Traffic Volume Study:

Traffic volume study is the quantity of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any
selected period.
The uses of traffic studies are as follows
 Planning
 Traffic operation and control
 Traffic pattern
 Structural design of pavement
Regulatory measures
1.1 Methods of volume study
 Automatically
 Manually

1.1.1 Automatic counters

Automatic counters are also known as mechanical counters . They can automatically record the
total numbers of vehicles crossing a section of the road in desired period of time.
 Advantage:
It can work throughout the day and night for desired period, which is impractical in manual.

 Disadvantage:
It doesn’t give the detail of the traffic like various classes, stream and turning movement
1.1.2 Manually
The manually method is the method in which a group of peoples are trained to record the total
numbers of vehicles crossing a section of the road in desired period of time on record sheets
manually.
 Advantage:
It gives the full detail of the traffic like various classes, stream and turning
movement etc of the vehicles.
 Disadvantage:
It cannot work throughout the day and night for all days of year.

1.2 Presentation of volume study data

The data can be presented by following forms, they are:
1.2.1 Traffic Flow Maps:
Show volume along various routes by using bands proportional to traffic volume carried.
Thickness of lines represent traffic volume.
1.2.2Intersection Flow Diagrams
Give direction and volume of traffic through an intersection.
1.2.3 Trend charts
Shows the hourly , daily or monthly changes in volume through an area.
Useful for planning future expansion, design and regulation
1.3 BASIC TERMS

1.3.1Annual Average Daily Traffic(AADT)

The total yearly volume divided by number of days in the year.
1.3.2 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
The total volume during a given time period, in whole days greater than one day and less than
one year, divided by number of days in that time period.

1.4 PASSENGER CAR UNIT

The different vehicle classes have a wide range of statics characteristics and dynamic
characteristics; apart from these the driver behavior of the different vehicle classes is also found
to vary considerable. Therefore mixed traffic flow characteristics are very much complex when
compare to homogeneous traffic and it is difficult to estimate the traffic volume, capacity of
roadway under the mixed
traffic flow, unless the different vehicle classes are converted to one common standard vehicle
unit.
•Therefore it is a common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to
convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called passenger car unit PCU.
1.4. Factor affecting Passenger Car Unit
Vehicle characteristics
Speed distribution of the mixed traffic stream, volume to capacity Ratio
Roadway characteristics.
Regulation and control of traffic.
Environmental and climatic conditions.

2. TRAFFIC ROTARIES
2.1 Introduction
 Rotary intersections or round abouts are special form of at-grade intersections laid out for
the movement of traffic in one direction around a central traffic island.
 Essentially all the major conflicts at an intersection namely the collision between through
and right-turn movements are converted into milder conflicts namely merging and
diverging.
 The vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to move in a clockwise direction in
orderly fashion.
ADVANTAGES:

Traffic flow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe conflicts
between crossing movements.
1. All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to
move at slower speed. Thus, none of the vehicles need to be stopped, unlike in a
signalized intersection..
2. Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conflicts, accidents and
their severity are much less in rotaries
3. Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or traffic
signals.
 4. They are ideally suited for moderate traffic, especially with irregular geometry, or
intersections with more than three or four approaches.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore, the
cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection.
2. Even when there is relatively low traffic, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed.
3. Rotaries require large area of relatively at land making them costly at urban areas.
4. The vehicles do not usually stop at a rotary. They accelerate and exit the rotary at
relatively high speed.
Not suitable when there is high
pedestrian movements.

2.2 GUIDELINES FOR THE SELECTION OF ROTARIES

1. Rotaries are suitable when the traffic entering from all the four approaches are relatively
equal.
2. A total volume of about 3000 vehicles per hour can be considered as the upper limiting
case and a volume of 500 vehicles per hour is the lower limit.
3. A rotary is very beneficial when the proportion of the right-turn traffic is very high;
typically if it is more than 30 percent.
4. Rotaries are suitable when there are more than four approaches or if there is no separate
lanes available for right-turn traffic. Rotaries are ideally suited if the intersection
geometry is complex.

2.3 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS IN A ROTARY

 Diverging:
It is a traffic operation when the vehicles moving in one direction is separated into different
streams according to their destinations.
 Merging:
Merging is the opposite of diverging.
  Weaving:
Weaving is the combined movement of both merging and diverging movements in the same
direction.

2.4 DESIGN ELEMENTS

 Design speed
 Radius at entry, Exit and the central island,
 Weaving length and width,
 Entry and exit widths

Fig.Design of Rotary

Design speed
1. All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary.
2. The geometry may lead to very large size incurring huge cost of construction.
3. The normal practice is to keep the design speed as 30 and 40 kmph for urban and rural
areas respectively.
Entry, exit and island radius
1. The radius at the entry depends on various factors like design speed, super-elevation, and
coefficient of friction.
2. The entry to the rotary is not straight, but a small curvature is introduced.
3. The entry radius of about 20 and 25 m is ideal for an urban and rural.
The exit radius should be higher than the entry radius and the radius of the rotary island so that
the vehicles will discharge from the rotary at a higher rate.
5. A general practice is to keep the exit radius as 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius.
6. The radius of the central island is governed by the design speed, and the radius of the
entry curve.
7. The radius of the central island which is about 1.3 times that of the entry curve is
adequate for all practical purposes
Width of the rotary
1. IRC suggests that a two lane road of 7 m width should be kept as 7 m for urban roads and
6.5 m for rural roads.
2. Further, a three lane road of 10.5 m is to be reduced to 7 m and 7.5 m respectively for
urban and rural roads.
3. The width of the weaving section should be higher than the width at entry and exit.
Normally this will be one lane more than the average entry and exit width.
Capacity
The capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section.
 Transportation road research lab (TRL)

 e is the average entry and exit width, i.e, (e1+e2)/2

 w is the weaving width,
 l is the length of weaving, and
 p is the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic

 Four types of movements at a weaving section, a and d are the non-weaving traffic and b
and c are the weaving traffic.
THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS ARE SATISFIED

 Weaving width at the rotary is in between 6 and 18 m.

 The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is in
the range of 0.4 to 1.
 The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and
0.4.
 The proportion of weaving traffic to non-weaving traffic in the rotary is in the range of
0.4 and 1.
 The weaving length available at the intersection is in between 18 and 90 m.
3. TRAFFIC INTERSECTIONS

3.1INTRODUCTION

 Its main function is to guide vehicles to their respective directions.

 Traffic intersections are complex locations on any highway
 A small error in judgment can cause severe accidents
 It also affects the capacity of the road
 the study of intersections very important for the traffic engineers especially in the case of
urban scenario

3.2 CONFLICTS AT AN INTERSECTION

3.2.1UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

3.2.2 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS

3.3 LEVELS OF INTERSECTION CONTROL:

1. Passive control,
2. Semi control,
3. Active control

3.3.1PASSIVE CONTROL

 When the volume of traffic is less, no explicit control is required. Here the road users are
required to obey the basic rules of the road. Passive control like traffic signs, road
markings etc.
NO CONTROL
 If the traffic coming to an intersection is low, then by applying the basic rules of the road
 like driver on the left side of the road must yield and that through movements will have
priority than turning movements.
 The driver is expected to obey these basic rules of the road.
TRAFFIC SIGNS
 Give way control, two-way stop control, and all-way stop control are some examples

TRAFFIC SIGNS PLUS MARKING:

 In addition to the traffic signs, road markings also complement the traffic
 Control at intersections. Some of the examples include stop line marking, yield lines,
arrow marking etc
3.3.2 SEMI CONTROL

In semi control or partial control, the drivers are gently guided to avoid conflicts.
1. Channelization and
2. Traffic rotaries
3.3.3 ACTIVE CONTROL

Active control implies that the road user will be forced to follow the path suggested by the traffic
control agencies. He cannot maneuver according to his wish.
1. Traffic signals and
2. Grade separated intersections

3.3.3.1 GRADE SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS

 In at-grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same vertical level.
 Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical levels.
 They are usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways, freeways etc.
 These type of intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can flow with
high speed and accident potential is also reduced due to vertical separation of traffic.
 Different types of grade-separators are flyovers and interchange
3.3.3.2 FLYOVER:

1. Overpass and underpass.

2. When two roads cross at a point, if the road having major traffic is elevated to a higher
grade for further movement of traffic, then such structures are called overpass.
3. The major road is depressed to a lower level to cross another by means of an under bridge
or tunnel, it is called under-pass.

3.4 INTERCHANGES
This system where traffic between two or more roadways flows at different levels in the grade
separated junctions.
Common types of interchange include
1. Trumpet interchange
2. Diamond interchange
3. Cloverleaf interchange.

3.4.1TRUMPET INTERCHANGE:
 Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange. If one of the legs of the
interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross it, then the interchange is
called trumpet interchange
3.4.2DIAMOND INTERCHANGE:

 This is a popular form of four-leg interchange found in the urban locations where major
and minor roads crosses. The important feature of this interchange is that it can be
designed even if the major road is relatively narrow
 Fig. Trumpet Interchange:

Fig. Diamond Interchange Fig. Clover Leaf Interchange

3.4.3 CLOVER LEAF INTERCHANGE:

 It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways of high volume and speed
intersect each other with considerable turning movements.
 The main advantage of cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of
traffic. In addition, high speed at intersections can be achieved.
 The disadvantage is that large area of land is required.
 Cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly in rural areas.

3.4.4 CHANNELIZED INTERSECTION

 Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking

etc. and this method of control is called channelization.
 It is provides more safety and efficiency.
  It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available in
the carriageway.

Fig.Channelization of traffic through a three-legged intersection

4. PARKING STUDIES

4.1 Introduction

 Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road traffic. It is an
impact of transport development.
 The availability of less space in urban areas has increased the demand for parking space
especially in areas like Central business district.
 This affects the mode choice also. This has a great economical impact.

4.2 PARKING STATISTICS

 Parking accumulation
 Parking volume
 Parking load
 Average Parking duration
 Parking turnover
 Parking index

PARKING ACCUMULATION:
 It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of time.
 expressed by accumulation curve.
 Plotting the number of bays occupied with respect to time.
 Parking volume:
 Parking volume is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of time

PARKING LOAD :
 Parking load gives the area under the accumulation curve.
 It is expressed as vehicle hours.

AVERAGE PARKING DURATION:

 It is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles parked.
  Parking duration = parking load/parking volume

PARKING TURNOVER:
 It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a duration to the number of parking bays
available.
 Parking turnover = parking volume/No.of bays available

PARKING INDEX:
 Parking index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is defined as the ratio of number
 of bays occupied in a time duration to the total space available.
 parking index = parking load/ parking capacity *100

EFFECTS OF PARKING
 Congestion:
 Accidents:
 Environmental pollution:
Obstruction to fire fighting operations

4.3 TYPES OF PARKING STUDIES

 Onstreet :
◦ Parallel parking
◦ 30˚ angle parking
◦ 45˚ angle parking
◦ 60˚ angle parking
◦ Right angle parking
 Offstreet :
◦ Mechanical car parking
◦ Multistory car parking
◦ Roof car parking
◦ Surface car parking
◦ Underground parking

4.3.1PARALLEL PARKING:
 The vehicles are parked along the length of the road.
 The length available to park N number of vehicles, L = N/5.9
4.3.2 300 PARKING:
The vehicles are parked at 30 with respect to the road alignment. In this case, more vehicles can
be parked compared to parallel parking. Delay caused to the traffic is also minimum in this type
of parking
L = =0.58+5N

4.3.3 450 PARKING:

As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence compared to
parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this
type of parking.
L = 3.54 N+1.77

4.3.4 600 PARKING: The vehicles are parked at 60 to the direction of road. More number of
vehicles can be accommodated in this parking type. L=2.89N+2.16

4.3.5 RIGHT ANGLE PARKING:

90 parking, the vehicles are parked perpendicular to the direction of the road. Although it
consumes maximum width kerb length required is very little.
L= 2.5N.
4.3.6 OFF- STREET PARKING

In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some
distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is referred to as off-street parking.

5. ACCIDENT STUDIES

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The problem of accident is a very acute in highway transportation due to complex flow
pattern of vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic along with pedestrians. Traffic accident
leads to loss of life and property. Thus the traffic engineers have to undertake a big responsibility
of providing safe traffic movements to the road users and ensure their safety. Road accidents
cannot be totally prevented but by suitable traffic engineering and management the accident rate
can be reduced to a certain extent. For this reason systematic study of traffic accidents are
required to be carried out. Proper investigation of the cause of accident will help to propose
preventive measures in terms of design and control.
5.2 OBJECTIVES OF ACCIDENT STUDIES
1. To study the causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures at potential location
2. To evaluate existing design
3. To compute the financial losses incurred To support the proposed design and provide
economic justification to the improvement suggested by the traffic engineer
5. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem.

5.3 CAUSES OF ROAD ACCIDENTS

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive
traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol,sleep etc.
2. Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst,lighting system .
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting,.
5. Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy
rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving unsafe.
6. Other causes -improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed
when required etc..

5.4 ACCIDENT STATISTICS

The statistical analysis of accident is carried out periodically at critical locations or road
stretches which will help to arrive at suitable measures to effectively decrease accident rates. It is
the measure (or estimates) of the number and severity of accident. These statistics reports are to
be maintained zone-wise. Accident prone stretches of different roads may be assessed by finding
the accident density per length of the road. The places of accidents are marked on the map and
the points of their clustering (BLACK SPOT) are determined. By statistical study of accident
occurrence at a particular road or location or zone of study for a long period of time it is possible
to predict with reasonable accuracy the probability of accident occurrence per day or relative
safety of different classes of road user in that location. The interpretation of the statistical data is
very important to provide insight to the problem.

5.5 ACCIDENT ANALYSIS

5.5.1Accident data collection

The accident data collection is the first step in the accident study. The data collection of
the accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are secondary data which
are filed by motorists themselves. The data to be collected should comprise all of these
parameters:

1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like fatal, serious,
minor
2.Location - Description and detail of location of accident
3.Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading
detail,vehicular defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics,type of traffic,
traffic density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned)
which are the main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and casualty

5.5.2.These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following
purpose. The purposes are as follows:
1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of accident occur.
2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes of accidents.
3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large number of
accidents occurs.
4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident related factors to give insight
into general trends, common casual factors, driver profiles, etc.

5.6 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

The accident data collection involves extensive investigation which involves the
following procedure:
1. Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:
(a) Motorist accident report - It is filed by the involved motorist involved in all
accidents fatal or injurious.
(b) Police accident report - It is filed by the attendant police officer for all accidents at which an
officer is present. This generally includes fatal accidents or mostly accidents involving serious
injury required emergency or hospital treatment or which have incurred heavy property damage.
2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as measurement of
skid marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of final position of vehicles,
examination of condition and functioning of traffic control devices and other road equipments.
3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization and inter-
pretation of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight distance, preparing
drawing of after accident situation, determination of critical and design speed for curves is done.
4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step effort is made to determine from whatever data is
available how the accident occurs from the available data. This involves accident reconstruction
which has been discussed under Section No.7 in details. It is professionally referred as
determining behavioral or mediate causes of accident.
5. Cause Analysis: It is the effort made to determine why the accident occurred from the data
available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies.

5.7 ACCIDENT DATA ANALYSIS

The purpose is to find the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and
roadway. Accident analyses are made to develop information such as:
1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships of accidents to
physical capacities and to psychological test results.
2.Vehicle - Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity, location and extent
of damage related to vehicles.
3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to characteristics of
the roadway and roadway condition and relative values of changes related to roadways.

It is important to compute accident rate which reflect accident involvement by type of

highway. These rates provide a means of comparing the relative safety of different highway and
street system and traffic controls. Another is accident involvement by the type of drivers and
vehicles associated with accidents.

1. Accident Rate per Kilometer :

On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents of all types per km
of each highway and street classification.
R =A/L
where, R = total accident rate per km for one year, A = total number of accident occur- ring in
one year, L = length of control section in kms

2. Accident involvement Rate :

It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain characteristics who were involved
in accidents per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel.
R =N × 100000000/V
where,R = accident involvement per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel, N = total number
of drivers of vehicles involved in accidents during the period of investigation and V =
vehicle-kms of travel on road section during the period of investigation

3. Death rate based on population :

The traffic hazard to life in a community is expressed as the number of traffic fatalities per
100,000 populations. This rate ref++lects the accident exposure for entire area.
R =B × 100000/P
where, R = death rate per 100,000 population, B = total number of traffic death in one year and P
= population of area

4.Death rate based on registration :

The traffic hazard to life in a community can also be expressed as the number of traffic
fatalities per 10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire
area and is similar to death rate based on population.
R =B × 10000/M
where, R = death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B = total number of traffic death
in one year and M = number of motor vehicles registered in the area

5. Accident Rate based on vehicle-kms of travel :

The accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents per 100 million vehicle km
of travel. The true exposure to accident is nearly approximated by the miles of travel of
the motor vehicle than the population or registration.
R =C × 100000000/V
where, R = accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C = number of total
accidents in one year and V = vehicle kms of travel in one year

6. SPEED STUDIES
6.1 Spot Speed
Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location.

6.1.2Average Speed
Average of the spot speeds of all vehicles passing a given point on the highway.

6.1.3Running Speed
Average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in motion.
Running speed= Length of course / Running time
= Length of course / (Journey time- Delays)

6.14Journey speed
Also known as overall travel speed
It is the effective speed between two points. It is the distance between two points divided by
the total time taken by the vehicle to complete the journey, including all delays.
Journey speed = Distance/ Total journey Time (including Delays).

6.1.5 Spacer mean speed: (Harmonic mean) average speed of vehicles in a certain road length
at a given instant.
1
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑛/ ∑𝑛𝑖=1( ) 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑛𝐿/ ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑡𝑖
𝑉𝑖
Where;
Vs = Space mean speed
N= No. Of vehicles
V= Speed of the vehicle
Time Mean Speed: (Arithmetic mean)
Mean speed of vehicle at a point in space over a period of time or it is the average of
instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.
𝑛

𝑉 = (∑ 𝑉𝑖 ) /𝑛
𝑖=1

Where;
Vt= Time mean speed
n= No. of vehicles
V= Speed of the vehicle
Running speed: It is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a particular stretch of road,
while the vehicle is in motion; this is obtained by dividing the distance covered by the time
during which the vehicle is actually in motion.
6.3 TYPES OF SPEED STUDY
1. Spot speed study
2. Speed and delay study
Use of spot speed study
 The use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulation.
 To use in geometric design for redesigning the existing highway.
 To use in accident studies.
 To study the traffic capacity.
6.3.1 Spot speed study
The methods available for measuring spot speed can be grouped as
 Those observations that require time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.
 It consist of
 long base methods- vehicles are timed over a long distance.
 Short base methods- vehicles are timed over a Short distance, say about 2m.
 Radar Speedometer which automatically records
 instantaneous speed.
 Photographic method
Those observations that require time taken by a vehicle to cover a known distance.
 Long base methods
 Direct timing Procedure
 Enoscope

i).DIRECT TIMING PROCEDURE

 Simplest method
 Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and an
observer starts and stops stopwatch as a vehicle crosses these two marks.
 From known distance and time, speed can be calculated.
 Disadvantage: errors due to parallax effect.
 Observation by two observers one at each reference points
 First observer standing at the point in which the vehicle pass first, signals and seconds
observer starts the stop watch. The second observer stops the stop watch when he
observes the same vehicle passing the reference point.
 Disadvantage: reaction time of two observers.

ii) ENOSCOPE
Also known as mirror box L-shaped box, open at both ends, with a mirror set at 45 ˚ to the arms
of the instrument. It bends the line of sight of the observer perpendicular to the path of vehicle.

 The instrument is placed directly opposite to the first reference point and the observer
stations himself at the second reference point.
 Stop watch is started as soon as the vehicle passes the first point and is stopped as soon as
it passes the observer.
 If two enoscope is used, the observer stations himself midway between two reference
points.
 Advantages:
 Eliminates parallax error.
 Equipment is of low cost, simple and can set up easily

46

iii) RADAR SPEED METER

 Works on the Doppler principle.
 Speed of a moving body is proportional to change in frequency between the Radio wave
transmitted to the moving body and the radio wave received back.
 Instrument directly measures speed.
 Instrument is setup near the edge of carriageway at a height of 1m.
 The speed meter is so kept that the angle between direction of travel of vehicle and axis
of transmission of radio wave is as low as possible, say within 20˚.
 Speed of vehicles in both directions can be observed.

iv) PHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD

 Time-lapse camera photography can be used.
 Photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time(say one second per frame) on a special
camera.
  By projecting the film on a screen, the passage of any vehicle can be traced with
reference to time.
 Images by video cameras can be also used.

6.4 PRESENTATION OF SPOT SPEED DATA

Average speed of vehicles
From spot speed data, distribution tables are prepared by arranging the data in groups covering
various speed ranges and number of vehicles in each range.
Arithmetic mean is the average speed.
Cumulative speed of vehicles
Graph is plotted with average values of each group on Xaxis and cumulative % of vehicles
travelling at different speeds.
85th percentile speed: Speed at or below 85 % of vehicles are passing the point of highway.
Only 15 % of vehicles exceed the speed at that spot.
Drivers exceeding 85th percentile speed are considered to drive faster than the safe speed.
Hence 85th percentile speed is adopted for Safe speed limit at that zone.
50th percentile speed: median speed.
15th percentile speed: represents the lower speed limit

7. PEDESTRAIN STUDY

7.1INTRODUCTION
People walk for many reasons: to go to a neighbor’s house, to run errands, for school, or
to get to a business meeting. People also walk for recreation and health benefits or for the
enjoyment of being outside. Some pedestrians must walk to transit or other destinations if they
wish to travel independently. It is a public responsibility to provide a safe, secure, and
comfortable system for all people who walk. In this lecture we will discuss about the pedestrian
problems, pedestrian survey (data collection), characteristics, different level of services, and
design principles of pedestrian facilities. There are many problems related to safety security of
pedestrians. These are discussed below in brief.

7.2 PEDESTRIAN PROBLEMS

Accidents Circumstances - Pedestrian accidents occurs in a variety of ways; the most common
type involves pedestrian crossing or entering the street at or between intersections.
1. Darting: It is used to indicate the sudden appearance of a pedestrian from behind a vehicle or
other sight obstruction.
2. Dashing: It refers to the running pedestrians.

Special Problems
1. Age: Children under 15 years of age from the largest group of pedestrian victims and have the
highest in- jury rate per population in their age group, the elderly have the highest fatality rate
because of the lower probability of their recovery from injuries.
2. Intoxication and Drug effects: Alcohol and drugs impair the behavior of pedestrians to the
extent that they may be a primary cause of accident.
3. Dusk and Darkness: Special pedestrian safety problems arise during the hours of dusk and
darkness, when it is most difficult for motorists to see pedestrians.
7.3DEFINITION OF A PEDESTRIAN
Any person afoot is the definition of Uniform Vehicle Code of pedestrian. However
expand this definition to explicitly include people with disabilities, such as who use wheelchairs
or other mobility devices. At the beginning and end of every motorist’s trip, he or she is
pedestrian. The driver and/or passenger walks to the vehicle, which is parked, drives to a
destination, parks the vehicle again, and walks to the final destination. In urban centers,
pedestrian flows can be significant, and they must be accommodated in planning and design of
traffic facilities and controls. Pedestrian safety is also a major issue, as the pedestrian is at a
visible disadvantage where potential pedestrian-vehicle conflict exist, such as at the
intersections. It is important to recognize the forces influencing the demand for provision of
more and better pedestrian facilities. Undoubtedly one important factor has been the in- creased
awareness of the environmental problems created by the rapid national and worldwide growth in
vehicle travel, but of equal important has been the recognition by many people of need for
physical fitness and the role that play in achieving this.

7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PEDESTRIAN DEMAND

The demand for pedestrian facilities is influenced by a number of factors of which some of the
most important are
 The nature of the local community- Walking is more likely to occur in a community that
has a high proportion of young people.
 Car ownership -The availability of the private car reduces the amount of walking, even
for short journey.
 Local land use activities- Walking is primarily used for short distance trips. Consequently
the distance between local origins and destinations (e.g. homes and school, homes and
shops) is an important factor influencing the level of demand, particularly for the young
and elderly.
 Quality of provision- If good quality pedestrian facilities are provided, then demand will
tend to increase.
 Safety and security- It is important that pedestrians perceive the facilities to be safe and
secure. For pedestrians this means freedom from conflict with motor vehicle, as well as a
minimal threat from personal attack and the risk of tripping on uneven surfaces.

7.5 TERMINOLOGY
1. Pedestrian speed is the average pedestrian walking speed, generally expressed in units of
meters per second.
2. Pedestrian flow rate is the number of pedestrians passing a point per unit of time, expressed as
pedestrians per 15 min or pedestrians per minute. Point refers to a line of sight across the width
of a walkway perpendicular to the pedestrian path.
3. Pedestrian flow per unit of width is the average flow of pedestrians per unit of effective
walkway width, expressed as pedestrians per minute per meter (p/min/m). Pedestrian density is
the average number of pedestrians per unit of area within a walk- way or queuing area, expressed
as pedestrians per square meter (p/m2).
4. Pedestrian space is the average area provided for each pedestrian in a walkway or queuing
area, ex- pressed in terms of square meters per pedestrian. This is the inverse of density, and is
often a more practical unit for analyzing pedestrian facilities.
5. Platoon refers to a number of pedestrians walking together in a group, usually involuntarily, as
a result of signal control and other factors.

7.6 DATA COLLECTION

Before deciding on the appropriate extent and standard of pedestrian facilities, it is
important to assess the potential demand. The possible methods of obtaining such estimates are
manual count, video survey, and attitude survey described as follows.

7.6.1 Manual counts

Count the flow of pedestrian through a junction, across a road, or along a road
section/footway manually using manual clicker and tally marking sheet. Manual counts need to
satisfy the following conditions.
1. The time period(s) in the day over which the counts are undertaken must coincide with the
peak times of the activity of study.
2. The day(s) of the week and month(s) of the year when observations are made must be
representative of the demand. School holidays, early closing, and special events should be
avoided since they can result in non-typical conditions.
3. The survey locations need to be carefully selected in order to ensure that the total existing
demand is observed.

Advantages of this manual counting are that these are simple to set up and carry out, and flexible
to response observed changes in demand on site and disadvantages are that these are labour
intensive also simple information can be achieved and not detailed information.

7.6.2 Video survey

Cameras are setup at the selected sites and video record- ing taken of the pedestrians
during the selected observation periods. A suitable vantage point for the camera is important.
Such survey produces a permanent record of pedestrian movement and their interaction with
vehicles. In it the record of behavior pattern is also obtained which helps in analyzing the
crossing difficulties.

7.6.3 Attitude survey

Detailed questionnaire requires enabling complete information about pedestrian’s origins and
destination points, also can gather information on what new facilities, or improvements to
existing facilities, need to be provided to divert trips to walking, or increase the current
pedestrian activities.

Fig.7.1 Relationship between pedestrian speed and density

7.7 PEDESTRIAN FLOW CHARACTERISTIC
In many ways pedestrian flow are similar to those used for vehicular flow because it can be
described in terms of familiar variables such as speed, volume, rate of flow and density. Other
measures related specifically to pedes- trian flow include the ability to cross a pedestrian traffic
stream, to walk in the reverse direction of a major pedestrian flow, to manoeuvre generally
without conflicts and changes in walking speed, and the delay experienced by pedestrians at
signalized and unsignalized intersections. It is dissimilar to the vehicular flow in that pedestrian
flow may be unidirectional, bidirectional, or multi-directional. Pedestrian do not always travel in
clear ”lanes” although they may do sometimes under heavy flow.

Pedestrian Speed-Density Relationships

The fundamental relationship between speed, density, and volume for pedestrian flow is
analogous to vehicular flow. As volume and density increase, pedestrian speed declines. As
density increases and pedestrian space de- creases, the degree of mobility afforded to the
individual pedestrian declines, as does the average speed of the pedestrian stream, it is shown in
Fig. 7.1

Flow-Density Relationships
The relationship among density, speed, and flow for pedestrians is similar to that for vehicular
traffic streams,

Figure 7.2: Relationship between pedestrian space & flow

and is expressed in equation.
Qped = Sped *Dped
where, Qped= unit flow rate (p/min/m), Sped= pedes- trian speed (m/min), and Dped= pedestrian
density (p/m2). Pedestrian density is an awkward variable in that it has fractional values in
pedestrian per square meter. This relationship often expressed in terms of Space module(M)
which is the inverse of pedestrian density. The inverse of density is more practical unit for
analyzing pedestrian facilities ,so expression becomes
Qed =Sped/M
where M in(m2/ped). The basic relationship between flow and space, recorded by several
researchers, is illustrated in the Fig. 7.2. The conditions at maximum flow represent the capacity
of the walkway facility. From Fig. 7.2, it is apparent that all observations of maximum unit flow
fall within a narrow range of density, with the average space per pedestrian varying between 0.4
and 0.9 m2/p. Even the outer range of these observations indicates that maximum flow occurs at
this density, although the actual flow in this study is considerably higher than in the others. As
space is reduced to less than 0.4 m2/p, the flow rate declines precipitously. All movement effec-
tively stops at the minimum space allocation of 0.2 to 0.3 m2/p.

Speed-Flow Relationships
The following Fig. 68.3 illustrates the relationship between pedestrian speed and flow. These
curves, similar to vehicle flow curves, show that when there are few pedestrians on a walkway
(i.e., low flow levels), there is space available to choose higher walking speeds. As flow
increases, speeds decline because of closer interactions among pedestrians. When a critical level
of crowding occurs, movement becomes more difficult, and both flow and speed decline. The
Fig. 68.4 confirms the relation- ships of walking speed and available space, and suggests some
points of demarcation for developing LOS criteria. The outer range of observations indicates that
at an average space of less than 1.5 m2/p, even the slowest pedestrians cannot achieve their
desired walking speeds. Faster pedestrians, who walk at speeds of up to 1.8 m/s, are not able to
achieve that speed unless average space is 4.0 m2/p or more.

Fig.7.3 Relationships between Pedestrian Speed and Flow Fig.7.4: Relationships between
Pedestrian Speed and Space

Fig.7.5 Pedestrian body ellipse Fig7.6: Pedestrian walking space requirement

Pedestrian Space Requirements
Pedestrian facility designers use body depth and shoulder breadth for minimum space
standards, at least implicitly. A simplified body ellipse of 0.50 m * 0.60 m, with total area of
0.30 m2 is used as the basic space for a single pedestrian, as shown in Fig. 68.5 this represents
the practical minimum for standing pedestrians. In evaluating a pedestrian facility, an area of
0.75 m2 is used as the buffer zone for each pedestrian. A walking pedestrian requires a certain
amount of forward space. This forward space is a critical dimension, since it determines the
speed of the trip and the number of pedestrians that are able to pass a point in a given time
period. The for- ward space in the Fig 68.6 is categorized into a pacing zone and a sensory zone.

Pedestrian Walking Speed

Pedestrian walking speed is highly dependent on the pro- portion of elderly pedestrians
(65 years old or more) in the walking population. If 0 to 20 per cent of pedestrians are elderly,
the average walking speed is 1.2 m/s on walkways. If elderly people constitute more than 20
percent of the total pedestrians, the average walking speed decreases to 1.0 m/s. In addition, a
walkway upgrade of 10 per cent or more reduces walking speed by 0.1 m/s. On sidewalks, the
free-flow speed of pedestrians is ap-proximately 1.5 m/s. There are several other conditions that
could reduce average pedestrian speed, such as a high percentage of slow-walking children in the
pedestrian flow.

Pedestrian Start-Up Time and Capacity

A pedestrian start-up time of 3 s is a reasonable midrange value for evaluating crosswalks
at traffic signals. A capacity of 75p/min/m or 4,500p/h/m is a reasonable value for a pedestrian
facility if local data are not available. At capacity, a walking speed of 0.8 m/s is considered a rea-
sonable value.
DESIGN PRINCIPLE OF PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
In the design facilities we will discuss the design criteria of sidewalk, street corner,
crosswalk, traffic island, over-pass and underpass and other facilities like as pedestrian signals
and signage. 68.4.1 Side walk Sidewalks are pedestrian lanes that provide people with space to
travel within the public right-of-way that is separated from roadway vehicles. They also provide
places for children to walk, run, skate, ride bikes, and play. Side- walks are associated with
significant reductions in pedestrian collisions with motor vehicles.
1. Width: The minimum clear width of a pedestrian access route shall be 1220 mm exclusive of
the width of curb. It varies according to pedestrian flow rate and different LOS. It is shown in
following Table.
2. Cross slope: The cross slope of the pedestrian access route shall be maximum 1:48.
3. Surfaces: Surface should be firm, stable, slip resistance and prohibit openings & avoid service
elements i.e. manholes etc. A buffer zone of 1.2 to 1.8 m (4 to 6 ft) is desirable and should be
provided to separate pedestrians from the street. The buffer zone will vary according to the street
type. In downtown or commercial districts, a street furniture zone is usually appropriate.
8.TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

8.1 PURPOSE
(1) The purpose of a Travel Time and Delay Study is to evaluate the quality of traffic movement
along a route and determine the locations, types, and extent of traffic delays by using a test vehicle,
vehicle observation or probe vehicle.
(2) This study can be used to compare and evaluate operational conditions before and after roadway
or intersection improvements have been made. It can also be used as a tool to assist in prioritizing
projects by comparing the magnitude of the operational deficiencies (such as delays and stops) for
each project under consideration.
(3) The Travel Time and Delay Study can also be used by planners to monitor system performance
measurements for local government comprehensive plans.
(4) The methodology presented herein provides the quantitative information with which the analyst
can develop recommendations for improvements such as traffic signal retiming, safety
improvements, turn lane additions, and channelization enhancements.

8.2 APPLICATIONS OF TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY DATA

 Efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic
 Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the causes
 Evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation improvements through before-and-after
studies
 Determination of relative efficiency of a route by developing sufficiency ratings or
congestion indices
 Determination of travel times for trip assignment models
 Compilation of travel time data for trend studies to evaluate the changes in efficiency and
level of service with time
 Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that
reduce travel time

8.3 DEFINITIONS
(1) Acceleration Noise (AN). Represents the degree of driver discomfort due to acceleration
and deceleration. It is computed (approximately) as the root mean square value of
acceleration (feet per second squared) considering each second of operation separately (The
Theory of Road Traffic Flow). Stopped times (e.g., speeds less than 5 mph) are excluded
from the computations.
(2) Control Point (CP). A node at the beginning or end of a link, usually the stop line at a
signalized intersection, but can be any physical feature, e.g., power pole. The stop line or
physical feature selected within the intersection must be located in the same direction of travel.
The control point may be different for each direction of travel. However, once a control point is
chosen it shall be used for each run in that particular direction.
(3) Delay (D). The elapsed time (in seconds) spent driving at a speed less than 5 mph.
(4) Distance. The length of a link or the length of a run (feet for computerized method, miles for
manual method).
(5) Fuel Consumption Rate (FC). The miles per U.S. gallon computed from a mathematical
model which considers the length of the run, the total delay, and the effect of acceleration and
deceleration (NCHRP Report 111, Running Costs of Motor Vehicles as Affected by Road
Design and Traffic).
(6) Running Speed (RS). The test vehicle’s average speed (in miles per hour) while the vehicle
is in motion (does not include delay time) it can be calculated by the formula:
(7) Running Time (RT). The elapsed time (in seconds) excluding delay spent driving a distance.
(8) Special Control Points (SCP). Beginning and end points of the study route. They shall be
located outside the influence of a signalized intersection or other highway feature which might
cause delay. The vehicle must be at normal operating speed for the route when passing these
points.
(9) Stop (S). The average number of times per link or run that the test vehicle’s speed falls below
5 mph. After a stop, an additional stop will not be recorded unless the speed first exceeds 15 mph
(Institute of Transportation Engineers, Manual of Traffic Engineering Studies).
(10) Travel Speed (TS) or Average Speed (AS). The test vehicle’s average speed (in miles per
hour) over a distance.
(11) Travel Time (TT). The total elapsed time (in seconds) spent driving a specified distance.

8.4 METHODS TO CONDUCTION TRAVEL TIME/DELAY STUDIES

These methods can be grouped into:
A) Those using a test vehicle
B) Those not requiring test vehicles

A) THOSE USING A TEST VEHICLE

1. Floating-Car Technique:
 The test car is driven along the test section so that the test car “floats” with the traffic.
 Driver of the test vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass his test
vehicle
 Minimum number of test runs:
The limit of acceptable error used depends on the purpose of the study:
 Before-and-after studies: 2-5 km/hr (1 to 3 mi/hr)
 Traffic operation, economic evaluations, and trend analyses: 3-6 km/hr (2 to 4 mi/hr)
 Highway needs and transportation planning studies: 5-8 km/hr (3 to 5 mi/hr)
2. Average-Speed Technique:
 Driving the test car at a speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the
traffic stream.
 The travel time is recorded.
 The test run is repeated for the minimum number of times as calculated by the equation to
find N
3. Moving-Vehicle Technique: the observer makes a round trip on a test section like the
one shown below:

The following data are collected

‒ Te (in minutes)
‒ Tw (in minutes)
‒ Ne : number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is traveling east
‒ Ow: number of vehicles that overtake the test car while the test car is traveling west
‒ Pw : number of vehicles that the test car passes while the test car is traveling west
B) THOSE NOT REQUIRING TEST VEHICLES
1. License-Plate Observations: This requires that observers be positioned at the beginning and
end of the test section. Each observer records the last three or four digits of the license plate of
each car that passes together with the time at which the car passes. It has been suggested that a
sample size of 50 matched license plates will give reasonably accurate results.

2. Interviews: It is carried out by obtaining information from individuals who drive on the
Study site regarding their travel times and experience of delays. It facilitates the collection of a
large amount of data in a relatively short time. Results depends on the information given by the
Contacted people

3. ITS Advanced Technologies (TELEMATICS): The integrated use of telecommunications

and informatics.
 UNIT-II
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Traffic engineering pertains to the analysis of the behavior of traffic and to design the
facilities for a smooth, safe and economical operation of traffic. Traffic flow, like the flow of water,
has several parameters associated with it. The traffic stream parameters provide information
regarding the nature of traffic flow, which helps the analyst in detecting any variation in flow
characteristics. Understanding traffic behavior requires a thorough knowledge of traffic stream
parameters and their mutual relationships. The complexity of traffic stream behavior and the
difficulties in performing experiments with real world traffic make computer simulation an
important analysis tool in traffic engineering. The physical propagation of traffic flows can be
specifically described using traffic flow models. By making use of different traffic simulation
models, one can simulate large scale real-world situations in great detail. Depending on the level of
detailing, traffic flow models are classified into macroscopic, mesoscopic and microscopic models.
Macroscopic models view the traffic flow as a whole whereas microscopic ones gives attention to
individual vehicles and their interactions while the mesoscopic models fall in between these two.
This chapter gives an overview of the basic concepts behind simulation models and elaboration
about the microscopic approach for modelling traffic.

A microscopic model of traffic flow attempts to analyze the flow of traffic by modelling driver-
driver and driver-road interactions within a traffic stream which respectively analyses the
interaction between a driver and another driver on road and of a single driver on the different
features of a road. Many studies and researches were carried out on driver’s behavior in different
situations like a case when he meets a static obstacle or when he meets a dynamic obstacle. Among
these, the pioneer development of car following theories paved the way for the researchers to model
the behaviour of a vehicle following another vehicle in the 1950s and 1960s.

Macroscopic Measures of a Traffic Stream

Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and passengers will be
concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design aspects of the traffic. It is defined as
the rate of motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v is given by,
v =d/t
Where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance traveled in m in time t seconds. Speed of
different vehicles will vary with respect to time and space. To represent these variations, several
types of speed can be defined. Important among them are spot speed, running speed, journey speed,
time mean speed and space mean speed.

Volume
Volume is simply the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the roadway in a specified
period of time. By counting the number of vehicles that pass a point on the roadway during a 15-
minute period, you can arrive at the 15-minute volume. Volume is commonly converted directly to
flow (q), which is a more useful

Flow
There are practically two ways of counting the number of vehicles on a road. One is flow or
volume, which is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given lane
or direction of a highway during a specific time interval. The measurement is carried out by
counting the number of vehicles, nt, passing a particular point in one lane in a defined period t.
Then the flow q expressed in vehicles/hour is given by
q =nt/t
Flow is expressed in planning and design field taking a day as the measurement of time.

Density
Density is defined as the number of vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane
and is generally expressed as vehicles per km. One can photograph a length of road x, count the
number of vehicles, nx, in one lane of the road at that point of time and derive the density k as,
k =nx/x
This is illustrated in figure. From the figure, the density is the number of vehicles between the point
A and B divided by the distance between A and B. Density is also equally important as flow but
from a different angle as it is the measure most directly related to traffic demand. Again it measures
the proximity of vehicles in the stream which in turn affects the freedom to maneuver and
comfortable driving.

Figure 1: Illustration of density

Microscopic Measures of a Traffic Stream

Headway
Headway is a measurement of the distance or time between vehicles in a transit system.
The minimum headway is the shortest such distance or time achievable by a system without a
reduction in the speed of vehicles. The precise definition varies depending on the application, but it
is most commonly measured as the distance from the tip of one vehicle to the tip of the next one
behind it. It can be expressed as the distance between vehicles, or as time it will take for the trailing
vehicle to cover that distance. A "shorter" headway signifies closer spacing between the
vehicles. Freight trains might have headways measured in parts of an hour, metro systems operate
with headways on the order of 1 to 5 minutes, and vehicles on a freeway can have as little as 2
seconds headway between them.
Headway is a key input in calculating the overall route capacity of any transit system. A system that
requires large headways has more empty space than passenger capacity, which lowers the total
number of passengers or cargo quantity being transported for a given length of line (railroad or
highway, for instance). In this case, the capacity has to be improved through the use of larger
vehicles. On the other end of the scale, a system with short headways, like cars on a freeway, can
offer relatively large capacities even though the vehicles carry few passengers.

Spacing (s)

Spacing is the physical distance, usually reported in feet or meters, between the front bumper of the
leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle. Spacing complements headway, as it
describes the same space in another way. Spacing is the product of speed and headway.

Gap (g)

Gap is very similar to headway, except that it is a measure of the time that elapses between the
departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at the designated test point. Gap is a
measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first vehicle and the front bumper of the second
vehicle, where headway focuses on front-to-front times. Gap is usually reported in units of seconds.
Clearance (c)

Clearance is similar to spacing, except that the clearance is the distance between the rear bumper of
the leading vehicle and the front bumper of the following vehicle. The clearance is equivalent to the
spacing minus the length of the leading vehicle. Clearance, like spacing, is usually reported in units
of feet or meters

Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

The ratio of the hourly flow rate ( q60) divided by the peak 15 minute rate of flow expressed as an
hourly flow (q15). PHF= q60/ q15

TIME HEADWAY
The microscopic character related to volume is the time headway or simply headway. Time
headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles when they cross a
given point. Practically, it involves the measurement of time between the passage of one rear
bumper and the next past a given point. If all headways h in time period, t, over which flow has
been measured are added then,

But the flow is defined as the number of vehicles nt measured in time interval t, that is,

Where, hav is the average headway. Thus average headway is the inverse of flow. Time headway is
often referred to as simply the headway.
Distance headway
Another related parameter is the distance headway. It is defined as the distance between
corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any given time. It involves the measurement
from a photograph, the distance from rear bumper of lead vehicle to rear bumper of following
vehicle at a point of time. If all the space headways in distance x over which the density has been
measured are added,
But the density (k) is the number of vehicles nx at a distance of x, that is

Where, Sav is average distance headway. The average distance headway is the inverse of density and
is sometimes called as spacing.

Average space headway=1/density

Average time headway=1/flow

Types of Traffic Flow

Traffic flow can be divided into two primary types. Understanding what type of flow is occurring in
a given situation will help you decide which analysis methods and descriptions are the most
relevant.

The first type is called uninterrupted flow, and is flow regulated by vehicle-vehicle interactions and
interactions between vehicles and the roadway. For example, vehicles traveling on an interstate
highway are participating in uninterrupted flow.

The second type of traffic flow is called interrupted flow. Interrupted flow is flow regulated by an
external means, such as a traffic signal. Under interrupted flow conditions, vehicle-vehicle
interactions and vehicle-roadway interactions play a secondary role in defining the traffic flow.

TEMPORAL,SPATIAL AND MODEL FLOW PATTERN

Traffic flow pattern identification, as well as anomaly detection, is an important component for
traffic operations and control. To reveal the characteristics of regional traffic flow patterns in large
road networks, this paper employs dictionary-based compression theory to identify the features of
both spatial and temporal patterns by analyzing the multi-dimensional traffic-related data. An
anomaly index is derived to quantify the network traffic in both spatial and temporal perspectives.
Both pattern identifications are conducted in three different geographic levels: detector,
intersection, and sub-region. From different geographic levels, this study finds several important
features of traffic flow patterns, including the geographic distribution of traffic flow patterns,
pattern shifts at different times-of-day, pattern fluctuations over different days, etc. Both spatial and
temporal traffic flow patterns defined in this study can jointly characterize pattern changes and
provide a good performance measure of traffic operations and management. The proposed method
is further implemented in a case study for the impact of a newly constructed subway line. The
before-and-after study identifies the major changes of surrounding road traffic near the subway
stations. It is found that new metro stations attract more commute traffic in weekdays as well as
entertaining traffic during weekends.

Microscopic and macroscopic Speed Characteristics

Speed
Speed is considered as a quality measurement of travel as the drivers and passengers will be
concerned more about the speed of the journey than the design aspects of the traffic. It is defined as
the rate of motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically speed or velocity v is given by,
v =d/t
Where, v is the speed of the vehicle in m/s, d is distance traveled in m in time t seconds. Speed of
different vehicles will vary with respect to time and space. To represent these variations, several
types of speed can be defined. Important among them are spot speed, running speed, journey speed,
time mean speed and space mean speed. These are discussed below.

Spot Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. Spot speed can be used to
design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves, super elevation etc. Location and
size of signs, design of signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination, require the spot speed
data. Accident analysis, road maintenance, and congestion are the modern fields of traffic engineer,
which uses spot speed data as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured using an enoscope,
pressure contact tubes or direct timing procedure or radar speedometer or by time-lapse
photographic methods. It can be determined by speeds extracted from video images by recording
the distance traveling by all vehicles between a particular pair of frames.

Running speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is moving
and is found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was in motion. i.e.
this speed doesn't consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a stop, or has to wait till
it has a clear road ahead. The running speed will always be more than or equal to the journey speed,
as delays are not considered in calculating the running speed

Journey speed
Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the
distance between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the
journey including any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates that
the journey follows a stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The spot speed
here may vary from zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. A uniformity between
journey and running speeds denotes comfortable travel conditions.

Time mean speed and space mean speed

Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specified time period. Space mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the
vehicles occupying a given section of a highway over some specified time period. Both mean
speeds will always be different from each other except in the unlikely event that all vehicles are
traveling at the same speed. Time mean speed is a point measurement while space mean speed is a
measure relating to length of highway or lane, i.e. the mean speed of vehicles over a period of time
at a point in space is time mean speed and the mean speed over a space at a given instant is the
space mean speed.

30.7 Time-space diagram

Time space diagram is a convenient tool in understanding the movement of vehicles. It shows the
trajectory of vehicles in the form of a two dimensional plot. Time space diagram can be plotted for
a single vehicle as well as multiple vehicles. They are discussed below.

A time–space diagram is commonly used to solve a number of transportation- related

problems. Typically, time is drawn on the horizontal axis and distance from a reference point on the
vertical axis. The trajectories of individual vehicles in motion are portrayed in this diagram by
sloping lines, and stationary vehicles are represented by horizontal lines. The slope of the line
represents the speed of the vehicle. Curved portions of the trajectories represent vehicles
undergoing speed changes such as deceleration. Diagrams that show the position of individual
vehicles in time and in space are very useful for understanding traffic flow. These diagrams are
especially useful for discussions of shock waves and wave propagation. The time-space diagram is
a graph that describes the relationship between the location of vehicles in a traffic stream and the
time as the vehicles progress along the highway. The following diagram is an example of a time-
space diagram.
Time-space diagrams are created by plotting the position of each vehicle, given as a distance from a
reference point, against time. The first vehicle will probably start at the origin, while the vehicles
that follow won’t reach the reference point until slightly later times. Reductions in speed cause the
slopes of the lines to flatten, while increases in speed cause the slopes to become greater.
Acceleration causes the time-space curve for the accelerating vehicle to bend until the new speed is
attained. Curves that cross indicate that the vehicles both shared the same position at the same time.
Unless passing is permitted, crossed curves indicate collisions.

30.7.1 Single vehicle

Taking one vehicle at a time, analysis can be carried out on the position of the vehicle with respect
to time. This analysis will generate a graph which gives the relation of its position on a road stretch
relative to time
 Figure Time space diagram for a single vehicle
This plot thus will be between distance x and time t and x will be a functions the position of the
vehicle for every t along the road stretch. This graphical representation of x(t) in a (t; x) plane is a
curve which is called as a trajectory. The trajectory provide an intuitive, clear, and complete
summary of vehicular motion in one dimension. In figure 30:2(a), the the distance x goes on
increasing with respect to the origin as time progresses. The vehicle is moving at a smooth
condition along the road way. In figure 30:2(b), the vehicle at first moves with a smooth pace after
reaching a position reverses its direction of movement. In figure 30:2(c), the vehicle in between
becomes stationary and maintains the same position. From the figure, steeply increasing section of
x(t) denote a rapidly advancing vehicle and horizontal portions of x(t) denote a stopped vehicle
while shallow sections show a slow-moving vehicle. A straight line denotes constant speed motion
and curving sections denote accelerated motion; and if the curve is concave downwards it denotes
acceleration. But a curve which is convex upwards denotes deceleration.
30.7.2 Miultiple Vehicles
Time-space diagram can also be used to determine the fundamental parameters of traffic flow like
speed, density and volume. It can also be used to find the derived characteristics like space headway
and time headway. Figure 30:3 shows the time-space diagram for a set of vehicles traveling at
constant speed. Density, by definition is the number of vehicles per unit length. From the figure, an
observer looking into the stream can count 4 vehicles passing the stretch of road between x1 and x2
at time t. Hence, the density is given as
We can also find volume from this time-space diagram. As per the definition, volume is the number
of vehicles counted for a particular interval of time. From the figure 30:3 we can see that 6 vehicles
are present between the time t1 and t2. Therefore, the volume q is given as

Figure Time space diagram for many vehicles

Again the averages taken at a specific location (i.e., time ranging over an interval) are called time
means and those taken at an instant over a space interval are termed as space means. Another
related definition which can be given based on the time-space diagram is the headway. Space
headway is defined as the distance between corresponding points of two successive vehicles at any
given time. Thus, the vertical gap between any two consecutive lines represents space headway.
The reciprocal of density otherwise gives the space headway between vehicles at that time.
Similarly, time headway is defined as the time difference between any two successive vehicles
when they cross a given point. Thus, the horizontal gap between the vehicles represented by the
lines gives the time headway. The reciprocal of flow gives the average time headway between
vehicles at that point.
Fundamental relations of traffic flow
Speed is one of the basic parameters of traffic flow and time mean speed and space mean speed are
the two representations of speed. Time mean speed and space mean speed and the relationship
between them will be discussed in detail in this chapter. The relationship between the fundamental
parameters of traffic flow will also be derived. In addition, this relationship can be represented in
graphical form resulting in the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
31.2 Time mean speed (vt)
As noted earlier, time mean speed is the average of all vehicles passing a point over duration of
time. It is the simple average of spot speed. Time mean speed vt is given by,

Where v is the spot speed of ith vehicle, and n is the number of observations. In many speed studies,
speeds are represented in the form of frequency table. Then the time mean speed is given by,

Where qi is the number of vehicles having speed vi, and n is the number of such speed categories.
31.3 Space mean speed (vs)
The space mean speed also averages the spot speed, but spatial weight age is given instead of
temporal. This is derived as below. Consider unit length of a road, and let vi is the spot speed of ith
vehicle. Let ti is the time the vehicle takes to complete unit distance and is given by 1
Vi . If there are n such vehicles, then the average travel time ts is given by,

If tav is the average travel time, then average speed vs = 1/ts Therefore from the above equation,

This is simply the harmonic mean of the spot speed. If the spot speeds are expressed as a frequency
table, then,

Where qi vehicle will have vi speed and ni is the number of such observations.
Example 1
If the spot speeds are 50, 40, 60,54 and 45, then find the time mean speed and space mean speed.
Example 2
The results of a speed study are given in the form of a frequency distribution table. Find the time
mean speed and space mean speed.

Solution The time mean speed and space mean speed can be found out from the frequency table
given below. First, the average speed is computed, which is the mean of the speed range. For
example, for the
First speed range, average speed, vi = 2+5/2 = 3.5 seconds. The volume of flow qi for that speed
range is same as the frequency. The terms vi.qi and qi vi are also tabulated, and their summations in
the last row. Time mean speed can be computed as,

Similarly, spaces mean speed can be computed as,

Illustration of mean speeds

In order to understand the concept of time mean speed and space mean speed, following illustration
will help. Let there be a road stretch having two sets of vehicle as in figure 31:1. The first vehicle is
traveling at 10m/s with 50 m spacing, and the second set at 20m/s with 100 m spacing. Therefore,
the headway of the slow vehicle
Figure 31:1: Illustration of relation between time mean speed and space mean speed

31.5 Relation between time mean speed and space mean speed
The relation between time mean speed and space mean speed can be derived as below. Consider a
stream of vehicles with a set of sub stream flow q1,q2, . . . qi, . . . qn having speed v1,v2, . . . vi, . . .
vn. The fundamental relation between flow (q), density (k) and mean speed vs is,
q = k *vs (31.6)
Therefore for any sub stream qi, the following relationship will be valid.
qi = ki * vi (31.7)
The summation of all sub stream flows will give the total flow q.
∑ 𝑞𝑖 = q (31.8)
Similarly the summation of all sub stream density will give the total density k.
∑ 𝑘𝑖 = k (31.9)
Let fi denote the proportion of sub stream density ki to the total density k,
fi =ki/k
Space mean speed averages the speed over space. Therefore, if k i vehicles has vi speed, then space
mean speed is given by,

Time mean speed averages the speed over time. Therefore,

Substituting in 31.7 vt can be written as,

Rewriting the above equation and substituting 31.11, and then substituting 31.6, we get,

.
By adding and subtracting vs and doing algebraic manipulations, vt can be written as,

The third term of the equation will be zero because _fi(vi 􀀀 vs) will be zero, since vs is the mean
speed of vi. The numerator of the second term gives the standard deviation of vi. _fi by de_nition is
1.Therefore,
Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of the spot speed divided by
the space mean speed. Time mean speed will be always greater than space mean speed since
standard deviation cannot be negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same, then spot speed,
time mean speed and space mean speed will also be same.
31.6 Fundamental relations of traffic flow
The relationship between the fundamental variables of traffic flow, namely speed, volume, and
density is called the fundamental relations of traffic flow. This can be derived by a simple concept.
Let there be a road with length v km, and assume all the vehicles are moving with v km/hr.(Fig
31:2). Let the number of vehicles

Figure 31:2: Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow counted by an
observer at A for one hour be n1. By definition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour is
flow(q). Therefore,
n1 = q (31.19)
Similarly, by definition, density is the number of vehicles in unit distance. Therefore number of
vehicles n2 in a road stretch of distance v1 will be density *distance. Therefore,
n2 = k *v (31.20)
Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of vehicles counted in 1 hour and the number of
vehicles in the stretch of distance v will also be same.(ie n1 = n2). Therefore,
q = k *v (31.21)
This is the fundamental equation of traffic flow. Please note that, v in the above equation refers to
the space mean speed.
31.7 Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow
The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be represented with
the help of some curves. They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. They will
be explained in detail one by one below.
31.7.1 Flow-density curve
The flow and density varies with time and location. The relation between the density and the
corresponding flow on a given stretch of road is referred to as one of the fundamental diagram of
traffic flow. Some characteristics of an ideal flow-density relationship is listed below:
1. When the density is zero, flow will also be zero, since there is no vehicle on the road.
2. When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow increases.
3. When more and more vehicles are added, it reaches a situation where vehicles can't move. This is
referred to as the jam density or the maximum density. At jam density, flow will be zero because
the vehicles are not moving.
4. There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is maximum.
The relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve as shown in figure 31:3

Figure 31:3: Flow density curve

Figure 31:4: Speed-density diagram

The point O refers to the case with zero density and zero flow. The point B refers to the maximum
flow and the corresponding density is kmax. The point C refers to the maximum density kjam and
the corresponding flow is zero. OA is the tangent drawn to the parabola at O, and the slope of the
line OA gives the mean free flow speed, ie the speed with which a vehicle can travel when there is
no flow. It can also be noted that points D and E correspond to same flow but has two different
densities. Further, the slope of the line OD gives the mean speed at density k1 and slope of the line
OE will give mean speed at density k2. Clearly the speed at density k1 will be higher since there are
less number of vehicles on the road.
31.7.2 Speed-density diagram
Similar to the flow-density relationship, speed will be maximum, referred to as the free flow speed,
and when the density is maximum, the speed will be zero. The simplest assumption is that this
variation of speed with density is linear as shown by the solid line in figure 31:4. Corresponding to
the zero density, vehicles will be flowing with their desire speed, or free flow speed. When the
density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes zero. It is also possible to have non-linear
relationships as shown by the dotted lines. These will be discussed later.

Figure 31:5: Speed-ow diagram

Figure 31:6: Fundamental diagram of traffic flow

31.7.3 Speed flow relation
The relationship between the speed and flow can be postulated as follows. The flow is zero either
because there is no vehicle or there are too many vehicles so that they cannot move. At maximum
flow, the speed will be in between zero and free flow speed. This relationship is shown in figure
31:5. The maximum flow qmax occurs at speed u. It is possible to have two different speeds for a
given flow.
31.7.4 Combined diagrams
The diagrams shown in the relationship between speed-flow, speed-density, and flow-density are
called the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow. These are as shown in figure 31:6
Traffic data collection
32.2 Data requirements
The most important traffic characteristic to be collected from the field includes sped, travel time,
flow and density. Some cases, spacing and headway are directly measured. In addition, the
occupancy, ie percentage of time a point on the road is occupied by vehicles is also of interest. The
measurement procedures can be classified based on the geographical extent of the survey into five
categories: (a) measurement at point on the road, (b) measurement over a short section of the road
(less than 500 metres) (c) measurement over a length of the road (more than about 500 metres) (d)
wide area samples obtained from number of locations, and (e) the use of an observer moving in the
traffic stream. In each category, numerous data collection is there. However, important and basic
methods will be discussed.
32.2.1 Measurements at a point
The most important point measurement is the vehicle volume count. Data can be collected manually
or automatically. In manual method, the observer will stand at the point of interest and count the
vehicles with the help of hand tallies. Normally, data will be collected for short interval of 5
minutes or 15 minutes etc. and for each types of vehicles like cars, two wheelers, three wheelers,
LCV, HCV, multi axle trucks, non-motorised traffic like bullock cart, hand cart etc. From the flow
data, flow and headway can be derived. Modern methods include the use of inductive loop detector,
video camera, and many other technologies. This method helps to collect accurate information for
long duration. In video cameras, data is collected from the field and is then analyzed in the lab for
obtaining results. Radars and microwave detectors are used to obtain the speed of a vehicle at a
point. Since no length is involved, density cannot be obtained by measuring at a point.

Figure 32:1: Illustration of measurement over short section using enoscope

32.2.2 Measurements over short section

The main objective of this study is to find the spot speed of vehicles. Manual methods include the
use of enoscope. In this method a base length of about 30-90 metres is marked on the road.
Enoscope is placed at one end and observer will stand at the other end. He could see the vehicle
passing the farther end through enoscope and starts the stop watch. Then he stops the stop watch
when the vehicle passes in front of him. The working of the enoscope is shown in figure 32:1.
An alternative method is to use pressure contact tube which gives a pressure signal when vehicle
moves at either end. Another most widely used method is inductive loop detector which works on
the principle of magnetic inductance. Road will be cut and a small magnetic loop is placed. When
the metallic content in the vehicle passes over it, a signal will be generated and the count of the
vehicle can be found automatically. The advantage of this detector is that the counts can be obtained
throughout the life time of the road. However, chances of errors are possible because noise signals
may be generated due to heavy vehicle passing adjacent lanes. When dual loops are used and if the
spacing between them is known then speed also can be calculated in addition to the vehicle cost.
32.2.3 Measurements over long section
This is normally used to obtain variations in speed over a stretch of road. Usually the stretch will be
having a length more than 500 metres. We can also get density. Most traditional method uses aerial
photography. From a single frame, density can be measured, but not speed or volumes. In time lapse
photography, several frames are available. If several frames are obtained over short time intervals,
speeds can be measured from the distance covered between the two frames and time interval
between them.
32.2.4 Moving observer method for stream measurement
Determination of any of the two parameters of the traffic flow will provide the third one by the
equation q = u*k. Moving observer method is the most commonly used method to get the
relationship between the fundamental stream characteristics. In this method, the observer moves in
the traffic stream unlike all other previous methods. Consider a stream of vehicles moving in the
north bound direction. Two different cases of motion can be considered. The first case considers the
traffic stream to be moving and the observer to be stationary. If no is the number of vehicles
overtaking the observer during a period, t, then flow q is n0/t , or
n0 = q *t (32.1)
The second case assumes that the stream is stationary and the observer moves with speed vo. If np is
the number of vehicles overtaken by observer over a length l, then by definition, density k is
np/l , or
np = k *l (32.2)
or
np = k*vo*t (32.3)
Where v0 is the speed of the observer and t is the time taken for the observer to cover the road
stretch. Now consider the case when the observer is moving within the stream. In that case mo
vehicles will overtake the observer and mp vehicles will be overtaken by the observer in the test
vehicle. Let the difference m is given by m0 - mp, then from equation 32.5 and equation 32.7,
m = q*t-k*vo*t (32.4)
 Figure 32:2: Illustration of moving observer method
This equation is the basic equation of moving observer method, which relates q; k to the counts m, t
and vo that can be obtained from the test. However, we have two unknowns, q and k, but only one
equation. For generating another equation, the test vehicle is run twice once with the traffic stream
and another one against traffic stream, i.e.
mw = q*tw + k*vw
where, a;w denotes against and with traffic flow. It may be noted that the sign of equation 32.5 is
negative, because test vehicle moving in the opposite direction can be considered as a case when the
test vehicle is moving in the stream with negative velocity. Further, in this case, all the vehicles will
be overtaking, since it is moving with negative speed. In other words, when the test vehicle moves
in the opposite direction, the observer simply counts the number of vehicles in the opposite
direction. Adding equation 32.5 and 32.5, we will get the first
parameter of the stream, namely the flow(q) as:

Now calculating space mean speed from equation 32.5,

If vs is the mean stream speed, then average travel time is given by t avg = l vs Therefore,

Rewriting the above equation, we get the second parameter of the traffic flow, namely the mean
speed vs and can be written as,

Thus two parameters of the stream can be determined. Knowing the two parameters the third
parameter of traffic flow density (k) can be found out as
For increase accuracy and reliability, the test is performed a number of times and the average results
are to be taken.
Example 1
The length of a road stretch used for conducting the moving observer test is 0.5 km and the speed
with which the test vehicle moved is 20 km/hr. Given that the number of vehicles encountered in
the stream while the test vehicle was moving against the traffic stream is 107, number of vehicles
that had overtaken the test vehicle is 10, and the number of vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle is
74, find the flow, density and average speed of the stream.

Solution
Time taken by the test vehicle to reach the other end of the stream while it is moving along with
the traffic is tw = 0:5/20 = 0.025 hr Time taken by the observer to reach the other end of the stream
while it is moving against the traffic is ta = tw = 0.025 hr Flow is given by equation,

Stream speed vs can be found out from equations

Density can be found out from equation as

Example 2
The data from four moving observer test methods are shown in the table. Column 1 gives the
sample number, column 2 gives the number of vehicles moving against the stream, column 3 gives
the number of vehicles that had overtaken the test vehicle, and last column gives the number of
vehicles overtaken by the test vehicle. Find the three fundamental stream parameters for each set of
data. Also plot the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
Solution From the calculated values of flow, density and speed, the three fundamental diagrams can
be plotted as shown in figure 32:3.

Figure 32:3: Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow

Traffic stream models

33.1 Overview
To figure out the exact relationship between the traffic parameters, a great deal of research has been
done over the past several decades. The results of these researches yielded many mathematical
models. Some important models among them will be discussed in this chapter.
33.2 Greenshield's macroscopic stream model
Macroscopic stream models represent how the behaviour of one parameter of traffic flow changes
with respect to another. Most important among them is the relation between speed and density. The
first and most simple relation between them is proposed by Greenshield. Greenshield assumed a
linear speed-density relationship as illustrated in figure 33:1 to derive the model. The equation for
this relationship is shown below.

where v is the mean speed at density k, vf is the free speed and kj is the jam density. This equation (
33.1) is often referred to as the Greenshields' model. It indicates that when density becomes zero,
speed approaches free ow speed (ie. v ! vf when k ! 0).

Figure 33:1: Relation between speed and density

Figure 33:2: Relation between speed and flow

 Figure 33:3: Relation between flow and density
Once the relation between speed and flow is established, the relation with flow can be derived. This
relation between flow and density is parabolic in shape and is shown in figure 33:3. Also, we know
that
q = k*v (33.2)
Now substituting equation 33.1 in equation 33.2, we get

Similarly we can _nd the relation between speed and ow. For this, put k = q*v in equation 33.1 and
solving, we get

This relationship is again parabolic and is shown in figure 33:2. Once the relationship between the
fundamental variables of traffic flow is established, the boundary conditions can be derived. The
boundary conditions that are of interest are jam density, free flow speed, and maximum flow. To
find density at maximum flow, differentiate equation 33.3 with respect to k and equate it to zero. ie.,

33.5
Denoting the density corresponding to maximum flow as k0, k0 =kj/2
Therefore, density corresponding to maximum flow is half the jam density once we get k0, we can
derive for maximum flow, qmax. Substituting equation 33.5 in equation 33.3
Thus the maximum ow is one fourth the product of free ow and jam density. Finally to get the speed
at
maximum ow, v0, substitute equation 33.5 in equation 33.1 and solving we get,

Therefore, speed at maximum ow is half of the free speed.

33.3 Calibration of Greenshield's model
In order to use this model for any traffic stream, one should get the boundary values, especially free
flow speed (vf ) and jam density (kj ). This has to be obtained by field survey and this is called
calibration process. Although it is difficult to determine exact free flow speed and jam density
directly from the field, approximate values can be obtained from a number of speed and density
observations and then fitting a linear equation between them. Let the linear equation be y = a+bx
such that y is density k and x denotes the speed v. Using linear regression method, coefficients a
and b can be solved as,

33.8
Alternate method of solving for b is,

33.9
where xi and yi are the samples, n is the number of samples, and ¯x and ¯y are the mean of xi and yi
respectively.
Problem
For the following data on speed and density, determine the parameters of the Greenshields' model.
Also find the maximum flow and density corresponding to a speed of 30 km/hr.
Solution Denoting y = v and x = k, solve for a and b using equation 33.8 and equation 33.9. The
solution is tabulated as shown below.

v = 40.8- 0.2k (33.10)

Here vf = 40.8 and vf /kj= 0.2 This implies, kj = 40.8/0.2 = 204 veh/km The basic parameters of
Greenshield's model are free flow speed and jam density and they are obtained as 40.8 kmph and
204 veh/km respectively. To find maximum flow, use equation 33.6, i.e., qmax = (40.8*204)/4 =
2080.8 veh/hr Density corresponding to the speed 30 km/hr can be found out by substituting v = 30
in equation 33.10. i.e, 30 = 40.8 - 0.2 * k Therefore, k = (40:8-30)/0.2 = 54 veh/km
33.4 Other macroscopic stream models
In Greenshield's model, linear relationship between speed and density was assumed. But in field we
can hardly find such a relationship between speed and density. Therefore, the validity of
Greenshields' model was questioned and many other models came up. Prominent among them are
Greenberg's logarithmic model, Underwood's exponential model, Pipe's generalized model, and
multiregime models. These are briey discussed below.
33.4.1 Greenberg's logarithmic model
Greenberg assumed a logarithmic relation between speed and density. He proposed,

This model has gained very good popularity because this model can be derived analytically. (This
derivation is beyond the scope of this notes). However, main drawbacks of this model is that as
density tends to zero, speed tends to infinity. This shows the inability of the model to predict the
speeds at lower densities.

Figure 33:4: Greenberg's logarithmic model

Figure 33:5: Underwood's exponential model

33.4.2 Underwood's exponential model

Trying to overcome the limitation of Greenberg's model, Underwood put forward an exponential
model as shown below.

where vf The model can be graphically expressed as in figure 33:5. is the free flow speed m and ko
is the optimum density, i.e. the density corresponding to the maximum flow. In this model, speed
becomes zero only when density reaches infinity which is the drawback of this model. Hence this
cannot be used for predicting speeds at high densities.

Microscopic tra_c ow modeling

 Direction of traffic
v
n+1 vn

n+1 n

Follower Leader

xn

x xx
n+1 n n+1

z Car following models

Car following theories describe how one vehicle follows another vehicle in an uninterrupted ow. Various models were
formulated to represent how a driver reacts to the changes in the relative positions of the vehicle ahead. Models like
Pipes, Forbes, General Motors and Optimal velocity model are worth discussing.

1. Pipe's model
The basic assumption of this model is \A good rule for following another vehicle at a safe distance is to allow yourself
at least the length of a car between your vehicle and the vehicle ahead for every ten miles per hour of speed at which
you are traveling" According to Pipe's car-following model, the minimum safe distance headway increases linearly with
speed. A disadvantage of this model is that at low speeds, the minimum headways proposed by the theory are
considerably less than the corresponding eld measurements.

34.3.2 Forbes' model

In this model, the reaction time needed for the following vehicle to perceive the need to decelerate and apply the brakes
is considered. That is, the time gap between the rear of the leader and the front of the follower should always be equal
to or greater than the reaction time. Therefore, the minimum time headway is equal to the reaction time (minimum time
gap) and the time required for the lead vehicle to traverse a distance equivalent to its length. A disadvantage of this
model is that, similar to Pipe's model, there is a wide di erence in the minimum distance headway at low and high
speeds.

34.3.3 General Motors' model

The General Motors' model is the most popular of the car-following theories because of the following reasons:

1. Agreement with eld data; the simulation models developed based on General motors' car following models shows
good correlation to the eld data.

2. Mathematical relation to macroscopic model; Greenberg's logarithmic model for speed-density relationship can
be derived from General motors car following model.
to stimulus it receives in the form of force which includes both the external force as well as those arising from the
interaction with all other particles in the system. This model is the widely used and will be discussed in detail later.
34.3.4 Optimal velocity model
The concept of this model is that each driver tries to achieve an optimal velocity based on the distance to the preceding
vehicle and the speed di erence between the vehicles. This was an alternative possibility explored
recently in car-following models. The formulation is based on the assumption that the desired speed vndesired depends on
the distance headway of the nth vehicle. i.e.vntdesired = vopt ( xtn ) where vopt is the optimal velocity function which is a
function of the instantaneous distance headway xtn . Therefore atn is given by

ant = [1= ][V opt ( xnt )vnt] (34.1)

where 1 is called as sensitivity coe cient. In short, the driving strategy of nth vehicle is that, it tries to maintain a safe
speed which inturn depends on the relative position, rather than relative speed.

34.4 General motor's car following model

34.4.1 Basic Philosophy
The basic philosophy of car following model is from Newtonian mechanics, where the acceleration may be regarded as
the response of a matter to the stimulus it receives in the form of the force it receives from the interaction with other
particles in the system. Hence, the basic philosophy of car-following theories can be summarized by the following
equation

[Response]n [Stimulus]n (34.2)

for the nth vehicle (n=1, 2, ...). Each driver can respond to the surrounding tra c conditions only by accelerating or
decelerating the vehicle. As mentioned earlier, di erent theories on car-following have arisen because of the di erence in
views regarding the nature of the stimulus. The stimulus may be composed of the speed of the vehicle, relative speeds,
distance headway etc, and hence, it is not a single variable, but a function and can be represented as,
ant = fsti (vn ; xn; vn ) (34.3)
where fsti is the stimulus function that depends on the speed of the current vehicle, relative position and speed with the
front vehicle.

34.4.2 Follow-the-leader model

The car following model proposed by General motors is based on follow-the leader concept. This is based on two
assumptions; (a) higher the speed of the vehicle, higher will be the spacing between the vehicles and (b) to avoid
collision, driver must maintain a safe distance with the vehicle ahead.
Let xtn+1 is the gap available for (n + 1)th vehicle, and let xsaf e is the safe distance, vnt+1 and vnt are the velocities,
the gap required is given by,

xnt t
+1 = xsaf e + vn +1 (34.4)

where is a sensitivity coe cient. The above equation can be written as

xnxnt+1 = xsaf e + vnt+1 (34.5)

Di erentiating the above equation with respect to time, we get

vntv nt+1 = :a nt+1

1
t
an +1 = [vnt vnt+1 ]
General Motors has proposed various forms of sensitivity coe cient term resulting in ve generations of models. The
most general model has the form,
t m
t l;m(vn +1 ) t t
a t t l
n+1 = (xn xn +1 ) vnvn+1 (34.6)
where l is a distance headway exponent and can take values from +4 to -1, m is a speed exponent and can take values
from -2 to +2, and is a sensitivity coe cient. These parameters are to be calibrated using eld data. This equation is the
core of tra c simulation models.
In computer, implementation of the simulation models, three things need to be remembered:

1. A driver will react to the change in speed of the front vehicle after a time gap called the reaction time during
which the follower perceives the change in speed and react to it.

2. The vehicle position, speed and acceleration will be updated at certain time intervals depending on the accuracy
required. Lower the time interval, higher the accuracy.

3. Vehicle position and speed is governed by Newton's laws of motion, and the acceleration is governed by the car
following model.

Therefore, the governing equations of a tra c ow can be developed as below. Let T is the reaction time, and t is the
updation time, the governing equations can be written as,

vnt = vnt t
+ atn t
t (34.7)
xt = xtn t
+ vnt t t+ 1 t
2 an
t
t 2
(34.8)
t T
n l;m (vn +1 ) tT tT
(34.9)
atn+ = [ tT tT ][vn v
n+1 ]
1 x
(xn n+1
The equation 34.7 is a simulation version of the Newton's simple law of motion v = u + at and equation 34.8 is the
simulation version of the Newton's another equation s = ut + 12 at2. The acceleration of the follower vehicle depends
upon the relative velocity of the leader and the follower vehicle, sensitivity coe cient and the gap between the
vehicles.

Problem

Let a leader vehicle is moving with zero acceleration for two seconds from time zero. Then he accelerates by 1 m=s 2
for 2 seconds, then decelerates by 1m=s2for 2 seconds. The initial speed is 16 m/s and initial location is 28 m from
datum. A vehicle is following this vehicle with initial speed 16 m/s, and position zero. Simulate the behavior of the
following vehicle using General Motors' Car following model (acceleration, speed and position) for 7.5 seconds.
Assume the parameters l=1, m=0 , sensitivity coe cient ( l;m ) = 13, reaction time as 1 second and scan interval as
0.5 seconds.

Solution The rst column shows the time in seconds. Column 2, 3, and 4 shows the acceleration, velocity and distance of
the leader vehicle. Column 5,6, and 7 shows the acceleration, velocity and distance of the follower vehicle. Column 8
gives the di erence in velocities between the leader and follower vehicle denoted as dv. Column 9 gives the di erence in
displacement between the leader and follower vehicle denoted as dx. Note that the values are assumed to be the state at the
beginning of that time interval. At time t=0, leader vehicle has a velocity of 16 m/s and located at a distance of 28 m from
a datum. The follower vehicle is also having the same velocity of 16 m/s and located at the datum. Since the velocity is
same for both, dv = 0. At time t = 0, the leader vehicle is having acceleration zero, and hence has the same speed. The
location of the leader vehicle can be found out from equation as, x = 28+16 0.5 = 36 m. Similarly, the follower vehicle is
not accelerating and is maintaining the same speed. The location of the follower vehicle is, x = 0+16 0.5 = 8 m. Therefore,
dx = 36-8 =28m. These steps are repeated till t = 1.5 seconds. At time t = 2 seconds, leader vehicle accelerates at the rate
of 1 m=s2 and continues to accelerate for 2 seconds. After that it decelerates for a period of two seconds. At t= 2.5
seconds, velocity of leader vehicle changes to 16.5 m/s. Thus dv becomes 0.5 m/s at 2.5 seconds. dx also changes since the
position of leader changes. Since the reaction time is 1 second, the follower will react to the leader's change in acceleration
at 2.0 seconds only after 3 seconds. Therefore, at t=3.5 seconds,
the follower responds to the leaders change in acceleration given by equation i.e., a = 13 0:5 = 0.23 m=s 2. That
28:23
is the current acceleration of the follower vehicle depends on dv and reaction time of 1 second. The follower will
change the speed at the next time interval. i.e., at time t = 4 seconds. The speed of the follower vehicle at t = 4
seconds is given by equation as v= 16+0.231 0.5 = 16.12 The location of the follower vehicle at t = 4 seconds is
given by equation as x = 56+16 0.5+ 21 0.231 0:52 = 64.03 These steps are followed for all the cells of the table.
The earliest car-following models considered the di erence in speeds between the leader and the follower as the
stimulus. It was assumed that every driver tends to move with the same speed as that of the corresponding leading
vehicle so that
1
ant = (vnt+1 vnt+1) (34.10)
where is a parameter that sets the time scale of the model and 1 can be considered as a measure of the
sensitivity of the driver. According to such models, the driving strategy is to follow the leader and, therefore, such
car-following models are collectively referred to as the follow the leader model. E orts to develop this stimulus
function led to ve generations of car-following models, and the most general model is expressed
mathematically as follows.
t+ T l;m [vtTn+1
]m tT tT
a tT t T v
n+1 =[xn x n +1 ]l (vn n+1 ) (34.11)
where l is a distance headway exponent and can take values from +4 to -1, m is a speed exponent and can take values from
-2 to +2, and is a sensitivity coe cient. These parameters are to be calibrated using eld data.

34.5 Simulation Models

Simulation modeling is an increasingly popular and e ective tool for analyzing a wide variety of dynamical
problems which are di cult to be studied by other means. Usually, these processes are characterized by the
interaction of many system components or entities.

34.5.1 Applications of simulation

Tra c simulations models can meet a wide range of requirements:

1. Evaluation of alternative treatments

2. Testing new designs

3. As an element of the design process

4. Embed in other tools

5. Training personnel

6. Safety Analysis

34.5.2 Need for simulation models

Simulation models are required in the following conditions
 1. Mathematical treatment of a problem is infeasible or inadequate due to its temporal or spatial scale
2. The accuracy or applicability of the results of a mathematical formulation is doubtful, because of the
assumptions underlying (e.g., a linear program) or an heuristic procedure (e.g., those in the Highway Capacity
Manual)

3. The mathematical formulation represents the dynamic tra c/control environment as a simpler quasi steady
state system.

4. There is a need to view vehicle animation displays to gain an understanding of how the system is behaving

5. Training personnel

6. Congested conditions persist over a signi cant time.

34.5.3 Classi cation of Simulation Model

Simulation models are classi ed based on many factors like

1. Continuity

(a) Continuous model

(b) Discrete model

2. Level of detail

(a) Macroscopic models

(b) Mesoscopic models
(c) Microscopic models

3. Based on Processes

(a) Deterministic
(b) Stochastic
 UNIT-III
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE & HIGHWAY SAFETY

1.TRAFFIC SIGNS
1.1 Overview
Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and
road users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
Here a traffic control device comes to the help of the traffic engineer. The major types of traffic
control devices used are- traffic signs, road markings, traffic signals and parking control. This
chapter discusses traffic control signs. Different types of traffic signs are regulatory signs, warning
signs and informatory signs.

1.2 Requirements of traffic control devices

1. The control device should fulfill a need: Each device must have a specific purpose for the safe
and efficient operation of traffic flow. The superfluous devices should not be used.
2. It should command attention from the road users: This affects the design of signs. For
commanding attention, proper visibility should be there. Also the sign should be distinctive and
clear. The sign should be placed in such a way that the driver requires no extra effort to see the
sign.
3. It should convey a clear, simple meaning: Clarity and simplicity of message is essential for
the driver to properly understand the meaning in short time. The use of color, shape and legend as
codes becomes important in this regard. The legend should be kept short and simple so that even
a less educated driver could understand the message in less time.
4. Road users must respect the signs: Respect is commanded only when the drivers are
conditioned to expect that all devices carry meaningful and important messages. Overuse, misuse
and confusing messages of devices tends the drivers to ignore them.
5. The control device should provide adequate time for proper response from the road users:
This is again related to the design aspect of traffic control devices. The sign boards should be
placed at a distance such that the driver could see it and gets sufficient time to respond to the
situation. For example, the STOP sign which is always placed at the stop line of the intersection
should be visible for at least one safe stopping sight distance away from the stop line.

1.3 Communication tools

A number of mechanisms are used by the traffic engineer to communicate with the road
user. These mechanisms recognize certain human limitations, particularly eyesight. Messages are
conveyed through the following elements.
1. Color: It is the first and most easily noticed characteristics of a device. Usages of different
colors for different signs are important. The most commonly used colors are red, green, yellow,
black, blue, and brown. These are used to code certain devices and to reinforce specific messages.
Consistent use of colors helps the drivers to identify the presence of sign board ahead.
2. Shape : It is the second element discerned by the driver next to the color of the device. The
categories of shapes normally used are circular, triangular, rectangular, and diamond shape. Two
exceptional shapes used in traffic signs are octagonal shape for STOP sign and use of inverted
triangle for GIVE WAY (YIELD) sign. Diamond shape signs are not generally used in India.
3. Legend : This is the last element of a device that the drive comprehends. This is an important
aspect in the case of traffic signs. For the easy understanding by the driver, the legend should be
short, simple and specific so that it does not divert the attention of the driver. Symbols are normally
used as legends so that even a person unable to read the language will be able to understand that.
There is no need of it in the case of traffic signals and road markings.
4. Pattern: It is normally used in the application of road markings, complementing traffic signs.
Generally solid, double solid and dotted lines are used. Each pattern conveys different type of
meaning. The frequent and consistent use of pattern to convey information is recommended so that
the drivers get accustomed to the different types of markings and can instantly recognize them.

1.4 Types of Traffic Signs

There is several hundreds of traffic signs available covering wide variety of traffic
situations. They can be classified into three main categories.
1. Regulatory signs: These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road
users.
2. Warning signs: These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the drivers
to obey these signs.
3. Informative signs: These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities available
ahead, and the route and distance to reach the specific destinations
In addition special type of traffic sign namely work zone signs are also available. These
type of signs are used to give warning to the road users when some construction work is going on
the road. They are placed only for short duration and will be removed soon after the work is over
and when the road is brought back to its normal condition. The first three signs will be discussed
in detail below.

1.4.1 Regulatory signs

These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must
obey these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal
action against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These
signs have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red
borders. The regulatory signs can be further classified into :
1. Right of way series: These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to the selected
approaches of an intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign For example, when
one minor road and major road meets at an intersection, preference should be given to the vehicles
passing through the major road. Hence the give way sign board will be placed on the minor road
to inform the driver on the minor road that he should give way for the vehicles on the major road.
In case two major roads are meeting, then the traffic engineer decides based on the traffic on which
approach the sign board has to be placed. Stop sign is another example of regulatory signs that
comes in right of way series which requires the driver to stop the vehicle at the stop line.
2. Speed series: Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on the road.
They include typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc. Speed limit signs
are placed to limit the speed of the vehicle to a particular speed for many reasons. Separate truck
speed limits are applied on high speed roadways where heavy commercial vehicles must be limited
to slower speeds than passenger cars for safety reasons. Minimum speed limits are applied on high
speed roads like expressways, freeways etc. where safety is again a predominant reason. Very slow
vehicles may present hazard to themselves and other vehicles also.
3. Movement series: They contain a number of signs that affect specific vehicle maneuvers. These
include turn signs, alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc. Turn signs include turn
prohibitions and lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the
movements which all vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to safely accommodate
turns in unsignalized intersections.
4. Parking series: They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions or
restrictions, but also indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be parked,
duration for parking etc.
5. Pedestrian series: They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant for the
safety of pedestrians and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian crossing sites
etc.
6. Miscellaneous: Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are: a "KEEP OF
MEDIAN" sign, signs indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous cargo
or substances, signs indicating vehicle weight limitations etc.
Some examples of the regulatory signs are shown in figure 1:1. They include a stop sign,
give way sign, signs for no entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit
sign, speed limit sign etc.

1.4.2 Warning signs

Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advice the driver to obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety of
drivers. They call for extra vigilance from the part of drivers. The color convention used for this
type of signs is that the legend will be black in color with a white background. The shape used is
upward triangular or diamond shape with red borders. Some of the examples for this type of signs
are given in fig 1:2 and includes right hand curve sign board, signs
for narrow road, sign indicating railway track ahead etc.
Figure 1:1: Examples of regulatory signs ( stop sign, give way sign, signs for no entry, sign
indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign)

Figure 1.2: Examples of cautionary signs ( right hand curve sign board, signs for narrow road,
sign indicating railway track ahead)

1.4.3 Informative signs

Informative signs also called guide signs, are provided to assist the drivers to reach their
desired destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the
place. The guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.
Some of the examples for these type of signs are route markers, destination signs, mile
posts, service information, recreational and cultural interest area signing etc. Route markers are
used to identify numbered highways. They have designs that are distinctive and unique. They are
written black letters on yellow background. Destination signs are used to indicate the direction to
the critical destination points, and to mark important intersections. Distances in kilometers are
sometimes marked to the right side of the destination. They are, in general, rectangular with the
long dimension in the horizontal direction. They are color coded as white letters with green
background.
Mile posts are provided to inform the driver about the progress along a route to reach his
destination. Service guide signs give information to the driver regarding various services such as
food, fuel, medical assistance etc. They are written with white letters on blue background.
Information on historic, recreational and other cultural area is given on white letters with brown
background. In the figure 36:3 we can see some examples for informative signs which include
route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service centre information etc..

Figure 1:3: Examples of informative signs (route markers, destination signs, mile posts, service
centre information etc)
2. ROAD MARKINGS
2.1 Overview
The essential purpose of road markings is to guide and control traffic on a highway. They
supplement the function of traffic signs. The markings serve as a psychological barrier and signify
the delineation of traffic path and its lateral clearance from traffic hazards for the safe movement
of traffic. Hence they are very important to ensure the safe, smooth and harmonious flow of traffic.
Various types of road markings like longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings
and special markings to warn the driver about the hazardous locations in the road etc. will be
discussed in detail in this chapter.

2.2 Classification of road markings

The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or other devices, except signs, set
into applied or attached to the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to the
carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and informing the users. The road markings are
classified as longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings, word messages,
marking for parking’s, marking at hazardous locations etc.

2.3 Longitudinal markings

Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic on the roadway surface, for
the purpose of indicating to the driver, his proper position on the roadway. Some of the guiding
principles in longitudinal markings are also discussed below.
Longitudinal markings are provided for separating traffic flow in the same direction and
the predominant color used is white. Yellow color is used to separate the traffic flow in opposite
direction and also to separate the pavement edges. The lines can be either broken, solid or double
solid. Broken lines are permissive in character and allows crossing with discretion, if traffic
situation permits. Solid lines are restrictive in character and does not allow crossing except for
entry or exit from a side road or premises or to avoid a stationary obstruction. Double solid lines
indicate severity in restrictions and should not be crossed except in case of emergency. There can
also be a combination of solid and broken lines. In such a case, a solid line may be crossed with
discretion, if the broken line of the combination is nearer to the direction of travel. Vehicles from
the opposite directions are not permitted to cross the line. Different types of longitudinal markings
are centre line, traffic lanes, no passing zone, warning lines, border or edge lines, bus lane
markings, cycle lane markings.

2.3.1 Centre line

Centre line separates the opposing streams of traffic and facilitates their movements.
Usually no centre line is provided for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having more
than four lanes. The centre line may be marked with either single broken line, single solid line,
double broken line, or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic requirements. On
urban roads with less than four lanes, the centre line may be single broken line segments of 3 m
long and 150 mm wide. The broken lines are placed with 4.5 m gaps (figure 2:1). On curves and
near intersections, gap shall be reduced to 3 metres. On undivided urban roads with at least two
traffic lanes in each direction, the centre line marking may be a single solid line of 150 mm wide
as in figure 2:2, or double solid line of 100 mm wide separated by a space of 100 mm as shown in
figure 2:3. The centre barrier line marking for four lane road is shown in figure 2:4.
2.3.2 Traffic lane lines
The subdivision of wide carriageways into separate lanes on either side of the carriage way
helps the driver to go straight and also curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At
intersections, these traffic lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates turning movements.
Thus traffic lane markings help in increasing the capacity of the road in addition ensuring more
safety. The traffic lane lines are normally single broken lines of 100 mm width. Some examples
are shown in figure 2:5 and figure 2:6.

2.3.3 No passing zones

No passing zones are established on summit curves, horizontal curves, and on two lane and
three lane highways where overtaking maneuvers are prohibited because of low sight distance. It
may be marked by a solid yellow line along the centre or a double yellow line. In the case of a
double yellow line, the left hand element may be a solid barrier line, the right hand may be a either
a broken line or a solid line. These solid lines are also called barrier lines. When a solid line is to
the right of the broken line, the passing restriction shall apply only to the
Figure 2:7: Barrier line marking for a four lane road Figure 2:8: No passing zone marking at horizontal curves
2.3.4 Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction approaches. They are marked on
horizontal and vertical curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria specified for
no overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6 m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven
line segments should be provided. A typical example is shown in figure 2:9

Figure 2:9: Warning line marking for a two lane road

2.3.5 Edge lines
Edge lines indicate edges of rural roads which have no kerbs to delineate the limits upto
which the driver can safely venture. They should be at least 150 mm from the actual edge of the
pavement. They are painted in yellow or white. All the lines should be preferably light reective,
so that they will be visible during night also. Improved night visibility may also be obtained by the
use of minute glass beads embedded in the pavement marking materials to produce a retroreective
surface.

2.4 Transverse markings

Transverse markings are marked across the direction of traffic. They are marked at
intersections etc. The site conditions play a very important role. The type of road marking for a
particular intersection depends on several variables such as speed characteristics of traffic,
availability of space etc. Stop line markings, markings for pedestrian crossing, direction arrows,
etc. are some of the markings on approaches to intersections.

2.4.1 Stop line

Stop line indicates the position beyond which the vehicles should not proceed when
required stopping by control devices like signals or by traffic police. They should be placed either
parallel to the intersecting roadway or at right angles to the direction of approaching vehicles. An
example for a stop line marking is shown in figure 2:10.

Figure 2:10: Stop line marking near an intersection

2.4.2 Pedestrian crossings

Pedestrian crossings are provided at places where the conflict between vehicular and
pedestrian traffic is severe. The site should be selected that there is less inconvenience to the
pedestrians and also the vehicles are not interrupted too much. At intersections, the pedestrian
crossings should be preceded by a stop line at a distance of 2 to 3m for unsignalized intersections
and at a distance of one metre for signalized intersections. Most commonly used pattern for
pedestrian crossing is Zebra crossing consisting of equally spaced white strips of 500 mm wide. A
typical example of an intersection illustrating pedestrian crossings is shown in figure 2:11.

Figure 2:11: Pedestrian marking near an intersection

2.4.3 Directional arrows
In addition to the warning lines on approaching lanes, directional arrows should be used to
guide the drivers in advance over the correct lane to be taken while approaching busy intersections.
Because of the low angle at which the markings are viewed by the drivers, the arrows should be
elongated in the direction of traffic for adequate visibility. The dimensions of these arrows are also
very important. A typical example of a directional arrow is shown in figure 2:12.

Figure 2:12: Directional arrow marking

2.5 Object marking

Physical obstructions in a carriageway like traffic island or obstructions near carriageway
like signal posts, pier etc. cause serious hazard to the flow of traffic and should be adequately
marked. They may be marked on the objects adjacent to the carriageway.

2.5.1 Objects within the carriageway

The obstructions within the carriageway such as traffic islands, raised medians, etc. may
be marked by not less than _ve alternate black and yellow stripes. The stripes should slope forward
at an angle of 45_ with respect to the direction of traffic. These stripes shall be uniform and should
not be less than 100 m wide so as to provide sufficient visibility.

2.5.2 Objects adjacent to carriageway

Sometimes objects adjacent to the carriageway may pose some obstructions to the flow of
traffic. Objects such as subway piers and abutments, culvert head walls etc. are some examples for
such obstructions. They should be marked with alternate black and white stripes at a forward angle
of 45_ with respect to the direction of traffic. Poles close to the carriageway should be painted in
alternate black and white up to a height of 1.25 m above the road level. Other objects such as guard
stones, drums, guard rails etc. where chances of vehicles hitting them are only when vehicle runs
o_ the carriageway should be painted in solid white. Kerbs of all islands located in the line of
traffic flow shall be painted with either alternating black and white stripes of 500 mm wide or
chequered black and white stripes of same width. The object marking for central pier and side
walls of an underpass is illustrated in figure 2:13.
 Figure 2:13: Marking for objects adjacent to the road way

2.6 Word messages

Information to guide, regulate, or warn the road user may also be conveyed by inscription
of word message on road surface. Characters for word messages are usually capital letters. The
legends should be as brief as possible and shall not consist of more than three words for any
message. Word messages require more and important time to read and comprehend than other road
markings. Therefore, only few and important ones are usually adopted. Some of the examples of
word messages are STOP, SLOW, SCHOOL, RIGHT TUN ONLY etc. The character of a road
message is also elongated so that driver looking at the road surface at a low angle can also read
them easily. The dimensioning of a typical alphabet is shown in figure 2:14.

Figure 2:14: Typical dimension of the character T used in road marking

2.7 Parking
The marking of the parking space limits on urban roads promotes more efficient use of the
parking spaces and tends to prevent encroachment on places like bus stops, _re hydrant zones etc.
where parking is undesirable. Such parking space limitations should be indicated with markings
that are solid white lines 100 mm wide. Words TAXI, CARS, SCOOTERS etc. may also be written
if the parking area is specific for any particular type of vehicle. To indicate parking restriction,
kerb or carriage way marking of continuous yellow line 100 mm wide covering the top of kerb or
carriageway close to it may be used.

2.8 Hazardous location

 Wherever there is a change in the width of the road, or any hazardous location in the road,
the driver should be warned about this situation with the help of suitable road markings. Road
markings showing the width transition in the carriageway should be of 100 mm width. Converging
lines shall be 150 mm wide and shall have a taper length of not less than twenty times the offset
distance. Typical carriageway markings showing transition from wider to narrower sections and
vice-versa is shown in figure 2:15. In the figure, the driver is warned about the position of the pier
through proper road markings.

Figure 2:14: Approach marking for obstructions on the road way

3.SIGNAL WARRANTS
In deciding if a traffic signal will be an asset instead of a liability, Traffic Engineers
evaluate nationally accepted warrants for traffic signals, both part of the State of California Traffic
Manual and the Federal Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. The installation of a traffic
signal should be considered if one or more of the warrants in the referenced manuals are met
including:

Minimum traffic flows for signal installation

S.no Type of area Average hourly flow in V.P.H. to exceed

Total entering Intersection Contribution from side roads
1 Large urban area 500 150
2 Suburban and 400 125
small urban areas
3 Elsewhere 300 100

3.1Minimum Vehicular Volumes

Is the volume of vehicles entering an intersection creating confusion or congestion?
The traffic volume on the major street and higher volume minor streets for each of any 8 hours of
an average day should be equal to the values
Minimum vehicular volume
S.no No. of lanes on each approach Veh/hr on Major Veh/hr on Minor
Major street Minor street street(both street(one
approaches) direction only)
1 1 1 650 200
2 2 or more 1 800 200
3 2 or more 2 or more 800 250
4 1 2 or more 650 250

3.2Interruption of Continuous Traffic

Is the vehicle volume on the main street so heavy that drivers on the side street will try to
cross when it is not safe?

Interruption of Continuous Traffic

S.no No.of lanes on each approch Veh/hr on Major Veh/hr on Minor
Major street Minor street street(both street(one
approaches) direction only)
1 1 1 1000 100
2 2 or more 1 1200 100
3 2 or more 2 or more 1200 150
4 1 2 or more 1000 150

3.3Minimum Pedestrian Volume

Is the number of pedestrians trying to cross a busy main street creating confusion,
congestion or hazardous conditions?
• On the major street, 600 or more vehicles per hour enter the intersection(both
approaches) or where there is raised median island 1.2 m or more in width, 1000 or more
vehicles per hour (both directions) enter the intersection
• During the same 8 hr as in (i) above, there are 150 or more pedestrians per hr on the
highest volume cross walk crossing the major street

3.4 School Crossing

Does the number of school children crossing a street require special control for their protection?
If so, is a traffic signal the best solution?

3.5Progression Movement
Will the installation of a traffic signal allow for continuous, uniform traffic flow with a
minimum number of vehicle stops?

3.6Accident Experience
Does the intersection's accident history indicate that a traffic signal will reduce the
possibility of a collision?
 • Adequate trail of less restorative remedies with satisfactory observance and enforcement
have failed to reduce the accident frequency.
• Five or more reported accidents, of types susceptible of correction by traffic signal control
have occurred within a period of 12 months, each accident involving personal injury
property damage to an apparent extent of Rs.2000 or more
• The signal installation will not seriously disrupt traffic flow

3.7System Warrant
will the installation of the traffic signal negatively impact the traffic flow on the
existing network?

3.8Peak Hour Delay Warrant

Is the traffic conditions at the intersection during the peak hour causing the minor street
traffic to suffer undue delays in entering or crossing the major street?

3.9Peak Hour Volume Warrant

Is the vehicle volume during the peak hour at a level that the minor street traffic suffers
undue delays in entering or crossing the major street?
The decision to install a traffic signal should not be based solely upon the warrants, since the
installation of a traffic signal may increase certain types of collisions, and increase delays to
pedestrians, bicyclists and drivers who use the intersection.

4.TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN

4.1 Overview
The conflicts arising from movements of traffic in different directions is solved by time
sharing of the principle. The advantage of traffic signal includes an orderly movement of traffic,
an increased capacity of the intersection and requires only simple geometric design. However the
disadvantages of the signalized intersection are it affects larger stopped delays, and the design
requires complex considerations. Although the overall delay may be lesser than a rotary for a high
volume, a user is more concerned about the stopped delay.

4.2 Definitions and notations

A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are
discussed below:
➢ Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
➢ Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full
cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of green for one
approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
➢ Interval: Thus it indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow
time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
Clearance interval is also called all red is included after each yellow interval indicating a
 period during which all signal faces show red and is used for clearing o_ the vehicles in
the intersection.
➢ Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
and is denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned
on.
➢ Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
➢ Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It
allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set
of movements start.
➢ Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the
driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue will take some time to perceive the
signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost here before he moves.

Figure 4:1: Four legged intersection

4.3 Phase design

The signal design procedure involves six major steps. They include the (1) phase design,
(2) determination of amber time and clearance time, (3) determination of cycle length, (4)
apportioning of green time, (5) pedestrian crossing requirements, and (6) the performance
evaluation of the above design. The objective of phase design is to separate the conflicting
movements in an intersection into various phases, so that movements in a phase should have no
conflicts. If all the movements are to be separated with no conflicts, then a large number of phases
are required. In such a situation, the objective is to design phases with minimum conflicts or with
less severe conflicts.
There is no precise methodology for the design of phases. This is often guided by the
geometry of the intersection; flow pattern especially the turning movements, the relative
magnitudes of flow. Therefore, a trial and error procedure is often adopted. However, phase design
is very important because it affects the further design steps. Further, it is easier to change the cycle
time and green time when flow pattern changes, where as a drastic change in the flow pattern may
cause considerable confusion to the drivers. To illustrate various phase plan options, consider a
four legged intersection with through traffic and right turns. Left turn is ignored. See figure 4:1.
The first issue is to decide how many phases are required. It is possible to have two, three, four or
even more number of phases.

4.3.1 Two phase signals

Two phase system is usually adopted if through traffic is significant compared to the
turning movements. For example in figure 4:2, non-conflicting through traffic 3 and 4 are grouped
in a single phase and non-conflicting through traffic 1 and 2 are grouped in the second phase.
However, in the first phase flow 7 and 8 offer some conflicts and are called permitted right turns.
Needless to say that such phasing is possible only if the turning movements are relatively low. On
the other hand, if the turning movements are significant, then a four phase system is usually
adopted.

Figure 4:2: Two phase signal

4.3.2 Four phase signals

There are at least three possible phasing options. For example, figure 41:3 shows the most
simple and trivial phase plan. Where, flow from each approach is put into a single phase avoiding
all conflicts. This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the turning movements
are comparable with through movements and when through traffic and turning traffic need to share
same lane. This phase plan could be very inefficient when turning movements are relatively low.
Figure 41:4 shows a second possible phase plan option where opposing through traffic are
put into same phase. The non-conflicting right turn flows 7 and 8 are grouped into a third phase.
Similarly flows 5 and 6 are grouped into fourth phase. This type of phasing is very efficient when
the intersection geometry permits to have at least one lane for each movement, and the through
traffic volume is significantly high. Figure 41:5 shows yet another phase plan. However, this is
rarely used in practice.
There are five phase signals, six phase signals etc. They are normally provided if the
intersection control is adaptive, that is, the signal phases and timing adapt to the real time traffic
conditions.

Fig4:3: One way of providing four phase signals Fig 4:4: Second possible way of providing a four phase signal

Figure 4:5: Third possible way of providing a four-phase signal

4.4 Interval design
There are two intervals, namely the change interval and clearance interval, normally
provided in a traffic signal. The change interval or yellow time is provided after green time for
movement. The purpose is to warn a driver approaching the intersection during the end of a green
time about the coming of a red signal. They normally have a value of 3 to 6 seconds.
 The design consideration is that a driver approaching the intersection with design speed
should be able to stop at the stop line of the intersection before the start of red time. Institute of
transportation engineers (ITE) has recommended a methodology for computing the appropriate
length of change interval which is as follows:
y = t +v85/2a + 19:6g (41.1)
Where y is the length of yellow interval in seconds, t is the reaction time of the driver, v85
is the 85th percentile speed of approaching vehicles in m/s, a is the deceleration rate of vehicles in
m=s2, g is the grade of approach expressed as a decimal. Change interval can also be
approximately computed as y = SSD v, where SSD is the stopping sight distance and v is the speed
of the vehicle. The clearance interval is provided after yellow interval and as mentioned earlier, it
is used to clear off the vehicles in the intersection. Clearance interval is optional in a signal design.
It depends on the geometry of the intersection. If the intersection is small, then there is no need of
clearance interval whereas for very large intersections, it may be provided.

4.5 Cycle time

Cycle time is the time taken by a signal to complete one full cycle of iterations. i.e. one
complete rotation through all signal indications. It is denoted by C. The way in which the vehicles
depart from an intersection when the green signal is initiated will be discussed now. Figure 4:6
illustrates a group of N vehicles at a signalized intersection, waiting for the green signal. As the
signal is initiated, the time interval between two vehicles, referred as headway, crossing the curb
line is noted. The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of the green signal and
the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time interval between the first
and the second vehicle crossing the curb line. Successive headways are then plotted as in figure
4:7. The first headway will be relatively longer since it includes the reaction time of the driver and
the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway will be comparatively lower because the
second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with that of the first driver's. After few vehicles,
the headway will become constant. This constant headway which characterizes all headways
beginning with the fourth or fifth vehicle, is defined as the saturation headway, and is denoted as
h. This is the headway that can be achieved by a stable moving platoon of vehicles passing through
a green indication. If every vehicles require h seconds of green time, and if the signal were always
green, then s vehicles/per hour would pass the intersection. Therefore,
s =3600/h (4.2)
Where s is the saturation flow rate in vehicles per hour of green time per lane, h is the saturation
headway in seconds. Vehicles per hour of green time per lane. As noted earlier, the headway will
be more than h particularly for the first few vehicles. The difference between the actual headway
and h for the its vehicle and is denoted as ei shown in figure 4:7. These differences for the first
few vehicles can be added to get start up lost time, l1
Which is given by,
l1 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑒𝑖 (4.3)
The green time required to clear N vehicles can be found out as,
T = l1 + h*N (4.4)
Where T is the time required to clear N vehicles through signal, l1 is the start-up lost time, and h
is the saturation headway in seconds.

Figure 4:6: Group of vehicles at a signalized intersection waiting for green signal

Figure 4:7: Headways departing signal

41.5.1 Effective green time

Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection.
It is the sum of actual green time (Gi) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. This lost
time is the sum of start-up lost time (l1) and clearance lost time (l2) denoted as tL. Thus effective
green time can be written as,
gi = Gi + Yi – tL (4.5)

41.5.2 Lane capacity

The ratio of effective green time to the cycle length ( gi C )is defined as green ratio. We
know that saturation flow rate is the number of vehicles that can be moved in one lane in one hour
assuming the signal to be green always. Then the capacity of a lane can be computed as,
ci = si*gi/C (4.6)
where ci is the capacity of lane in vehicle per hour, si is the saturation flow rate in vehicle per hour
per lane, C is the cycle time in seconds.

Problem
Let the cycle time of an intersection is 60 seconds, the green time for a phase is 27 seconds, and
the corresponding yellow time is 4 seconds. If the saturation headway is 2.4 seconds/vehicle, the
start-up lost time is 2 seconds/phase, and the clearance lost time is 1 second/phase, _nd the capacity
of the movement per lane?
Solution
Total lost time, tL = 2+1 = 3 seconds. From equation e_ective green time, gi = 27+4-3 = 28
seconds. From equation saturation flow rate, si = 3600/h = 3600/2:4 = 1500 veh/hr. Capacity of
the given phase can be found out from equation,Ci = 1500*28/60 = 700 veh/hr/lane.

4.5.3 Critical lane

During any green signal phase, several lanes on one or more approaches are permitted to
move. One of these will have the most intense traffic. Thus it requires more time than any other
lane moving at the same time. If sufficient time is allocated for this lane, then all other lanes will
also be well accommodated. There will be one and only one critical lane in each signal phase. The
volume of this critical lane is called critical lane volume.

4.6 Determination of cycle length

The cycle length or cycle time is the time taken for complete indication of signals in a
cycle. Fixing the cycle length is one of the crucial steps involved in signal design.
If tLi is the start-up lost time for a phase i, then the total start-up lost time per cycle,
𝑁
L=∑𝑖=1 𝑡𝐿 , where N is the number of phases. If start-up lost time is same for all phases, then the
total start-up lost time is L = NtL. If C is the cycle length in seconds, then the number of cycles
per hour = 3600/C The total lost time per hour is the number of cycles per hour times the lost time
per cycle and is = 3600/C :L Substituting as L = NtL, total lost time per hour can be written as =
(3600*N*tl)/C The total effective green time Tg available for the movement in a
hour will be one hour minus the total lost time in an hour. Therefore,

(41.9)
Let the total number of critical lane volume that can be accommodated per hour is given by Vc,
then Vc = Tg/h
Substituting for Tg, from equation 41.9 and si from the maximum sum of critical lane volumes
that can be accommodated within the hour is given by,
 The expression for C can be obtained by rewriting the above equation. The above equation
is based on the assumption that there will be uniform flow of traffic in an hour. To account for the
variation of volume in an hour, a factor called peak hour factor, (PHF) which is the ratio of hourly
volume to the maximum flow rate, is introduced. Another ratio called v/c ratio indicating the
quality of service is also included in the equation.
Incorporating these two factors in the equation for cycle length, the final expression will be,

(4.15)
Highway capacity manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle length which is
a slight modi_cation of the above equation. Accordingly, cycle time C is given by,

(4.16)
where N is the number of phases, L is the lost time per phase, ( V/s )i is the ratio of volume to
saturation flow for phase i, XC is the quality factor called critical V/C ratio where V is the volume
and C is the capacity.

Problem
The traffic flow in an intersection is shown in the figure 4:8. Given start-up lost time is 3
seconds, saturation head way is 2.3 seconds, compute the cycle length for that intersection.
Assume a two-phase signal.

Figure 4:9: One way of providing phases

 Figure 4:10: second way of providing phases
Solution
• If we assign two phases as shown below figure 41:9, then the critical volume for the first
phase which is the maximum of the flows in that phase = 1150 vph. Similarly critical
volume for the second phase =1800 vph. Therefore, total critical volume for the two signal
phases = 1150+1800 = 2950 vph.
• Saturation flow rate for the intersection can be found out from the equation as si = 3600/2:3
= 1565.2 vph. This means, that the intersection can handle only 1565.2 vph. However, the
critical volume is 2950 vph. Hence the critical lane volume should be reduced and one
simple option is to split the major traffic into two lanes. So the resulting phase plan is as
shown in figure (4:10).
• Here we are dividing the lanes in East-West direction into two, the critical volume in the
first phase is 1150 vph and in the second phase it is 900 vph. The total critical volume for
the signal phases is 2050 vph which is again greater than the saturation flow rate and hence
we have to again reduce the critical lane volumes.
• Assigning three lanes in East-West direction, as shown in _gure 41:11, the critical volume
in the first phase is 575 vph and that of the second phase is 600 vph, so that the total critical
lane volume = 575+600 =1175 vph which is lesser than 1565.2 vph.
• Now the cycle time for the signal phases can be computed from equation,

5.3 ACCIDENTS CHARACTREISTICS

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to perceive
traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol,sleep etc.
2. Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst,lighting system .
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting,.
5. Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy
rainfall which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving unsafe.
6. Other causes -improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed
when required etc..

5.4 ACCIDENT STATISTICS

The statistical analysis of accident is carried out periodically at critical locations or road
stretches which will help to arrive at suitable measures to effectively decrease accident rates. It is
the measure (or estimates) of the number and severity of accident. These statistics reports are to
be maintained zone-wise. Accident prone stretches of different roads may be assessed by finding
the accident density per length of the road. The places of accidents are marked on the map and the
points of their clustering (BLACK SPOT) are determined. By statistical study of accident
occurrence at a particular road or location or zone of study for a long period of time it is possible
to predict with reasonable accuracy the probability of accident occurrence per day or relative safety
of different classes of road user in that location. The interpretation of the statistical data is very
important to provide insight to the problem.

5.5 ACCIDENT RECORDING AND ANALYSIS

5.5.1Accident data collection

The accident data collection is the first step in the accident study. The data collection of
the accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are secondary data which
are filed by motorists themselves. The data to be collected should comprise all of these parameters:
1. General - Date, time, and person involved in accident, classification of accident like fatal,
serious, and minor
2. Location - Description and detail of location of accident
3. Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading detail,
vehicular defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics, type of traffic,
traffic density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned)
Which are the main causes of accident?
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and casualty

5.5.2.These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following
purpose. The purposes are as follows:
1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of accident occur.
2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes of accidents.
3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large number of
accidents occurs.
4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident related factors to give insight
into general trends, common casual factors, driver profiles, etc.

5.6 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

The accident data collection involves extensive investigation which involves the following
procedure:
1. Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:
(a) Motorist accident report - It is filed by the involved motorist involved in all
accidents fatal or injurious.
(b) Police accident report - It is filed by the attendant police officer for all accidents at which an
officer is present. This generally includes fatal accidents or mostly accidents involving serious
injury required emergency or hospital treatment or which have incurred heavy property damage.
2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as measurement of skid
marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of final position of vehicles, examination
of condition and functioning of traffic control devices and other road equipments.
3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization and inter- pretation
of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight distance, preparing drawing of after
accident situation, determination of critical and design speed for curves is done.
4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step effort is made to determine from whatever data is
available how the accident occurs from the available data. This involves accident reconstruction
which has been discussed under Section No.7 in details. It is professionally referred as determining
behavioral or mediate causes of accident.
5. Cause Analysis: It is the effort made to determine why the accident occurred from the data
available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies.

5.7 ACCIDENT DATA ANALYSIS

The purpose is to find the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and
roadway. Accident analyses are made to develop information such as:
1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships of accidents to
physical capacities and to psychological test results.
2.Vehicle - Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity, location and extent
of damage related to vehicles.
3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to characteristics of
the roadway and roadway condition and relative values of changes related to roadways.

It is important to compute accident rate which reflect accident involvement by type of

highway. These rates provide a means of comparing the relative safety of different highway and
street system and traffic controls. Another is accident involvement by the type of drivers and
vehicles associated with accidents.

1. Accident Rate per Kilometer :

On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents of all types per km
of each highway and street classification.
R =A/L
where, R = total accident rate per km for one year, A = total number of accident occur- ring in
one year, L = length of control section in kms
2. Accident involvement Rate :
It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain characteristics who were involved
in accidents per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel.
R =N × 100000000/V
Where = accident involvement per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel, N = total number of drivers
of vehicles involved in accidents during the period of investigation and V =
Vehicle-kms of travel on road section during the period of investigation

3. Death rate based on population :

The traffic hazard to life in a community is expressed as the number of traffic fatalities per
100,000 populations. This rate ref++lects the accident exposure for entire area.
R =B × 100000/P
where, R = death rate per 100,000 population, B = total number of traffic death in one year and P
= population of area

4.Death rate based on registration :

The traffic hazard to life in a community can also be expressed as the number of traffic
fatalities per 10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire
area and is similar to death rate based on population.
R =B × 10000/M
where, R = death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered, B = total number of traffic death
in one year and M = number of motor vehicles registered in the area

5. Accident Rate based on vehicle-kms of travel :

The accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents per 100 million vehicle km
of travel. The true exposure to accident is nearly approximated by the miles of travel of
the motor vehicle than the population or registration.
R =C × 100000000/V
where, R = accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel, C = number of total
accidents in one year and V = vehicle kms of travel in one year

42.5.4 SAFETY AUDIT

It is the procedure of assessment of the safety measures employed for the road. It has the
advantages like proper planning and decision from beforehand ensures minimization of future
accidents, the long term cost associated with planning is also reduced and enables all kinds of users
to perceive clearly how to use it safely. Safety audit takes place in five stages as suggested
by Wrisberg and Nilsson, 1996. Five Stages of Safety Audit are:

1. Feasibility Stage - The starting point for the design is determined such as number and type of
intersection, relationship of the new scheme to the existing road, the relevant design standards.
2. Draft Stage - In this stage horizontal and vertical alignment, junction layout are deter- mined.
After the completion of this stage decision about land acquisition is taken.
3. Detailed design stage - Signing, marking, and lighting, other roadside equipment and land-
scaping are determined.
4. Pre-opening stage - Before opening a new or modified road should be driven, walked or cycled.
It should be done at different condition like bad weather, darkness.
5. Monitoring of the road in use - Assessment is done at the final stage after the road has been in
operation for few months to determine whether the utilization is obtained as intended and whether
any adjustment to the design are required in the light of the actual behavior of road users. An
example of safety audit is discussed below.
Road reconstruction safety audit
To estimate the effectiveness of improvement of dangerous section the number of accidents
before and after is compared. To do this Chi Square test is used to check whether the experimental
data meet the allowable deviation from the theoretical analysis. In the simplest case one group of
data before and after road reconstruction is considered.

where, t1 and t2 = period of time before and after reconstruction of a stretch of road for
which statistical data of accident is available, n1 and n2 = corresponding numbers of accident,
X2 norm = minimum values of Chi Square at which probability of deviation of laws of accident
occurrence after reconstruction P from the laws existing before reconstruction does not exceed
permissible values (usually 5%) The relationship between P and X2
norm is shown in Table. 42:2.

Numerical example
Before reconstruction of an at-grade intersection, there were 20 accidents during 5 years.
After reconstruction there were 4 accidents during 2 years. Determine the effectiveness of the
reconstruction.
Solution: Using Chi square test, we have (with P = 5 %)
Thus the statistical data available are not yet sufficient for considering with probability of 95 %
that the relative reduction in number of accident is due to intersection reconstruction. Assuming
one more accident occurs next year.

Therefore additional analysis confirms that the reduction in accident is due to road
reconstruction.

The Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) is a core Federal-aid program with the purpose to achieve a
significant reduction in traffic fatalities and serious injuries on all public roads, including non-State-owned roads
and roads on tribal land. The HSIP requires a data-driven, strategic approach to improving highway safety on
all public roads with a focus on performance.

The HSIP is legislated under Section 148 of Title 23, United States Code (23 U.S.C. 148) and regulated under
Part 924 of Title 23, Code of Federal Regulations (23 CFR Part 924). The HSIP consists of three main
components, the Strategic Highway Safety Plan (SHSP), State HSIP or program of highway safety
improvement projects and the Railway-Highway Crossing Program (RHCP), In addition, some states also have
a High Risk Rural Roads (HRRR) program if they had increasing fatality rate on rural roads. Click here to view
a short video about the HSIP.

Additional information on each of these program components can be found by clicking the links at the left or the
icons below.

6.VEHICLE ACTUATED SIGNALS

6.1 Introduction
Now-a-days, controlling traffic congestion relies on having an efficient and well-managed
traffic signal control policy. Traffic signals operate in either pre-timed or actuated mode or some
combination of the two. Pre-timed control consists of a series of intervals that are fixed in duration.
They repeat a preset constant cycle. In contrast to pre-timed signals, actuated signals have the
capability to respond to the presence of vehicles or pedestrians at the intersection. Actuated control
consists of intervals that are called and extended in responseto vehicle detectors. The controllers
are capable of not only varying the cycle length & green times in response to detector actuation,
but of altering the order and sequence of phases. Adaptive or area traffic control systems (ATCS)
belong to the latest generation of signalized intersection control. ATCS continuously detect
vehicular traffic volume, compute optimal signal timings based on this detected volume and
simultaneously implement them. Reacting to these volume variations generally results in reduced
delays, shorter queues and decreased travel times. Coordinating traffic signals along a single route
so that vehicles get progressive green signal at each junction is another important aspect of ATCS.
In the subsequent pages, the operating principles and features of Vehicle-Actuated Signals & Area
Traffic Control Systems will be briefly discussed.

6.2 Basic Principles

 As stated earlier, Vehicle-Actuated Signals require actuation by a vehicle on one or more
approaches in order for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced. They are equipped with
detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the demands placed on them. Vehicle-
actuated control uses information on current demands and operations, obtained from detectors
within the intersection, to alter one or more aspects of the signal timing on a cycle-by-cycle basis.
Timing of the signals is controlled by traffic demand. Actuated controllers may be programmed to
accommodate:
• Variable phase sequences (e.g., optional protected LT phases)
• Variable green times for each phase
• Variable cycle length, caused by variable green times
Such variability allows the signal to allocate green time based on current demands and operations.
A proper clearance interval between the green & the red phases is also ensured.
6.3 Advantages of Actuated Signals
The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below:
• They can reduce delay (if properly timed).
• They are adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow.
• Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time).
• Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions.
• Especially effective at multiple phase intersections.
6.4 Disadvantages of Actuated Signals
The main disadvantages are as following :
• If traffic demand pattern is very regular, the extra benefit of adding local actuation is
minimal, perhaps non-existent.
• Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pre-timed signal installation.
• Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pre-timed controllers, increasing
maintenance costs.
• They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.

6.5 Types of Actuated Control

There are three basic types of actuated control, each using signal controllers that are
somewhat different in their design:
1. Semi-Actuated Control
2. Full-Actuated Control
3. Volume-Density Control
6.5.1 Semi-Actuated Control
This type of controller is used at intersections where a major street having relatively
uniform flow is crossed by a minor street with low volumes. Detectors are placed only on the
minor street. The green is on the major street at all times unless a call on the side street is noted.
The number and duration of side-street green is limited by the signal timing and can be restricted
to times that do not interfere with progressive signal-timing patterns along the major street.
6.5.2 Full-Actuated Control
This type of controller is used at the intersections of streets or roads with relatively equal
volumes, but where the traffic distribution is varying. In full actuated operation, all lanes of all
approaches are monitored by detectors. The phase sequence, green allocations, and cycle length
are all subjected to variation. This form of control is effective for both two-phase and multi phase
operations and can accommodate optional phases.
6.6 Detection for Actuated Signalization
The various types of detectors used for detection of vehicles are as following:
• Inductive loop detectors
• Magnetometer detectors
• Magnetic detectors
• Pressure-sensitive detectors
• Radar detectors
• Sonic detectors
• Microloop detectors etc.
The vast majority of actuated signal installations use inductive loops for detection purpose.
Now, the type of detection is of greater importance than the specific detection device(s) used.
There are two types of detection that influence the design and timing of actuated controllers:
1. Passage or Point Detection:- In this type of detection, only the fact that the detector has been
disturbed is noted. The detector is installed at a point even though the detector unit itself may
involve a short length. It is the most common form of detection.
2. Presence or Area Detection:- In this type of detection, a significant length (or area) of an
approach lane is included in the detection zone. Entries and exits of vehicles into and out of the
detection zone are remembered. Thus, the number of vehicles stored in the detection zone is
known. It is provided by using a long induction loop, or a series of point detectors. These are
generally used in conjunction with volume-density controllers.

7.AREA TRAFFIC CONTROL

7.1 Introduction
ATC systems are intelligent real-time dynamic traffic control systems which are designed
to effectively respond to rapid variations in dynamic traffic conditions. It is an advanced process
to control the traffic. It is a traffic responsive system that use data from vehicle detectors and
optimize traffic signal time in real time. The timing plan of traffic controllers changed
automatically. The technique employs digital computers for achieving the desired objective.
7.2 Basic principles
The basic system Originally, it was assumed that the power of the digital computer could
be used to control many traffic signals from one location, allowing the development of control
plans. The basic concept can be summarized thus: the computer sends out signals along one or
more arterial. There is no feedback of information from detectors in the field, and the traffic signal
plans are not responsive to actual traffic conditions. Earlier, the plans for such a system are
developed based on the engineers usage of data from field studies to generate plans either by hand,
or by computer, using packages available at the time. The computer solutions were then run on
another machine, or in off hours on the control computer when it was not being used for control
of the traffic signals. Though this “off-line” system of control plans gives an image of a deficient
system, there are many advantages of this “limited” system. These include:

Figure 1: Computer control system with detector information used

1. Ability to update signals from a Central Location: The ability to retime signals from a central
location without having to send people along an entire arterial to retime the signals individually at
each intersection saves lot of time.
2. Ability to have multiple plans and special plans: In many localities a three-dial controller is
quite sufficient: if traffic is generally regular, three basic plans (A.M. peak, P.M. peak,off-peak)
can meet the needs. The computer opens the possibility to have an N-dial controller, with special
plans stored for certain days. With appropriate plans stored for each such event, the plans can be
called up by time of day, or by operator intervention.
3. Information on equipment failures: The early systems simply took control of electromechanical
controllers, driving the cam-shaft from the central computer and receiving
a confirmation signal. Failure to receive this signal meant trouble. The information provided by
the control computer allowed such failures to be detected and repair crews dispatched.
4. Performance data on contractor or service personnel: With a failure detected and notification
made, the system can log the arrival of the crew and/or the time at which the intersection is returned
to active service.
Collection of traffic data The ability of a computer to receive great amount of data and process
it is made use of by detectors in the field for sending information back to the central location. If
the information is not being used in an “online” setting and hence still does not influence the
current plan selection. Typically, the computer is being used as the tool for the collection of
permanent or long-term count data.
Traffic data used for plan selection Fig. 1 shows a computer control system that actually uses
the traffic data to aid in plan selection. This can be done in one of three principal ways:
1. Use library - Monitor deviations from expected pattern: This concept uses a time-of-day
approach, looking up in a library both the expected traffic pattern and the preselected plan matched
to the pattern. The actual traffic pattern can be compared to the expected, and if a deviation occurs,
the computer can then look through its library for a closer match and use the appropriate plan.
2. Use library - Match plan to pattern: This is a variation on the first concept, with the observed
pattern being matched to the most appropriate pre-stored pattern and the corresponding plan being
used.
3. Develop plan on-line: This concept depends on the ability to do the necessary computations
within a deadline either as a background task or on a companion computer dedicated to such a
computations. This approach presumes an advantage to tailoring the control plan to specific traffic
data.
It is necessary to note that the time between plan updates is constrained by the speed with
which the on-line plan computations can be done. The desire to have more frequent updates
implicitly assumes that the real traffic situation can be known precisely enough to differentiate
between consecutive update periods.
7.3 Advantages
The various Advantages of an area traffic control system are
• Minimizing journey time for vehicles- Are traffic control system minimize the overall journey
time by reducing the no of stop delays, increasing the average travel speed etc.
• Reducing accidents- Are traffic control system reduces the no of accident by reducing the
congestion as congestion is less the traffic flow will be smooth so accident also will be less.
• Increasing average saving in fuel- As we discussed above that it will minimize the journey
time, accident, congestion, stop delays so we can easily say that average saving in fuel will increase
and traffic flow also will be safe and smooth.

7.4 Disadvantages
The various disadvantages of an area traffic control system are
• Very costly- Area traffic control is a very advanced traffic control strategy it involve very
advanced technology and highly skilled persons to operate the system to control the traffic which
makes it very costly.
• Very complex- Area traffic control system is a very big system which includes many unites in it
like Vehicle Detectors, Intersection Controller, Communication Network, Application Software,
Central (Regional) Control System. These unit is use to perform different-different task for the
system. These unit and task make it very complex.
 Figure 2: Example of Vehicle Detectors (Source Muralidharan, 2006)
• Suitable only for lane following traffic- In area traffic control system we use vehicle detector
to collect the data to find the actual flow and to get signal timing according to the present condition
of traffic. These vehicle detectors detect the vehicle on the basis of lane. For example we are
collecting data for tow lane road then the detectors will able to detect the vehicle which will come
from their respective lane and the vehicle which is using space other than these two lanes cannot
be detected. So data will not be accurate. So we can say that it will give best result only for lane
following traffic.

7.5 Major Building Blocks of ATC

Major Building blocks of the Area Traffic Control Systems are: Vehicle Detectors,
Intersection Controller, Communication Network, Application Software and Central (Regional)
Control System which are described below:
7.5.1 Vehicle Detectors (VD)
Vehicle Detectors is used to detect the presence of vehicles, to collect data to find average speed,
vehicle flow, vehicle density, queue length measurement. VD acts as a nodal point between vehicle
and intersection controller. Detector could be of various types example ultrasonic, microwave
radar, infrared laser radar, non-imaging passive infrared, video imaging, acoustic array, magnetic
loop Inductive loop vehicle detector is commonly used. Fig. 2 is showing example of Vehicle
Detectors. In Fig. 2 two detectors are shown, 1 is for straight going traffic which will detect the
vehicle which will go straight and 2 is right turning traffic which will detect the vehicle which will
take right turn from there.

Figure 3: Communication Network (Source: Muralidharan, 2006)

7.5.2 Intersection Controller
It is the micro-macro computer. It placed at intersection for temporary storage of data. It collects
the data from vehicle detector and sends it to the central control. Central control processed the data
and sends it back to the intersection controller which then implements the signal timings as
instructed at the intersection. Intersection controller for each set of traffic signals receives the
signal states from the control system.
7.5.3 Communication Network
The communication network transfers data from the signal controller, to the central control
station where optimized signal timings and phases are determined and it again transfers
information to the signal controller as per the data processed. It transfers the data obtained from
detectors to central control which then implements the signal timings as instructed at the
intersection. Fig. 3 is showing the communication network.
7.5.4 Application Software
Application software is the software used behind the whole ATC system which performs
the entire task. It is a large and complex program involving multiple systems, various procedures
for implementation. Functions of Application software are: It defines the architecture flows,
activities and functions and user services that planners want to deliver.
7.5.5 Central Control System
It is the main unit of ATC. In this unit collected traffic data is processed to optimize various
traffic parameters like-signal timing, phase change, delay Important and major task of ATC system
is performed by this unit. It supervises all the units of ATC.

Figure 4: Area traffic control architecture (Source: Pitu B. Mirchandani, K. Larry Head,1998)

7.6 Architecture of (ATC)

Fig. 4 is showing the arrangement of whole area traffic control system with all units of the
system. These unites will be use for different-different task in the system. It could we described in
three stages. At first stage estimation of is done, it is done based on the slow varying characteristics
of the network traffic load in terms of vehicle per hour than according to this estimated ATCS
allow to allocate green time for each different demand for each phase. At the middle stage traffic
characteristic are measured in terms of platoons of vehicle and their speeds and at last stage
intersection controller select the suitable phase change based on observed and predicted arrivals
of individual vehicle at each intersection.

7.7 Operational models

An operating model is the abstract representation of how an System operates across process. Any
system is a complex system consisting of several different interlinked logical components. An
operating model breaks this complexity into its logical components in order to deliver better value.
Some examples of operational models are SCOOT, SCAT and OPAC which are described below.
7.7.1 SCOOT (Split Cycle Offset Optimization Technique)
The Split Cycle Offset Optimization Technique (SCOOT) is an urban traffic control system
developed by the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) in collaboration with the UK traffic
systems industry. It is an adaptive system which responds automatically to traffic fluctuations.
Prime objective of this is to minimize the sum of the average queues in the area. It is an elastic
coordination plan that can be stretched or shrunk to match the latest traffic situation. Continuously
measures traffic volumes on all approaches of intersections in the network and changes the signal
timings to minimize a Performance Index (PI) which is a composite measure of delay, queue length
and stops in the network. Each SCOOT cell is able to control up to 60 junctions. Handling input
data up to 256 vehicle counting detectors on street. Detectors are usually positioned 14 m behind
the stop line.7.7
7.7.1.1 Principles of SCOOT
1. Cycle Flow Profiles (CFP) measure in real time
2. Update an on-line model of queues continuously
3. Incremental optimization of signal settings
1. Cyclic Flow Profiles (CFP)
CFP is a measure of the average one-way flow of vehicles passed at any point on the road
during each part of the cycle time of the upstream signal. It records the platoon of vehicles
successively within a cycle time during peak flow. It updated in every 4 seconds. CFPs can be
measured easily by hand. Shape of the CFP has to be calculated for each one-way flow along all
streets in the area. Accuracy of calculation depends on the accuracy of the data on average Flows,
saturation flows, and cruise times.
2. Queue Estimation
It is necessary to predict new signal timing due to the queues after alteration according to
the situation after knowing CFP, the computer can be programmed to estimate no of vehicles which
will reach the downstream signals during red phase. So size of the queue and duration to clear the
queue can be calculated. In this calculation it is assumed that the traffic platoons travel at a known
cruising speed with some dispersion. Queues discharge during the green time at a saturation flow
rate that is known and constant for each signal stop line.
3. Incremental Optimization
 Incremental Optimization is done to measure the coordination plan that it is able to respond
to new traffic situations in a series of frequent, but small, increments. It is necessary because
research shows that prediction of traffic flow is very difficult for next few minutes. SCOOT split
optimizer calculates whether it is good to advance or retard the scheduled change by up to 4 s, or
to leave it unaltered. It is achieved by split optimization, offset optimization, cycle time.

Figure 5: Key elements of the SCOOT ATC system (Source: Dennis I. Robertson and R.David
Bretherton 1991)

(a) Split Optimizer

Works at every change of stage by analyzing the current red and green timings to determine
whether the stage change time should be advanced, retarded or remain the same. Works in
increments of 1 to 4 seconds.
(b) Cycle Time Optimizer
It operates on a region basis once every five minutes, or every two and a half minutes.
Identifies the “critical node” within the region and will attempt to adjust the cycle time to maintain
this node with 90% link saturation on each stage. It can increase or decrease the cycle time in 4, 8
or 16 second increments according to the current requirement of the traffic flow.
(c) Offset Optimizer
It works once per cycle for each node. It operates by analyzing the current situation at each
node using the cyclic flow profiles predicted for each of the links with upstream or downstream
nodes. It assesses whether the existing action time should be advanced, retarded or remains the
same in 4 second increments. Fig. 5 is showing the key elements of the SCOOT ATC system which
we described in above points.
7.7.1.2 Working Principle of SCOOT
Scoot system consists of a number of SCOOT cells or computers, each cell can control up
to 60 junctions and handling input data from up to 256 vehicle counting detectors on street.
SCOOT detectors are placed at 14 m from the stop-line, from the approach to the junction as
possible. Fig. 6 clearly shows the working principle of SCOOT where the detectors placed
upstream sense the occupancy and the information is transmitted to the central computer. SCOOT
traffic model and optimizers use this information to calculate signal timings to achieve the best
overall compromise for coordination along all links in the SCOOT area. The main aim of the
SCOOT traffic signal control system is to react to changes in observed average traffic demands by
making frequent, but small, adjustments to the signal cycle time, green allocation, and offset of
every controlled intersection. For each coordinated area, the system evaluates every 5 minutes, or
2.5 minutes if appropriate, whether the common cycle time in operation at all intersections within
the area should be changed to keep the degree of saturation of the most heavily loaded intersection
at or below 90%. In normal operation SCOOT estimates whether any advantage is to be gained by
altering the timings. Fig. 6 is showing the working principle of SCOOT. From above fig we can
have an idea that vehicle will be detected with the help of vehicle detector. The collected data will
be send to intersection controller after that it will be send to the central controller with the help of
communication network. There it will be use to estimate the signal timing according to the actual
traffic flow needs. Then the central controller will send the signal timing to the intersection
controller to implement.

Figure 6: Working Principle of SCOOT (Source: www.scoot-utc.com)

7.7.1.3 Features of SCOOT

1. Variable Message Signs
Scoot display message signs to convey the guidance to the driver which is very helpful for the
drive.
2. Diversions
This feature is provided to deal with any emergency situation for example if any problem is found
out in any lane which is found out with the help of Fault Identification & Management unit then
traffic will be diverted from that lane to another lane.

3. Emergency Green Wave Routes

This feature is provided to deal with any hazardous situation.
4. Fixed Time Plan
This plan is applied when any unit of ATCS stopped working so till the time that unit starts
functioning.

7.7.1.4 Limitations
1. Inability to handle closely spaced signals due to its particular detection configuration
requirements, its require some time to detect vehicle.
2. Interface is difficult to handle, as this is highly technical so difficult to understand and handle.
3. Traffic terminologies are different from those used in India.
4. Primarily designed to react to long-term, slow variations in traffic demand, and not to short-
term random fluctuations.

7.7.2 SCAT (Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic)

SCAT (Sydney Co-ordinated Adaptive Traffic Control) System was developed by the
Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) of New South Wales, Australia in the late 1970s. It is
automated, real time, traffic responsive signal control strategy. Timing of signals is governed by
computer-based control logic. It has ability to modify signal timings on a cycle-by-cycle basis
using traffic flow information collected at the intersection approach stop lines. It is not model
based but has a library of plans that it selects from and therefore banks extensively on available
traffic data.
7.7.2.1 Working Principle
The system is very flexible, powerful, expandable, and yields unprecedented monitoring
and management possibilities. The total system is divided into intersection, regional and a central
system management. Distribution of the regional computers is determined by the economics of
communication. Each regional computer maintains autonomous control of its region. Input data is
collected by a system of traffic sensors. Sensors may be inductive loop detectors embedded in the
pavement or video image devices mounted overhead on the signal strain poles. The system is
designed to auto calibrate itself according to the data received, to minimize the need for manual
calibration and adjustment. Fig. 7 shows the SCAT Computer Hierarchy.
 Figure 7: Shows the SCAT Computer Hierarchy (Source: Lowrie, 1982)

7.7.2.2 It supports four modes of operations

1. Normal Mode- Provide integrated traffic responsive operation
2. Fall-Back Mode- Implement the time plans when computer or communication failure occurs
3. Isolated Control Mode- vehicle actuation with isolated control works
4. Fourth mode- signal display flashing yellow or red at all approaches
7.7.2.3 Benefits of SCAT
1. Travel time and accident reduction, saving in fuel consumption, and reduces air pollution.
2. It replaces the manual collection of data which are required for road Planning.
3. It provides a greater volume of original data with good accuracy level.
7.7.2.4 Limitations
1. Lacks user-friendly interface features to support day-to-day operations & programming tasks.
2. The error messages are not easy to read & do not provide the opportunity for corrective actions
by system operators.
3. It is expensive because it includes advanced technology which is expensive and to understand
and operate this type of technology person should have very good knowledge.
7.7.3 OPAC (Optimized Policies for Adaptive Control)
It is developed by Parsons Brinkerhoff Farradyne Inc. and the University of Massachusetts at
Lowell jointly. It is a distributed traffic signal control strategy. The network is divided into sub
networks, which are considered independently for optimization purpose. OPAC breaks between
two models: one for congested networks and the other for uncongested networks.
7.7.3.1 Feature of OPAC
1. Signal timing is calculated by dynamic optimization algorithm to minimize total intersection
delay and stop.
2. Algorithm uses measured and modeled demand to determine phase distribution at each signal
that are constrained by minimum and maximum green time.
7.7.3.2 Principles behind development of OPAC strategy
1. It must provide better performance than off line methods
2. It should be totally demand responsive. It means to adapt to actual fluctuating traffic condition
3. It must not be restricted to any fixed control period (e.g. 10 min)
7.7.3.3 Limitation
1. It is based on the pseudo dynamic programming technique, so it finds result near to optimal but
not exactly optimal.
2. Its performance varies with traffic saturation condition. Better in under saturated traffic
conditions.
3. It is expensive because it includes advanced technology which is expensive and to understand
and operate this type of technology person should have very good knowledge.

8.WEBSTER’S METHOD OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN

 • It has been found from studies that the average delay and the overall delay to the vehicles
at a signalized intersection very with the signal cycle length.
• The average delay per vehicle is high when the cycle length is very less, as a sizable
proportion of vehicles may not get cleared during the first cycle and may spill over to
subsequent cycles.
• As the signal cycle time is increased, the average delay per vehicle decreases up to a certain
minimum value and thereafter the delay starts increasing, indicating that there is an
‘optimum signal cycle time’ corresponding to least overall delay.
• The optimum cycle time depends on the geometric details of the intersection and the
volume of traffic approaching the intersection from all the approach roads during the design
hour.
• Webster’s method of traffic signal design is an analytical approach of determining the
optimum signal cycle time, corresponding to minimum total delay to all the vehicles at the
approach roads of the intersection.
• The field work consists of determining the following two sets of values on each approach
road near the intersection:
(i) the normal flow, q on each approach during the design hour and
(ii) the ‘saturation flow’, S per unit time.
• The normal flow values, and on roads 1 and 2 are determined from field studies conducted
during the design hour or the traffic during peak 15 – minutes period.
• The saturation flow of vehicles is determined from careful field studies by noting the
number of vehicles in the stream of compact flow during the green phases and the
corresponding time intervals precisely.
• In the absence of data the approximate value of saturation flow is estimated assuming 160
PCU per 0.3 meter width of the approach road.
• Based on the selected values of normal flow, the ratio and are determined on the approach
roads 1 and 2.
• In the case of mixed traffic, it is necessary to covert the different vehicle classes in terms
of suitable PCU values at signalized intersection;
• In case these are not available they may be determined separately.
• The normal flow of traffic on the approach roads may also be determined by conducting
field studies during off – peak hours to be design different sets of signal timings during
other periods of the day also, as required so as to provide different signal settings.
The optimum signal cycle is given by relation

Where
L = total lost time per cycle, sec = 2n + R
n = is the number of phases
R = all – red time or red-amber time; (all-red time may also be provided for pedestrian crossing)
Here,

Then,
Similar procedure is followed when there are more number of signal phases. Design of traffic
signal timings by Webster’s method is illustrated in Example 1

Example - 1
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design period are 400 and 250
PCU per hour; the saturation flow values on these roads are estimated as 1250 and 1000 PCU per
hour respectively. The all-red time required for pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. Design two phase
traffic signal with pedestrian crossing by Webster’s method.

Solution
Given: normal flow on roads A & B: qa=400PCU/hr and qb=250PCU/hr Saturation flow,
Sa=1250 and PCU/hr Sb=100 PCU/hr; all – red time, R=12 sec number of phase, n = 2

Provide an all-red time, R for pedestrian crossing = 12 sec

Providing Amber times of 2.0 sec each for clearance, total cycle time
= 29 + 22.5 + 12 + 2 + 2 = 67.5 sec.
Note:
A sketch of a phase diagram as shown in Fig. 5.28 or Fir. 5.30 with the Signal phase and cycle
timings obtained in the above example may be drawn, if needed.

9.DESIGN METHOD AS PER IRC GUIDELINES

• The pedestrian green time required for the major roads are calculated based on walking
Speed of 1.2 m/sec and initial walk time of 7.0 sec.
• These are the minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on the minor and major
roads respectively.
• The green time required for the vehicular traffic on the major road is increased in
proportion to the traffic on the two approach roads.
• The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2.0 sec each.
 • The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving during a cycle is
determined for each lane of the approach road assuming that the first vehicle will take 6.0
sec
• The subsequent vehicles or the PCU of the queue will be cleared at a rate of 2.0 sec.
• The minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on any of the approaches is
limited to 16 sec.
• The optimum signal cycle time is calculated using Webster’s formula (explained in
method, given above).
• The saturation flow values may be assumed as 1850, 1890, 1950, 2250, 2550 and 2990
PCU per hour for the approach roadway widths (kerb to median or centre line) of 3.0,
4.0,4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 m.
• For widths above 5.5 m, the saturation flow may be assumed as 525 PCU per hour per
meter width.
• The lost time is calculated from the amber time, inter-green time and the initial delay of
4.0 sec for the first vehicle, on each leg.
• The signal cycle time and the phases may be revised keeping in view the green time
required for clearing the vehicles and the optimum cycle length determined it steps (d) and
(e) above. The design method is illustrated in Example – 3

Example - 3
At a right angled intersection of two roads, Road 1 has four lanes with a total width of 12.0 m and
Road 2 has two lanes with a total width of 6.6m. The volume of traffic approaching the intersection
during design hour are 900 and 743 PCU/hour on the two approaches of Road-1 and 278 and 180
PCU/hour on the two approaches of Road-2. Design the signal timings as per IRC guidelines.
Solution
Given: Width of road – 1 = 12.0 m or total 4 lanes, with 2 lanes in each direction;
Width of road - 2 = 6.6 m or total 2 lanes, with one lane in each direction.
Approach volumes on road – 1 = 900 & 743 PCU/hr
On road - 2 = 278 & 180 PCU/hr
Pedestrian walking speed = 1.2 m/sec.
Design traffic on road - 1 = higher of the two approach volume per lane
= 900/2 = 450 PCU/hr
Design traffic on road – 2 = 278 PCU/hr
Step – 1. Pedestrian crossing time

Step – 2, Minimum green time for traffic

Step – 3, revised green time for traffic signals
Adding 2.0 sec each towards clearance amber and 2.0 sec inter-green period for each
phase, total cycle time required = (2 + 17 + 2) + (2 + 27.5 + 2) = 52.5 sec.
Signal cycle time may be conveniently set in multiples of five sec and so the cycle time = 55 sec.
The extra time of 55.0 – 52.5 = 2.5 sec per cycle may be apportioned to the green times of Road –
1 and Road – 2, as 1.5 and 1.0 sec respectively.

Step – 4, check for clearing the vehicles arrived during the green phase
Vehicle arrivals per lane per cycle on Road – 1 = 450/55=8.2 PCU/cycle
Minimum green time required per cycle to clear vehicles on Road – 1 = 6 + (8.2 – 1.0)2 =
20.4 sec (less than 29.0 sec and therefore accepted)
Vehicle arrivals per lane per cycle on Road – 2 = 278/55 = 5.1 PCU/cycle
Minimum green time for clearing vehicles on Road – 2 = 6 + (5.1 - 1.0) 2
= 14.2 sec(less than 18.0 sec)
As the green time already provided for the two roads by pedestrian crossing criteria in
Step (2) above are higher than these values (29.0 and 18.0 sec), the above design values are alright.
Step – 5, check for optimum signal cycle by Webster’s equation
Lost time per cycle = (amber time + inter – green time + time lost for initial delay of first vehicle)
for two phases = (2 + 2 + 4) x 2 = 16 sec.
Saturation flow for Road – 1 of width 6 m = 525 x 6 = 3150 PCU/hr
Saturation flow for Road – 2 of width 3.3 m =1850 PCU for 3.0 m wide road + ( 40 * 3/5)
= 1874 PCU/hr

Therefore the cycle time of 55 sec designed earlier is acceptable. The details of the signal timings
are given below.
These may also be shown in the form of phase diagram as in Fig. 5.30.

9.CO-ORDINATED CONTROL OF SIGNALS

Co-ordinated signal system
Co-ordinated signal system on a road net-work of an area is a very complex problem.
 Area traffic control system with co-ordinated signal network is to be implemented with the help
of advanced technology.
Need for co-ordinated control
Need for co-ordinated control of signals arises on a main traffic route when it is desirable to
reduce delays and avoid main traffic from having to stop at every junction.
When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a junction, a queue of vehicles is formed behind the
stop line.
When the signal changes to green, the vehicles start moving in a platoon.
If this platoon is made to meet a green aspect at the next junction no delay is caused to the
vehicles.
This principle of linking adjacent signals so as to secure maximum benefits to the flow of traffic
is called co-ordinated control of signals.
The co-ordination of signals is bought for with the following objectives in view:
(i) To pass the maximum amount of traffic without enforced halts.
(ii) To have minimum overall delay to traffic streams, both in the main and side roads.
(iii) To prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from extending and reaching the next
intersection.
9.1 TYPES OF CO-ORDINATED SIGNAL SYSTEM
The four basic types of co-ordinated signal systems are:
(i) Simultaneous system, also known as synchronized system
(ii) Alternate system, or limited progressive system
(iii) Simple progressive system
(iv) Flexible progressive system

9.1.1 SIMULTANEOUS SYSTEM

Under this system, all the signals along a given street always display the same indication to the
same traffic stream at the same time.
The division of the cycle time is the same at all intersections.
A master controller is employed to keep the series of signals in step.

The disadvantages of a simultaneous system are:

(i) It is not conductive to give continuous movement of all vehicles.
(ii) The overall speed is often reduced.
(iii) Because the division of the cycle time is the same at all the intersections, inefficiency is
inevitable at some intersection.
(v) The simultaneous stoppage of a continuous line of traffic at all intersections often results in
difficulty for the side street vehicles in turning into or crossing the main side street.

9.1.2ALTERNATE SYSTEM (LIMITED PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM)

 Under this system, consecutive signal installations along a given road show contrary indications
at the same time.
This permits the vehicles to travels one block in half the cycle time.
This system operates efficiency where the blocks are of equal lengths.
It also brings about a certain measure of speed control since speeding drivers are stopped at each
signal.
Some of the disadvantages of this system are:
(i) The green times for both the main and side streets have to be substantially equal,
resulting inefficiency at most of the intersections.
(ii) In situations where the block lengths are unequal, the system is not well suited.
Adjustments are difficult for changing traffic conditions.

9.1.3SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM

In ‘simple progressive system’ a time schedule is made to permit, as nearly as possible, a
continuous operation of groups of vehicles along the main road at a reasonable pre-decided speed.
The signals controlling green phases of the traffic signals along this road are scheduled to work
at the predetermined time schedule.
Though each signal unit may work as fixed time signals, they have equal signal cycle length
and are interlinked so as to operate with the required time off-sets.
The principle of this simple progressive system is that if a group of vehicles get released during
the green phase at a signalized intersection of the main road, by the time the first vehicle of this
vehicle group travelling at the recommended speed reaches the next junction, the green phase of
this signal would just get started to allow non-stop movement to the next intersection.
The non-stop movement for a platoon of vehicles may thus be arranged for the desired number
of intersections on the selected road stretch.
Draw back
However on urban roads the traffic volume at each intersection may very considerably; the
number of intersecting roads may also very at different junctions.
Therefore practically it may not be always possible to provide equal signal cycles at all the
intersections along the selected stretch of the main road and so the simple progressive system may
not function effectively.
9.1.4 FLEXIBLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM
It is possible to automatically vary the length of signal cycle and signal phase at each signalized
intersection with the help of sensors to detect vehicle arrival and connecting to a master computer.
This is the most efficient system of all the four types of traffic signal system.
This system can function satisfactorily on selected stretches of urban roads with divided
carriageway or on roads with one-way traffic.
This system is an improvement over the simple progressive system with the following
provisions.
(i) It is possible to vary the cycle time and division at each signal depending upon traffic.
(ii) It is possible to vary the offset, thus enabling two or more completely different plans.
(iii) It is possible to introduce flashing or shut down during off-peak hours
 UNIT-IV
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
1.AIR POLLUTION
In recent years there has been a growing concern about the rapidly deteriorating
environment in the urban areas of this country in terms of air, water, and noise pollution.
Automobile transportation has been found to be a significant factor in the deterioration of the
urban environment, particularly in regard to air pollution. In general, considering the total
tonnage of pollutants in urban areas, about 60 percent is attributed to motor vehicles. In the last
several years measures have been taken by the federal, state, and local governments to curb air
pollution. The Clean Air Act of 1970 authorized the federal government to promulgate air
quality standards and to require states to adopt implementation plans in meeting these standards.
As automobile transportation is closely associated with the problem of urban air pollution, a
major part of the strategies for the improvement of air quality is related to this source of
pollution.
A great effort has been made to reduce pollution emitted by the automobile by requiring
new automobiles to be fitted with air pollution control devices. In addition, a significant part of
air pollution control strategy can be achieved through effective traffic engineering measures.
Consequently, it is important that a traffic engineering decision be made not only on the basis of
cost savings, increased safety, and improved traffic performance, but also on such aspects as
reduced energy requirements and improved quality of environment. In this paper a brief
discussion is presented on the overall considerations of air pollution as they relate to traffic
planning and engineering.

1.1 TYPES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution associated with automobile transportation consists mainly of carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, lead corn pounds, suspended particulates and some
sulphur oxides. The proportion of each of these pollutants is presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Motor vehicles pollutants in the U.S(in million tons/year)

Carbon monoxide 66
Hydrocarbons 12
Lead compounds 0.2
Oxides of nitrogen 6
Sulfur oxide 1
Particulates 1
 Carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless gas which is readily absorbed into the
bloodstream forming a carboxy hemoglobin complex and ultimately acts as a chemical
asphyxiant to the human body. Inorganic lead can be ingested into the lung via suspended
particles since lead particulate matter is of the order of 2.0/x in diameter. Inorganic lead can
damage the liver, kidneys, gatstrointestinal tract, brain, and cause abnormalities in fertility and
pregnancy. Fortunately, most of the lead that is absorbed into the human body is excreted in the
urine. Sulphur dioxide causes surface damage to the upper respiratory tract and reduces gas
transfer in the alveolar sac region.
The oxidants resulting from the reaction of hydrocarbons with nitrogen oxides cause
many adverse effects including damaging crops and plants, and irritating eyes, throat, and lungs.
The total suspended particulates are the pollutants that soil: people, clothes, cars, homes, offices,
and stores.
1.2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGY
Table 2 lists automobile-related air pollution sources along with the percentage of each of
the pollutants that are attributed to these sources. It should be noted that these figures present
information for those vehicles which are not fitted with any pollution control devices. As it can
be seen, automobile exhaust is responsible for most of the air pollutants emitted from an
automobile. Accordingly, the new automobiles have been required to be fitted with pollution
control devices to reduce the pollution level at the source,

However, some of the control measures have proved to be counterproductive in the sense
that although they have reduced some of the pollutants, they have, at the same time, caused an
increase in other pollutants and in addition created public health hazards. One example of such a
control measure is the requirement to install catalytic converters. Furthermore, it should be
pointed out that air pollution control devices have significantly affected the energy efficiency of
automobiles.
With the growing concern about the energy situation, it becomes imperative that a
desirable air pollution control strategy should be one which would reduce the level of pollution
without seriously affecting the energy efficiency of automobiles. It is not a question of only clean
air or only high gasoline mileage, but the objective is to achieve both in a “satisficing” manner.
In this connection it is also important to recognize that the cost per automobile increases very
sharply if auto emission control at a level higher than 80 percent is desired. This situation is
illustrated in Figure 1.
Under circumstances where the effective control of automobile air pollution immediately
at the source is not technologically or economically feasible, the emphasis should be placed on
an improved traffic management program or better traffic planning and design. This will also
include control of land use so that the indirect sources that attract automobile traffic in large
numbers, and contribute to the degradation of the air quality of an area, can be regulated. The
Environmental Protection Agency recognizes the importance of traffic management programs as
well as the necessity of controlling indirect sources as a part of the solution of the urban air
pollution problem, and in accordance with the Clean Air Act, measures have been or are being
taken to accomplish this objective. Before the measures related to traffic planning and design are
discussed, a brief review of the air pollution
1.4 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS AND LEVEL OF AIR POLLUTION
The level of air pollution in an area due to the automobile and its cumulative effects is
dependent upon various factors including the land use and background concentration of
pollutants; the type of street network alignment; the location, height, and arrangement of
buildings in relation to the street network; the wind speed and direction ; the weather and
climate, and others. As far as the traffic factors are concerned, the volume, speed, the vehicle
mix in the traffic stream, as well as the type of vehicle operation are the important elements. The
amount of pollutants at a given speed of traffic stream increases in direct proportion to the
volume. The carbon monoxide concentrations near an urban arterial at various levels of volume-
capacity ratio are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the level of carbon monoxide
concentration increases as the traffic level of service decreases.
The emission from automobile exhaust varies with speed. The exhaust emission values for an
average speed of approximately 19.6 mph are presented in Table 3. These values can be adjusted
for different average speeds of traffic by using Figure 3. The emission factors for crankcase and
evaporative hydrocarbons, particulates, and sulfur oxides are shown as average values and they
can be considered independent of speed.
 Again, considering the type of vehicle operation, the carbon monoxide emission during
the period of idling of an automobile is considerably higher than at any other operational modes.
Figure 4 shows the variations in emissions during different modes of operation as a vehicle
travels from one stoplight to another. It can be seen that the carbon monoxide emission level is
by far the highest during the idling time. This indicates that the level of carbon monoxide
emission is at its worst in a stop-and-go situation. Consequently, an effective traffic management
program would attempt to minimize the need for such vehicle operations.
1.5 EMISSIONS FROM PARKING FACILITIES
One feature of a complete air quality maintenance plan would involve the determination
of whether or not a large, indirect source of pollution would adversely affect the ambient air
quality standards. A parking facility is an indirect source attracting mobile vehicle sources,
thereby resulting in high levels of localized emissions. As a parking facility is an important part
of a traffic system, it is necessary that the pollution characteristics of these facilities are
examined.

The emissions from parking facilities will depend upon the following three sources: a)
line source which includes the traffic flow on streets in the immediate vicinity, b) area source
which involves emissions arising from overall activity within a facility, and c) background
concentration. Highest concentrations of carbon monoxide occur near exit/entrance gates of a
parking lot, at nearby intersection approaches, or in the vicinity of access roads. In a
metropolitan area the air quality of a parking lot is highly influenced by the background
concentration. In many cases, the background pollutants in such areas dominate the parking lot
pollution level irrespective of the extent of traffic activity within the lot.

1.6 TRAFFIC PLANNING AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

Both long-range and short-term programs can be undertaken to improve significantly the
air quality in urban areas. Long-range planning actions involving proper arrangement of land
uses will ensure desirable allocation of urban activities. Within the framework of area wide land-
use planning, effective measures can be taken in laying out streets and buildings properly so that
the air pollution effects can be minimized. Long-range, land-use-transportation planning will
also make it possible to develop transportation systems in which the amount of vehicular travel
as well as the lengths of trips can be reduced considerably and thus limit air pollution effects.
In addition to long-range programs, which can be applied only in case of new developments,
several short-term and intermediate-range traffic engineering related actions can be undertaken
in existing urban areas in order to improve the air quality. These actions can be divided into two
broad groups. One group of actions involves the measures which would improve the quality of
traffic flow in an urban street networks. The other group of actions is associated with the
measures which would attempt to reduce the amount of vehicular traffic in urban areas.

1.7 TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING TRAFFIC FLOW

In Figure 4, it is shown that the carbon monoxide emission during idling is relatively very
high. Consequently, the emission in a stop-and-go operation is significantly higher than that in a
uniform and smooth flow situation. A great reduction in carbon monoxide level in the air of
urban areas can be achieved if the flow of traffic in street networks can be made more smooth
without excessive delay and congestion. It is obvious that a primary objective of a traffic
engineer coincides with this purpose. Therefore, the techniques that can be used to improve air
quality are not different from the techniques that are required to ensure efficient traffic
movement in an urban area.
Some of these techniques are listed in Table 4. The expected effectiveness of each of these
techniques is also presented in the same table, according to a range of one to five with five
representing the most effective action. The effectiveness rating is based on traffic volume
affected, pollution reduction, population exposed to the pollution hazards, and any adverse
pollution impact, such as more or longer trips likely to be induced, or likely to cause traffic
congestion.
1.8 TECHNIQUES FOR REDUCING TRAFFIC IN A NETWORK
In addition to the actions directed to improving the quality of traffic flow in a network
and thus improving the area wide air quality, several actions can be undertaken to reduce the
amount of traffic in an urban street network. In Table 5 is listed a series of actions that can be
performed in order to reduce traffic flow and thus minimize the effect of traffic-generated
emissions. These actions are again ranked in terms of their expected effectiveness in the same
way as the rankings of the measures related to the improvement of traffic flow were derived.
It may be noted that, in general, the actions which are associated with effective regulation are
more likely to accomplish the desired results than the changes in urban transportation pricing
policy or other measures. It is also important to note that the mere improvement of urban transit
operations will not produce any significant effect in the reduction of vehicular traffic in urban
areas and thus these actions are not ranked as high as the other measures.

1.9 BENEFITS OF A TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

The effective implementation of a traffic management program can be of significant
benefit in terms of improved traffic flow and reduced air pollution from automotive emissions. In
Table 6 is presented an example of a traffic management scheme that was undertaken in the
British county borough of Gateshead. It can be noted that the improvement in traffic operations
resulted in an increase in the total vehicle- miles of travel, but at the same time the total vehicle-
hours were decreased indicating increased speed, less delay and congestion, and thus reduced
emission of pollutants.
In recent years attempts have been made to restrict automobile travel in certain parts of various
cities. Table 7 presents the changes observed in carbon monoxide levels for before and after
periods in the restricted areas. It is needless to say that the actual effect of any action will vary
from city to city depending on the particular situation of that city.
2. NOISE POLLUTION
Fast growing vehicle population in town in the recent years, has resulted in considerable
increase in traffic on roads causing alarming noise pollution, air pollution. Noise level increases
with traffic volume in a exponential manner. In India like many other developing countries
traffic noise is major continents of environmental pollution and now it has become a permanent
part of urban and sub-urban life. It is very harmful to human beings. In the new millennium, for
protection environmental degradation it is imperative to pay greater attention towards measuring
noise pollution, enforcing regulation for noise emission limits, elimination and control noise
pollution. Taking a step in this direction a case study was undertaken in MITS Gwalior in post –
graduate M.E. dissertation work. Noise pollution level was measured in Gwalior city and various
parameters determined and the same are briefly presented in this paper.

1.2 NOISE LEVEL PARAMETERS

(i) Unit of noise: The basic unit of noise is decibels. If the amplitude of pressure fluctuationsa is
P the sound level in decibel is given by
L = 10 log [P/Po] db
Where Po = 2*10-5 , N/m2 (amplitude of audible pressure wave)
The overall sound pressure is denoted by dB(A)
(ii) Percentile exceeded sound Level (Lx) decibel.
The noise level exceeded for x per cent of the time is denoted by Lx. The most common noise
exceeded level used is L10 ie noise level exceeding for 10 per cent of time. It is an indication of
the peak level of the intruding noise, where as L90 level is an indicator of the background noise
level.
(iii) Traffic Noise Index (TNI)
It is defined as TNI = 4(L10-L90)+L90 – 30dB(A) This index attempts to make an allowance for
noise variability with respect to L10 level.
(iv) Equivalent (A Weighted ) Sound level (Leq). It is combined index of common measure of
environmental noise. This is the steady noise which in the measurement period would carry the
same energy as the time Le = L50+ (L10-L90)/56
(v) Noise Pollution level (LNP)
It is found that Leq on an energy basis is not sufficient to describe the degree of annoyance
caused by fluctuating noise. A new parameter noise pollution level is given
LNP = Leq + (L10-L90)

1.3 ROAD TRAFFIC NOISE & IT’S EFFECT

Road traffic noise is the most important major source of community noise specially near
an important road with high volume of traffic of any major city. In developing country like India
where Roads are in bad condition, and poorly maintained and has considerable number of
vehicles of outdated technology , the road traffic noise assumes much more importance.
Factors effecting traffic noise. There are various factors that affect the traffic noise.
(i) Type of traffic flow speed, as the traffic flow increase, the noise level increases. Higher
speed also causes higher noise levels. At lower speeds, the influence of engine transmission of
noise is predominant on the other hand at higher speed the tyre surface interaction assumes
importance. Noise level increases during acceleration.
(ii) Tyre-road surface interaction: It is a major generator of noise Grooved cement concrete
pavement is found to be source of annoying noise to neighbour hood.
(iii) Road surface condition: Smooth surface generally produce less noise. Rough surface and
poorly maintained road with pot-holes produce more noise.
(iv) The noise generated by various parts of vehicle: Important Sources are , Engine Inlet
Exhaust , propulsion & transmission including gears, brakes, horns, chasis body structure, Load
in vehicle, door slamming etc. Further as the vehicle grow older and their mechanical condition
deteriorates the noise generated in more.
(v) Motor cycles, scooter, tempos, and minibuses are generally noiser as compared to passenger
cars.
(vi) Large H.P. Diesel engine vehicle, Commercial truck, Tractor-trolly, transport vehicle are the
main source of noise.

Effect of traffic noise This can be classified under following categories:

(a) Subjective effect e.g. annoyance, disturbance, dis-satisfaction and noisiness. It is difficult to
measure this precisely.
(b) Behavioral effect e.g. interference to with sleep, speak or any general task. It can cause
disturbance in enjoyment of T.V. class room studies and other tasks involving mental actives.
(c) Physiological effects: It causes fright phenomena, resulting in harmful effect in various parts
of body periods. At extremely high level and for a long period (e.g. Power station, transformers)
of exposures it may produce deafens Further continuous noise causes cardiovascular effects,
increases blood pressure. & heart rates.

1.4 NOISE LEVEL SURVEY

In Gwalior city noise level survey was undertaken along four roads namely (Site I)
Tansen Road, Jinsi Nala Road, (Site II) Kilagate Road (Site III) and Laxmibai road(Site IV)
Noise level was recorded with the help of a sound level meter at the edge of road for every
interval of 15 Sec. A weighted noise level dB(A) was measured, 120 reading in 30 minutes at
each station during peak hours, Typical reading as observed is shown in Table 1. In this table the
monitoring
 Station, time day, date of noise observation are given, further volume survey was also
carried out all the site. The value of L10, L50 and L90 for each set of observation are obtained
by plotting the graph with sound level in dB(A) on X axis as and cumulative percentage of time
of the observation period for which that sound level is exceed on Y-axis as shown in typical
graph Figure 1 Table 2 gives Noise level interval , No. of occurance, percentage, cumulative
percentage.
 In India like many developing countries the residents of cities are now becoming aware
of environmental problems that result from the transportation facilities in general from road
traffic and in particular from automobiles. Traffic noise is a major factor of environmental
pollution. Noise affects human body in a number of ways ranging from Psychological to
Physiological, e.g. auditory damage, speech interference, sleep interference, general annoyance,
reduces the working efficiency, increases blood pressure & fatigue etc. The paper presents the
survey for measurement of noise on roads, causes of road traffic noise and it effect, evaluation of
important noise level parameters and suitable measures to reduce traffic noise with the help of
study carried out in Gwalior city. For this purpose four sites viz. Industrial, Commercial, Semi-
residential & completely residential areas were selected. It has been observed that all the four
sites under study, noise level has exceeded the acceptable limits laid by Central Pollution Board.
Further it has been observed that poor surface condition of roads and poor vehicle maintenance;
old vehicles are responsible to a considerable extent for higher noise level. Road arboriculture
i.e. planting trees by the side of road & shrubs on road divider help in reducing the noise
pollution, as they act as barrier to the sound propagation.
 UNIT-V
CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE
1. Overview

Capacity and Level of service are two related terms. Capacity analysis tries to give a clear
understanding of how much traffic a given transportation facility can accommodate. Level of
service tries to answer how good the present traffic situation on a given facility is. Thus it gives a
qualitative measure of traffic, where as capacity analysis gives a quantitative measure of a
facility. Capacity and level of service varies with the type of facility, prevailing traffic and road
conditions etc. These concepts are discussed in this chapter.

1.1Capacity

Capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, per unit
time, which can be accommodated under given conditions with a reasonable expectation of
occurrence. Some of the observations that are found from this dentition can be now discussed.
Capacity is independent of the demand. It speaks about the physical amount of vehicles and
passengers a road can a ord. It does not depend on the total number of vehicles demanding
service. On the other hand, it depends on traffic conditions, geometric design of the road etc. For
example, a curved road has lesser capacity compared to a straight road. Capacity is expressed in
terms of units of some specific thing (car, people, etc.), so it also does depend on the traffic
composition. In addition, the capacity analysis depends on the environmental conditions too.
Capacity is a probabilistic measure and it varies with respect to time and position. Hence it is not
always possible to completely derive analytically the capacity. In most cases it is obtained,
through field observations.

1.3 Level of service

A term closely related to capacity and often confused with it is service volume. When
capacity gives a quantitative measure of tra c, level of service or LOS tries to give a qualitative
measure. A service volume is the maximum number of vehicles, passengers, or the like, which
can be accommodated by a given facility or system under given conditions at a given level of
service.
For a given road or facility, capacity could be constant. But actual flow will be different for
different days and different times in a day itself. The intention of LOS is to relate the traffic
service quality to a given flow rate of traffic. It is a term that designates a range of operating
conditions on a particular type of facility. Highway capacity manual (HCM) developed by the
transportation research board of USA provides some procedure to determine level of service. It
divides the quality of traffic into six levels ranging from level A to level F. Level A represents
the best quality of traffic where the driver has the freedom to drive with free flow speed and
level F represents the worst quality of traffic. Level of service is defined based on the measure of
effectiveness or (MOE). Typically three parameters are used under this and they are speed and
travel time, density, and delay. One of the important measures of service quality is the amount of
time spent in travel. Therefore, speed and travel time are considered to be more effective in
defining LOS of a facility. Density gives the proximity of other vehicles in the stream. Since it
affects the ability of drivers to maneuver in the traffic stream, it is also used to describe LOS.
Delay is a term that describes excess or unexpected time spent in travel. Many specific delay
measures are defined and used as MOE's in the highway capacity manual.
1.4 Types of facilities

Most important classification of transportation facilities from the engineering perspective

is based on the continuity of flow that is uninterrupted flow and interrupted flow. Uninterrupted
flow is the flow of traffic in which there is no obstructions to the movement of vehicles along the
road. Freeway is one example for this type of facility. In a freeway, when a vehicle enters a
freeway, there is no need for the vehicle to stop anywhere till it leaves the freeway. There are
three sections in a freeway - basic unit, weaving section and ramps (on/o). Vehicles will be
entering the freeway through ramps. Ramps used for entering the freeway are called on-ramps
and those used for exiting the freeway are called o -ramps. Freeways generally have 4, 6, or 8
lane alignments. Multi lanes also provide uninterrupted flow. HCM defines the levels of service
of freeway sections based on density, as described in tables 1:1and 1:2.

Table 1:1: LOS for a basic freeway segment

LOS K FFS v/c

(veh/km/lane) (Km/hr)

A 0-7 120 0.35

B 7-11 120 0.55

C 11-16 114 0.77

D 16-22 99 0.92

E 22-28 85 1.0

F > 28 < 85 > 1:0

 In many roads, there will be signalized as well as unsignalized intersections. Uninterrupted
flow is possible in sections of rural and suburban multilane highways between signalized
intersections where signal spacing is sufficient to allow for uninterrupted flow. Two lane
highways also provide uninterrupted flow facilities.

Interrupted flow refers to the condition when the traffic flow on the road is obstructed due to
some reasons. This is experienced in signalized intersections, unsignalized intersections, arterials
etc. At signalized intersections, there will be some kind of active control and the vehicle will
have to stop or sometimes to reduce its speed and the flow of traffic is interrupted. Thus the
capacity is defined in terms of control delay i.e. sec/veh. Arterials are roads of long stretches
with many intersections in between and obviously there will be interruption to the flow of traffic.
Here, the capacity is expressed in terms of average travel speed. Some other facilities are
facilities for pedestrians, bicycles, bus-transit, rail-transit etc. Example for pedestrian facility is a
provision of subway exclusively for the use of pedestrians. Here, the capacity may be expressed
in terms of number of passengers. In bus transit system, the buses have to stop at the bus bays
and also it has to share the road with the other vehicles. Hence the capacity will be affected by
the control characteristics and the traffic conditions prevailing in the road. Since trains have
exclusive right of way, the capacity is strictly governed by the control characteristics. It has two
types of capacities - line capacity and station capacity. Line capacity is based on the number of
tracks available between two stations. Station capacity refers to the facilities available in the
platform of the station, and other facilities.

1.2 LOS for an intersection

LOS Control Delay Delay

sec/veh(signalis sec/veh
ed) (unsignalised)

A 10 10
B 10-20 10-15

C 20-35 15-25

D 35-55 25-35

E 55-80 35-50

F > 80 > 50
 For uninterrupted flow of traffic, measure of effectiveness (MOE) is density in freeways.
Speed also becomes important in two-lane highways and multilane highways. In the case of
interrupted flow, MOE is delay. The delay of travel time becomes an important factor in
calculating the capacity.
1.5Highway capacity

Highway capacity is defined by the Highway Capacity Manual as the maximum hourly rate at
which persons or vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or a uniform segment
of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control
conditions. The highway capacity depends on certain conditions as listed below;

1. Traffic conditions: It refers to the traffic composition in the road such as the mix of cars,
trucks, buses etc in the stream. It also include peaking characteristics, proportions of
turning movements at intersections and the like.
2. Road way characteristics: This points out to the geometric characteristics of the road.
These include lane width, shoulder width, lane configuration, horizontal alignment and
vertical alignment.
3. Control conditions: This primarily applies to surface facilities and often refer to the
signals at inter-sections etc.

Again capacity can be defined for a point or uniform section. Capacity is estimated for
segments having uniform conditions. Points where these conditions change represent the
boundaries where separate analysis may be required. Capacity is the maximum flow rate that a
facility cans a ord. This maximum flow rate is taken for the worst 15 minutes of the peak hours
while finding out the capacity. Capacity is measured as a reasonably expected value and not the
maximum flow rate ever observed in the facility. This is because the measured capacity at a
single location will show significant variation from day to day. Further, local driving habits also
produce variations in the observed capacity.

Figure 1:1: Level of service A to F

1.6 Factors affecting level of service

The level of service can be derived from a road under different operating characteristics and
traffic volumes. The factors affecting level of service (LOS) can be listed as follows:
1. Speed and travel time

2. Traffic interruptions/restrictions

3. Freedom to travel with desired speed

4. Driver comfort and convenience

5. Operating cost.

Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) used travel speed and volume by capacity ratio (v/c
ratio) to distinguish between various levels of service. The value of v/c ratio can vary between 0
and 1. Depending upon the travel speed and v/c ratio, HCM has defined six levels of service,
level A to level F based on a graph between operating speed and v/c ratio as shown in the figure
35:1. Level of service A represents the zone of free flow. Here the traffic volume will be less,
traffic will be experiencing free flow also. The drivers will be having the complete freedom to
choose their desired speed. Even at maximum density, for this LOS the average spacing between
vehicles is 167 m. Lane changes within the traffic stream, as well as merging and diverging
movements, are made relatively easy. The effect of minor incidents and point breakdowns are
easily aborted at this level. Level of service B represents zone of reasonably free flow. Free flow
speeds are still maintained at this level of service. The drivers freedom to choose their desired
speed is only slightly restricted. The lowest average spacing between vehicles is about 100 m.
The effects of small incidents and point breakdowns are still easily contained.
At level of service C, the presence of other vehicles begins to restrict the
maneuverability within the traffic stream. Average speeds remain at or near the free flow speed
level, but significant increase in driver vigilance is required at this level. Minimum average
spacing between the vehicles is in the range of 67 m. Queues may be expected to form behind
any significant blockage. At level of service D, the average speeds begin to decline with
increasing flows. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is noticeably restricted. At this
level, density deteriorates more quickly with flow. The spacing between the vehicles is about 50
m. As the traffic stream has little space to absorb disruptions, minor incidents can lead to
queuing of vehicles. Level of service E de ne operation at capacity. At this level, the stream
reaches its maximum density limit. There will be no usable gaps in the stream and even slight
disruptions will cause a breakdown, with queues forming rapidly behind the disruption.
Maneuvering within the traffic stream becomes extremely difficult. Level of service F describes
conditions in a queue that has formed behind a point of breakdown or disruption. As vehicles
shuffle through the queue, there may be periods when they move quickly, and others when they
are stopped completely. Thus this level of service is used to describe the point of breakdown as
well, even though operations downstream of such a breakdown may appear good. Level of
service F represents the region of forced flow, having low speed, and complete breakdown of the
system.
 UNIT-VI
INTELLIGENTVEHICLE/HIGHWAY SYSTEMS
1.1 Introduction
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.” It is interesting that this definition,
taken from the Policies of ITE, focuses on the application of technology and scientific principles
to transportation problems, for this is also the focus of international efforts in the area of
Intelligent Vehicle/ Highway Systems (IVHS).
The essence of IVHS is to make significant improvements in mobility, highway safety,
and productivity by building transportation systems that draw upon advanced electronic
technologies and control software. The term applies to transportation systems that involve
integrated applications of advanced surveillance, communications, computer, display, and
control process technologies, both in the vehicle and on the highway. IVHS will not change the
nature of transportation engineering, but it does hold vast potential for allowing transportation
engineering professionals to improve the services they are providing to the public.
IVHS will also cause reassessment of how these services are provided. The
communication of reliable, accurate information in real time among users, vehicles, and
transportation management centers will require partnership arrangements between the private
and public sectors and among local and state government agencies to plan, design, build, operate,
and maintain the kinds of systems needed.
And while transportation systems planning, design, and operation will always be the
basic functions that transportation engineers perform, skills will also be needed in such areas as
information management, communications technology, control software algorithms, and systems
engineering in order to perform these functions for tomorrow’s systems.

1.2 Role of IVHS in Tomorrow’s Transportation Systems

The strong interest in IVHS has been sparked in large part by the serious congestion
problems facing many metropolitan areas around the world and the dramatic travel increases
predicted for the future. The concept of alleviating congestion through technological means
while preserving individual mobility is very appealing. Interest has also been sparked by the
dramatic improvements in highway safety and commercial vehicle productivity that are possible.
Some of the effects that IVHS could have in each of these areas are described in the following
sections.
1.2.1Operations
The essence of IVHS as it relates to transportation operations will be the improved
ability to manage transportation services as a result of the availability of accurate, real-time
information and to greatly enhance control of traffic flow and individual vehicles.
Decisions that individuals make as to time, mode, and route choices will be influenced
by information that currently is not available, is not available when it is needed, or is incomplete,
inconvenient, or inaccurate. For example, IVHS technology would enable operators to detect
incidents more quickly; to provide information immediately to the public on where the incident
is located, its severity, its effect on traffic flow, and its expected duration; to change traffic
controls to accommodate changes in flow brought about by the incident; and to provide
suggestions on better routes and information on alternative means of transportation. The
information would be provided to people through computer or cable television networks at home
or work site, at transit stops and other transportation terminals, and in the vehicle itself through
both visual displays and audio means. As an example, ride matching information could be
provided in real time; such reliable, timely information would make it easier for travelers to
determine a high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) alternative, and it would improve operation of HOV
modes. The availability of this information would also enable the development of new
transportation control strategies. For example, to obtain recommended routing information,
drivers will have to specify their origins and destinations. Knowledge of origin and destination
information in real time will enable the development of traffic assignment models that will be
able to anticipate when and where congestion will occur. Control strategies that integrate the
operation of freeway ramp metering systems, driver information systems, and arterial traffic
signal control systems and that meter flow into bottleneck areas can be developed to improve
traffic control.
Eventually, perhaps toward the third decade of the 21st century, totally automated
facilities may be built, on which vehicles would be controlled by electronics in the highway. This
would enable vehicles to move along a crowded urban facility at very high speeds and at very
close headways, leading to large increases in capacity. Long-distance travel along interstate
highways could also be made faster, safer, and easier. Until that point is reached, the same kinds
of technologies that would enable total control will be applied to assume partial control (for
example, to assist in maintaining the appropriate headway behind a lead vehicle), potentially
smoothing traffic flow and also leading to capacity increases.

1.2.2 Safety
Whereas many safety measures developed over the years have been aimed at lessening
the consequences of accidents (such as vehicle crashworthiness and forgiving roadside features),
many IVHS functions are directed toward the prevention of accidents. A premise of the
European PROMETHEUS program, for example, is that 50 percent of all rear-end collisions and
accidents at crossroads and some 30 percent of headon collisions could be prevented if the driver
is given another half-second of advance warning and reacts correctly. Over 90 percent of these
accidents could be avoided if drivers take the appropriate countermeasures one second earlier.
IVHS technologies that involve sensing and vehicle-to-vehicle communications will initially be
designed to automatically warn the driver, providing enough lead time for him or her to take
evasive actions. The technologies may also assume some of the control functions that are now
totally the responsibility of drivers, compensating for some of their limitations and enabling them
to operate their vehicles closer together but safer.
Even before these crash-avoidance technologies become available to the public, IVHS
holds promise for improving safety by providing for smoother traffic flow. For example, driver
information systems will provide warnings on incident blockages ahead, which may soften the
shock wave that propagates due to sudden and abrupt decelerations caused by unanticipated
slowdowns. Transportation information systems may also encourage diversion onto other routes
or modes to avoid incidents, leading to shorter queues, fewer abrupt decelerations, and more
rapid return to normal and safer conditions. Navigation systems should serve to reduce excess
travel and erratic maneuvers made by lost drivers, perhaps reducing fatalities by as much as 7
percent.
Potential safety dangers must, however, also be acknowledged. A key issue involves
driver distraction and information overload from the various warning and display devices in the
vehicle. Other issues include dangers resulting from system unreliability (for example, a warning
or driver-aid system that fails to operate) and the incentive for risky driving that IVHS
technologies may provide. These are important research issues that must be addressed before
such systems are widely implemented.
1.2.3 Productivity
The availability of accurate, real-time information will be especially useful to operators
of vehicle fleets, including transit/HOV, emergency, fire, and police services, as well as truck
fleets. Here, quick response is essential. Time lost is lost productivity and money. Operators will
know where their vehicles are and how long a trip can be expected to take; thus, they will be able
to advice on best routes to take and will be able to manage their fleets better.
There is great potential for productivity improvements in the area of regulation of
commercial vehicles. Automating and coordinating regulatory requirements through application
of IVHS technologies can, for example, reduce delays currently incurred at truck weigh stations,
reduce labor costs to the regulators, and minimize the frustration and costs of red tape to long-
distance commercial vehicle operators.
There is also potential to improve coordination among freight transportation modes; as an
example, if the maritime and trucking industries were to use the same electronic container
identifiers, freight handling efficiencies would be greatly improved.

1.3IVHS Categories
As part of the process of planning a national IVHS program in the United States, four
categories have been defined and popularly accepted: Advanced Traffic Management Systems
(ATMS), Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS), Commercial Vehicle Operations
(CVO), and Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS).
1.3.1Advanced ‘Traffic Management Systems
Advanced traffic management systems have six primary characteristics differentiating them from
the typical traffic management system of today:
1. An ATMS works in real time.
2. An ATMS responds to changes in traffic flow. In fact, an ATMS will be one step ahead,
predicting where congestion will occur based on collected origin-destination information.
3. An ATMS includes area wide surveillance and detection systems.
4. An ATMS integrates management of various functions, including transportation information,
demand management, freeway ramp metering, and arterial signal control.
5. An ATMS implies collaborative action on the part of the transportation management agencies
and jurisdictions involved.
6. An ATMS includes rapid response incident management strategies.

Los Angeles’s SMART Corridor project will improve traffic operations on the Santa
Monica Freeway and five major arterials between downtown Los Angeles and the San
Diego Freeway. (Reprinted with permission from Los Angeles County Transportation
Commission.)

To implement these kinds of systems, real-time traffic monitoring and data

management capabilities will have to be developed, including advanced detection technology,
such as image-processing systems, automatic vehicle location and identification techniques, and
the use of vehicles as probes. New traffic models will have to be created, including real-time
dynamic traffic assignment models, real-time traffic simulation models, and corridor
optimization techniques. The applicability of artificial intelligence and expert systems techniques
will have to be assessed, and applications, such as rapid incident detection, congestion
anticipation, and control strategy selection, will have to be developed and tested. Responsive
demand management strategies will have to be evaluated during periods when heavy congestion
is predicted, including such strategies as HOV or transit information databases and incentives,
parking restrictions, and congestion pricing implemented through automated toll collection
systems.

1.3.2Advanced Traveler Information Systems

Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) will provide drivers with
information on congestion and alternate routes, navigation and location, and roadway conditions
through audio and visual means in the vehicle. This information might include incident locations,
location of fog or ice on the roadway, alternate routes, recommended speeds, and lane
restrictions. ATIS will provide information that would assist in trip planning at home, at work,
and by operators of vehicle fleets. ATIS will also provide information on motorist services, such
as restaurants, tourist attractions, and the nearest service stations and truck and rest stops (this
has been called the yellow pages function). ATIS could include on-board displays that replicate
warning or navigational roadside signs when they may be obscured during inclement weather or
when the message should be changed, as when speed limits should be lowered on approaches to
congested freeway segments or fog areas. An automatic Mayday feature may also be
incorporated, which would provide the capability to automatically summon emergency
assistance and provide vehicle location.
A substantial effort is required to define the communications technology, architecture, and
interface standards that will enable two-way, real-time communication between vehicles and a
management center. Possibilities include radio data communications, cellular systems, roadside
beacons used in conjunction with infrared or microwave transmissions or low-powered radio
signals, and satellite communications, Software methods to fuse the information collected at the
management center and format it for effective use by various parties must also be developed.
These parties include commuters, other trip makers, and commercial vehicle operators, both
before they make a trip and while they are en route; operators of transportation management
systems; and police, fire, and emergency response services.
A number of very critical human factors issues must also be investigated. These include
looking at how individuals make travel, mode and routing decisions; accounting for the
requirements and characteristics of special groups, such as commercial vehicle operators and the
elderly; and identifying the critical pieces of information and the best way of conveying them.
The human factors issues also include a critical examination of in-vehicle display methods,
among them: What are the roles of audio messages and in-vehicle displays? Where should visual
displays be located and what technology should be used? What should be shown on visual
displays? Answers to that last question could include directional arrows to guide vehicles
through intersections and interchanges; text messages; electronic maps that display information
on traffic conditions, perhaps using color graphics; and critical roadway signs.
1.3.3 Commercial Vehicle Operations
The application of IVHS technologies holds great promise for improving the
productivity, safety, and regulation of all commercial vehicle operations, including large trucks,
local delivery vans, buses, taxis, and emergency vehicles. Faster dispatching, efficient routing,
and more timely pick-ups and deliveries will be made possible, which will have a direct effect on
the quality and competitiveness of businesses and industries at both the national and the
international level. IVHS technologies can reduce the time spent at weigh stations, improve
hazardous material tracking, reduce labor costs to administer government truck regulations, and
minimize costs to commercial vehicle operators.
IVHS technologies will manifest themselves in numerous ways in commercial vehicle
operations. For example, for long-distance freight operations, onboard computers will not only
monitor the other systems of the vehicle, but could also function to analyze driver fatigue and
provide communications between the vehicle and external sources and recipients of information.
 Applications could include automatic processing of truck regulations (for example, commercial
driver license information, safety inspection data, and fuel tax and registration data), thus
avoiding the need to prepare redundant paperwork and leading to “transparent borders”;
provision of real-time traffic information through advanced traveler information systems; proof
of satisfaction of truck weight laws using weigh-in motion scales, classification devices and
automated vehicle identification transponders; and two-way communication with fleet
dispatchers using automatic vehicle location and tracking and in-vehicle text and map displays.
Regulatory agencies would be able to take advantage of computerized record systems and target
their weighing operations and safety inspections at those trucks that are most likely to be in
violation. Vehicle dynamics systems that warn of impending problems related to vehicle roll may
also prevent many accidents from happening.
Research and development and initial testing of many of these applications have already
been completed. For example, truck drivers are communicating with dispatchers and receiving
route guidance information in real time. The missing links are real-time traffic information to
supplement the route guidance system and ties with state truck regulatory requirements.
Applications of IVHS technologies could also lead to significant improvements in bus
and paratransit operations in urban and rural areas. Dynamic routing and scheduling could be
accomplished through on-board devices, communications with a fleet management center, and
public access to a transportation information system containing information on routes, schedules,
and fares. Automated fare collection systems could also be developed that would enable
extremely flexible and dynamic fare structures and relieve drivers of fare collection duties.

1.3.4 Advanced Vehicle Control Systems

Whereas the other three categories of IVHS primarily serve to make traveling more
efficient by providing more timely and accurate information about transportation, AVCS serves
to greatly improve safety and potentially make dramatic improvements in highway capacity by
providing information about changing conditions in the vehicle’s immediate environment,
sounding warnings, and assuming partial or total control of the vehicle.
Early implementation of AVCS technologies may include a number of systems to aid
with the driving task. These include hazard warning systems that sound an alarm or actuate a
light when a vehicle moves dangerously close to an object, such as when backing up or when
moving into the path of another vehicle when changing lanes. Infrared imaging systems may also
be implemented that enhance driver visibility at night.
AVCS technologies may also include adaptive cruise control and lane keeping systems
that automatically adjust vehicle speed and position within a lane through, for example, radar
systems that detect the position and speed of a lead vehicle, or possibly through electronic
transmitters in the pavement that detect the position of vehicles within the lane and send
messages to a computer in the vehicle that has responsibility for partial control functions.
As technology advances, lanes of traffic may be set aside exclusively for automated
operation, known as platooning highway systems. Small groups of vehicles, perhaps up to 12 per
platoon, will travel together at high speeds, maybe 65 miles per hour with very short headways,
controlled through obstacle detection and automatic speed control and braking systems. These
automated facilities have the potential to greatly increase highway capacity, while at the same
time providing for safer operation. Eventually, AVCS technologies will provide for complete
control of the driving function for vehicles operating on specially equipped freeway facilities.

Roadway electrification may also assist in the recharging of electric vehicle batteries,
enabling small delivery, transit, and other electric vehicles to be easily integrated into an electric
roadway network. Totally automated facilities may also be implemented in high-speed intercity
corridors to make business travel more productive and to ease the burden on tourists.
There is, of course, much research and development work and testing to be done before
these kinds of systems can be built and implemented. Applications involving alternative
technologies will have to be developed and evaluated. Complicated software will have to be
written and tested. Perhaps the most important issues, though, relate to the role of humans in the
system—that is, public acceptability, and how it is likely to affect system effectiveness. Other
human factors issues include driver reaction to partial or full control—whether it will cause them
to lose alertness or to drive more erratically. Another important area of research is the assessment
of AVCS technology performance, reliability, and cost effectiveness. A final important issue is
the effect the threat of liability may have on the willingness of potentially creative and
innovative private developers of AVCS applications to get involved.
1.4Benefits of IVHS
Attempting to quantify the benefits of widely deployed IVHS technologies at this
stage must be similar to what planners of the U.S. interstate highway system tried to do in the
1950s. It is impossible to anticipate all of the ways that applications of IVHS technology may
affect society, just as planners of the interstate highway system could not have anticipated all of
its effects on American society. Recognizing the importance of the issue, however, Mobility
2000, an adhoc coalition of industry, university, and federal, state, and local government
participants who have been meeting to coordinate IVHS activities in the United States, addressed
the potential benefits of applying IVHS technology in the United States. One of the more
interesting findings was that IVHS was not just for urban areas: Numerous benefits were also
predicted for rural areas and for targeted groups, such as elderly and disadvantaged travelers.
Positive benefits were also found in regard to the environment.

Some of the specific findings that were reported include the following:
 Fully deployed ATMS/ATIS combinations can reduce congestion costs in urban areas
from 25 to 40 percent. This was projected from some initial simulation work and
estimates for the Smart Corridor project in Los Angeles.
 It was estimated that the cost of delay in the United States in 1990 was approximately
$100 billion. The value of time saved alone would therefore be at least $25 billion in
1990 and would grow substantially since total travel is expected to increase by about 50
percent by the year 2005.
 Unchecked traffic congestion is the single largest contributor to poor air quality and
wasted fuel consumption. Reductions in traffic congestion will lead to improvements in
these areas.
 By 2010, annual savings of approximately 11,500 lives and $22 billion in accident costs
could be realized based on an analysis that considered safety technology features,
projected market penetrations, and estimated effectiveness in reducing various accident
types.
 By 2020, a similar analysis estimated that annual savings of 33,500 lives and $65 billion
in accident costs could be realized, as advanced vehicle control strategies achieve a large
market penetration.
 Rural areas have the most to gain in relation to safety improvements, since 57 percent of
fatal accidents occur in rural areas where collision speeds are likely to be higher.
 Older and disadvantaged drivers can benefit by having specific devices available to offset
the slowing down of their capabilities; these devices could include infrared imaging,
obstacle detection and warning systems, radar braking and steering override, and onboard
replication of maps and signs.
 Motor carrier productivity can be significantly increased and fuel costs can be decreased
through automated toll collection, the provision of real-time routing information and
 yellow pages services, automated processing of permits and licenses, and on-board
computers that provide information on vehicle performance.

Assuming that the benefits and cost effectiveness are proven and the public exhibits a
willingness to pay for these systems, it is estimated that the U.S. market alone for automotive
electronics will amount to $28 billion annually by the year 2000 and that the U.S. highway
infrastructure costs for these systems would total $30 billion through the year 2010. Thus, there
will be a very substantial international market for IVHS products and services that can be
supplied by the private sector, contributing to economic growth.