SK Duggal Vol 1
SK Duggal Vol 1
SK Duggal Vol 1
volume 1
Fourth edition
About the Author
S K Duggal is currently Professor in the Department of Civil
Engineering at Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
(MNNIT), Allahabad. He obtained his BE, ME and PhD degrees
from Allahabad University. He has an experience of more than
36 years of teaching at both undergraduate and postgraduate
levels. Prof. Duggal has published numerous research papers
in various international and national journals/conferences
and is also the author of Design of Steel Structures, 3e
and Limit State Design of Steel Structures, 1e published by
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
Surveying
volume 1
Fourth edition
S K Duggal
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad
Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources
believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education
(India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use
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should be sought.
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Contents
Preface xv
Visual Walkthrough xviii
Introduction 1
1.1 Definitions 2
1.2 Surveying 4
1.3 Classification of Survey 5
1.4 Practice of Surveying 9
1.5 Surveying—Character of Work 10
1.6 Field Work 10
1.7 Office Work 13
1.8 Errors 19
1.9 Distinction Between Mistake and Error 20
1.10 Distinction between Precision and Accuracy 21
1.11 Principles of Surveying 22
1.12 Units of Measure 23
Summary 24
Exercises 24
Objective-type Questions 25
Answer to Objective-type Questions 28
Introduction 29
2.1 Chain Surveying 30
2.2 Chain 31
2.3 Tape 34
2.4 Accessories for Chaining 34
2.5 Line Ranger 36
2.6 Cross-Staff 37
2.7 Optical Square 38
2.8 Prism Square 40
2.9 Running Survey Lines 40
2.10 Linear Measurement with Chain 43
2.11 Errors in Chaining 48
2.12 Errors in Measurement with Incorrect Chain Length 49
2.13 Linear Measurements with Tape 51
2.14 Tape Corrections 53
2.15 Offsets 58
viii Contents
Introduction 88
3.1 Definitions 89
3.2 Types of Compass 91
3.3 Temporary Adjustments of Compass 95
3.4 Designation of Bearings 96
3.5 Reduced Bearing 97
3.6 Fore Bearing and Back Bearing 97
3.7 Calculation of Included Angles from Bearings 98
3.8 Calculation of Bearings from Included Angles 101
3.9 Magnetic Declination 104
3.10 Dip 107
3.11 Local Attraction 108
3.12 Determining True Meridian 119
3.13 Chain Surveying Versus Compass Surveying 120
Summary 120
Exercises 121
Objective-type Questions 122
Answer to Objective-type Questions 125
Introduction 126
4.1 Classification 127
4.2 Construction Details 128
4.3 Taking out Theodolite From the Box 131
4.4 Placing Theodolite in the Box 131
4.5 Reading a Theodolite 131
4.6 Definitions 132
4.7 Changing Face 133
4.8 Temporary Adjustments 134
4.9 Permanent Adjustments 136
4.10 Plate Level Test 137
4.11 Cross-Hair Ring Test 138
4.12 Collimation in Azimuth Test 138
4.13 Spire Test 139
4.14 Vertical Circle Index Test 140
4.15 Vertical Arc Test 141
4.16 Measurement of Horizontal Angle 141
4.17 Measurement of Vertical Angle 144
Contents ix
Introduction 171
5.1 Methods of Traversing 172
5.2 Plotting Traverse Survey 173
5.3 Checks 190
5.4 Closing Error 191
5.5 Balancing a Traverse 192
5.6 Distribution of Angular Error 202
5.7 Adjustment of Bearings 202
5.8 Computation of Area of a Closed Traverse by Coordinates 202
5.9 Omitted Measurements 203
Summary 208
Exercises 208
Objective-type Questions 211
Answer to Objective-type Questions 213
Introduction 214
6.1 Definitions 215
6.2 Level 218
6.3 Types of Level 224
6.4 Levelling Staff 231
6.5 Temporary Adjustments 234
6.6 Permanent Adjustments 236
6.7 Principle of Levelling 239
6.8 Balancing Backsight and Foresight Distances 241
6.9 Optimum Distance from Level to Staff 242
6.10 Field Procedure in Levelling 243
6.11 Use of Inverted Staff 252
6.12 Spot Levels 253
6.13 Curvature and Refraction 253
6.14 Checks in Levelling 257
x Contents
Introduction 298
7.1 Instruments Used 298
7.2 Methods of Tacheometry 301
7.3 Fixed Hair Method 302
7.4 Anallactic Lens 309
7.5 Movable Hair Method or Subtense Method 322
7.6 Tangential Method 326
7.7 Range Finding 329
7.8 Special Instruments 333
7.9 Omnimeter 339
7.10 Sources of Error 340
7.11 Mistakes 340
7.12 Accuracy 340
Summary 341
Exercises 342
Objective-type Questions 344
Answer to Objective-type Questions 347
Introduction 348
8.1 Description of Plane Table 349
8.2 Temporary Adjustments 353
8.3 Setting up the Plane Table 353
8.4 Methods of Plane Table Surveying 354
8.5 Radiation 355
8.6 Traversing 355
8.7 Intersection 356
8.8 Resection 357
Contents xi
Introduction 368
9.1 Definitions 369
9.2 Ghat Tracer 372
9.3 Typical Land Features and Their contour Forms 372
9.4 Characteristics of Contour Lines 376
9.5 Methods of Contouring 377
9.6 Interpolation of Contours 380
9.7 Determination of Height of a Point and Slope of a Line 381
9.8 Determination of the Rate of Slope 382
9.9 Plotting a Line of a Specified Gradient on a Map or Plan 383
9.10 Drawing Section from a Contour Map 384
9.11 Applications 384
9.12 Modern Methods of Depicting Relief on a Map 386
9.13 Accuracy 387
Summary 388
Exercises 388
Objective-type Questions 390
Answer to Objective-type Questions 392
Introduction 393
10.1 Features of Total-Station 394
10.2 Setting Up and Orienting a Total Station 403
10.3 On-Board Software 405
10.4 Electronic Data Recording 408
10.5 Summary of Total station Characteristics 409
10.6 Field Procedures for Total-Station in Topographic Surveys 410
10.7 Total-Station with Enhanced Capabilities 412
Summary 413
Exercises 414
Objective-type Questions 414
Answer to Objective-type Questions 414
xii Contents
Introduction 415
11.1 Classification 415
11.2 Simple Circular Curve 417
11.3 Compound Curve 445
11.4 Reverse Curve 449
11.5 Transition Curve 455
11.6 Vertical Curve 484
11.7 Sources of Error 501
11.8 Mistakes 501
Summary 502
Exercises 502
Objective-type Questions 505
Answer to Objective-type Questions 510
Introduction 511
12.1 Measurement of Area 512
12.2 Computation of Area by Geometrical Figures 512
12.3 Area from Offsets 514
12.4 Area from Coordinates 518
12.5 Area by Coordinate Squares 522
12.6 Area by Planimeter 523
12.7 Digital Planimeter 529
12.8 Subdivision of an Area 532
12.9 Sources of Error 537
12.10 Mistakes 537
Summary 538
Exercises 538
Objective-type Questions 540
Answer to Objective-type Questions 542
Introduction 543
13.1 Definitions 544
13.2 Methods of Measurements of Volume 544
13.3 Measurement from Cross Sections 545
13.4 Types of Cross Sections and Areas 545
13.5 Volume Formulae 550
13.6 Prismoidal Correction 553
13.7 Curvature Correction 554
13.8 Volume from Spot levels 554
13.9 Volume from Contour Map 556
13.10 Mass Diagram 558
13.11 Sources of Error 561
13.12 Mistakes 561
Summary 570
Contents xiii
Exercises 570
Objective-type Questions 573
Answer to Objective-type Questions 574
Introduction 575
14.1 Definitions 576
14.2 Setting Out of Structures 579
Summary 586
Exercises 586
Objective-type Questions 587
Answer to Objective-type Questions 588
Chapter organisation
The subject matter in this volume is covered in 14 chapters. The first chapter
deals with an introduction to surveying. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 deal with the
measurement techniques with the instruments chain/tape, compass and theodolite
respectively. Chapter 5 deals with traversing. Chapters 6 and 7 describe level
and tacheometer respectively. Chapter 8 deals with plane table survey. Chapter 9
describes the representation of relief features. Chapter 10 deals with total-station
Survey. Chapter 11 describes laying and related field work of various types of
curves. Chapters 12 and 13 deal with the measurements of area and volume of
land respectively. Chapter 14 describes setting out of works.
xvi Preface
The text in this edition of the book has been thoroughly revised, updated and
made comprehensive. Many organisational changes have been made as well.
Other changes made in this edition include increased coverage in the chapters
on horizontal measurements and total-station survey. Extensive development in
the design and manufacture of surveying instruments has been witnessed due
to the introduction of electronics. The electromagnetic measurement technique
of measuring distances, which earlier was part of Surveying Volume 2, has now
been shifted to the present edition of Volume 1. The chapter of total-station
survey has been expanded and all the recent advancements have been included.
The goal of this revision has been to stress upon the fundamentals, make a strong
base for taking the foundation course and to update the readers with the latest
equipments. Desirable changes have also been affected in the text to maintain the
flow throughout the book.
Web supplements
The web supplements can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/duggal/s4vol1 and
contains the following material:
For Instructors
For Students
Acknowledgements
I am thankful to the various reviewers who took out time to review the book.
Their names are given below:
Arup Bhattacharya Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam
Sanjeev Kumar Suman National Institute of Technology, Patna, Bihar
G Bhaskar Institute of Road and Transport Technology,
Erode, Tamil Nadu
Pratap G Sonavane Walchad College of Engineering, Sangli, Maharashtra
S K Katiyar MANIT, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Archana Bohra Gupta MBM Engineering College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Keyur Nagecha VVP Engineering College, Rajkot, Gujarat
Vazeer Mahmmood College of Engineering, Andhra University, Andhra Pradesh
Ramakar Jha National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Orissa
feedback
No effort has been spared in keeping the book error-free, but still some might have
crept in. I will feel obliged if any such error is brought to my notice. Readers
may write to me at shashikantduggal@rediffmail.com.
S K Duggal
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VIsuAL WALKthrouGh
IntroDuCtIon
Each chapter begins with an
Introduction giving an overview of
Surveying is one of the oldest arts practised by man. History reveals that the
principles and practises of surveying were used, consciously or unconsciously, even
in the primitive ages, albeit in a crude manner. In the past few decades, however,
the chapter as well as its scope.
these have become more rational and channelised.
The introduction and practise of surveying is indispensable to all branches of
engineering. The training that a student receives, irrespective of his branch of
engineering, in the art of observing, recording and computing data, as well as in the
study of errors, their causes and effects, directly contribute to his success in other
professional courses. He develops inter alia such qualities as self-reliance, initiative
and the ability to get along with others. This also helps an engineer get acquainted
with the reasonable limits of accuracy and the value of significant figures. A
knowledge of the limits of accuracy can best be obtained by making measurements
with the surveying equipment employed in practise, as these measurements provide
a true concept of the theory of errors. An engineer must also know when to work
to thousandths, hundredths or tenths of a metre and what precision in field data
is necessary to justify carrying out computations to the desired number of decimal
place. With experience, he learns how the funds, equipments, time and personnel
available will govern the procedure and the results. Taking field notes under all
128 Surveying
Transverse axis
fIGures
in face left
Horizontal
circle assembly
Levelling head
assembly
Visual Walkthrough xix
When the coordinates of the point to be set out are known, these coordinates
uP-to-DAte are entered into the total station after orientation. The setting-out mode is selected
and the difference between the calculated and measured bearings is displayed. The
telescope is rotated until the difference is zero, such that it points in the required
InforMAtIon direction. After the alignment, the prism-mounted pole is used and moved in a
way similar to the previous case for horizontal distance to set out the point.
Latest development of electronics- Earlier for plotting details, surveying was done manually. Later, with the advent of
based equipments and electronic computers, the practise was to key in the data recorded in the field books into the
computer for plotting details. The need for a better method of getting information
from the field to a computer was also accentuated with the introduction of a total
techniques of measurements are station. As a result, the conventional method of recording surveys was overtaken
by developments in computer mapping and survey instrumentation which made
described. electronic data recording and transfer essential.
Initially, the devices used were simple data loggers. But major advances were
made when it became possible to connect small portable computers to total
stations. These intelligent data loggers could be programmed to ask the surveyor
QuestIons 5.1 If N is the number of stations and the least count of the instrument is 20 , then the
limit on the angular error of closure in traversing should
__ not be __
(a) <20 N (b) >20 N (c) <20 N (d) >20 N
Objective-type questions are help- 5.2 If n is the number of sides of a traverse, while traversing clockwise the sum of the
included angles should be
ful in the preparation for various (a) (2n – 4) 90°
(c) (2n ± 4) 90°
(b) (2n + 4) 90°
(d) 360°
5.3 Latitude of a line is defined as
competitive examinations. (a) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the E–W line
(b) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the reference meridian
(c) Length of a survey line corrected for various chain/tape corrections
(d) None of the above
5.4 The coordinates of A are 100 (northing) and 200 (easting), whereas that of B are
100 (southing) and 200 (easting). The length AB is,
(a) 200 (b) 282.84 (c) 244.94 (d) 400
5.5 In open traversing, which of the following methods is preferred?
(a) Method of direct angles (b) Method of exterior angles
(c) Method of deflection angles (d) Method of interior angles
5.6 The departure of a line of traverse is its length multiplied by
(a) cosine of reduced bearing (b) sine of reduced bearing
(c) secant of reduced bearing (d) tangent of reduced bearing
5.7 The Gale method of traversing consists of plotting the points by
xx Visual Walkthrough
fIeLD ProbLeMs be closer towards the steep side and far apart
towards the gentle side.
0 00 0
10 9
50 6 70
700
0
600 80
500
Metres Metres
1000 1000
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
APPenDICes
Appendices contain supplementary
matter helpful in enriching the
text.
The system of reference and numbering map sheets is the reference of a map. To
facilitate the use of a map consisting of many sheets the convention is to give each
map sheet its own designation. The arrangement of the map sheets is indicated in
what is called a reference sheet.
The method of repetition is preferred for the measurement of a single angle and
when accuracy is desired beyond the least count of the instrument with a coarsely
QuAntIfICAtIon graduated circle. On the other hand, the method of reiteration is preferred in
triangulation, where a number of angles may be required at one point by the
instrument with a finely graduated circle. By exercising appropriate precautions,
instrumental errors can be eliminated theoretically, for either of the methods.
Quantification of instrumental Though the method of repetition appears to be better, it is more time consuming
and chances of personal errors are more and even many repetitions may yield
errors are explained with illustra- ordinary results.
tive figures. A vertical angle may be defined as the angle subtended by the line of sight and
a horizontal line at a station in the vertical plane.
If the point to be sighted is above the horizontal plane, the angle is called the
angle of elevation (+) and if the point is below it, the angle is called the angle of
depression (–).
1. Suppose AOB ( ), the vertical angle, is to be measured (Fig. 4.12). Set
up the instrument at O and level it.
A
2. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw, set the zero of the vertical vernier
to the zero of the vertical circle. Check the
1 Fundamental
ConCepts
Introduction
Surveying is one of the oldest arts practised by man. History reveals that the
principles and practises of surveying were used, consciously or unconsciously, even
in the primitive ages, albeit in a crude manner. In the past few decades, however,
these have become more rational and channelised.
The introduction and practise of surveying is indispensable to all branches of
engineering. The training that a student receives, irrespective of his branch of
engineering, in the art of observing, recording and computing data, as well as in the
study of errors, their causes and effects, directly contribute to his success in other
professional courses. He develops inter alia such qualities as self-reliance, initiative
and the ability to get along with others. This also helps an engineer get acquainted
with the reasonable limits of accuracy and the value of significant figures. A
knowledge of the limits of accuracy can best be obtained by making measurements
with the surveying equipment employed in practise, as these measurements provide
a true concept of the theory of errors. An engineer must also know when to work
to thousandths, hundredths or tenths of a metre and what precision in field data
is necessary to justify carrying out computations to the desired number of decimal
place. With experience, he learns how the funds, equipments, time and personnel
available will govern the procedure and the results. Taking field notes under all
sorts of field conditions trains a person to become an excellent engineer, capable
of exercising independent judgements.
Surveying is of special importance and interest to a civil engineer. Surveys are
required prior to and during the planning and construction of buildings, dams,
highways, railways, bridges, canals, tunnels, drainage works, water supply and
sewerage systems, etc. They may also be required for planning and construction of
factories, assembly lines, jigs, fabrications, missile ranges, launch sites and mine
shafts. Surveying is the starting point for any project or constructional scheme
under consideration. Details of the proposed work are plotted from the field notes.
The reliability of the estimation of quantities and the effectiveness of the design
depends upon the precision and thoroughness exercised during the survey.
Today, the art of surveying has become an important profession. An introduction
to the principles and practises of surveying is, therefore, desirable as an integral part
of engineering education and training, irrespective of the branch of specialisation.
2 Surveying
1.1 deFinitions
The earth is not a true sphere and is slightly flattened at
the poles. Its polar axis is somewhat smaller in length (about 43.45 km) than that
of its equatorial axis. Any section of the earth parallel to the equator is a circle
and any of its section parallel through the poles is an ellipse. Such a figure may
be generated by revolving about its minor axis and is called an oblate spheroid.
Precisely, the equatorial section is also slightly elliptical and therefore such a
figure should be called an ellipsoid. Precise observations indicate that the southern
hemisphere is a trifle larger than the northern. Therefore, all the polar sections are
oval and can be called ovaloid.
In fact, no geometrical solid represents the true shape of the earth. However,
for all measurement purposes in surveying, the irregularities of the earth’s surface,
as discussed above, may be assumed to be absent and the resultant surface be
considered a spheroid. The earth is also recognised by a new name, geoid.
A level surface is a curved surface, every point on which is
equidistant from the centre of the Earth and every surface element is normal to
the plumb line. It is parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth. However,
for plane or ordinary surveying, a level surface at any point is assumed to be a
plane surface perpendicular to the plumb line at that point. The particular surface
at the average sea level is known as mean sea level.
Imagine a plane passing through the centre of the earth (Fig. 1.1).
The intersection of such a plane with the mean level surface of the earth is termed
as the great circle of the earth.
It is the line defined by the intersection of an imaginary plane,
passing through the poles and any point on the earth’s level surface (Fig. 1.2).
Fundamental Concepts 3
1.2 surveying
The purpose of surveying is to determine the dimensions and contours of any
part of the earth’s surface, i.e., to prepare a plan or map, establish boundaries of
the land, measure area and volume, and select a suitable site for an engineering
project. Both plans and maps are the graphical representations of the features on
a horizontal plane. The former is a large-scale representation whereas the latter
is a small-scale one. When the topography of the terrain is depicted on map with
contours and spot levels, etc., it is called a topographic map.
Surveying may be defined as an art to determine the relative positions of points
on, above or beneath the surface of the earth, with respect to each other, by
measurements of horizontal and vertical distances, angles and directions. Surveying
may also be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions,
of natural and man-made features on, above or beneath the surface of the earth.
The land form and its features may then be represented in analog form as a
contour map, plan, or chart, or in digital form as a three-dimensional mathematical
model.
A person performing operations to obtain such measurements is known as a
surveyor. In his day-to-day work, a surveyor deals with a very small portion of
Fundamental Concepts 5
the earth’s surface. However, he is the best judge with regard to the earth’s surface
as plane or curved depending upon the character, magnitude of the work and the
precision desired.
In fact, for surveys of small extent the effect of curvature is quite negligible
and the mean surface of the earth is assumed to be a horizontal plane within the
area covered. Surveying methods based on this supposition are comprised under
the head plane surveying. The assumption becomes invalid in the accurate survey
of an area of such extent that it forms an appreciable part of the earth’s surface.
Allowance must then be made for the effect of curvature and the operations belong
to geodetic surveying. No definite limit can be assigned for the area up to which
a survey may be treated as plane, since the degree of accuracy required governs
this. However, some limits based on the sophistication of the instruments available
may be placed to draw a line between plane and geodetic surveys as mentioned
in the section to follow.
In addition to the broad classification of the survey on the basis of accuracy,
it can also be classed on the basis of purpose, place of survey and the instrument
used and are discussed in the section to follow.
A line connecting two points is regarded as an arc. The distance between two
points is corrected for the curvature and is then plotted on the plan. The angles
between the intersecting lines are spherical angles. All this necessitates elaborate
field work and considerable mathematical computations.
The geodetic surveying deals in fixing widely spaced control points, which may
afterwards be used as necessary control points for fixing minor control points for
plane survey. This is carried out by the Department of National Survey of India.
These are undertaken to locate and set out the adopted line on
ground for a highway or railway and to obtain all the necessary data. The sequence
of operations in a route survey is as follows:
A visit is made to the site and all the relevant
information is collected. It includes collection of existing maps of the area; tracing
the relevant map portion over a paper; incorporating the details of the area, if
missing, by conducting rough survey.
It is the topographical survey of the area in which the
project is located. Sometimes an aerial survey is done if the area is extensive. It
includes the depiction of the precise locations of all prominent features and fixing
the position of the structure on the map.
It consists in planning a general control system for preliminary
survey which may be triangulation or traversing. For location survey, it consists
of triangulation.
It consists in establishing the points, exactly on the ground, for
which the computations have been done in the control survey for location.
his associates, helpful to those working under him and should watch the interest of
the employer. Above all, he should not rely upon the results until the accuracy of
the work is established by applying suitable checks. By merely reading books about
surveying, a surveyor cannot develop skill and judgement and the probability of
him performing a satisfactory survey work is quite low. Proficiency can be attained
only by the long continued field practise under the supervision of a professional
surveyor.
(j) The dirt and dust should regularly be cleaned from the movable parts of
the instrument.
(k) When the magnetic needle of the instrument is not in use, it should be
raised off the pivot.
The surveying measurements consists in measuring
horizontal and vertical distances, horizontal and vertical angles, horizontal and
vertical positions and directions and are discussed as follows. However, it must
be remembered that no measurement can be exact, since error and mistakes are
inevitable.
The distance between two points measured horizontally throughout is called the
horizontal distance. If a distance is measured on a slope, it is immediately reduced
to the horizontal equivalent by applying suitable corrections. Such a measurement
is made with a chain, tape or by an optical or electronic instrument. The distance
measured in the direction of gravity is called vertical distance and is equivalent
to the difference in height. This measurement is done with an instrument known
as level along with a levelling staff.
An angle measured in a horizontal plane at the points of measurement is
called a horizontal angle and an angle measured in a plane that is vertical at the
point of observation, and contains the points, is called a vertical angle. Vertical
angles are measured upwards or downwards from the horizontal plane. Angles
measured upwards are called plus angles or angles of elevation and those measured
downwards are called negative angles or angles of depression. Both the horizontal
and vertical angles are measured with an instrument known as transit.
The directions of the courses are expressed as bearings. A bearing is a clockwise
horizontal angle from a reference direction, usually north. This is measured with
an instrument known as compass.
The relative horizontal position of various points are determined by traversing or
by triangulation. A traverse consists of the measurement of a series of horizontal
courses (lengths) and the horizontal angles between the courses or the directions
of the courses. Triangulation consists of the measurement of the angles of a series
of connected triangles and its direction. Both in traversing and triangulation, the
final results are computed by trigonometry and are best expressed by rectangular
coordinates.
The relative position of the points are determined by a series of level observations
with the line of sight being horizontal. The results of levelling are referred to a
standard datum, normally mean sea level. The vertical heights above the datum
are called elevations. The methods of measurements will be dealt one by one in
the subsequent chapters to follow.
Field notes are the written records of the field work
made at the time the work is done. Records copied from field notes or data recorded
afterwards from memory, may be useful, but are not regarded as field notes. A
surveyor should keep in mind not only the immediate use of the data, but also
those which may be expected to arise in future. Therefore, the field notes must
be complete and accurate as far as possible. The importance, accuracy, legibility,
12 Surveying
integrity, arrangement and clarity that the field notes should have must be over
emphasised.
All the measurements should be accurate, depending upon the
precision desired. A surveyor must know how to achieve the desired accuracy
and how to check that the required accuracy has been achieved. Equipments and
techniques must be chosen to ensure that the specified accuracy is achieved.
It should always be kept clearly in mind that the notes may be
utilised by someone else who has never even visited the site of the survey.
Therefore, all the notes should be legible and contain a professional touch.
The notes should be complete in all respects before leaving the site
of the survey. Even a single omitted measurement may pose a serious problem
while computing or plotting in the office.
It should be made clear as to how the work began and ended.
The note forms should be appropriate to the particular survey and should be
arranged in the sequence of the work done in field.
Sketches and tabulation of field data should be clear and readable.
It should be remembered that the notes may be used by someone else in future.
Ambiguous notes lead to mistakes in drafting and computation.
Field notes are usually recorded on standard ruling sheets in a
loose-leaf or bound field book. The format of the standard ruled sheet depends
upon the type of the instrument used for surveying and is touched upon in detail,
in Appendices II to X. However, some general suggestions are presented below.
(a) Use a notebook that may stand hard usage.
(b) A hard lead pencil, 3H, should be used to record field notes. The reason is
that by using a hard pencil, indentations are made on the paper and later,
if due to any reason the notes are smeared, the data can still be ascertained
by examining the indentations.
(c) Erasure should never be made in the field book. If a measured value is
recorded incorrectly, it should be cut by a horizontal line and the correct
value should be recorded above the cut value.
(d) The notes should read from left to right, and from the bottom to top as in
the working drawings.
(e) The left page of the field book is used for recording data, while the right
page is used for sketches.
(f) All the calculations and reductions made in the field should be indicated
on additional sheets and may be cross-referenced as and when required.
(g) On the top of the field notes, names of the survey party, instrument used,
data, weather, etc., should be mentioned. This is particularly useful when
the field notes are presented as evidence in court.
(h) At the end of the day’s work, the notes should be signed by the
notekeeper.
In recording notes in the field book, a beginner is usually confused whether to
book it from the bottom to the top of the page or from top to down. Usually, in
Fundamental Concepts 13
making sketch of the course being surveyed, the field book is held with its top
towards the next station and if the field notes are recorded on opposite page, it
will be convenient to note and read from the bottom up so as to correspond with
the sketch. The examples are survey of railways and highways courses. Whereas,
when complete sketch is made on one page, such as for a closed traverse, it may
be more convenient to tabulate the corresponding notes on the opposite page to
read from the top down.
Another most suitable method used to represent the scale of a map is the
graphical scale. It is a line drawn on the map so that its distance on the map
corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the ground. Figure 1.6 shows a
graphical scale corresponding to a scale of 1 cm = 5 m. A 12 cm long line,
divided into six equal parts of 2 cm each, is drawn on the map. Thus, each part
represents 10 m on the ground. The first part is divided into 10 equal divisions,
each representing 1 m. Figure 1.5 shows a distance of 36 m marked on the
scale.
36 m
10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Scale 1 cm = 5 m
and [
R.F. of the wrong scale
Correct area = _____________________
R.F. of the correct scale ]2
measured area.
The various types of graphical scales may be plain, diagonal or vernier scales.
For details of these scales, reference may be made to any book on engineering
graphics.
e xample 1.2 The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 15 m
to 1 cm now measures as 80.2 cm2 as found by a planimeter. The plan is found
to have shrunk, so that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.8 cm only.
Find the shrunk scale and the true area of the survey.
s olution
shrunk length 9.8 = 0.98
S.F. = _____________ = ___
original length 10
Original scale is 1 cm = 15 m
Shrunk scale = S.F. × original scale
= 0.98 × 15 = 14.70 m
Hence, the shrunk scale is 1 cm = 14.70 m
80.2 = 83.51 m2
measured area = ______
Correct area = ____________
(S.F.)2 (0.98)2
e xample 1.3 A plan drawn to a scale of 1 : 3000 was measured by mistake
by a scale of 1 : 4000. Determine the percentage errors in the measured length
and the measured area.
s olution Let the length of line measured on plan be L.
Actual length, l = 3000 L
16 Surveying
4000 L 3000 L
= 33.33%
3000 L
Actual area, A = (3000 L)2
Measured area A = (4000 L)2
(4000 L )2 (3000 L )2
Percentage error in area = 100 = 77.77%
(3000 L )2
1.8 errors
It is understood that every measurement contains errors of unknown magnitude due
to several reasons and hence no measurement in surveying is exact. A surveyor
should, therefore, understand thoroughly the nature of the sources and behaviour of
the errors which may affect the results. A knowledge of the errors and procedures
necessary to maintain a required precision aid the surveyor to develop a good
judgement and confidence in his work.
A true error may be defined as the difference between a measurement and its
true value. As the true value of a measurement is never known, the exact error
present is therefore never known and is thus always unknown. It is pertinent to
note that the term error should not be confused with discrepancy, the latter being
the deviation in the two measurements of a quantity.
varies with changes in temperature. Such sources of error are beyond the control of
the surveyor, but by taking precautionary measures and adopting suitable methods
to fit into the conditions, the errors can be contained within permissible limits.
These result from the imperfect construction and
adjustment of the instrument. The incorrect graduations of a steel tape and the
improper adjustment of the plate levels of a transit are a few examples. The effects
of most of the instrumental errors can be brought within the desired limits of
precision by applying proper corrections and selecting suitable field methods.
These arise from the limitations of the human senses such as
sight, touch and hearing. For example, improper bisecting of the object by fixing
the line of sight of a transit while measuring angles is a personal error.
by being careful, whereas errors result from sources which can be minimised but
not avoided.
The relative precision is normally specified before starting a survey so that proper
equipment and methods can be selected to achieve the desired relative precision.
In one of the method also called the direct method, various points such as C,
D, and E are established independently at a distance of about 20 m each with
respect to the two end control points and the distance AB can be measured. As
C, D, E, etc., are established independently with respect to the main control
points, error, if any, introduced in establishing any intermediate point will not
be carried in establishing the other points. For example, suppose that point D
has been established out of the line AB, as D (Fig. 1.9(a)) and E, F, etc., have
been established correctly. The actual distances DC and DE will be in error (D C
and D E) but all other distances AC, EF, FG, etc., will be correct. Therefore, the
error in this procedure is localised at point D and is not magnified. This method
observes the principle of working from whole to part.
In the other method, a part, say AC, of the whole distance AB to be measured
is fixed by fixing a point C as C by judgment or by the process of ranging with
respect to A and B, the end points. Then the other points D, E, F, etc., are fixed
with respect to A and C (part AC). Now if point C is not in line with AB, all the
points D, E, F, etc., established will be out of line with an increasing magnitude
of error (Fig. 1.9(b)). The length measured will, therefore, be incorrect to a larger
Fundamental Concepts 23
extent as compared to the direct method. This method may introduce serious error
as the survey at the end becomes uncontrollable and hence working from part to
whole is never recommended. The plane table surveying, however, is an example
of working from part to whole.
C C
C
(a) (b) (c)
Summary
Surveying is an art of locating points on, above, or beneath the surface of the earth
by measurement of horizontal and vertical distances, horizontal and vertical angles, and
bearings. The shape of earth’s surface is discussed and for all practical purposes it is
assumed to be spheroid. A broad classification of survey has been presented based on
instruments available, purposes and accuracy desired. In ordinary survey when the area of
interest is small, the curvature of earth is neglected and the survey is called plane survey.
But for projects of importance, the curvature is given due importance and is called geodetic
survey. Whatever may be the type of survey the basic principle of working from whole to
part must be observed and any new point must be located by at least two measurements.
The object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan, establish boundaries of the
land, measure area and volume, and select a suitable site for an engineering project. The
responsibilities of surveyors are outlined. The field book for recording the field notes is
introduced and the importance of accuracy, legibility, integrity, arrangement and clarity of
field notes is highlighted. Symbols for representing ground features and standard colours to
be used on topographic maps are introduced. The guidelines for selection of scales for maps
and plans are presented. Errors, their sources and types, mistakes, precision and accuracy
are defined and explained.
Exercises
1.1 Define and differentiate the following:
(i) Plan and map (ii) Error and mistake
(iii) Accuracy and precision (iv) Plane and Geodetic surveys
1.2 Convert the following representative fractions into scales.
(i) 1/100,000 (ii) 1/1,000,000
(iii) 1/20,000
[Ans. 1 cm = 1 km, 1 cm = 10 km, 1 cm = 0.20 km]
1.3 A rectangular piece of property has sides measuring 300 m and 200 m. What is the
area of the property in square metres, square kilometres, acres, hectares?
[Ans. 6 104, 6 10–2, 4.820, 6.0]
1.4 What information should be included in a good set of field notes?
1.5 Briefly discuss the requirements of good field notes.
1.6 Briefly discuss the following:
(i) Earth’s surface (ii) Level surface
(iii) Great circle (iv) Plumb line
1.7 Define surveying. What are the principles of surveying? Explain them briefly.
1.8 Write short notes on the following:
(i) Geodetic survey (ii) Defence survey
(iii) Mine survey (iv) Cadastral survey
(v) Aerial survey
1.9 Draw symbols for the following:
(i) Cemetery (ii) Mosque
(iii) Barbed wire (iv) Triangulation station
(v) Culvert
1.10 Discuss briefly the different types and sources of errors in surveying.
1.11 On a plan drawn to a scale of 1 cm = 25 m, a borrow pit measures 3 cm × 5 cm.
If the plan has shrunk by 4%, find the shrinkage factor, shrunk scale and the actual
dimensions of the borrow pit in the field.
[Ans. S.F. 0.96, 1 cm = 26.04 m, 3.125 cm × 5.205 cm]
Fundamental Concepts 25
Objective-type Questions
1.1 The difference in the length of an arc and its subtended chord on earth’s surface
for a distance of 18.5 km is about
(a) 0.1 cm (b) 1.0 cm (c) 10 cm (d) 100 cm
1.2 The effect of the curvature of the earth’s surface is taken into account only if the
extent of survey is more than
(a) 100 km2 (b) 260 km2 (c) 195.5 km2 (d) 300 km2
1.3 The difference between the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle on the earth’s
surface to that of the angles of the corresponding plane triangle is only one second
for every
(a) 260 km2 (b) 160 km2 (c) 360 km2 (d) 195.5 km2
1.4 A hut can be shown by the symbol
(c) whose effect are cumulative and can be eliminated by adopting suitable
methods
(d) which change rapidly
1.16 The difference between the most probable value of a quantity and its observed value
is
(a) true error (b) weighted observation
(c) conditional error (d) residual error
1.17 It is convenient to record the field notes for a closed traverse in the field book on
the right page and read
(a) from left to right (b) from right to left
(c) from top to down (d) from bottom to top
1.18 The degree of precision required in survey work mainly depends upon the
(a) purpose of survey (b) area to be surveyed
(c) sources of error (d) nature of the field
1.19 The error which occurs while conducting the survey from whole to part and part to
whole is
(a) same
(b) in whole to part, it is localised and in part to whole it is expanded
(c) in whole to part it is expanded and in part to whole it is localised
(d) in both the methods error is localised
1.20 Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth, with respect to each other, by the measurement of
(i) distances (ii) directions (iii) elevations
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) are required (b) only (i) is required
(c) only (ii) required (d) only (iii) is required
1.21 A point R can be located by the two control points P and Q by
(i) measuring PR and QR from P and Q, measure distance of R and plot
(ii) dropping a perpendicular from R on PQ, meeting the line in S, measure PS,
SQ and plot
(iii) distance QR and angle between QR and QP
(a) only (i) is correct (b) by (i) and (ii) both
(c) by (i), (ii) and (iii) (d) None of these
1.22 The objective of a survey is to
(i) prepare a plan or map
(ii) determine the relative position of points
(iii) determine position of points in a horizontal plane
(iv) determine position of points in a vertical plane
(a) Only (i) is correct
(b) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) all are correct
(d) (i), (ii), and (iii) are correct
1.23 The following are the subdivisions of engineering survey. Match them.
(i) Reconnaissance survey (A) To determine feasibility
and rough cost of the scheme.
(ii) Preliminary survey (B) To collect more precise data,
to choose the best location for
the work and to estimate the
exact quantities and costs.
(iii) Location survey (C) For setting out the work on
the ground.
(a) (i)–A, (ii)–B, (iii)–C (b) (i)–B, (ii)–A, (iii)–C
Fundamental Concepts 27
Introduction
History reveals that the measurement of horizontal distance has taken a variety of
forms with marked variations in the accuracies achieved. Various methods such as
rope stretching, bamboo, pacing, chaining, optical (tacheometry) and electromagnetic
distance measurement exist, varying from crude to highly sophisticated ones. The
cost of making a measurement increases with the desired precision of the work.
Therefore, it is important to know the methods available and their accuracies so
as to obtain the required precision with economy.
Rope stretching and bamboo measurements are very crude methods and are
obsolete. Pacing can be recommended if an error of 5% is permissible and if the
ground is flat.
In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. The distances are not
actually measured in field but are computed indirectly by using the principles
of optics. The instrument used for making observations is called tacheometer.
Tacheometry may be employed when the ground is rough, undulating and not
suitable for chaining.
The electromagnetic distance measurements (EDM) can be made by using
light waves or radio waves. The instruments used in the former case are called
Geodimeter and Mekenometer, whereas distomat uses radio waves. In the near
future EDM may be rendered obsolete for distances over 5 km by the use of GPS
satellite methods. Electronic methods and aerial photogrammetry yield results with
high precision but are expensive.
The most common method of measuring the distances is by the use of chain and
tape. This operation is called chaining irrespective of whether a chain or a tape is
used. Chaining is recommended for moderately small areas and measurement of
ill-defined details, e.g., edge of a marsh or for filling in details between already
established control points. Chain is used to measure the lengths of the line and tape
is employed to measure the perpendicular distances to the chain line, called offsets.
In the process of chaining, the survey party consists of a leader (the surveyor at the
forward end of the chain), a follower (the surveyor at the rear end of the chain)
and an assistant to establish intermediate points.
30 Surveying
The accuracy to which measurements can be made with chain and tape varies
with the methods used and the precautions exercised. The precision of chaining
for ordinary work ranges from 1/1000 to 1/30 000 and precise measurements such
as baseline may be of the order of 1 000 000. Good chaining and standardised
and adjusted chain in good order may be expected to give an accuracy of 1/500
to 1/1 000 000. Accuracy in the base measurement seldom exceeds 1/500 000.
Measurement of horizontal distance is probably the most basic operation
performed in surveying and perhaps the most difficult as well. The horizontal
distance between two points is the distance between the plumb lines through the
points. It is important to emphasise that in plane surveying, the distances measured
should be horizontal. When distances are measured on slopes, sufficient data should
be collected so as to compute horizontal projections.
2.2 CHain
Gunter, revenue, engineer and metric chain are the various types of chains which
are normally used for surveying. The chains are mostly divided into 100 links.
While Gunter’s chain is 66 ft. long (100 links), the revenue chain is 33 ft. long
(16 links) and the engineer’s chain is 100 ft. long (100 links). Metric chains are
either 30 m (150 links) or 20 m (100 links) in length. The constructional detail
32 Surveying
of metric chain are presented in details as it is generally used for the routine
measurement of distances.
2.3 tape
Tapes are available in a variety of materials, lengths and weights. The different
types of tapes used in general are discussed as follows.
This is closely woven linen or synthetic material and
is varnished to resist the moisture. These are available in lengths of 10–30 m and
widths of 12–15 mm. The disadvantages of such a tape include: (i) it is affected
by moisture and gets shrunk; (ii) its length gets altered by stretching; and (iii) it
is likely to twist and does not remain straight in strong winds.
It is a linen tape with brass or copper wires woven into it
longitudinally to reduce stretching. As it is varnished, the wires are not visible.
These are available in lengths of 20–30 m. It is an accurate measurement device
and is commonly used for measuring offsets. As it is reinforced with wires, all
the defects of linen tapes are overcome.
These are 1–50 m in length and are 6–10 mm wide. At the end
of the tape a brass ring is attached, the outer end of which is zero point of the
tape. Steel tape cannot be used in ground with vegetation and weeds.
This is made of an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel, having very
low coefficient of thermal expansion (0.122 10 –6 /°C). These are available
in lengths of 30, 50 and 100 m and in a width of 6 mm. The advantages and
disadvantages of an invar tape are as follows:
1. Highly precise.
2. It is less affected by temperature changes when compared to the other
tapes.
2.4.1 pegs
These are used to mark definite points on the ground either temporarily or semi-
permanently. The exact point to and from which the measurements are to be taken,
or over which an instrument is to be set, is often necessary to indicate on a peg.
For this, a nail or a brass stud is driven into the flat top of the peg. The size of
a peg depends on the use to which the pegs are to be put and the nature of the
ground in which they are to be driven. Generally, hard creosoted wood 2.5–7.5 cm2
and 15–90 cm long, flat at one end and pointed at the other end are used. For
temporary use, pegs of nearly round section are cut from the standing trees and then
are pointed at one end and flattened at the other end. Iron or tubular pegs are made
Horizontal Measurements 35
2.4.2 arrows
These are also known as chaining pins and are used to mark
the end of each chain during the chaining process. These are
made of hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in diameter.
The length of arrow is kept 400 mm. These are pointed at
one end whereas a circular ring is formed at its other end, as
shown in Fig. 2.5, to facilitate carrying from one station to
another. As the arrows are placed in the ground after every
chain length, the number of arrows held by the follower
indicates the number of chains that have been measured.
This provides a check over the length of line as entered in
the field notes.
top of the rod, the chain can be pulled or pushed through the hedges or other
obstructions, if required.
ht
Offsets may also be made in
f sig
o
the field with the help of cross- e
Lin
staff (Section 2.6) or optical square B
(Section 2.7).
90
Horizontal line
70
2.4.5 Clinometer
50
It is an instrument used for
30
measuring the angle of a slope.
20
10
There is a variety of forms of A
0
which the simplest one consists of 90
in view, and until he observes the image of signal at B through the lower prism.
Thus the images of the two signals at A and B are seen directly through the upper
and lower prisms.
If point C is not in line with A and B, the two images viewed may be separated
as shown in Fig. 2.10(b). If so, the surveyor moves backward or forward till the two
images coincide as shown in Fig. 2.10(c). The required point C is then vertically
below the centre of the instrument.
2.6 Cross-staFF
It is essentially an instrument used for setting out right angles. In its simplest form
it is known as open cross-staff (Fig. 2.11(a)). It consists of two pairs of vertical
slits providing two lines of sight mutually at right angles. Another modified form
of the cross-staff is known as French cross-staff (Fig. 2.11(b)). This consists of
an octagonal brass tube with slits on all eight sides. This has a distinct advantage
over the open cross-staff as with it even lines at 45° can be set out from the chain
line. The latest modified cross-staff is the adjustable cross-staff (Fig. 2.11(c)).
It consists of two cylinders of equal diameter placed one above the other. The
90
upper cylinder can be rotated over the lower one graduated in degrees and its
subdivisions. The upper cylinder carries the vernier and the slits to provide a line
of sight. Thus, it may be used to take offsets and to set out any desired angle
from the chain line.
2.7.1 principle
The instrument is based on the principle that a ray of light reflected successively
from two surfaces undergoes a deviation of twice the angle between the reflecting
surfaces.
1. If the image of the signal falls at D1 which does not coincide with the
signal at A, mark a point D2 so that its image coincides with the signal
at A.
2. Fix a signal at D exactly midway between D1 and D2.
A B C
D2 D D1
3. The index mirror which is adjustable is turned until the image of the signal
D is made coincident with the signal at A.
4. Signals at C and D are sighted again and now these should appear to
coincide.
alignment. But when the distance is too long and ends are not intervisible due
to intervening ground, obstruction, etc., a number of intermediate points are
established with the help of ranging rods. The process of establishing intermediate
points on a survey line joining two stations in the field, so that the length between
the stations may be measured accurately is known as ranging.
Ranging is of two kinds:
1. Direct ranging
2. Indirect ranging
e f B
A c
d
Let A and B be two end stations and c, d, e, etc., be the intermediate points to
be established. The procedure for marking the intermediate points is as follows.
1. Ranging rods are erected vertically behind each end of the line.
2. A surveyor stands behind the ranging rods at the end stations A and B of
the line.
3. One of the surveyors, say the surveyor at A, directs the assistant to hold a
ranging rod vertically at arms length from the point where the intermediate
point is to be established.
4. The assistant is directed to move the rod to the right or left until the three
ranging rods appear to be exactly in a straight line. The code of signals
used is stated in Table 2.1. The signals given by the surveyor are shown
in Fig. 2.17.
it impossible for one to be visible from the other, the following procedure is
adopted:
1. Let A and B be the two end stations of a line with a rising ground between
them and C and D the two intermediate points to be established on the
chain line (Fig. 2.18(a)).
2. The two chainmen stand at C1 and D1 such that the chainman at C1 can
see both the ranging rods at D1 and B, and the chainman at D1 can see
both the ranging rods at C1 and A.
3. Now the chainman at D1 directs the chainman at C1 to move to C2 so as
to be in line with A.
4. Then the chainman at C2 directs the chainman at D1 to move to D2 so as
to be in line with B.
5. By successively directing each other, the two chainmen proceed to the line
AB and finally come at C and D exactly in the line AB.
6. C and D are the required intermediate points between A and B.
To lay out a line across a ravine
When it is required to lay out a line between two points A and B across a deep
ravine (Fig. 2.18(b)), the following procedure may be adopted.
1. The two chainmen stand at A and B. A ranging rod at C is placed at the
ravine edge in line with A and B. Any of the chainmen at A or B can
direct the chainman at C to be in line with A and B.
2. Now the chainman at A directs the
chainman at D and E with ranging
rods to be in line with ranging rod
A C B at B.
D 3. Now the chainman at B directs the
E chainman at C to move to F so as
F to be in line with B, D and E.
4. The chainman at C, then directs
the chainman at G to be in line
G
with ranging rod at F.
5. In this manner, points C, F, G,
E and D are established between
points A and B.
chain to the other point whereas the follower remains at the initial point. The
chain is given a jerk so as to unfold any kinks and to make it straight. It is then
stretched straight between the two points in order to count the links to measure
the distances.
To chain a line longer than one chain length, the leader and the follower must
strictly follow the laid down procedures. The duties of the leader are: to drag
the chain forward; to insert arrows at the end of every chain; and to obey the
instructions of the follower. On the other hand, the duties of the follower are: to
place the leader in line with the ranging rods; to pick up the arrows inserted by
the leader; and to carry the rear handle of the chain in his hand. The following
steps are followed in chaining a line longer than one chain length:
1. The follower places one of the handles of the chain in contact with the
peg.
2. The leader takes the other handle of the chain, ten arrows, ranging rods and
moves forward along the line.
3. After the chain is stretched completely along the line, the follower stands
on one side of the line with the ranging rod touching the handle.
4. The follower directs the leader to come exactly in line. This can be achieved
ensuring that the lower ends of all the three ranging rods are in same
line.
5. The leader puts a scratch at the position of rod and inserts an arrow. He
then moves forward with the chain handle, the remaining nine arrows, and
the ranging rod, till the follower reaches the next peg point.
6. The follower places the handle of the chain in contact with the peg and the
entire procedure is repeated till the line is chained.
7. In the end, if some fractional length remains, it is measured by counting the
links.
8. During the process, the leader inserts the arrows and the follower picks them
up at every chain length. After every tenth chain length the follower erects
a ranging rod. He then counts the arrows and transfers them back to the
leader.
P a1
a2
a1 a3
a2
3. The leader transfers the end a1 to the ground by means of a plumb bob
and marks the point a1 on the ground with an arrow.
4. The follower moves to a1 and holds the zero end of the chain at that
point.
5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated until the end Q is reached.
6. The horizontal distance PQ is the sum of all such measured distance:
PQ = Pa1 + a 1 a 2 + a 2 a3 +
It is more practicable to chain downhill than to chain uphill. This is so because
in the latter case, the follower has to hold the chain horizontal with its zero mark
exactly above the point on the ground in order to range the leader in line and to resist the
pull exerted by the leader on the chain.
l
h
Q
p
Q
e xample 2.1 While measuring the distance on a slope it was found that the
ground rises by 3.2 m for each 20 m chain length. Find the angle of slope and
the hypotenusal allowance per chain length.
s olution
Let = angle of slope
sin= 3.2/20
= 0.16
or = 9° 12
Hypotenusal allowance = l (sec – 1)
= 20 (sec 9°12 – 1)
= 0.261 m
= 26.1 cm
Hence, the hypotenusal allowance per chain length is 26.1 cm.
Horizontal Measurements 47
e xample 2.2 The distance measured between two points on a sloping ground
is 450 m. Find the correction to be applied and the horizontal distance if
(i) the angle of slope is 10°.
(ii) the slope is 1 in 5.
(iii) the difference in elevation between the two points is 45 m.
s olution
(i) If D is the horizontal distance and l the distance measured along a slope
of , then
Correction to be applied = l (1 – cos )
= 450 (1 – cos 10°) = 6.836 m
Hence, horizontal distance = 450 – 6.836 = 443.16 m.
(ii) Slope is 1 in 5
tan = 1/5
or = 11°19
Correction to be applied = l (1 – cos )
= 450 (1 – cos 11°19 ) = 8.74 m
Hence, horizontal distance = 450 – 8.74 = 441.26 m.
(iii) Difference in elevation between the points, h = 45 m
Correction to be applied = h2/2 l
= (452)/(2 450) = 2.25 m
Hence, horizontal distance = 450 – 2.25 = 447.75 m.
= 0.002 m
The corrected slope length = 90 – 0.002
= 89.998 m
Gradient = 1 in 10
This implies 1 m vertical to 10 m horizontal.
Slope length =
1. Length of the chain is more than its standard length, which may be due
to flattening of rings, opening of joints, etc.
2. Not applying the temperature correction when temperature during
measurements is more than the standard temperature.
e xample 2.4 The length of a line measured with a chain was found to be
250 m. Calculate the true length of the line if
(i) the length was measured with a 30 m chain and the chain was 10 cm too
long, and
(ii) the length of chain was 30 m in the beginning and 30.10 m at the end of
work.
s olution
Measured length, L = 250 m
True length of chain, l = 30 m
(i) Incorrect or actual length of the chain used, l = 30.10 m
True length of line, L1 = (l /l)L
= (30.10/30) 250 = 250.83 m
(ii) l = average length of the chain during measurement
= (30 + 30.10)/2 = 30.05 m
True length of line, L1 = (30.05/30) 250 = 250.416 m
e xample 2.5 A rectangular plot of size 400 200 m was measured with a
20 m chain. Later it was detected that the chain used for measuring the sides of
the plot was 8 cm too long. Determine the true area of the plot.
s olution Area measured, A1 = 400 200 = 80,000 m2
Actual length of the chain, l = 20 + 0.08 = 20.08 m
= 80,641.28 m2
50 Surveying
Alternatively:
Measured length, L = 400 m
Actual length of the chain used, l = 20 + 0.08 = 20.08 m
e xample 2.6 The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 10 m
to 1 cm now measures as 90.5 cm2 as found by a planimeter. The plan is found
to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.5 cm only.
A note on the plan also states that the 20 m chain used was 9 cm too short. Find
the true area of the survey.
s olution
Original area on plan, A = (10/9.5)2 90.5
= 100.2770 cm2
The scale of the plan is 10 m = 1 cm
Hence, area on ground = 100.277 (10)2
= 10027.70 m2
Since, the chain was 0.9 cm too short and l = 20 m
l = 20 – 0.09 = 19.91 m
True area of the field = (19.91/20)2 10027.70
= 9937.6538 m2.
e xample 2.8 The length, width and height of an embankment were measured
with a 30 m chain and the volume of embankment was calculated to be 524.6 cu.m.
Later it was found that the chain used to measure the dimension of the embankment
was 12 cm too short. What is the true volume of the embankment?
True volume =
or for the whole day. For this purpose a mean of prevailing temperatures may also
be assumed, either for the day or season, and the correction may be applied.
The following steps are followed in chaining a line on smooth level ground
with a tape:
1. The survey points to be measured are pegged on the ground and the
ranging rods are then set behind each peg in the line of measurement.
2. Using a tape, arrows are aligned between the two points at intervals less
than a tape length. Measuring plates are then set firmly in the ground at
these points, with their measuring edge normal to the direction of tape.
3. The steel tape is then carefully laid out in a straight line between the survey
point and the first plate. One end of the tape is firmly anchored, while
the tension is applied at the other end. At the exact instant of standard
tension, both ends of the tape are read simultaneously against the survey
station point and the first ranged intermediate point on command from the
surveyor applying the tension. The tension is eased and the whole process
repeated at least four times or until a good set of results is obtained.
4. Standard pull is applied on the tape with the help of spring balances.
5. When reading the tape, the metres, decimetres and centimetres should
be noted as the tension is being applied and noted. On the command ‘to
read’, only the millimetres are required.
6. The readings are noted and subtracted from each other to give the length
of the measured segment.
7. The process is repeated for each bay of the line being measured, care
being taken not to move the first measuring plate, which is the start of
the second bay, and so on.
8. After the measurement of one particular length and before the tape is
moved forward, the slope is observed. This may be done with a clinometer
which can be read by the rear chainman while the leader holds the ranging
rod vertically.
9. The temperatures during measurements are recorded.
10. Corrections for tape standardisation, pull (if different than the standard),
slope and temperature are applied to the measured length.
This method requires five surveyors; One to anchor the tape end, one to apply
and note the tension, two observes to read the tape and one booker.
The corrections as discussed in the next section are applied to get the correct
distance.
Straining Anchor
rod rod
Spring Advance tripod
balance Measuring heads carrying measuring
head
Applied
tension Tape
A B C
= L – L + h2/2L + h4/8L3 +
= h2/2L (neglecting the higher order terms)
Csl = h2/2L
where h = difference in elevations of A and B
L = measured length (in m)
The slope correction is always subtractive.
(wl1)2l1 _____
W2l1
Csa = ______ =
24P2 24P2
If there are n equal spans per tape length, the correction per tape length is given
by
(wl1)2l1 ________
(wl/n)2nl1
Csa = n ______ =
24P2 24P2
(wl)2l W2l
= ______
2 2
= ______
24n P 24n2P2
where w = weight of the tape per metre length
W = total weight of the tape
P = pull applied (in N)
l1 = the length of tape suspended between two supports
l = length of the tape = nl1 (in m)
Sag correction is always negative.
L = L (1 + a + b + c)
=L + La + Lb + Lc
Thus, each of the correction can be based on the length recorded and combined
by addition.
and W 2l
Csa = _____
24P2
Since, Cp = Csa
W 2l
(P – P0) l _____
________ =
AE 24P2
___
0.204W
P = __________
______AE
P – P0
The value of P may be calculated by trial and error.
e xample 2.9 A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30 m
at a temperature of 20°C and a pull of 10 kg. The measured length was 1650 m.
The temperature during measurement was 30°C and the pull applied was 15 kg.
Find the true length of the line, if the cross-sectional area of the tape was 0.025
cm2. The coefficient of expansion of the material of the tape per °C is 3.5 10–6
and modulus of elasticity of the material of tape is 2.1 106 kg/cm2.
s olution Correction to be applied are: (i) correction for temperature and
(ii) correction for pull.
(i) Correction for temperature:
Ct = (Tm – T0)L
= 3.5 10–6 (30 – 20) × 1650
= 0.05775 m (+ve)
(ii) Correction for pull:
(P – P0)
Cp = ________ L
AE
(15 – 10)
= ______________6 × 1650
0.025 2.1 10
= 0.157101 m (+ve)
True length of the line = 1650 + 0.05775 + 0.157101
= 1650.214831 m.
Horizontal Measurements 57
e xample 2.10 The downhill end of a 30 m tape is held 90 cm too low. What
is the horizontal distance measured?
s olution
Correction for slope = h2/2L
= (0.9)2/(2 30)
= 0.0135 m
Hence, the horizontal distance = 30 – 0.0135
= 29.9865 m
e xample 2.11 A 100 m tape is suspended between the ends under a pull
of 200 N. The weight of the tape is 30 N. Find the correct distance between the
tape ends.
s olution
W 2l
Correction for sag = _____12
24P
= ((30)2 100)/(24 (200)2)
= 0.09375 m
Horizontal distance = 100 – 0.09375
= 99.90625 m.
e xample 2.12 A base line measured with a steel tape gives an approximate
length of 1000 m. Compute the correct length of the base line at mean sea level
when the pull at the standardisation equals 15 kg. The applied pull is 23 kg. The
cross sectional area of tape is 0.0645 cm2 and E = 2.11 106 kg/cm2. Temperature
Tm and To are 35°C and 15°C, respectively. The coefficient of thermal expansion
of the material of the tape per °C is 11.5 × 10–6. The difference in level of the
two ends of base line is 2 m. R = 6400 km. Elevation of base line above mean
sea level = 1000 m.
s olution
(i) Correction for pull:
CP =
Csl =
58 Surveying
CR =
2.15 oFFsets
The distance measured right or left of the chain line to locate the details like
boundaries, culverts buildings, etc., are called offsets. Figure 2.26 shows the offsets
required to locate the corners of a building and the terms used in the process.
The number of offsets required to locate a boundary will basically depend upon
the irregularities of the boundary being surveyed. The offsets should be at regular
and close intervals, but with such spacing that they are representable; scale of
the plan or map will govern. All the important details should be located with
additional check offsets. There are two types of offsets: (i) Perpendicular offsets
and (ii) Oblique offsets.
PP2 = l sin
______
S
If limit of accuracy in plotting =
0.025 cm l
l sin = 0.025
______
S
or l = 0.025 S cosec Chain line
Therefore, the limiting length of A C D B
offset is 0.025 S cosec for an error
of in laying the offset and the
displacement of point perpendicular to
chain line P1P2 on paper will be
l – l cos
P1P2 = CP1 – CP2 = __________
S
Let P be P
a point from where an offset PC is
laid on a chain line AB. The measured P2
P1
length of the offset CP1 is l and the
error in direction is (Fig. 2.28). Let 1
in r be the accuracy in measurement of
the offset and scale of plotting be 1 cm l
= S m. Then the total error is PP2.
Assuming angle PP1P2 = 90° Chain line
The displacement due to angular A C D B
error, P1P2 = l sin and it should be
equal to displacement due to the linear
error, P1P = l/r
60 Surveying
__ __
PP2 = 2 PP1 = 2 P1P2
__
= 2 (l/r)
__
also = 2 l sin
Corresponding displacement on paper
__
= 2 (l/r) (1/S)
__
also = 2 l sin /S
If limit of accuracy in plotting is 0.025 cm, then
__
( 2 l/r) (1/S) = 0.025
__
or l = (0.025/ 2 )r S
__
also 2 l sin /S = 0.025
__
or l = (0.025/ 2 ) S cosec
Chain line
A
E C B
Horizontal Measurements 61
e xample 2.13 An offset is laid 4° out from its true direction in the field. Find
the resulting displacement of the plotted point on the plan for the following cases,
if the offset measured was 8.0 m and the scale of plotting was 6 m to 1 cm:
(i) In the direction parallel to the chain line.
(ii) In the direction perpendicular to the chain line.
s olution
(i) Displacement of the point on ground parallel to chain line
= l sin
= 8 sin 4°
= 0.558 cm
The scale of plan is 6 m to 1 cm
l sin
Displacement of the point on plan = ______
S
= 0.558
_____ = 0.093 cm
6
(ii) Displacement of the point on ground perpendicular to the chain line
= l (1 – cos )
= 8 (1 – cos 4°)
= 0.01948 cm
l(1 – cos )
Displacement of the point on plan = ___________
S
= 0.01948
_______
6
= 0.003 cm
e xample 2.14 Find the limiting length of an offset so that the displacement
of a point on the paper may not exceed 0.025 cm. The offset was laid 3° out from
its true direction and the scale was 10 m to 1 cm.
s olution
l sin /S = 0.025
or l = 0.025 S cosec 3°
= 0.025 10 cosec 3°
= 4.78 m
e xample 2.15 Find the maximum length of an offset so that the displacement
of the plotted position of the point on the paper from both sources of error does
not exceed 0.025 cm. The offset is measured with an accuracy of 1 in 30 and the
scale used is 1 cm = 25 m.
s olution The displacement of point on the ground from both sources of error
__
2l
= ___
r
__
2 l cm
= ___
30
62 Surveying
Hence,
= 0°
Since = 0°
No angular error can be permitted.
e xample 2.17 The angular error in laying off the perpendicular direction of
an offset was found to be 5°. What should be the accuracy with which the offset
should be measured so that the maximum displacement of point on paper from
both the sources of error be the same.
s olution
l sin = _rl
or l sin 5° = l/r
or r = cosec 5°
= 11.47
Hence, the offset must be measured with an accuracy of about 1 in 11.47 m.
Fig. 2.31. Following details are recorded in the field book on the commencement
of a chain line.
6. When features like road, fence, lake, etc., cross the chain line, the chainage
of intersection is entered and the direction of the feature is sketched.
7. Oblique offsets are written along with dimension line in the direction of
the offset.
River
90
D C
Establish
a point F at equal distances from D and
E at any convenient distance. Make FH
= FG. Then DE = (HG DF)/HF.
W.C.B. of A at D = 120°
ADC = 120° – 30° = 90°
Consider triangles BCD and BDA
CBD = ABD = 90°
BCD = BDA, and BDC = BAD
Hence, triangles BCD and BDA are similar triangles.
BC = ___
___ BD
BD AB
(BD)2 (100)2
or BC = _____ = ______ = 173.22 m
AB 57.73
Hence, width of river = 173.22 m.
e xample 2.19 A big pond obstructs the chain line ab as shown in Fig. 2.38.
A line al was measured on the left of the
line ab for circumventing the obstacle. The l 502 m b 548 m
m
length of al was 901 m. Similarly, the line
am was measured on the right of the line ab
whose length was 1100 m. Points m, b and
m
l are in the same straight line. Lengths of
90
00
1m
11
respectively. Find the distance ab.
s olution Consider triangle alm
lm = 502 + 548 = 1050 m a
Let lma =
(am)2 + (lm)2 – (al)2
cos = __________________
2(am)(lm) C
2 2 2
(1100) + (1050) – (901)
= ______________________
2 1100 1050
150.07
= ______ = 0.6497
231.00
In triangle abm
(ab)2 = (bm)2 + (am)2 – 2 (am) (bm) cos
= (548)2 + (1100)2 – 2 1100 548
0.6497
or ab = 852.66 m.
60 m
B E
e xample 2.20 A survey line ABC
80 m
crossing a river at right angles cut its banks at F
B and C, as shown in Fig. 2.39. To determine H D
G 60 m
the width BC of the river, the following
operation was carried out. 40 m
A
A 60 m long line BE was set out roughly
parallel to the river. Line CE was extended to
Horizontal Measurements 67
= 86.602 m
Chainage of D = chainage of B + BD C
= 100 + 86.602
= 186.602 m.
e xample 2.23 A river is flowing from west to east. For determining the width
of the river, two points A and B are selected on the southern bank such that distance
AB = 100 m. Point A is westwards. The bearings at a tree C on the northern bank
are observed to be 40° and 340°, respectively from A and B. Calculate the width
of the river.
s olution In ABC (Fig. 2.42)
CAB = 90° – 40° = 50°
CBA = 340° – 270° = 70°
ACB = 180° – ( CAB + CBA)
= 180° – (50° + 70°) = 60°
By sine rule
AC
_______ BC
= _______ AB
= _______
sin ABC sin CAB sin ACB
AC = AB sin 70° = 100
_________ 0.9396
___________
sin 60° 0.866
= 108.50 m
and BC = AB sin 50° =
_________ 76.60
_____
sin 60° 0.866
= 88.455
m
Width of the river = AC sin
50°
= 108.50
sin 50°
= 83.116
m
or Width of the river = BC sin
70°
= 88.455sin 70°
= 83.116
m.
Width of the river = 83.116 m.
Horizontal Measurements 69
2.18.1 Classification
EDM instruments may be classified according to their operational range or
according to the type and wavelength of the electromagnetic energy generated.
The EDM equipment can be split into three categories depending upon the range:
It isless than 3 km. Examples are tellurometer and mekenometer.
The accuracy is ± (0.2 + 1 mm/km).
It is less than 25 km. An example is a geodimeter. These
have a range of 5 km in daylight, and about 25 km in the night by using a
mercury lamp. The accuracy is ± (5 + 1 mm/km).
It is less than 100 km. Examples are tellurometer and distomat.
The latest distomat can be used up to a range of 150 km. The accuracy is ±
(10 + 3 mm/km).
According to the electromagnetic wave that carries the measuring signal, the
EDM instruments may be classified into two groups.
These generally employ radio waves of 30
mm wavelength with an exception of tellurometer MRA-4 using a wavelength of
80 mm.
These utilise visible and near-infrared
radiation to carry the measuring signals. The instruments either have helium–neon
70 Surveying
2.18.2 principle
There are basically two methods of measurement employed, the pulse method and
the phase difference method.
All the equipments used work on the principle that the distance D is equal to
the product of velocity v and time t. This is the essence the pulse method. The
speed of light in vacuum is well known. However, the measurements surveyors
take are not in vacuum and thus corrections for atmospheric conditions must be
applied. Also, because of great speed of light it is not possible to directly and
precisely measure the time interval when the light beam travels from instrument
to the reflector and back. For example, to get an accuracy of 0.003 m, it would
be necessary to measure the time interval to an accuracy of 5 10–12 seconds. To
overcome this problem, EDM instruments measure the phase difference between
the transmitted and received signals. Light beams of different wavelengths are used
to determine the distances. This forms the basis of phase difference method.
Figure 2.43 shows a schematic diagram of pulse method. A short,
intensive pulse of radiation is transmitted to a reflector target, which immediately
transmits it back, along a parallel path, to the receiver. The measured distance is
computed from the velocity of the signal multiplied by the time it took to complete
its path, i.e.,
2D = c t
D=c t/2 (10)
If the time of departure of the pulse from gate A is tA and the time of its reception
at gate B is tB, then (tB – tA) = t
c = the velocity of light in the medium through which it traveled
D = the distance between instrument and target
Horizontal Measurements 71
It can be seen from the equation for distance D that the distance is dependent
on the velocity of light in the medium and the accuracy of its transit time. Taking
an approximate value of 3 108 m/s for the speed of light, 10–10 s would be
equivalent to 15 mm of distance.
The distance that can be measured is largely a function of the power of the
pulse. Powerful laser systems can obtain tremendous distances when used with
retrodirective prisms and even medium distances when the pulse is ‘bounced’ off
natural or man-made features.
The majority of EDM instruments, whether infra-
red, light or microwave, use this form of measurement.
The basic equation used in this method is
2D = M +
where, M = integer part of wavelength (for example, M = 3 for wave A
in Fig. 2.44),
= fraction part of wavelength =
2
= wavelength
= phase difference
The double path measurement (2D) using smaller wavelength beam A is 3.5
(Fig. 2.44). However, the instrument will record only the phase difference ( ) i.e.,
72 Surveying
0.5. To determine the integer part i.e., M, a larger wavelength B (say, 4 times A) is
used which produces a phase difference of 0.9. In terms of basic measuring unit,
this is equal to 3.6 (0.9 × 4) and hence the value of M is taken as 3. Therefore,
the coarser part is taken as the integer part of the larger wavelength measurement
while the finer part is determined more accurately from the smaller wavelength
measurement. Thus the double path 2D is 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 . The distance can now
be calculated knowing the value of .
The electromagnetic waves are transmitted to a retroreflector (single or multiple
prisms) which instantly returns them to the transmitting instrument. The instrument
measures the phase shift. By comparison of the phase shift between the transmitted
and the reflected signals, the time and thus the distance can be determined.
K3
and S =K+ (2.2)
24 R 2
A modified form of Eq. (2.2) is used to suit the various instruments:
K3
S=K+ (for tellurometers)
43 R 2
K3
S=K+ (for geodimeters)
38 R 2
Horizontal Measurements 73
where Dm is the measured slope distance, ns is the standard refractive index of the
air and n is the refractive index of air at the time of observation.
Calculation of n is needed only in high-precision distance measurements. In
routine surveys, nomograms for the refractive index corrections, usually supplied
by the manufacturers with EDM instruments, can be used. The nomograms are
prepared on the basis of the above equations and the accepted calibration value
of the refractive index. The nomograms give corrections of the measured distance
that are slightly less accurate (about 2 ppm) than the results of rigorous
calculations. Some EDM instruments have a built-in automatic correction
system which only requires that the observer feed into the instrument the
results of the meterological measurements. It must be remembered, however,
that the fully automatic correcting systems give accurate results only when
atmospheric conditions along the measured line are the same as those at the
instrument station. In other cases, manual calculations of additional corrections
are always necessary.
The electric centres of EDM instruments usually do not
coincide with the centering marks used for plumbing the instruments above the
survey station. The internal distance travelled by electromagnetic waves in the
instruments is usually longer than the direct distance between the point of arrival
of the signal and the centering mark. This difference may be quite large and in
some models of tellurometers or geodimeters, is about 30 cm.
Manufactures of EDM instruments always supply information about the value
of the zero corrections that should be added to the measured distance to compensate
for the difference. Most new instruments are calibrated in such a way that the zero
correction is equal to zero. It has been found, however, that the value of the zero
correction may change after prolonged use of instruments. The change is usually
small in electro-optical instruments (a maximum of a few millimetres), but in
microwave instruments it may be of the order of several millimetres
(140 mm). Therefore, the zero correction should be frequently checked by
measuring several distances on a calibration base line. Distances from 50 to 500
m are recommended for the calibration of electro-optical instruments and from
200 to 1000 m for microwave instruments. If known distances are not available,
the value of the zero correction may be found by using a method of subdivided
distances. The method requires a straight line in a flat area with a few marked
points, say points A, B, C and D as shown in Fig. 2.46. The total distance AD
and the subdistances AB, BC and CD are
measured with the instruments to be
calibrated. Assuming that the zero
correction Z0 is the same (constant) for
each measured distance, its value can be
calculated by comparing the total distance
and the sum of the subdivided distances,
which means that
AD – (AB + BC + CD) = 2Z0
If the distances in Fig. 2.46 were measured in all combinations, the value of Z0
could also be calculated from the comparisons
Horizontal Measurements 75
AC – (AB + BC) = Z0
BD – (BC + CD) = Z0
In practise, it is recommended that a line be used with a minimum of four
subdivisions measured in all combinations and that the value of Z0 be calculated
by using the least squares adjustment method. Of course, the measured distances
should be corrected for the refractive index, slope, etc., prior to the calculation
of Z0.
Some EDM instruments demonstrate a relationship between the value of Z0
and the value of the phase difference, showing a cyclic change when changing
the distance over the range of the modulated half-wavelength. The cyclic change
may be discovered by measuring a known distance and changing it in steps of,
for instance, 1/20 of the half-wavelength.
If repeated measurements of different distances show a pronounced relationship
between the values of Z0 and phase difference, different zero corrections should be
applied in field measurements for different values of phase difference by means of
a tabulated or a graphical plot of the changeable Z0. In most cases, however, the
changes of Z0 should be applied as a constant correction regardless of the value
of phase difference contained in the measured distance.
The instrument is stationed at one of the two stations between which the
distance is to be measured. A reflector is placed on the other station. The light
from an incandescent lamp is focussed by means of achromatic condenser and is
plane polarized by means of a Nicol prism. The focussed light through a Kerr
cell is split into two parts having a phase difference. The Kerr cell consists of
two closely spaced conducting plates, the space between which is filled with
nitrobenzene. When a ray of light is focussed on it and high voltage is applied
to the plates, the light ray is split into two parts. The outcoming light from the
Kerr cell and the split light rays recombine, but because of the phase difference,
it becomes elliptically polarised. It passes through another Nicol prism from where
the diverging light is made parallel by a transmitter objective and thereafter is
reflected from a mirror lens to a large spherical concave mirror.
A reflex prism system or a spherical concave mirror, mirror lens and
receiver objective is placed on the other station. It reflects the light back to the
geodimeter.
The light of variable intensity after reflection impinges on the cathode of
the phototube. The impinging light photons on the cathode cause a few primary
electrons to leave and travel, accelerated by a high-frequency voltage, to the
first dynode (an additional electrode in a photomultiplier tube, which undergoes
secondary emission and thus effects amplification), where the secondary emission
takes place. This is repeated through eight dynodes. The final current is a few
million times greater than that at the cathode. The low-frequency vibrations are
eliminated by a series of chokes and condensers. The passage of this modulated
voltage is delayed by means of an adjustable delay unit. The difference between
the phototube currents during the positive and negative bias periods is measured
on the null indicator, which is a sensitive dc moving coil micrometer. In order to
obtain a null point, the phase of the high-frequency voltage from the Kerr cell
must be adjusted ± 90° with respect to the voltage generated by the light at the
cathode.
Thus, the light beam from the geodimeter at a station is reflected back to the
photomultiplier. The variation in the intensity of this reflected light causes the
current from the photomultiplier to vary where current is already being varied
by the direct signal from the crystal controlled oscillator. The phase difference
between the two pulses received by the cell are a measure of the distance between
the geodimeter station and the reflector station. A geometer – 220 as manufactured
by Geotronics-AB is shown in Plate 1.
2.18.5 tellurometer
The instrument was developed under the auspices of the South African Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research by T.L. Wadley. There are two types of
tellurometers. One gives the delay line output reading in terms of transit time and
the other gives a direct reading in metres. It uses high-frequency radio waves. Two
identical instruments are set up at the two stations between which the distance is
required. The master instrument sets the signal and the remote instrument receives,
monitors, and returns it to the master. The distance so obtained is checked by
78 Surveying
reversing the roles of the master and remote tellurometers. It can be used both
during day as well as night.
A block diagram of the tellurometer system is shown in Fig. 2.48. The master
set emits the microwaves at a frequency of 3 Mcps and are modulated by the
pattern wave at a frequency of 10 Mcps. The combined wave is reflected by
the remote instrument. The master instrument then separates the pattern wave to
measure the phase delay. Four low frequencies A, B, C, D of values 10, 9.99,
9.90, 9.00 Mcps are employed at the master station. The values of phase delay
corresponding to each of these are measured on the oscilloscope cathode ray tube.
The phase delay of B, C and D are subtracted from A in turns. The A values are
called fine readings, whereas B, C and D values are called coarse readings. The
wavelength of 10 Mcps pattern wave is approximately 30 m. The oscilloscope
scale is divided into 100 parts, each division being 0.3 m, and 0.3 m will be a
representation of the two-way journey of radio waves or approximately 0.15 m
in the length of line.
2.18.6 Mekenometer
It is an electro-optical distance measuring instrument having a range of 3 km. It
uses an intermittent signal of high frequency near 500 MHz. It was invented by
Dr. K.D. Froome of England.
The light is directed from a tungsten or helium-neon laser powered by a 12 V
battery to a retroreflector kept at a remote station. The reflected light is converted
Horizontal Measurements 79
2.18.7 Distomat
A distomat is the most precise and modern E.D.M. instrument. Two distomats are
used, one at each station. One is called ‘master distomat’ which sets the signal and
the other is called ‘remote distomat’ which receives, monitors, and reflects back
the signal. The distomat has an advantage over the other E.D.M. instruments in
that it searches the remote station within 2–3 s and because of the tilting axis, it
can be pointed like a theodolite telescope.
It uses 3 cm carrier waves of frequencies 10 324.3 MHz for the masters and
10 335 MHz for remote and measures frequencies of 14.98483 MHz for fine
measurements and 14.984836, 14.977337, 14.834932 and 13.486347 MHz for
coarse measurements. It can measure distances from 20 m to 150 km.
For communication loudspeaker and microphone are provided. At the touch
of the switch only the instrument automatically measures the phase shift to each
of the five different modulation frequencies. The frequencies used give scales of
1 m, 10 m, 100 m, 1000 m and 20 000 m. At the end of the measuring process,
the distance is displayed immediately as an eight-figure number with the millimetre
as the last figure. An example is Wild D15 distomat manufactured by M/s Wild
Heerbrug and is shown in Plate 2.
Summary
Chaining and taping are the two terms applied to the direct measurement of distance in
the field. Types of chains and tapes are described and the importance of finding horizontal
equivalent of the distance measured on ground is emphasised. The corrections required to
be applied due to usage of faulty chain and those due to measurements on natural ground
by a chain/tape are described.
80 Surveying
The concept of chainage and offsets to locate the objects/features are discussed. The
direct and indirect rangings in the process of measurement of distances longer than the
length of chain/tape are described. Also, the code of signals required in the process is
highlighted.
The obstacles related to chaining and ranging are discussed. The geometric and
trigonometric solutions to circumvent such problems are also suggested.
The use of electronics in the measurement of horizontal distance is introduced. The
principle of electromagnetic distance measurement technique and the EDM instruments are
described.
Exercises
2.1 Explain how a chain is tested and adjusted in the field.
2.2 Briefly describe the process of chaining.
2.3 Describe the various methods of chaining on a slope along with their advantages
and disadvantages.
2.4 Describe the following with sketches:
(i) Line ranger (ii) Optical square (iii) Prism square
(iv) Clinometer (v) Distomat (vi) Tellurometer
2.5 Differentiate between the following terms:
(i) Base line and check line
(ii) Main station and tie station
(iii) Chainage and offset
(iv) Cumulative and compensating errors
2.6 Explain the following terms: normal tension, hypotenusal allowance, cumulative
error, and ranging.
2.7 (a) Explain the various sources and nature of errors in chain survey.
(b) Describe the various tape corrections with sketches.
2.8 (a) Discuss briefly the principle of electromagnetic distance measurement.
(b) Explain how the EDM lines are reduced.
(c) Discuss the EDM corrections.
2.9 The area of a plan of an old map plotted to a scale of 10 m to 1 cm measures
100.2 cm2 as measured by a planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that
line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.7 cm. Further, the 20 m chain used was
8 cm too short. Find the true area of survey. [Ans. 105.6434 acres]
2.10 An area actually measures 0.8094 hectares. How much will it measure in m2 by a
30.48 m chain which was 20.32 cm too short at the start and 60.96 cm too long at
the end of the survey? [Ans. 7987.15 m2]
2.11 The area of a piece of a land which had been surveyed with a chain was calculated
to be 9562 m2. Of this, 8935 m2 was the total area of the triangles and 627 m2 was
the area included between chain lines and the boundary. The 30 m chain used was
found 0.05 m too long, and the 30 m tape used for measuring offsets was found 0.03
m too short from their nominal lengths. Calculate the correct area of the land.
[Ans. 9590.5 m2]
2.12 A line was measured with a 30 m long steel tape, standardised at 15°C, with a
pull of 100 N. Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time of
measurement was 20°C and the pull exerted was 160 N.
Weight of 1 cm3 of steel = 0.0786 N
Weight of tape = 8 N
Modulus of elasticity = 2.10 105 N/mm2
Coefficient of expansion of tape/°C = 7.1 10–7 [Ans. 0.49 mm]
Horizontal Measurements 81
2.13 The distance between two points P and Q measured along a slope is 250 m. Find
the horizontal distance between P and Q, if
(i) the angle of slope is 10°,
(ii) the slope is 1 in 4.5, and
(iii) the difference in elevation is 35 m.
[Ans. (i) 246.20 m. (ii) 244.04 m. (iii) 247.55 m]
2.14 Calculate up to five decimal places, the sag correction for a 100 m tape weighing
13.0 N. It is used under a pull of 90 N and in four equal spans of 25 m each.
[Ans. 0.005433 m]
2.15 To what precision would you measure the offsets, if the plan of the survey is to be
plotted to a scale of (i) 1 cm = 1 m and (ii) 1 cm = 10 m.
[Ans. (i) 2.5 cm, (ii) 25 cm]
2.16 A 2 km long line is measured with a tape of length 50 m which is standardised
under no pull at 15°C. The tape has cross-sectional area of 3.75 mm2. If one-half
of the line is measured at temperature of 20°C and the other half at 26°C and the
tape is stretched with a pull of 22 kg, find the corrected total length, given that the
coefficient of expansion is 12 10–6 per °C, weight of 1 cm3 of steel = 7.7504 g
and E = 2.11 106 kg/cm2. [Ans. 2000.384 m]
2.17 A steel tape is 30 m long between the end graduations at a temperature of 15°C
when it is laid horizontally on the ground. Its sectional area equals 0.065 cm2, total
weight is 15.8 N and the coefficient of expansion being 11.5 10–6 per °C. The
tape is stretched on two supports 30 m apart and is also supported in the middle,
the three supports being at the same level. Calculate the actual length between the
end graduations under the following conditions: temperature = 25°C, pull on the
tape = 100 N, and E = 2.11 105 N/mm2. [Ans. 29.991 m]
2.18 The three bays of a base line were measured by a steel tape in catenary as 30.084,
29.973 and 25.233 m, under respective pulls of 7, 7 and 5 kg, temperatures of 12°,
13° and 17°C and differences of level of supports of 0.3, 0.7 and 0.7 m. If the tape
was standardised on the flat at a temperature of 15°C under a pull of 4.5 kg, what
are the lengths of the bays? 30 m of tape is exactly 1 kg with steel at 8300 kg/m3.
The coefficient of expansion is 0.000011 per °C and the modulus of elasticity E =
2.1 105 N/mm2. [Ans. 30.055 m, 29.940 m and 25.174 m]
2.19 A steel tape was exactly 30 m long at 18°C when supported throughout it’s length
under a pull of 8 kg. A line was measured with a tape under a pull of 12 kg and
found to be 1602 m. The mean temperature during measurement was 26°C. Assuming
the tape was supported at every 30 m, calculate the true length of the line, given
cross-sectional area of the tape = 0.04 cm2. Weight of 1 cubic cm is 0.0077 kg,
coefficient of thermal expansion, = 0.000012 °C, E = 2.1 106 kg/cm2.
[Ans. 1602.22 m]
2.20 A line measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30 m at a temperature of
24°C and a pull of 10 kg. The measured length was 1650 m. The temperature
during measurement was 30°C and a pull applied was 15 kg. Find the true length
of the line, if the cross sectional area of the tape was 0.025 cm2. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of the material of the tape per °C is 3.5 10–6 and the modulus
of elasticity of the material of tape is 2.1 106 kg/cm2. [Ans. 27.7768 m]
2.21 A steel tape of 30 m nominal length was suspended between two supports to measure
the length of a line. The measured length on a slope of 4° 25 is 29.8605 m. The
mean temperature during the measurement was 15°C and the pull applied was 120
N. If the standard length of the tape is 30.008 m at 27°C at the standard pull of 50
N, calculate the correct horizontal length. Take the weight of tape = 0.16 N/m, it’s
82 Surveying
cross sectional area = 2.75 mm2, coefficient of thermal expansion = 1.2 10–5 per
°C and E = 2.05 106 N/mm2. [Ans. 29.77002 m]
2.22 The slope distance between two stations A and B of elevations 1572.25 m and
4260.46 m, corrected for meteorological conditions is 33449.215 m. Determine sea
level distance, R = 6370 km. [Ans. 33332.789 m]
2.23 Using EDM, top-mounted on a theodolite, a distance of 1500 m is measured on an
angle of inclination of 10°00 00 . Compute the horizontal distance.
Now, taking R = 6.4 106 m and the coefficient of refraction m = 0.07, correct the
vertical angle for refraction effects, and recompute the horizontal distance.
If the EDM equipment used above was accurate to ± (3 mm + 5 ppm), calculate
the required accuracy of the vertical angle, and thereby indicate whether or not it
is necessary to correct it for refraction.
Calculate the equivalent error allowable in leveling the two ends of the above
measured line.
[Ans: Corrected angle = 9°59 56.65 ; 1477.2158 m;
vertical angle correction = ±8.08 ; ±0.0465 m]
2.22 Which of the following instruments is generally used for base line measurement?
(a) Chain (b) Metallic tape
(c) Steel tape (d) Invar tape
2.23 The length of a chain is measured from the
(a) centre of one handle to the centre of other handle
(b) outside of one handle to the outside of other handle
(c) outside of one handle to the inside of other handle
(d) inside of one handle to the inside of other handle
2.24 If the length of a chain is found to be short on testing, it can be adjusted by
(a) straightening the links
(b) removing one or more small circular rings and by placing bigger rings
(c) flattening of the rings, if opened
(d) All of the above
2.25 If the length of a chain is found to be too long on testing, it can be adjusted by
(a) closing the opened joints of rings
(b) reshaping elongated links
(c) removing one or more circular rings
(d) all of the above
2.26 Which of the following is an obstacle to chaining but not to ranging?
(a) River (b) Hillock
(c) Building (d) None of the above
2.27 A building is an obstacle to
(a) chaining but not to ranging (b) ranging but not to chaining
(c) both chaining and ranging (d) neither chaining nor ranging
2.28 Which of the following is not used in measuring perpendicular offsets?
(a) Line ranger (b) Tape
(c) Optical square (d) Cross-staff
2.29 The main difference between an optical square and a prism square is
(a) the difference in the principle of working
(b) that an optical square is more accurate than a prism square
(c) that no adjustment is required in a prism square since the angle between the
reflecting surfaces cannot be changed
(d) All of the above
2.30 The allowable length of an offset depends upon the
(a) degree of accuracy required
(b) method of setting out the perpendicular and nature of ground
(c) scale of plotting
(d) All of the above
2.31 Normal tension is that pull which
(a) is used at the time of standardising the tape
(b) neutralizes the effect due to sag
(c) makes the correction due to sag equal to zero
(d) makes the correction due to pull equal to zero
2.32 The correction for sag is
(a) always additive
(b) always subtractive
(c) always zero
(d) sometimes additive and sometimes subtractive
2.33 For setting out an offset at an angle of 45° with a chain line, the instrument used is
(a) an optical square (b) an open cross-staff
(c) a French cross-staff (d) a prism square
Horizontal Measurements 85
2.34 Which of the following is the most precise instrument for measuring horizontal
distances?
(a) Chain (b) Tape (c) Tacheometer (d) Tellurometer
2.35 Two mirrors are used for offsetting in
(a) cross-staff (b) optical square
(c) miner’s dial (d) prismatic compass
2.36 A 20 m chain was found to be 10 cm too long after chaining a distance of 2000 m.
It was found to be 18 cm too long at the end of the day’s work after chaining a
total distance of 4000 m. What is the true distance if the chain was correct before
the commencement of the day’s work?
(a) 3962 m (b) 4019 m (C) 3981 m (d) 4038 m
2.37 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The cost of making a horizontal measurement decreases with an increase in
the desired precision.
(b) A base line may be measured with a precision of 1 in 106.
(c) Tie stations are generally located on the intersection of two main survey
lines.
(d) Base line is a line lying at the base of the area to be surveyed by a chain.
2.38 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Offset is the distance from the foot of an object to the chain line
(ii) Perpendicular offsets may have infinite length
(a) only (i) is correct (b) only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None of the above
2.39 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A revenue chain is 66 ft long.
(b) Gunter devised the invar tape.
(c) A tally is used to facilitate observation in an optical square.
(d) A brass ring is provided at every metre length in a metric chain.
2.40 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Invar is an alloy of steel (36%) and nickel (64%).
(b) A steel tape is soft and easily deforms as compared to invar tape.
(c) Metallic tape is made by weaving linen with brass wires.
(d) Steel tapes can be used comfortably in grounds with weeds and vegetation.
2.41 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A ranging rod is provided with a stout open ring recessed hook.
(b) An offset cannot be laid with a French cross-staff.
(c) Optical square and cross-staff are used for the same purpose.
(d) Clinometer is used to measure the directions of survey lines in chain
survey.
2.42 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) In the process of chaining, the leader inserts the arrows and the follower picks
them up.
(ii) A leader follows the instructions of the follower.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None of the above
2.43 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) It is easy to measure distance down the slopes.
(b) Incorrect plumbing, while measuring distances on slopes, is a cumulative
error.
(c) Sag correction is a cumulative error.
(d) Incorrect holding of chain at arrow is a compensating error.
86 Surveying
Introduction
Surveying is concerned with the relative location of points on, above or below the
surface of the earth. It therefore becomes necessary to start from known points
on a line. If the location of two points is known, a third point may be located by
measuring the distances from the already located points. The relative position of
the third point is at times also expressed in terms other than the distance alone.
In such cases, direction may be used for the location of a point by any of the
following methods:
1. By measuring its distance from one of the given points and its direction
from the other point.
2. By measuring its distance and direction from any of the two known points.
3. By measuring its direction from each of the two known points.
The direction of the survey lines is measured with the help of an instrument
known as compass. The action of terrestrial magnetism causes the needle of the
compass to be aligned along a magnetic meridian. The end of the needle pointing
to the North Pole is the north end. The diameter of the graduated ring of the
compass determines its size. A 10 cm compass means a compass, whose graduated
ring has a diameter of 10 cm. The direction of survey lines may be defined in
two ways: (i) relative to each other, (ii) relative to some reference direction. In the
first case, the directions are expressed in terms of angles between two consecutive
lines, measured with a theodolite. In the second case, these are expressed in terms
of bearings, measured with a compass.
Compass, being light and portable, is most suited for reconnaissance and
exploratory survey. It is particularly advantageous when the survey lines have to
be short due to obstructions or irregularities of details. Some of the applications
and uses of compass survey are:
1. To find out the magnetic bearing of a line
2. To fill in details
3. To find the direction during night marching
4. Tracing streams
5. Plotting irregular shore lines
6. Reconnaissance survey
7. Clearings in roads
Compass Surveying 89
In compass surveying, the magnetic bearings are observed at each and every
station during reconnaissance and exploratory surveys. This method of surveying
is used when lightness of equipment and speed are of great account rather than
refinement of observations.
Since the magnetic poles keep on changing with time the magnetic bearings
also change and are therefore not reliable. The observed magnetic bearings should
therefore be converted to true bearings; the true meridian is invariant. Hence, for
import projects the survey is plotted to true bearings. For this it is important to
know the difference of angle between true meridian and magnetic meridian, known
as magnetic declination, at the place of observation and at the particular instance
the observation is made. This information can be obtained from the nautical
alumnac for the particular year in which the observations are made. Another
important factor that may impair the observations is local attraction, the effect of
magnetic materials present in the vicinity of the magnetic compass.
The types of compass in use, their details and adjustments, method of use,
making observations of magnetic bearings, and calculation of included angles
thereof, the magnetic declination, dip and local attraction are discussed in the
sections to follow.
Some of the more frequently used terms in this chapter are defined in the
following section for making the reader familiar and comfortable with compass
surveying.
3.1 Definitions
It is the fixed direction in which the bearings of survey lines are
expressed.
It is the horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the
survey line measured in clockwise or anticlockwise direction. The bearing is
described either from north or south and the angle described is either east or west.
The bearing of a line is obtained with the aid of whole circle bearing, quadrantal
bearing (reduced bearing) and grid bearing (in geodetic survey).
The true meridian passing through a point on the earth’s
surface is the line in which a plane passing through the given point (say A) and
the geographic (true) north and south poles, N
intersects the surface of the earth. It represents
the true north-south direction at the place
(Fig. 3.1). A
The direction of true meridian at a station is
invariable, i.e., its direction is always the same.
O O
The invariance of the true meridian, therefore,
is of considerable importance for large surveys.
It may save much time in retracing of the
lines during final location and construction.
The true meridians through various stations
S
are not parallel, but converge at the poles. For
small surveys, they are however assumed to be
90 Surveying
parallel to each other. The determination of its direction through a station involves
astronomical observations.
The horizontal angle measured clockwise between the true
meridian and the line is called true bearing of the line.
Grid meridian is the reference meridian for a country on a
national survey map. The vertical grid lines on a national survey map indicate
the direction of grid north. For survey of a country, the true meridian of a central
place is regarded as the reference meridian. All the other meridians in the country
are assumed to be parallel to the grid meridian.
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the grid (central)
meridian is called grid bearing.
It is the direction indicated by a freely suspended and
balanced magnetic needle unaffected by local attractive forces. The location of the
magnetic poles is constantly changing, hence the direction of magnetic meridian
also changes. However, the magnetic meridian is employed as a line of reference
on rough surveys.
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the
magnetic meridian is called magnetic bearing. It varies with time.
It is any convenient direction, usually from a survey
station to some well-defined permanent object. The first line of survey at times is
also taken as arbitrary meridian.
The horizontal angle measured with respect to the
arbitrary meridian is called arbitrary bearing.
When survey is done for a large area, i.e., when curvature of earth
is accounted for (in geodesy), bearing of lines are sometimes reckoned as azimuth.
The azimuth is called geographic if it is reckoned from the geographic meridian,
and magnetic, if reckoned from the magnetic meridian in the same manner as that
for bearings. It is reckoned clockwise from the north of the reference meridian,
typically the true meridian, and is measured from 0° to 360°. Since the meridians
through different points on the earth’s surface are not parallel (converge at poles),
the azimuths of the same straight line are
different at different points (Fig. 3.2). The
angle between the geographic north, say
N2, and the grid north N is called the
meridian convergence. However, in plane
surveying, the points under consideration are
close enough to regard the meridians through
corresponding points as being parallel to
each other; = 0. Therefore, for small areas,
the meridians through various points are
assumed to be parallel.
Compass Surveying 91
Since the treatment of the text presented in the chapter is for plane surveying,
in the sections to follow the term bearing will be used for the direction of survey
lines.
10 11
14
13
9
12 8
7
6 5
2
15
3 4
9. The inverted figures in the graduated ring below the prism can be read
erect after being reflected from the hypotenuse side of the prism, when
the observer looks horizontally into the prism.
10. The two perpendicular faces of the prism are made convex, so that it also
acts as a magnifier.
11. When not in use, the object vane may be folded on the glass lid. It presses
against a lever which lifts the needle off the pivot, thus preventing undue
wear of the pivot point.
12. Breaking pin, provided at the base of the object vane is used to dampen
the oscillations of the needle to facilitate the reading.
13. A prismatic compass reads the whole circle bearing of the lines of objects
directly.
8
10 7 5
11 9
4
1 2
2. The edge bar type magnetic needle floats freely over the pivot and is not
attached to the ring. When the magnetic needle is lowered to its pivot, it
will come to rest pointing north.
3. The eye vane consists of metal vane with a fine sight hole.
4. As the compass box is turned, the letters N, E, S, and W turn with it, but
the needle continues to point towards the north and gives a reading which
is dependent on the position of the graduated circle.
5. The 0° is placed at both north and south directions and 90° is marked at
east and west directions.
94 Surveying
6. The east and west markings are interchanged from their normal position as
shown in Fig. 3.6(a) to read the bearings in the proper quadrant. Suppose
the compass is rotated to point N30°30 E. In reading the bearing, the north
end of the needle will be found between the letters N and E or 30°30 from
N towards E. If W had been on the left in place of E, as one naturally
expects it to be, the north end of the needle would fall between N and
W, which might lead to the mistake calling the bearing to be NW instead
of NE.
A comparison of the construction, principle and working of surveyor and
prismatic compasses is given in Table 3.1.
W E
90
W
0
0
S S
3.3.1 Centring
A tripod is placed over the station with its legs spread well apart so that it is at
a workable height. The compass is fixed on the tripod. It is then centred over the
station, where the bearing is to be taken (i.e., the centre of the compass, the pivot
is brought exactly above the ground station). A plumb bob is hung from the centre
of compass to ensure exact centring. In case the arrangement for a plumb bob is
not provided, a stone is dropped from below the compass and it should fall on
the peg marking the ground station.
3.3.2 Levelling
The compass is levelled by eye judgement. This is essential so that the graduated
ring swings freely. Sometimes, in surveyor’s compass, two plate levels at right
angles are also provided to level the instrument. The levelling is achieved by a
ball and socket arrangement which is adjusted till the bubbles become central in
both the plate levels.
e xample 3.1
(i) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings.
(a) 56°20 (b) 170°05 (c) 218°30 (d) 272°50
(ii) Convert the following quadrantal bearings into whole circle bearings.
(a) N10°00 E (b) S30°14 E (c) S02°10 W (d) N18°20 W
s olution
(i) (a) W.C.B. = 56°20 Q.B. = N56°20 E
(b) W.C.B. = 170°05 Q.B. = 180° – 170°05 = S9°55 E
(c) W.C.B. = 218°30 Q.B. = 218°30 – 180° = S38°30 W
(d) W.C.B. = 272°50 Q.B. = 360° – 272°50 = N87°10 W
Compass Surveying 97
N N
N
B
C
A S S
S
W E W E W E W E
B
S S S B S
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.13. Convert the quadrantal bearings to whole circle
bearings.
Lines F.B. B.B.
AB 142°30 322°30
BC 223°15 44°15
CD 287°00 107°45
DE 12°45 193°15
EA 60°00 239°00
A 142 30
60 00
E
B
223 15
12 45
D C
287 00
Compass Surveying 101
As the traversing is done in the clockwise direction, the included angles will
be exterior angles.
Included angle = F.B. of next line – B.B. of previous line
A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of EA = 142°30 – 239°00
= – 96°30 = – 96°30 + 360° = 263°30
B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB = 223°15 – 322°30 = – 99°15
= – 99°15 + 360° = 260°45
C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC = 287°00 – 44°15 = 242°45
D = F.B. of DE – B.B. of CD = 12°45 – 107°45
= – 95°00 = – 95° + 360° = 265°00
E = F.B. of EA – B.B. of DE = 60°00 – 193°15
= – 133°15 = – 133°15 + 360° = 226°45
Sum of angles = A + B + C + D
= 263°30 + 260°45 + 242°45 + 265°00 + 226°45
= 1258°45
Theoretical sum (2 5 + 4) × 90° = 1260°
Error = 1260° – 1258°45 = 1°15 = 75
Correction for each angle = + 75 /5 = + 15
Hence, corrected included angles are:
A = 263°30 + 15 = 263°45
B = 260°45 + 15 = 261°00
C = 242°45 + 15 = 243°00
D = 265°00 + 15 = 265°15
E = 226°45 + 15 = 227°00
Check: sum of corrected included angles = 1260°
e xample 3.4 The following angles were observed in the clockwise direction
in an open traverse.
ABC = 124°15
BCD = 156°30
CDE = 102°00
DEF = 95°15
EFG = 215°45
The magnetic bearing of the line AB was 241°30 . What would the bearing of
the line FG?
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.15.
A
241 30
B
124 15
C 156 30
215 45 G
F
102 00
D 95 15
e xample 3.5 Three ships A, B and C started sailing from Mumbai at the
same time. The speed of all the three ships was the same at 30 km/h. Their bearings
were measured and found to be
N
N70°E, S60°E and S10°E,
respectively (Fig. 3.16). After an A
hour the captain of ship B,
determined the bearings of other
70
two ships with respect to his own
ship and calculated the distances. W E
Calculate the bearings and distances O 5
60
which might have been determined
10
by the captain of ship B. B
s olution
Speed of the ships = 30 km/h S C
Lines joining the places of equal magnetic declination are known as isogonic
lines and those joining the places of zero declination are termed as agonic lines.
On the agonic lines, the magnetic needle defines true as well as magnetic north.
The values of magnetic declination, place and datewise, are determined by
astronomical observations and are listed in nautical alamanacs, published every
Compass Surveying 105
year. For the maps prepared with magnetic bearings in the past, the magnetic bearings of
the lines at present can be determined. This helps to retrace the already plotted lines on
the old maps.
e xample 3.6 The magnetic bearing of line PQ is 124°35 . Find its true
bearing, if the magnetic declination is 10°10 W.
s olution True bearing of line = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination
E/W.
Since, magnetic meridian is to the west.
True bearing = 124°35 – 10°10 = 114°25
e xample 3.7 The magnetic bearing of line PQ is S40°E and the magnetic
declination is 8°5 E. What is the true bearing of the line?
s olution The W.C.B. of line PQ = 180° – 40° = 140°
True bearing of PQ = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
= 140° + 8°5 = 148°5
106 Surveying
e xample 3.8 The magnetic bearing of a line in MNNIT Allahabad was found
to be N60°30 W in 1992, when the declination was 5°10 E. Find its present
magnetic bearing, if declination is 3°W.
s olution Magnetic bearing of the line in 1992 = N60°30 W
W.C.B. = 360° – 60°30 = 299°30
True bearing = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
= 299°30 + 5°10 = 304°40
Present declination is 3°W.
True bearing = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
304°40 = magnetic bearing – 3°
or, Magnetic bearing = 307°40
= N52°20 W
e xample 3.9 Find the value of magnetic declination if the magnetic bearing
of sun at noon is 356°.
s olution True bearing = magnetic bearing magnetic declination E/W
True bearing of sun at noon is 360°.
Declination = true bearing – magnetic bearing = 360° – 356° = 4°
As the declination is positive, it is eastwards. Hence, magnetic declination is
4° E.
e xample 3.11 In an anticlockwise traverse ABCA, all the three sides were
equal in length. The magnetic fore bearing of the line BC obtained by prismatic
Compass Surveying 107
compass was 15°30 . The bearing of sun observed was 184°30 at local noon with
the compass. Calculate the magnetic bearing and true bearings of all the sides of
the traverse.
s olution The given traverse ABCA is an equilateral triangle. Since the
traversing performed was anticlockwise, the included angles to be considered for
the determination of bearings would be the interior angles. For an equilateral
triangle the interior angles are 60° each.
F.B. of a line = F.B. of previous line + clockwise included angle
Given F.B of BC = 15°30
F.B of CA = F.B of BC + BCA
= 15°30 + 60°
= 75°30 + 180°
= 255°30
F.B of AB = F.B of CA + CAB
= 255°30 + 60°
= 315°30
= 315°30 – 180°
= 135°30
True bearing = magnetic bearing declination E/W
True bearing of sun at noon is 180°. Hence,
180° = 184°30 declination E/W
Declination = 180° – 184°30 = – 4°30
Hence, declination = 4°30 W
True fore bearings of
line BC = 15°30 – 4°30 = 11°
line CA = 255°30 – 4°30 = 251°
line AB = 135°30 – 4°30 = 131°
3.10 Dip
A magnetic needle is an essential feature of all the compasses. It consists of a
symmetrical and slender bar of magnetised cast steel supported at its centre of
gravity, on a sharp and hard steel pivot. When suspended freely, it takes up a
position parallel with the earth’s magnetic lines. In horizontal projection these
lines define the magnetic meridian and thus the longitudinal axis of the magnetic
needle lies in the plane of magnetic meridian and exhibits the direction magnetic
north and south.
It is observed that in elevation, a magnetic needle in equilibrium is not in
a horizontal plane, but in a plane inclined at a definite angle to the horizontal.
This is because in elevation the lines of magnetic earth are inclined downward
towards north in northern hemisphere and also downward towards south in southern
108 Surveying
the bearings observed on these stations are assumed to be free from local
attraction.
3. The back bearing of the preceding line and the fore bearing of the next
line will also be correct, since these are observed at the station free from
local attraction. The correct fore bearing of the preceding line or back
bearing of the next line may be calculated by adding or subtracting 180°
as the case may be and thus the correct bearing is obtained.
4. If the observed bearing is more than correct bearing determined in Step 3,
the error at the station will be positive and therefore the correction will
be negative, and vice versa.
5. The bearings of the lines are thus corrected one by one in succession.
This method is most suitable for a closed traverse. It may
be noted that the local attraction affects all the magnetic bearings observed at
that station by a fixed amount and in the same direction. Therefore, the included
angles deduced even from the bearings affected by local attraction will be the
true included angles at the affected stations. To correct the affected bearings, the
following process is carried out:
1. Calculate the interior angles of the traverse and check their sum against
(2n ± 4) right angles. If there is any error in the observed bearings other
than local attraction, the theoretical sum of included angles will not tally
with the sum of the calculated included angles.
2. Distribute the error, if any, equally to all the angles.
3. Locate the line, whose fore and back bearings differ by 180°. The fore
and back bearings of this line are taken to be correct.
4. Find out the correct bearing of the successive lines by using the correct
observed bearing and the corrected included angles as explained in
Section 3.8.
It may happen that in a closed traverse no line has a difference of 180° in its
fore and back bearings. In such a case, the line with the least discrepancy is
selected. Then the fore and back bearings of this line are adjusted so as to make the
difference exactly 180°. Now assuming the fore bearing of this line to be correct, the correct
fore bearings of all other lines are calculated as explained before.
e xample 3.13 The following bearings were taken in running a closed compass
traverse while surveying in Jhansi, Allahabad:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 48°25 230°00
BC 177°45 356°00
CD 104°15 284°55
DE 165°15 345°15
EA 259°30 79°00
(i) State the stations which are affected by local attraction and by how
much.
(ii) Determine the correct bearings.
(iii) Calculate the true bearings, if the declination was 1°30 W.
Compass Surveying 111
s olution On inspection we find that the fore and back bearings of line DE
differ exactly by 180°. Hence, stations D and E are free from local attraction. The
fore bearing of EA is accepted to be correct.
F.B. of EA 259°30 (correct)
Subtract 180° – 180°00
Correct B.B. of EA 79°30
Observed B.B. of EA 79°00
Error at A – 30
Correction at A = + 30
Observed F.B. of AB 48°25
Correction + 30
Corrected F.B. of AB 48°55
Add 180° 180°00
Correct B.B. of AB 228°55
Observed B.B. of AB 230°00
Error at B 1°05
Correction at B = – 1°05
Observed F.B. of BC 177°45
Correction – 1°05
Corrected F.B. of BC = 176°40
Add 180° 180°00
Correct B.B. of BC = 356°40
Observed B.B. of BC 356°00
Error at C – 40
Correction at C = + 40
Observed F.B. of CD 104°15
Correction + 40
Corrected F.B. of CD = 104°55
Add 180° + 180°00
Correct B.B. of CD = 284°55
Observed B.B. to CD = 284°55 (checked)
The stations affected by local attraction are A, B and C, and by – 30 , + 1°5
and – 40 , respectively.
Bearings corrected for local attraction are:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 48°55 228°55
BC 176°40 356°40
CD 104°55 284°55
DE 165°15 345°15
EA 259°30 79°30
As the magnetic declination is 1°30 W, subtract this from the fore and back
bearings to get the true bearings.
112 Surveying
e xample 3.14 Given below are the bearings observed in a traverse survey
conducted with a prismatic compass at a
place where local attraction was
suspected:
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB 124°30 304°30
BC 68°15 246°00
CD 310°30 135°15
DA 200°15 17°45
At what stations do you suspect local
attraction? Find the correct bearings of the
lines and the included angles.
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.18.
1st Method: By applying correction to
the bearings
On inspection we find that the fore and
back bearings of line AB differ exactly
by 180°. Hence, A and B are free from
local attraction. The bearings observed
at stations A and B are accepted to be
correct.
Fore bearing of BC = 68°15 (correct)
Add + 180°00
Correct back bearing of BC 248°15
Observed back bearing of BC 246°00
Error at C – 2°15
Correction + 2°15
Fore bearing of CD = 310°30
Correction = + 2°15
Corrected F.B. of CD = 312°45
Subtract – 180°00
Correct back bearing of CD = 132°45
Observed back bearing of CD = 135°15
Error at D = + 2°30
Correction at D = – 2°30
Compass Surveying 113
e xample 3.15 The following bearings were taken while conducting a close
traverse with a compass in a place where local attraction was suspected:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 80°45 260°00
BC 130°30 311°35
CD 240°15 60°15
DA 290°30 110°10
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected bearings
for local attraction and for declination of 1°30 W.
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.19. On examining the fore and back bearings of the
lines, it is found that the fore and back bearings of the line CD differ exactly by
180°. Hence, stations C and D are free from local attraction. Stations affected
by local attraction are A and B. Since the traversing has been done in clockwise
direction, the included angles are the exterior angles.
Compass Surveying 115
e xample 3.16 Give the corrected bearings of the following traverse taken
from a compass survey.
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB 191°30 13°00
BC 69°30 246°30
CD 32°15 210°30
DE 262°45 80°45
EA 230°15 53°00
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.20. The included angles are first calculated.
As the traverse is running anticlockwise, the included angles will be the interior
angles.
A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of EA
= 191°30 – 53°00 = 130°30
B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB
= 69°30 – 13°00 = 56°30
C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC
= 32°15 – 246°30
= – 214°15 (exterior angle)
= 360° – 214°15 = 145°45
D = F.B. of DE – B.B. of CD
= 262°45 – 210°30 = 52°15
E = F.B. of EA – B.B. of DE
= 230°15 – 80°45 = 149°30
Check: Theoretical sum of the angles = (2n – 4) 90° = 540° (n = 5)
Sum of the observed angles = 138°30 + 56°30 + 145°45 + 52°15 + 149°30
118 Surveying
= 542°30
The error in included angles = 542°30 – 540°
= + 2°30
Correction = – 2°30
This correction is distributed equally in all the angles
Corrected angles A = 138°38 – 30 = 138°00
B = 56°30 – 30 = 56°00
C = 145°45 – 30 = 145°15
D = 52°15 – 30 = 51°45
E = 149°30 – 30 = 149°00
On examining the values of the observed
bearings of the lines, it will be noticed that no line in the traverse has a difference
of 180° in its fore and back bearings. As all the stations are affected by local
attraction, the line having the least deviation from 180° in its fore and back
bearings is chosen, and to correct it, the error is distributed equally in its fore
bearing and back bearing.
Line F.B. B.B. Difference Deviation Correction Correct F.B.
AB 191°30 13°00 178°30 1°30 1°30 /2 192°15
BC 69°30 246°30 177°00 3°00 = 45
CD 32°15 210°30 178°15 1°45
DE 262°45 80°45 182°00 2°00
EA 230°15 53°00 177°15 2°45
Summary
In this chapter the instrument, compass, used to measure the directions (bearings) of survey
lines has been discussed. A compass measures the directions with respect to magnetic
meridian, a line on the earth’s surface joining magnetic north and south poles. These poles
are different from true (geographical) north and south poles. A line joining true north
and south poles on the earth surface is called true meridian, which is invariant. Since the
magnetic poles keep on changing with time the magnetic bearings of survey lines also keep
on changing and if later sometimes the survey lines are to be retraced or relocated the
surveyor might not. Therefore, it is suggested to plot the compass survey with respect to
true bearings. The magnetic bearing of the survey lines measured with compass are therefore
converted to true bearings. This is accomplished with the help of the angle between true
meridian and magnetic meridian, known as declination (data available in nautical alumnac),
at particular place and time of observation.
The Surveyor compass or Prismatic compass may be used for measuring bearings. The
two types of compasses are described in detail. The prismatic compass has a least count
of 30 as compared to that of 1° of surveyor compass. Also, since the parallax of eye is
eliminated while making reading through a prism, the prismatic compass is preferred.
A major problem with the magnetic compass is of local attraction, the deflection of the
magnetic needle due to the influence of magnetic materials nearby the place of instrument
station. Since this influence in magnitude and direction will be same for all the survey lines
at a station, the included angles are unaffected although the magnetic bearings are impaired.
The method to circumvent this problem of local attraction is discussed in detail.
Compass Surveying 121
Exercises
3.1 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Fore bearing and back bearing
(b) Quadrantal bearing and whole circle bearing
(c) True bearing and magnetic bearing
3.2 Define the following: true meridian, local attraction, magnetic declination, dip of
needle.
3.3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of compass survey? State the limits of
precision of compass survey.
3.4 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Isogonic and agonic lines
(b) Isoclinic and aclinic lines
(c) Declination and dip
(d) Graduated circle of prismatic compass and surveyor compass
3.5 State the differences between the trough and tubular compass in a tabular form.
3.6 Write short notes on:
(a) Dip of needle (b) Declination (c) Local attraction.
3.7 Discuss the functions of the following in a compass:
(a) Prism (b) Looking mirror (c) Sleeve weight on the needle.
3.8 Why is it desirable to plot maps with true bearings than with magnetic bearings?
3.9 Sketch and describe the salient features of prismatic compass and surveyor
compass.
3.10 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Bearing and azimuth (b) Magnetic and true meridians
3.11 Explain in a tabular form the differences between a prismatic compass and a surveyor
compass.
3.12 What is meant by local attraction? How is it detected and how are the observed
bearings corrected for local attraction?
3.13 Explain the following statements with sketches:
(a) East and west are intercharged from their normal position in a surveyor
compass
(b) The 0° is placed at the south end in a prismatic compass.
3.14 Does local attraction at a point affect the size of an angle computed from magnetic
bearing read at that point? Explain.
3.15 The following are the observed fore bearings of the line. Calculate the respective
back bearings.
(a) AB 24°30 (b) CD 120°
(c) EF 268°30 (d) GH 353°
(e) AB N62°E (f) CD S12°30 E
(g) EF S59°30 W (h) GH N88°W
[Ans. (a) AB 204°30 (b) CD 300°
(c) EF 88°30 (d) GH 173°
(e) AB S62°W (f) CD N12°30 W
(g) EF N59°30 E (h) GH S88°E
3.16 Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings.
(a) 10°18 (b) 95°12 (c) 225°30 (d) 350°10
[Ans. N10°18 E, S84°48 E, S45°30 W, N9°50 W]
3.17 Convert the following quadrantal bearings to whole circle bearings.
(a) N6°20 E (b) S17°25 E (c) N17°25 W (d) N11°W
[Ans. 6°20 , 162°35 , 342°35 , 349°00 ]
122 Surveying
3.18 The magnetic bearing of sun at noon was 170°. Calculate the magnetic declination.
[Ans. 10°E]
3.19 A line was drawn to a magnetic bearing of S50°00 E on an old plan when the
magnetic declination was 2°40 W. To what bearing should it be set now if the present
declination is 3°20 E? [Ans. S56°E]
3.20 The bearings of the sides of a triangle ABC are as follows. Compute the interior
angles.
AB = 60°, BC = 130°, and CA = 270°
[Ans. A = 30°, B = 110°, C = 40°]
3.21 Find out the bearing of the lines of an equilateral triangle ABC running clockwise,
if the bearing of the line AB is 60°30 .
[Ans. BC = 180°30 , CA = 300°30 ]
3.22 The following bearings were observed in running a compass traverse:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 66°15 244°00
BC 129°45 313°00
CD 218°30 37°30
DA 306°45 126°45
Find the correct fore and back bearings and the true bearings of the lines, given
that the magnetic declination is 1°40 E.
[Ans. True bearings AB = 67°55 , BC = 133°40 ,
CD = 219°10 , DA = 308°25 ]
3.23 The fore and back bearings of a closed traverse conducted at Naini, Allahabad are
given below. Indicate which stations are affected by local attraction. Also find out the
corrected bearings. If the value of declination is 4°W, find out the true bearings.
Line Fore bearing Back bearing
AB S55°30 E N55°30 W
BC N68°15 E S66°00 W
CD N49°30 W S44°45 W
DA S20°15 W N17°45 E
[Ans. AB = S59°30 E, BC = N64°15 E,
CD = N51°15 W, DA = S13°45 W]
3.24 To find out the included angles in a closed survey PQRSTP, the following
observations were made with the compass. Calculate the included angles after
correcting for local attractions.
Line Fore bearing Back bearing
PQ N62°45 E S62°15 W
QR N21°00 E S20°45 W
RS N71°30 W S71°30 E
ST S39°00 W N38°00 E
TP S54°30 E N53°15 W
[Ans. TPQ = 115°54 , PQR = 138°39 , QRS = 87°39 ,
RST = 110°24 , STP = 87°24 ]
Objective-type Questions
3.1 A declination of 3° east means
(a) magnetic north is 3° east of true north
(b) magnetic north is 3° west of true north
(c) true north in 3° east of magnetic north
(d) true south is 3° east of magnetic south
Compass Surveying 123
3.2 The whole circle bearing of a line is 300°. Its quadrantal bearings is
(a) S60°E (b) N60°W (c) N30°W (d) N60°E
3.3 The angle of dip at a point on equator is
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 180°
3.4 If the back bearing of a line is N30°W, its fore bearing is
(a) S30°W (b) S30°E (c) N30°E (d) N30°W
3.5 The whole circle bearing of a line, whose quadrantal bearing is S19°30 E is
(a) 19°30 (b) 199°30 (c) 160°30 (d) 340°30
3.6 Which will be included angle AOB if the bearings of the lines AO and OB are
respectively 40° and 130°?
(a) 90° (b) 170° (c) 270° (d) 130°
3.7 Which will be the included angle AOB if the bearings of the lines AO and OB are
130° and 40°, respectively?
(a) 90° (b) 170° (c) 270° (d) 130°
3.8 The fore bearing of line AB is 209°. The included angle ABC is 341°. The F.B. of
line BC is
(a) 550° (b) 330° (c) 10° (d) 190°
3.9 The magnetic bearing of the sun at noon is 178°. The magnetic declination at the
place is
(a) 2°W (b) 2°E (c) 2°N (d) 2°S
3.10 True bearing of a line is 10° and the magnetic declination is 2°W. Its magnetic
bearing is
(a) 2° (b) 8° (c) 12° (d) 20°
3.11 The value of dip at the magnetic pole is
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 30°
3.12 Which of the following compass can be used without a tripod for observing
bearings?
(a) Trough compass (b) Prismatic compass
(c) Surveyor compass (d) All of these
3.13 A looking mirror is generally provided on the object vane to
(a) sight on whole circle bearing system
(b) sight the objects too low
(c) sight the objects too high or too low
(d) observe the reading while sighting
3.14 The temporary adjustments of surveyor compass involves
(a) centring only
(b) levelling only
(c) centring and levelling
(d) centring, levelling and focussing the prism
3.15 Which of the following reference direction is used in a geodetic survey?
(a) True (b) Magnetic
(c) Arbitrary (d) Any of these
3.16 Dip is defined as
(a) the smaller horizontal angle, a survey line makes with the true meridian
(b) the vertical angle, which a freely suspended needle makes with the horizontal
plane
(c) the angle which a survey line makes with some reference direction
(d) the angle, which the needle makes with vertical plane
3.17 Which one of the following is the correct statement in a prismatic compass?
(a) Zero is placed at N end.
(b) The least count is 20 min.
124 Surveying
Introduction
Transit or theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical
angles. It was invented by Roemer, a Danish astronomer in 1690. The instrument
was used to observe the passage (transit) of stars across any portion of the
celestial meridian. About a century later it was modified to suit the surveying
requirements and even horizontal angles could be measured with it. In 1830, further
additions were made to this basic instrument to make possible the measurement
of several things apart from the measurement of vertical and horizontal angles.
Because of its variety of uses, such as the measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles, prolonging a straight line, measurement of bearings, and measurement of
horizontal and vertical distances and determination of the direction of true north, it
is sometimes referred to as universal instrument. The origin of the term theodolite
is not very well known. It is essentially similar to a transit except that it is longer
in size and reads to smaller angular values even to 1 . Therefore, a theodolite is
more precise than the transit.
Depending upon the facilities provided for reading of observations the theodolites
may be classified as simple vernier theodolite, micrometer theodolite, optical (glass
arc) theodolite and electronic theodolite. Though the first two are obsolete and all
the modern theodolites are of the optical or electronic digital type, this chapter
mainly discusses the vernier theodolite. There are two reasons for this. Firstly,
field surveys in India are being done with it for small projects; total station is
now used for medium and large size projects. Secondly, the most important reason
is that a simplified diagram of the vernier type is best used to illustrate the basic
features.
A modern theodolite is compact, light in weight, simple in design and can be
used rough. All the movable parts and scales are fully enclosed and virtually dust
and moisture proof. The size of a theodolite is defined by its lower graduated
circle. For example, a 20 cm theodolite means the diameter of the graduated circle
of the lower plate is 20 cm. The size of the theodolites varies from 8 to 25 cm.
Theodolite 127
4.1 ClassifiCaTion
Theodolites may be classified into transit and non-transit theodolites.
Transverse axis
Line of sight
Alidade
assembly
Horizontal
circle assembly
Levelling head
assembly
circle upper plate), and the vertical circle. An altitude bubble is attached to the
standards.
sensitive, since it controls the horizontal axis and therefore the verticality of the
plane of rotation of line of sight.
Usually, a small circular bubble is fitted to the foot plate of the tribrach to
facilitate the setting up of the theodolite.
A bubble tube is also attached either to the vertical vernier frame or to the
telescope. This should be very sensitive, as in addition to measuring vertical
angles, a theodolite may also be used for ordinary levelling. This bubble tube
is commonly known as altitude level. A better place for the altitude level is on
the vertical vernier frame, since in such a position it exhibits the stability of the
instrument, while the telescope is tilted for vertical measurements.
4.2.7 Circles
The size of a theodolite is defined by the diameter (between the reading edges
of the graduations) of the horizontal circle which varies from 8 to 25 cm. It is
graduated from 0° to 360° in clockwise direction. The vertical circle is usually
of the same diameter as the horizontal circle. The graduations on it are from 0°
to 90°. Two verniers are provided on each circle and low power magnifiers are
attached for reading the observed values. The verniers on horizontal circle are
reckoned as A and B and that on vertical circle as C and D.
When both the clamps are loosened, both the plates become free and can be
rotated independently about the vertical axis. There is no point in operating either
tangent screw.
No tangent screw will function until the corresponding clamp screw has been
set.
4.2.9 Telescope
A telescope of either internal or external focussing type is provided. To facilitate
transiting it is convenient to provide an internal focussing rather than external
focussing telescope. The magnification ranges from 15 to 30 diameter.
4.6 definiTions
A number of operations are required while making the measurements with a
theodolite. Also, from the construction details it is evident that the instrument has a
number of axes having some specific relation between them. It becomes important
for the user to understand the operations, their use and their benefits to achieve
accuracy in the measurements. The following are the definitions of the terms that
will frequently be used in the measurement processes:
It is also called plunging or reversing. This is the operation of
revolving the telescope through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis,
thus making it point exactly in the opposite direction.
Theodolite 133
4.8.2 levelling up
This means making the vertical axis truly vertical. This is done with the help of
the foot screws. The procedure is as follows:
1. The longer plate level is brought parallel to any two foot screws.
C
C
A B
A B
(a) (b)
In the case of a three screw levelling head, the other plate level will then
be parallel to the line joining the third foot screw and the mid-point of
the line joining the first two foot screws, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
2. Bring the bubble of the longer plate level to the centre of its run by moving
the two foot screws, say A and B, uniformly either inwards or outwards
(Fig. 4.4(a)). It may be noted that the bubble always moves in the direction
of the left thumb as the surveyor turns the screw.
3. Move the third foot screw C so that the bubble in the other plate level is
centred (Fig. 4.4(b)).
4. In case of four screw levelling head, each of the two plate levels will
be parallel to a pair of diagonally opposite levelling screws, as shown in
Fig. 4.5.
D C
D C
A B
B
A
136 Surveying
Use two foot screws, say B and D, to bring the bubble of the plate level
in the centre by moving the screws uniformly either inwards or outwards.
Use the other two screws A and C and move them uniformly either inwards
or outwards to centre the other plate bubble.
5. Repeat the procedure until both the bubbles are in the centre of their
run.
6. Swing the telescope through a complete revolution. The bubbles should
remain central in all the positions.
7. In case if only one plate level is provided with the instrument, the levelling
is done as explained in Chapter 6.
8. For greater accuracy, the instrument is levelled with reference to the
altitude level fixed either on the telescope or on the index arm.
4.8.3 focussing
It consists of focussing the eyepiece and the objective.
This operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear
clearly visible. The following steps are involved:
1. The telescope is directed towards the sky or a sheet of white paper held
in front of the objective.
2. The eyepiece is moved in or out until the cross-hairs appear clear and
distinct.
This operation is done to bring the image of the object
in the plane of the cross-hairs. The following steps are involved:
1. The telescope is directed towards the object.
2. The focussing screw is turned until the image appears clear and sharp.
4.10.2 Test
When in perfect adjustment, the plate bubbles once centred remain central for all
positions of the horizontal plate. If either or both the bubbles are not in the centre
of their run, then an adjustment is required.
The instrument is levelled as described in Section 4.8. The telescope is swing
through 180° about the vertical axis, i.e., swing the telescope. If the bubble runs
out of the centre, the adjustment is not in order. If it is so, count the number of
graduations on the bubble tube by which the bubble has run out of its centre.
4.10.3 adjustment
1. Bring the bubble halfway back to a central position by using the two foot
screws. This makes the vertical axis truly vertical.
138 Surveying
2. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of capstan screw
provided at one of the ends of the bubble tube. This makes the axis of
the bubble tube truly horizontal.
4.11.2 Test
The instrument is carefully levelled. The telescope is directed towards a plumb
bob string at rest. The string is thus bisected and its image will lie on the vertical
cross-hair. The telescope is then rotated slightly, in a vertical plane, about its
horizontal axis. If the correct relation exists, the image of the string will still be
in coincidence with the vertical hair. If not, the image will appear to move off
the vertical cross-hair.
4.11.3 adjustment
To adjust the vertical cross-hair, loosen all the four capstan screws on the cross-
hair ring. Rotate the ring carefully so that the image of the string and the vertical
hair coincide. The screws are then tightened snugly.
4.12.2 Test
The instrument is set up and levelled at a point O in an open field so as to
have an unobstructed view for about 90 m on either side of the instrument. The
telescope, in normal position, is directed so as to bisect a fine mark say A at about
60 m from the instrument. The telescope is then inverted and a point B is set. If
the instrument is in adjustment, the points A, O and B will be in the same line;
the line of sights OA and OB will be truely perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
However, assume that the line of sight makes an angle 90° – e instead of 90°
with the horizontal axis, e being the error in adjustment. In the face left position,
the observations for A and B are shown with firm lines and those with face right
position by broken lines (Fig. 4.6). In the face left position the instrument will
establish a mark B1, whereas in face right position, a mark B2 will be established.
The resultant error in the instrument is 4e.
4.12.3 adjustment
Loosen the horizontal capstan screws on the cross-hair ring. The cross-hairs are
moved azimuthally from a point B2 to a point mid-way between B2 and B, i.e.,
by 1/4 of B1B2.
Theodolite 139
4.13.2 Test
The theodolite is set up and carefully levelled at about 50 m from a high building.
A point, say A, on the building is bisected, preferably with a vertical angle greater
than 30°. The telescope is then lowered and a point B is set near the ground. The
face is changed and point A is sighted again. The telescope is then depressed. If the
instrument is in adjustment, the line of sight will fall on the ground point vertically
below the point A set previously. If not, a second point B2 is set near the ground
(Fig. 4.7). If e is the error in adjustment, then B1B2 will be equal to 2e.
140 Surveying
4.13.3 adjustment
The adjustment is made by raising or lowering one end of the horizontal axis,
using the adjustment screws at the trunion support on one standard, until the line
of sight falls on the same ground point. It is a trial-and-error procedure. The
distance B1B2 is bisected and a fine mark B, is made. The theodolite is moved
azimuthally until B is bisected. The telescope is raised back to A. It will be in
error by a horizontal distance B1B2/2. One end of the horizontal axis is moved
with the adjusting screw till the line of sight bisects A. Repeat the test and check
the adjustment made.
4.14.2 Test
The altitude bubble is brought to its centre by using the clip screws.
Rotate the telescope and set the vertical circle to read zero. A staff is held
vertical at about 60 m from the instrument and the reading is taken. The face is
changed and the staff is read again. If there is an error, the face readings will be
different as shown in Fig. 4.8.
A1 Face left
Horizontal
A
Face right
A2
4.14.3 adjustment
The telescope is set to read the mean of the two staff readings. The vertical circle
will not read zero now. It should be brought back to read zero without disturbing
the horizontal level of the telescope. The verniers are moved to read zero using
the clip screws. In this process the altitude bubble will move off the centre. The
bubble is brought back to its centre by using the capstan screws.
Theodolite 141
4.15.2 Test
Centre the altitude bubble on the telescope. The zero of the vernier of the vertical
circle should coincide with the zero on the main scale of the vertical circle. If it
fails to do so, then an adjustment is required.
4.15.3 adjustment
The capstan head screws are loosened and the vernier is moved till the zero
coincides with that of the main scale.
5. Similarly, bisect stations C, D and finally A, and read both the verniers
in all the cases. The last reading on vernier A should be 360°. If not, the
discrepancy is noted and distributed.
6. Transit the telescope, swing the instrument in anticlockwise direction with
face right and repeat the whole procedure.
1. This method is most commonly used in triangulation survey.
2. For face left, the observations should be made in clockwise direction, whereas
for face right, they should be made in the anticlockwise direction.
C
D
A
2. With face left and telescope normal, set the vernier to read zero by turning
the upper plate.
3. Unclamp the lower clamp. Bisect station A accurately. Clamp the lower
plate with the lower clamp and tangent screws.
4. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bisect the
forward station C. Clamp the upper plate with the upper clamp screw. Bisect
station C exactly with upper tangent screw. Read both the verniers.
5. Transit the telescope, unclamp the lower clamp, and bisect station A again.
Clamp the lower plate using lower clamping screw. Bisect station A exactly
using lower tangent screw.
6. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bisect station
C. Clamp the upper plate with the upper clamp screw. Bisect station C
exactly with upper tangent screw. Read both the verniers.
7. The angle thus measured is doubled on the scale. Therefore, the average of
these two values is calculated to get the value of the required angle ABC.
5. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise to sight station C.
Read both the verniers. The mean of the two readings gives the approximate
value of the deflection angle at B.
6. Loosen the lower clamp and again sight back on A. The readings on the
verniers will be unchanged.
7. Transit the telescope, Unclamp the upper plate and sight C. Read both the
verniers and find the mean value.
8. The deflection angle thus measured is doubled. One-half value of this
average value is the value of the deflection angle at B.
A B
C D E
4.24 errors
The sources of error in angular measurement may arise from imperfections in the
adjustments and construction of the theodolite.
The errors arising from imperfect adjustment of a theodolite are as follows:
Axis not vertical in an observation, either from
imperfect plate level adjustment, or settlement of the instrument.
Line of collimation not perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.
Horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
Line of altitude bubble not parallel to the
line of collimation when the verniers of vertical circle read zero.
The above errors are often co-existent, wholly or in part in any given case.
The defects in construction are usually those of eccentricity and graduations.
The former can be eliminated by taking the mean of the two vernier readings,
whereas the latter can be minimised by taking observations over different portions
by the horizontal scale.
A Q
P
P1 Q1
A1
P0 P2
A0 B1
Q0
O B0
C0
Theodolite 149
inclination of the vertical axis occurs along OB1, the transverse axis being horizontal.
The maximum inclination of the transverse axis will be when the telescope points
along OA0. This inclination is cos when the telescope points in any direction
(say OP) at a horizontal angle (read as ) from OA0 as reference.
After sighting a point P when the telescope is depressed, the line of sight
travels down a plane inclined at cos with the vertical. The errors in the plane
of the actual circle will be P P1 and on the truly horizontal circle as P0 P2. The
corresponding error being , which is practically the same for and .
PP0
____ OP sin
= ______________ = cos ( cos )
PP2 OP sin ( – )
sin ( + )
Hence, sin = ____________
sec ( cos )
where is observed, and =( sin ) sec ( cos ).
Since cos does not change sign, the error
will not be eliminated by taking observations B
with both the faces.
tan BB = _________
= ____ AA OA tan
= _________ tan
= ______
OB OA sec OA sec sec
Since and are small
= sec
As the measurement of an angle involves two sights, the total error
= 2 – 1 = (sec 2 – sec 1)
where 1 < 2, and 1 and 2 are the observed vertical angles corresponding to 1
and 2, measured in clockwise direction.
The error is zero when both the sights are at the same altitude. It can be
eliminated by both face observations.
AB = A B
and OB sin = OB sin
or OB sin
sin = ____
OB
But OB = OB cos
Hence, sin = sin cos
Let sin = sin ( – ), where is the error in the observed vertical angle
and cos =1
1 – cos
Hence, sin = ________
cot
Theodolite 151
tan vers
or = ___________ seconds
sin 1
Since, the sign of cos is not changed, the error will not be eliminated by
taking both face observations.
B
4.24.3 horizontal axis error ( ) B
AA = BB = OA tan = AB sin
But AB = OA tan
or tan = sin tan
or = tan
Since two sights will be taken, in measurement, corresponding to clockwise
horizontal angles 1 < 2 at vertical angles 1 and 2, the total error will be
= 2 – 1 = (tan 2 – tan 1)
where 1 < 2 and measured in clockwise direction.
Also = (tan 2 + tan 1)
for the angles measured in the opposite directions.
The error is neutralized if the angles are measured at the same altitudes and
also by the both face observations.
AB = OB sin
and A B = OB sin
But A B = AB cos
or sin = sin cos
substituting sin = sin ( – ) leads to
vers
sin = ______
cot
tan vers
or = ___________ seconds
sin 1
Since does not change sign on reversing faces, the mean of such observations
does not eliminate the error.
152 Surveying
4.25.1 Construction
It consists of a small low power microscope (Fig. 4.20). A small metal box is
fitted to it at a point where the image of the graduations is formed. The box
usually has rectangular openings or windows at the top and bottom, where it meets
the tube of the microscope. The box is fitted with an index and with a movable
slide carrying a vertical hair or two parallel closely placed hairs (Fig. 4.21). The
slide is moved by means of a screw operated by a milled head and graduated
drum on the outside of the box. The pitch of the screw is such that a complete
revolution moves the slide through a space equal to that between the images of two
successive divisions of the graduated arc. Fractional parts of a revolution of the
drum, corresponding to the fractional parts of a division on the horizontal circle,
may be read on the graduated drum against an index mark fitted to the side of
Movable hairs
2
1 306 307 30
9
Vee index
Drum
index
Screw for
loosening
drum
Theodolite 153
the box. In some micrometer microscopes, the eyepiece is directly above the box
which is inconvenient. To facilitate reading, an improved model of the microscope
consists of a prism above the box. Thus the magnified image of the hairs and
divisions is reflected from the prism through the eyepiece placed at an angle to
the horizontal. A capstan headed screw is used to loosen or tighten the slotted ring
holding the microscope to its supports, thus allowing the up and down movement
of the microscope. The objective may also be moved up or down by means of
the knurled objective mounting and clamping rings. These two movements permit
the dimensions of the image of the graduations and of the spaces between them
to be altered slightly, and at the same time, the image to be brought into focus
on the plane containing the cross-hair.
The optical theodolites are equipped with optical plummet (Fig. 4.24) for
accurate centring. It consists of a small eyepiece built into the tribrach or the
alidade of the theodolite. A prism, placed at 45°, deviates the ray from the ground
station just below the instrument’s vertical axis by 90° so as to view it through
the eyepiece.
Standards
Prism Reticule
L1
L2
Station peg
Rotation of circle
Movable
photodiode Fixed photodiode
Wild T 1000 and T 1600 electronic theodolites use the absolute reading system.
The glass circles in these theodolites have 1152 graduation marks encoded into 128
sectors. Each sector consists of one sector mark, seven identification marks from
0000000 to 1111111 in binary and a parity check mark. The circle is illuminated
by a light emitting diode (LED) and red light passing through the circle from
this is directed through optics such that about 1% of the circle is projected onto
a photodiode array. The array is made up of 128 separate photodiodes mounted
on a small 3.2 mm long chip.
For both the theodolites, the horizontal circle remains in a fixed position and
the photodiode array rotates with the alidade. The vertical circle is attached to
the telescope and the photodiode array is fixed. The coarse measurement is made
158 Surveying
by the identification of the sector in which the theodolite is pointing and the fine
measurement is proportional to that fraction of a sector in which the theodolite
is pointing. Both of these are obtained by processing the output from the 128
photodiodes. Since this is different for each position around the circle, these
theodolites use an absolute reading system. T 1000 has a precision of 3 , whereas
T 1600 has a precision of 1.5 . Both the theodolites display angles to 1 .
electronic tilt sensors. If required, the compensator can be switched off and the
amount of tilt can be displayed, enabling the theodolite to be digitally levelled.
However, this practise is not recommended under normal circumstances.
The effect of vertical axis tilt in the direction in which the telescope is pointing
is shown in Fig. 4.26. This causes an
True vertical angle
Vertical error in vertical angles and this is
Measured vertical angle compensated automatically because
Line of sight to target the electronic theodolites account for
the correction to the vertical angle.
orizon ta l This is known as single-axis
eodolite h
Inclined th compensation. In the dual-axis
Tilt compensation, the compensator
Horizontal plane measures the effect of an inclined
Incline r tical
two detection coils and one excitation coil. Passing an alternating current through
the excitation coil causes the currents to flow in the detection coils. If the sensor
is level (Fig. 4.28(a)), each detection coil generates an equal voltage and the
differential output from both coils is zero. When the sensor is tilted (Fig. 4.28(b)),
the voltage generated by each coil is not the same because of the different magnetic
path between the coils. This differential output is proportional to the amount of
tilt. This voltage is converted into an angular output by a microprocessor which
also corrects the vertical angle. The working range of singe-axis compensator is
± 10 .
Detection coil
Excitation coil
Detection coil
Glass tube
(a) Horizontal (b) Tilted
e xample 4.1 Show that if the line of collimation of a theodolite makes angles
of (90° + e) and (90° – e) with the trunnion axis and if all other adjustments are
correct, the error involved in one measurement of the horizontal angle between
two stations, at altitudes of ( ) and ( ) respectively, is given by
tan –1 (tan e sec ) – tan–1 (tan e sec ).
Theodolite 161
Describe how you would carry out the necessary adjustment to the line of
collimation.
s olution If the line of collimation is not perpendicular to the trunnion axis
of the telescope, elevation or depression of the telescope will cause the line of
collimation to traverse the surface of a cone having its vertex on the trunnion
axis of the telescope. A vertical plane would cut this cone in the two halves of
a hyperbola.
If A and B are the two points between which we wish to know the horizontal
angle subtended at the instrument, there would be no error due to the vertical hair
being out of adjustment if the points were at the same height. If, however, they
are at different heights, there will be an error introduced: the greater the difference
in height the greater will be the error.
To evaluate this error, first consider the point B (Fig. 4.30) as being at the same
level as the instrument, with A being at an altitude . Then the horizontal angle
required is that between A (vertically below A and
a A
at the same level as point B and the instrument)
and B. Let us suppose that the vertical hair is a
little to the right of the axis. Then if the hair is
focused on A and the telescope is rotated down,
the hyperbola so traced out will cut the line AB in
a point A to the left of A , and we will actually
a A A A be measuring the angle between A and B, i.e.,
obtaining a value which is too big. Let Oa be the
e e line of the telescope axis when the line of
To
B collimation OA is directed towards A; then
depression of the telescope about its trunnion axis
will cause the longitudinal axis of the telescope to
O
pass through a vertically below a. The error e in
collimation is the angle aOA measured in a
horizontal plane; or measured in the inclined plane,
the angle aOA.
The true horizontal angle between A and B is A OB, whereas recorded angle
is A OB, and the error is A OA .
Thus, error = A OA
= A Oa – A Oa
= –e
Now, from Fig. 4.30
A a = ____
tan = ____ Aa
Oa Oa
Aa
= ________ tan e
= _____
OA cos cos
= tan e sec
Hence, error = tan–1 (tan e sec )–e
Similarly, if B is above the horizontal and at an altitude , the error in measuring
B = tan –1 (tan e sec ) – e.
162 Surveying
Hence, error in horizontal angle between the two stations at altitudes and ,
respectively, is
tan–1 (tan e sec ) – tan–1 (tan e sec )
e xample 4.2 You have been asked to use a theodolite and it is suspected that
the vernier plate of the horizontal circle has been set eccentrically. Find out the
error generated in the individual observations and suggest how you would arrange
the readings to eliminate the error.
s olution The error is due to the centre of the central pivot carrying the alidade
not coinciding with the centre of the pivot carrying
the graduated circle. The effect of this error on b a
f
readings is periodic. Let A be the centre about which d
the alidade revolves and B be the centre of the
graduated circle (Fig. 4.31). The distances AB C
interpreted as an arc ab (in seconds) on the graduated D A D
B
circle is the error of eccentricity.
When a vernier is at D, on the line of the two f
centres, there will be no error. Whereas, when it is d
at b, the error e is maximum and is ba. At any other b
a
intermediate point, say d, between D and b the error
will be
df = BC = AB sin = e sin
where is the horizontal angle of rotation.
The error will be positive since the circle is graduated clockwise, and the vernier
supposed to be at b will be at a. Whereas, the opposite vernier supposed to be at
b will be at a , introducing a negative error of the same magnitude, i.e., – e sin .
Thus, for intermediate positions, say d and d , the errors will be e sin and
– e sin and the mean of the two verniers 180° apart, will be free of error.
The error of eccentricity of the vernier would be eliminated by taking the
readings on the graduated circle at two places 180° apart.
Since the modern optical instruments can be read on one side of the graduated
circle only, an error varying sinusoidally with the angle of rotation will be
introduced. Readings on both faces of the instrument would establish verniers 180° apart
and the mean of these two readings will be free from error.
C
A D1 D2
B
x e
E
B
Summary
Theodolite, a universal surveying instrument, is primarily used for measuring horizontal
and vertical angles in addition to any other measurement possible one may think of.
Transit theodolite has been discussed in detail and the step by step procedures for making
measurements for angles, bearings and distances have been laid. Vernier theodolite with
least count of 20 is in general use. With the help of micrometer microscope attachment
readings up to 1 can be made possible. The advanced versions such as optical and electronic
theodolites have been described.
The permanent adjustments and the errors due to non-adjustments of the fundamental
lines of the instrument have been dealt in detail. It is pertinent to note that these lines
have a definite relation to each other and the adjustments are done in a particular order
so that the successive adjustment does not impair the previous adjustments. The order of
adjustments is the plate level test, the cross-hair ring test, the collimation in azimuth test,
the spire test, the bubble tube test and the vertical arc test. Various tests required to check
the correctness of the adjustments are described to ensure the reliability of the measurements
made. Theodolite is the most important surveying instrument and, therefore, it is supposed
to be handled with all possible care and used with perfect adjustments.
Exercises
4.1 What is meant by face left and face right of a theodolite? How would you
change face? What instrumental errors are eliminated by face left and face right
observations?
164 Surveying
4.2 Describe the temporary adjustments of a theodolite. Explain how would you measure
the following with a theodolite:
(a) Horizontal angle (b) Vertical angle
(c) Bearing of a line
4.3 Sketch the fundamental lines of a theodolite. State the direct relationship between
them.
4.4 Differentiate between the following pairs:
(a) Face left and face right
(b) Telescope normal and telescope inverted
(c) Transiting and swinging telescope
(d) Repetition and re-iteration methods of measuring horizontal angle.
4.5 State what errors are eliminated by the following:
(a) Face left and face right observations
(b) Reading both the verniers
(c) Spire test
(d) Repetition method of measuring horizontal angle.
4.6 Differentiate between the following pairs:
(a) Direct and deflection angles
(b) Angle and bearing
(c) Horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite
(d) Spire test and collimation in azimuth test.
4.7 Describe how a theodolite is set up at a station and a round of angles is measured
at it? What errors are minimised in this procedure.
4.8 Explain the following:
(a) Can a theodolite be used as a level?
(b) What is the purpose of loosening wing nuts of a theodolite tripod during
transit?
(c) Why are two plate levels used on a theodolite instead of just one?
(d) When and why are angles measured by repetition?
4.9 Describe in detail a method of reading angles with a theodolite which will eliminate
most of the instrumental errors caused by improper construction and poor adjustments
of the theodolite.
4.10 Describe how and why the following tests are conducted?
(a) Vertical circle index test (b) Spire test
(c) Collimation in azimuth test (d) Plate level test
(e) Vertical arc test
4.11 Enlist the sources of errors in a theodolite survey.
4.12 Describe with neat sketches the following:
(a) Automatic vertical index
(b) Optical plummet
(c) Reading systems of electronic theodolites
(d) Compensator
4.13 Show that the effect of an eccentricity of the horizontal circle of a theodolite is to
produce an error in reading one side only, which varies sinusoidally with the angle
of rotation of the telescope. Also show that, where only one side of the circle may
be read, provided the azimuth of the circle remains unchanged, the mean of the face
left and face right readings gives the correct angle.
4.14 Two stations at elevations of and are sighted by a theodolite in which the line
of collimation is inclined to the trunnion axis at an angle (90° – e), where e is
small.
Theodolite 165
(a) Derive an expression for the error in the horizontal angle between the two
stations as given by the instrument.
(b) Show by a diagram the effect of the collimation error on the vertical circle
reading of one station.
(c) What is the effect of measuring the horizontal and vertical angles on both
faces?
4.15 What is meant by face left and face right of theodolite? How would you change face?
What instrumental errors are eliminated by face left and face right observations?
4.16 In an examination of a theodolite, it is found that when the instrument is wheeled
horizontally,
(a) the bubbles of the plate levels do not preserve a constant position in their
tubes, and
(b) the difference between the readings of the horizontal circle verniers is not
constant.
Discuss these errors, and explain how you would prevent their influencing
the angular measurements.
4.17 You have been asked to use a theodolite, and it is suspected that the horizontal
axis is not quite perpendicular to the vertical axis. In the absence of facilities for
making adjustments to the instrument, show how you would arrange readings and
field book entries so that this instrumental error could be eliminated. Draw suitable
figures to show the application of your method to the vertical circle readings and
to the horizontal circle readings.
4.18 Write notes on
(a) Micrometer microscope theodolite
(b) Optical theodolite
(c) Electronic theodolite.
4.19 The diaphragm of a theodolite in good adjustment is broken and replaced. What
tests and adjustments must be carried out in order to bring the instrument in good
working order again?
4.20 Describe clearly with neat sketches a micrometer microscope, as used for reading
the horizontal circle and the vertical circle of a theodolite.
4.21 Explain what recent developments have taken place in the construction of modern
theodolites.
Objective-type Questions
4.1 The difference between face left and face right observations of a theodolite is 3 .
The error is
(a) 45 (b) 1 30 (c) 3 (d) 0
4.2 Right deflection angle may be directly obtained by setting the instrument to read
(a) zero on back station (b) 180° on back station
(c) 90° on back station (d) 270° on back station
4.3 The size of a theodolite is defined by
(a) the diameter of the graduated circle of lower plate
(b) the diameter of the graduated circle of upper plate
(c) the height of the theodolite
(d) the length of the telescope.
4.4 If the lower clamp screw is tightened and the upper clamp screw is loosened, the
theodolite may be rotated
(a) with a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of the
lower plate
166 Surveying
(b) without a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of the
lower plate
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) horizontal axis
4.5 Removal of parallax may be achieved by
(a) refocussing the objective
(b) refocussing the eyepiece
(c) refocussing the eyepiece and the objective
(d) moving the shifting centre
4.6 For which of the following permanent adjustment of a theodolite is the spire test
used?
(a) Adjustment of plate levels
(b) Adjustment of line of sight
(c) Adjustment of horizontal axis
(d) Adjustment of altitude bubble and vertical index frame.
4.7 If a tripod setting of a theodolite being used as a level, changes in the interval that
elapses between taking a F.S. and a B.S., then the elevation of the turning point
will be
(a) increased (b) decreased
(c) same (d) Either (a) or (b)
4.8 For locating a distance object visible from two transit stations, the method usually
preferred is
(a) angles and distances from transit stations
(b) angles from two transit stations
(c) distances from two transit stations
(d) angle from one transit station and distance from the other one
4.9 A transit is oriented by setting its vernier A to read the back bearing of the preceding
line and a back sight on the preceding station is taken. The transit is then rotated
about its vertical axis. The vernier A then reads
(a) fore bearing of the preceding line
(b) fore bearing of the forward line
(c) back bearing of the preceding line
(d) equal to 360° – bearing of the forward line
4.10 To observe an included angle with better accuracy then what is achieved by reading
the verniers of a theodolite, the method preferred is
(a) repetition (b) reiteration
(c) double observations (d) Any of these
4.11 Accurate measurement of deflection angles with a transit not properly adjusted are
made by
(a) setting the vernier A to read zero at the back station and then plunging the
telescope
(b) setting the vernier A to read zero at the back station and then turning the
instrument to the forward station
(c) taking two back sights, one with the telescope normal and the other with the
telescope inverted
(d) taking back sight with the face left
4.12 Which of the following error is not eliminated by the method of repetition for
horizontal angle measurement?
(a) Error due to eccentricity of verniers
(b) Error due to displacement of station signals
Theodolite 167
(c) Error due to wrong adjustment of line of collimation and trunnion axis
(d) Error due to inaccurate graduations.
4.13 The magnitude of the error due to imperfect levelling of the plate bubble for
horizontal angle measurements is
(a) large, when sights are approximately level
(b) large, for long sights
(c) less, for steeply inclined sights
(d) large, for steeply inclined sights
4.14 Centring error of a theodolite produces an error
(a) in all the angles equally
(b) which does not vary with direction of bisection
(c) which varies with the direction of bisection and inversely with the length of
sight
(d) None of the above
4.15 The error due to eccentricity of the inner and outer axes of a theodolite can be
eliminated by
(a) reading both verniers and taking the mean of the two
(b) taking both face observations and taking the mean of the two
(c) double sighting
(d) taking mean of the observations distributed over different portions of the
graduated circle
4.16 Which of the following errors can be eliminated by taking the mean of both face
observations?
(a) Error due to imperfect graduations
(b) Error due to eccentricity of verniers
(c) Error due to imperfect adjustment of plate levels
(d) Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal
axis
4.17 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) A theodolite is known as a universal instrument.
(b) The modern theodolites are glass arc type.
(c) The size of theodolite is defined by the vertical circle.
(d) Alidade assembly is a part of the theodolite.
4.18 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A four-screw levelling head is better than the three-screw one.
(b) Centring in a theodolite is facilitated by a movable head.
(c) Two plate levels on a horizontal circle assembly are provided so that if one
becomes sluggish, the other can be used.
(d) It is better to provide a bubble tube on the telescope rather than on the index
frame.
4.19 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Three sets of clamp and tangent screws are provided on a theodolite.
(b) Theodolites are equipped with an internal focussing telescope to facilitate
transiting.
(c) The least count of a vernier theodolite is 20 .
(d) The telescope normal position means that the vertical circle of the theodolite
is to the right of the observer.
4.20 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Lining in means establishing intermediate points on a line whose ends are
not intervisible.
168 Surveying
(b) The error due to the horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical
axis cannot be eliminated by changing face.
(c) The error due to line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the
altitude level can be eliminated by changing face.
(d) Both (b) and (c).
4.21 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Theodolite can be used for ordinary levelling.
(b) Theodolite can be used for measuring directions.
(c) Theodolite can be used for measuring horizontal distances on rough
grounds.
(d) All the above
4.22 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Spire test is the name of collimation in azimuth test.
(b) During transit, the wing nuts of the theodolite are loosened.
(c) Poor focussing of a theodolite results in instrumental error.
(d) A direct angle is that which a survey line makes with the prolongation of the
preceding line.
4.23 Wing nuts are provided on
(a) bubble tubes (b) diaphragm (c) standards (d) tripod
4.24 The plate bubble in the plate level of a theodolite will move considerably from its
central position if the tripod leg is moved
(a) radially inwards
(b) radially outwards
(c) in the same direction of the bubble moved
(d) in the opposite direction of the bubble moved
4.25 Which one of the following statement is correct?
(a) The axis of plate level should be parallel to the vertical axis.
(b) The axis of striding level must be parallel to the horizontal axis.
(c) The axis of the altitude level must be perpendicular to the line of collimation.
(d) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the plate level axis.
4.26 If the altitude bubble is provided both on the index frame as well as on the telescope
of a theodolite, then the instrument is levelled with reference to the
(a) altitude bubble on the telescope.
(b) altitude bubble on the index frame, if it is to be used as a level.
(c) altitude bubble on the telescope, if it is to be used as a level.
(d) Both (a) and (c)
(e) Both (b) and (c)
4.27 Match the following:
(i) Face right (A) It is the axis about which the telescope can be
rotated in a vertical plane
(ii) Face left lite (B) When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the
left of an observer
(iii) Horizontal axis (C) When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the
right of an observer
(iv) Vertical axis (D) It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve
of the level tube at the centre of the tube
(v) Axis of telescope (E) It is the axis about which the telescope can be
rotated in a horizontal plane
(vi) Axis of level tube (F) It is the line joining the optical centre of the
object glass to the centre of the eyepiece
Theodolite 169
Introduction
The word traverse literally means ‘passing across’. In surveying it means ‘determining
the lengths and directions of consecutive lines’. The linear measurements are
made with a chain or tape and the relative directions of the lines are measured
with a chain, compass or theodolite. The integrated measurement of distance and
direction provides the essential two dimensional data for determining the land
area and for providing horizontal control, i.e., the relative location of points in
the horizontal plane. The results of a level network for the same location, when
added to this information, provides a three-dimensional representation of a section
of the earth’s surface. Angular and linear measurements are recorded in field book
and the surveyed contours in the sketches. These should be dated and signed by
the surveyor everyday after the work is over. Moreover, they must be kept in
conformity with certain rules. Traversing consists of reconnaissance (selecting,
marking and referencing stations), picking up details, and booking the field notes.
A traverse, in general, is run to locate the features already existing in the area
to be surveyed or to establish points or lines in accordance with predetermined
measurements. Traverses are classified as either closed or open.
Closed Traverse
A traverse is said to be a closed one if it returns to the starting point, thereby
forming a closed polygon (Fig. 5.1(a)). In addition, a traverse which begins and
ends at the points whose positions on the plan are known is also referred to as
a closed traverse (Fig. 5.1(b)). A closed traverse is employed for locating the
172 Surveying
boundaries of lakes and woods across which tie lines cannot be measured, for area
determination, control for mapping, and for surveying moderately large areas.
Open Traverse
An open traverse is one that does not return to the starting point. It consists of
a series of lines expanding in the same direction (Fig. 5.2). As a matter of fact,
an open traverse cannot be checked and adjusted accurately. It is employed for
surveying long narrow strips of country, e.g., the path of a highway, railway, canal,
pipeline, coastline, transmission line, etc.
B
D F
A
C E
5.1.1 By Chain
The linear as well as angular measurements are done with the help of chain and
tape only. This is a very crude method and cannot be relied upon.
5.2.3 By Tangents
The position of the starting station A is fixed and a line is drawn through it
representing the magnetic meridian. To plot the bearings of the lines, the following
procedure is adopted:
1. Let AB be the line whose
N
bearing is to be plotted.
2. Take AB1 equal to 20 cm on the
magnetic meridian (Fig. 5.5). C1
3. Draw B1B2 perpendicular to 90
AB1 (the meridian) and equal B1 B2
C
to 20 times the length of the 90 C 2
tangent of the bearing of line B
AB.
4. Join A and B2, which is the A
direction of the line AB of the
traverse. Draw AB to scale
along this direction.
5. Repeat the procedure till all the lines are plotted.
5.2.4 By Chords N C
The position of the starting station A is fixed and
a line is drawn representing the magnetic meridian.
To plot the bearings of the lines, the following B1 C1
procedure is adopted:
1. Let AB be the line whose bearings is to be C2
A B B2
plotted (Fig. 5.6).
2. Take AB1 equal to 10 cm on the magnetic
meridian.
3. With A as centre and AB1 as radius draw an
arc.
Traversing 175
4. The chord length B1B2 equal to 2 10 sin ( /2) is cut on the arc.
5. Join A and B2, which is the direction of the line AB of the traverse. Draw
AB to scale along the direction AB2.
6. Repeat the procedure till all the lines are plotted.
eliminated but determination of the chord length is more laborious than finding
perpendicular offsets. The main disadvantage of the chord method is that an error
in any of the traverse line is passed along to the succeeding line. Plotting by
independent coordinates is supposed to be a better method since the independent
coordinates of the stations do not affect the succeeding coordinates and thus the
error, if any, is localised to a particular point and therefore, correction usually
involves the replotting of the erroneous point only.
In plotting with consecutive coordinates, small errors of plotting are carried
forward, and in a closed traverse the closing error due to inexact plotting can
be located, since the coordinates used have already been balanced. This may be
considered to be an advantage, as the cause of discrepancy can be searched for
and eliminated. Since errors are not accumulated when plotting with independent
coordinates, they are preferred for plotting an open traverse.
e xample 5.1 In a traverse the latitudes and departures of the sides were
calculated and it was observed that
latitude = 1.39 and
departure = – 2.17
Calculate the length and bearing of the closing error.
s olution If L = latitude and D = departure, then
__________
Closing error, e = L2 + D2
_______________
= (1.39)2 + (–2.17)2 = 2.577 m
Reduced bearing of closing error = tan–1 2.17/1.39
= 57°21 29.83
Since, latitude and departure of the closing line are positive and negative,
respectively, the line is in the fourth quadrant.
Hence, the bearing of the closing error is N57°21 29.83 W.
Since, both the latitude and departure of the line BD are positive, therefore, the
line lies in the NE quadrant and its bearing is
departure
tan = ________
latitude
= 110.9
______
459.19
or = 13°34 39.47
Therefore, bearing of the line BD is N13°34 39.47 E.
e xample 5.5 For the following traverse, compute the length of line CD so
that A, D and E may be in one straight line.
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 110 83°12
BC 165 30°42
CD ? 346°06
DE 212 16°18
s olution In traverse ABCDE (Fig. 5.12), the points A, D and E are on same
line.
Let CA be an imaginary line so as to form a close traverse ABC.
Line AB:
Length of the line AB = 110 m
Latitude of the line AB = + 110 cos 83°12 = + 13.03 m
Departure of the line AB = + 110 sin 83°12 = + 109.23 m
Line BC:
Length of the line BC = 165 m
Latitude of the line BC = 165 cos 30°42 = + 141.88 m
Departure of the line BC = 165 sin 30°42 = + 84.24 m
Traversing 181
e xample 5.6 Coordinates of two points A and B are given below. A third
point C has been chosen in such a way that bearings of AC and CB are 29°30
and 45°45 respectively. Calculate the lengths of the lines AC and CB.
Point Northing Easting
A 150 200
B 1500 1300
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.13.
Line AB:
Let L be the length of line AB, and be its reduced bearing.
Total latitude of the line AB = 1500 – 150 = 1350
Total departure of the line AB = 1300 – 200 = 1100
tan = 1100/1350 = 0.8148
or = 39°10
or = N39°10 E
182 Surveying
_______________
Length of AB = (1100)2 + (1350)2 = 1741.40 m
The length of the line can also be calculated from the latitude and the departure,
whichever is more.
e xample 5.7 A traverse is run to set out a line MQ = 1900 m at right angles
to a given line MN. The lengths and bearings observed are as follows.
Line Length (m) Bearing N
MN – 360°00
MO 850 120°00
OP 1000 86°30
PQ ? ? 90
Calculate the length and bearing of
120
the line PQ. 1900 m
M Q
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.14. 85
0m 86 30
Bearing of the line MN = 360°
Line MQ is to be set at right angles O 1000 m P
to MN.
Let l be the length of line PQ and
its bearing.
Since MOPQ is a closed traverse,
L = 0 and D=0
where L = latitude and D = departure.
Traversing 183
L = 1900 cos 90° – 850 cos 60° + 1000 cos 86°30 + l cos = 0
or 0 – 425 + 61 + l cos = 0
or l cos = 425 – 61
or l cos = 364 m (i)
Also, D = – 1900 sin 90° + 850 sin 60° + 1000 sin 86°30 + l sin = 0
or 736.12 + 998.14 – 1900 + l sin = 0
or l sin = – 736.12 – 998.14 + 1900
or l sin = 165.74 m (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
tan = 165.74/363.95 = 0.4553
or = 24°29 03
W.C.B. of line PQ = 24°29 03
363.95
Length of line PQ = ____________
cos 24°29 03
= 400.04 m
__________________
Alternatively, length of PQ = (165.74)2 + (363.95)2
= 399.91 m
As the latitude and departure are both positive, the line PQ lies in the first
quadrant. Therefore, the bearing of line PQ is N24°29 03 E.
Line EF:
Latitude = l cos = 350 cos 90° = 0
Departure = l sin = 350 sin 90° = 350 m
Latitude of point F = 341.28 + 0 = 341.28 m
Departure of the point F = 359.64 + 350.00 = 709.64 m
Reduced bearing of BF = tan–1 (709.64/341.28) = 64°18 48
Length of BF = 709.64 cosec 64°18 48 = 787.438 m
e xample 5.9 In running a traverse, the lengths and bearings of the lines
observed are tabulated. Point F is situated at the centre of the line joining A and
E (Fig. 5.16). Find the length and bearing of the line CF.
Traversing 185
e xample 5.11 A closed traverse has the following lengths and bearings:
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 200.0 Roughly east
BC 98.0 178°
CD Not obtained 270°
DA 86.4 1°
188 Surveying
The length CD could not be measured due to some obstruction to chaining. The
bearing of AB could not be taken, as station A is badly affected by local attraction.
Find the exact bearing of the side AB and calculate the length CD.
s olution Let the length of line CD be L and bearing of line AB be .
Line Length (m) R.B. Quadrant
AB 200.0 ?
BC 98.0 2° SE
CD L 90° SW
DA 86.4 1° NE
Since ABCD is a closed traverse, L and D both are zero.
L = 0 = 200 cos – 98 cos 2° – L cos 90° + 86.4 cos 1°
or 200 cos = 11.54
or cos = 0.0577
or = 86°41
and D = 0 = 200 sin 86°41 + 98 sin 2° – L sin 90° + 86.4 sin 1°
or L = 204.60 m
or l sin = – 372.93 m
_________________
l = (53.76)2 + (372.93)2 = 376.78 m
Since latitude is positive and departure is negative, the line DA lies in the fourth
quadrant.
Independent coordinates
Point C:
Departure = – 22400 + 329.90 = 22070.10 W
Latitude = – 26500 – 82.25 = – 26582.25 S
Point D:
Departure = – 22070.10 + 145.88 = 21924.22 W
Latitude = – 26582.25 + 151.06 = 26431.19S
Point A:
Departure = – 21924.22 – 372.93 = 22297.15 W
Latitude = – 26431.19 + 53.76 = 26377.43 S
Check:
Independent coordinates of B
Departure = – 22297.15 – 102.85 = 22400.0 W
Latitude = – 26377.43 – 122.57 = 26500.0 S
5.3 CheCks
The following checks are made in traversing:
theodolite traverse where the possibility of error is more in the linear rather than
in the angular measurements. Since it is logical to presume more error in the
linear measurements, the transit rule is better acceptable than the Bowditch rule.
In general, it can be concluded that the Bowditch rule alters the adjusted bearings
more, whereas transit rule alters the distances more.
3. Draw a line A1a parallel and equal to the closing error AA1. Join A and a
and from B1, C1, D1 and E1 draw lines B1b, C1c, D1d and E1e parallel to
A1a, intersecting the line Aa at b, c, d and e, respectively.
4. The intercepts B1b, C1c, etc., represent the corrections both in magnitude
and direction at B, C, etc.
5. These corrections give the directions and distances through which the
stations B, C, etc., are to be shifted.
6. At the station B, C, etc., the lines parallel to the corrections and distances
equal to B1b, C1c, etc., are plotted as shown in Fig. 5.21(a).
7. Join the points A, B, C, D and E to get the adjusted traverse.
In a particular case the closing error AA1 may be in the direction of the line
BA. To adjust the traverse graphically, the closing error AA1 is plotted as A1 a
(Fig. 5.21 (c)) and perpendicular to AA1. The intercepts B1b, C1c, etc., represent the
corrections in magnitude only. The directions of these corrections will be the direction of
BA.
Traversing 195
The traverse is cut by extended closing error line in almost two equal
parts (Fig. 5.22).
1. The extended closing error line A1AA0 is known as axis of correction.
2. Divide the closing error A1A in two equal parts such that A1A2 = A2A.
3. Assume A2 to be the correct plotted position of A.
4. Now join the axis point A0 with points B, C, D A and E and extend lines
A0B, A0C, A0D and A0E if required as will be obvious from the next
step.
5. Draw a line parallel to AB, through A2, and cutting the extended line A0B
in B2.
6. Adopt the same procedure and plot C2, D2 and E2.
7. A2B2C2D2E2 is the required traverse.
The extended closing error line divides the traverse in very unequal parts
or does not cut it at all (Fig. 5.23).
The closing error line AA1 of traverse ABCDEA1 of (Fig. 5.23) if extended will
not intersect the traverse at all. Therefore, the closing error line will have to be
shifted to some other station so that the extended closing error line divides the
traverse in almost two equal parts.
1. AA1 the closing error, if extended will not intersect the traverse.
2. Draw a line AE1 parallel and equal in length to A1E. Now, EE1 when
extended will divide the traverse in almost two equal parts.
3. Once E0 is established the procedure as explained for solving case 1 may
be followed to adjust the transverse.
196 Surveying
e xample 5.13 The lengths, bearings and included angles of a closed traverse
ABCDA, as observed with a transit theodolite, are given below. Prepare a Gale’s
traverse table and plot the traverse.
Line Length Included angle W.C.B.
AB 255 m A = 93°18 16 140°42
BC 656 m B = 74°16 25
CD 120 m C = 123°42 00
DA 668 m D = 68°41 16
s olution Corrected Included Angles
Sum of the observed included angles of the traverse
= 93°18 16 + 74°16 24 + 123°42 00 + 68°41 16
= 359°57 56
Theoretical sum of included angles = (2n – 4) 90° = (2 4 – 4) 90° = 360°
Correction = 360° – 359°57 56 = 2 4
A correction of (2 4 /4) = 31 should be applied to each included angle.
Hence, corrected angles are:
Traversing 197
A = 93°18 16 + 31 = 93°18 47
B = 74°16 24 + 31 = 74°16 55
C = 123°42 00 + 31 = 123°42 31
D = 68°41 16 + 31 = 68°41 47
Calculation of Bearings
Bearing of line AB 140°42
Add B 74°16 55
Sum = 214°58 55
Subtract 180° – 180°
Bearing of line BC 34°58 55
Add C 123°42 31
Sum = 158°41 26
Add 180° 180°
Bearing of line CD 338°41 26
Add D 68°41 47
Sum = 407°23 13
Subtract 180° – 180°
Bearing of line DA 227°23 13
Add A 93°18 47
Sum = 320°42 00
Subtract 180° – 180°
Bearing of line AB 140°42 00
Line W.C.B. R.B. Quadrant
AB 140°42 39°18 SE
BC 34°58 55 34°58 55 NE
CD 338°41 26 21°18 34 NW
DA 227°23 13 47°23 13 SW
Station B:
Latitude = 225 cos 39°18 = 197.329 m
Departure = 255 sin 39°18 = 161.512 m
Station C:
Latitude = 656 cos 34°58 55 = 537.482 m
Departure = 656 sin 34°58 55 = 376.097 m
Station D:
Latitude = 120 cos 21°18 34 = 111.796 m
Departure = 120 sin 21°18 34 = 43.608 m
Station A:
Latitude = 668 cos 47°23 13 = 452.265 m
Departure = 668 sin 47°23 13 = 491.610 m
198 Surveying
Closing Error
L = + 537.482 + 111.796 – 197.329 – 452.265 = – 0.316 m
D = + 161.512 + 376.097 – 43.608 – 491.610 = + 2.391 m
Hence, there is a closing error.
____________ _________________
Closing error, e = ( L)2 + ( D)2 = (–0.316)2 + (2.391)2
= 2.411 m
The reduced bearing of closing error,
= tan–1 2.390/0.316 = 82°27 39
Since L is negative and D is positive, the quadrant of closing error is SE.
Corrections
Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side
= total error in latitude (or departure)
latitude (or departure) of the side
× ____________________________________
arithmetic sum of latitudes (or departures)
Line AB:
197.329
Correction to southing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.048 m (–ve)
161.512
Correction to easting = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 0.360 m (–ve)
Line BC:
537.482
Correction to northing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.131 m (+ve)
376.097
Correction to easting = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 0.838 m (–ve)
Line CD:
111.796
Correction to northing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.027 m (+ve)
43.608
Correction to westing = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 0.097 m (+ve)
Line DA:
452.265
Correction to southing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.110 m (–ve)
491.610
Correction to westing = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 1.096 m (+ve)
Traversing 199
In Table 5.1, under the head corrected consecutive coordinates, the maximum
southing is 452.155 m and maximum westing is 492.705 m. For plotting the
traverse in NE quadrant these two values have been assumed to be 500 m each and the
independent coordinates worked out.
e xample 5.14 Calculate latitudes, departures and closing error for the following
traverse conducted at Allahabad. Adjust also the traverse using Bowditch’s rule.
Line Length (m) W.C.B.
AB 89.31 45°10
BC 219.76 72°05
CD 151.18 161°52
DE 159.10 228°43
EA 232.26 300°42
s olution
Line Length (m) W.C.B. R.B. Quadrant
AB 89.31 45°10 45°10 NE
BC 219.76 72°05 72°05 NE
CD 151.18 161°52 18°08 SE
DE 159.10 228°43 48°43 SW
EA 232.26 300°42 59°18 NW
200 Surveying
Line AB:
Latitude = 89.31 cos 45°10 = 62.967 m
Departure = 89.31 sin 45°10 = 63.335 m
Line BC:
Latitude = 219.76 cos 72°05 = 67.605 m
Departure = 219.76 sin 72°05 = 209.102 m
Line CD:
Latitude = – 151.18 cos 18°08 = – 143.671 m
Departure = 151.18 sin 18°08 = 47.051 m
Line DE:
Latitude = – 159.10 cos 48°43 = – 104.971 m
Departure = – 159.10 sin 48°43 = – 119.556 m
Line EA:
Latitude = 232.26 cos 59°18 = 118.578 m
Departure = – 232.26 sin 59°18 = – 199.709 m
Summation of latitudes and departures should be equal to zero.
L = 62.967 + 67.605 – 143.671 – 104.971 + 118.578
or L = + 0.508 m
D = 63.335 + 209.102 + 47.051 – 119.556 – 199.709
or D = + 0.223 m
____________
Closing error, e = ( L)2 + ( D)2
________________
= (0.508)2 + (0.223)2
= 0.5547 m
tan = D/ L
or tan 0.223
= _____
0.508
or = 23°42
The direction (bearing) of the closing error is N23°42 E. Since, the error
in latitude as well as in departure are both positive the corrections will be
negative.
Corrections
Perimeter of the traverse = 89.31 + 219.76 + 151.18 + 159.10 + 232.26
= 851.61 m
Line AB:
Line BC:
Sometimes the bearings of two lines, which are not adjacent, are missing. In
such a case, the two lines are brought into the same triangle by imagining the
intervening lines as having shifted parallel to themselves in the direction parallel
to one of the unknowns. For example, in Fig. 5.26 let the bearings of lines CD and
FA are missing. CD is moved to F in such a way that FF1 is equal to and parallel
to CD. Join A and F1. Draw CE1 and E1F1 parallel to DE and EF, respectively. In
the closed traverse ABCE1F1A the lengths and bearings of CE1 and E1F1 are the
same as that of DE and EF, respectively. Thus, the length and bearing of line F1A
can be calculated by applying the usual equations L = 0 and D = 0. Thereafter,
the triangle AF1F can be solved for the bearings of F1F (CD) and FA as before.
Traversing 205
e xample 5.16 The following observations were made for a closed traverse
round an obstacle. Due to obstructions, lengths of lines DE and EA could not be
measured. Find out the missing lengths.
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 500 98°30
BC 620 30°20
CD 468 298°30
DE ? 230°00
EA ? 150°10
s olution The two lines DE and EA are adjacent lines of the closed traverse
ABCDE (Fig. 5.27). Join D and A by dotted lines so as to obtain a closed traverse
ABCD. Now, L and D should be zero for this traverse. Let the length and the
bearing of line DA be l and .
L = 0 = 500 cos 98°30 + 620 cos 30°20 + 468 cos 298°30 + l cos
or l cos = 73.90 – 535.12 – 223.3
or l cos = – 684.53 m (i)
D = 0 = 500 sin 98°30 + 620 sin 30°20 + 468 sin 298°30 + l sin
or l sin = – 494.50 – 313.12 + 411.28
or l sin = – 396.34 m (ii)
Since latitude and departure both are negative, the line DA lies in the third
quadrant (SW). From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
____________________
l = (–684.53)2 + (–396.34)2
= 790.99 m
From ADE:
Since, the latitude of the line is negative and the departure is positive, the
line lies in the SE quadrant. The bearing of line BD is 180° – 19°3 3.7 =
160°56 3 .
Now, in the triangle BCD, the lengths of all the three sides are known. Hence,
the interior included angles , , can be found by applying the cosine rule.
2
cos = 1200 + 8802 – 1004.9712 = 0.5703
______________________
2 1200 880
or = 55°13 48
2
cos = 1200 + 1004.9712 – 8802 = 0.6947
______________________
2 1004.971 1200
or = 45°59 48
2
cos = 1004.971 – 8802 – 12002 = 0.1947
______________________
2 1004.971 880
or = 78°46 24
Check: + + = 45°49 58 + 55°13 48 + 78°46 24
= 180° (O.K.)
Since the closed traverse BCDB has been traversed clockwise, the included
angles will be the exterior angles.
F.B. of BC = F.B. of DB + DBC
= (180° + 160°56 56.3 ) + (360° – 45°59 48 )
= 656°57 8.3 – 540° = 114°57 8.3
F.B. of CD = F.B. of BC + BCD
= 114°57 8.3 + (360° – 55°13 48 )
= 419°43 20.3 – 180° = 239°43 20.3
208 Surveying
Summary
Surveying is performed either by traversing or triangulation, the former being for relatively
smaller areas. This is a very useful method to provide horizontal control over the surveys.
The horizontal distances are usually measured with a chain, or a tape, or an EDM instrument,
and the relative directions of survey lines with a compass or theodolite. Depending upon
the suitability either a closed traverse or an open traverse may be used to locate details of
the area being surveyed.
The various methods of plotting traverse are described. Checks to be performed to
ascertain the accuracy of the work are introduced. While plotting the traverse with the
observed data it may be found that the traverse is not closing; the error is termed as closing
error. The analytical and graphical solutions to balance the traverse are described.
Exercises
5.1 Define: traversing, close traverse, open traverse, closing error, negative coordinate.
5.2 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Close and open traverses
(b) Bowditch and transit rules
(c) Consecutive and independent coordinates
5.3 Discuss in details the method of plotting a traverse by coordinates. For a close
traverse, would you prefer consecutive coordinates? If so, explain why?
5.4 How is the closing error of a traverse adjusted graphically?
5.5 What is meant by balancing a traverse? State the various rules used to do this.
5.6 State the checks to be applied in the following cases:
(a) Open traverse (b) Close traverse
5.7 List in tabular form the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of
plotting traverses.
5.8 The bearings to two inaccessible stations A and B taken from a station C were
250°00 and 153°26 , respectively. The coordinates of A and B were as follows:
Station Easting Northing
A 300 200
B 400 150
Calculate the independent coordinates of C.
[Ans. 363.45, 223.10]
5.9 A closed traverse ABCD, in which the bearing of AD has not been observed and
the length of BC has been missed out in recording, was conducted at Allahabad.
The rest of the field record is as follows:
Line Bearing Length (m)
AB 181°18 335
BC 90°00 –
CD 357°36 408
DA – 828
Calculate the missing bearing and the length.
[Ans. Bearing = 264°57 40 , Length = 849.5 m]
5.10 A straight line AC of length 2000 m is required to be set out at right angles to
a given line AB. This is done by traversing from A towards C. The observations
recorded are as follows:
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB – 360°00
AD 731 113°48
Traversing 209
DE 467 81°18
EF 583 105°54
Calculate the necessary length and bearing of FC.
[Ans. Length = 492.85 m, Bearing = 38°48 13 ]
5.11 A straight tunnel is to be run between two points A and B, whose independent
coordinates are:
Point Independent coordinates
N E
A 0 0
B 3014 256
C 1764 1398
It is desired to sink a shaft at D, the mid-point of AB, but it is impossible to measure
along AB directly. So D is to be fixed from C, another point whose coordinates are
known. Calculate the
(a) independent coordinates of D
(b) length and bearing of CD
(c) angle ACD, given the W.C.B. of AC is 38°24 .
[Ans. (1507, 128), 1295.74 m, 258°34 , 40°10 ]
5.12 A helicopter flies in sky from Manauri (M) in Allahabad to Teliarganj (T) as per
following conditions:
(a) 5.0 km along a 5°00 up gradient eastwards up to B
(b) 3.0 km along a 3°00 up gradient northwards up to C
(c) 4.0 km along a 4°00 up gradient in the N-W direction up to D
(d) 4.0 km along a 4°00 down gradient southwards up to M
Calculate the bearing, distance and gradient to reach the point T. The starting point
M has coordinates N-1000 m and E-200 m and its height above datum is 100 m.
[Ans. Bearing of TM = S49°45 52 W, Horizontal distance
MT = 2828.7 m, gradient = 1 in 4.77 downwards]
5.13 In a traverse ABCDEFG, the line BA is taken as the reference meridian, the
coordinates of the sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF are:
Line AB BC CD DE EF
Northing – 1190.9 – 565.3 590.5 606.9 1017.2
Easting 0 736.4 796.8 – 468.0 370.4
If the bearing of FG is 284°13 and its length is 896.00 m, find the length and
bearing of GA. [Ans. 884.21 m, 39°53 19 ]
5.14 For a railway project, a tunnel is to be run between two points P and Q whose
coordinates are given below:
Points Coordinates
N E
P 0 0
Q 4020 800
R 2120 1900
It is desired to sink a shaft at S, the mid-point of PQ. S is to be fixed from R, the
third known point. Calculate
(a) the coordinates of S (b) the length RS
(c) the bearing of RS
[Ans. N – 2010, E – 400; 1504.028 m; 265°48 ]
5.15 For a closed traverse ABCDE, the length and bearings of the lines are given as
follows.
210 Surveying
so that A, B and C lie in a straight line and a traverse is run from B to C. The
following observations were made:
ABD = 87°42 BD = 29.02 m
BDE = 282°36 DE = 77.14 m
DEC = 291°06
Calculate
(a) the length of line EC.
(b) the angle to be measured at C, so that the c/l of the road can be extended
beyond C.
(c) the chainage of C assuming the chainage of A to be 100 m and AB to be
130.64 m.
[Ans. 17.82 m, 58°36 , 296.07 m]
Objective-type Questions
5.1 If N is the number of stations and the least count of the instrument is 20 , then the
limit on the angular error of closure in traversing should
__ not be __
(a) <20 N (b) >20 N (c) <20 N (d) >20 N
5.2 If n is the number of sides of a traverse, while traversing clockwise the sum of the
included angles should be
(a) (2n – 4) 90° (b) (2n + 4) 90°
(c) (2n ± 4) 90° (d) 360°
5.3 Latitude of a line is defined as
(a) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the E–W line
(b) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the reference meridian
(c) Length of a survey line corrected for various chain/tape corrections
(d) None of the above
5.4 The coordinates of A are 100 (northing) and 200 (easting), whereas that of B are
100 (southing) and 200 (easting). The length AB is,
(a) 200 (b) 282.84 (c) 244.94 (d) 400
5.5 In open traversing, which of the following methods is preferred?
(a) Method of direct angles (b) Method of exterior angles
(c) Method of deflection angles (d) Method of interior angles
5.6 The departure of a line of traverse is its length multiplied by
(a) cosine of reduced bearing (b) sine of reduced bearing
(c) secant of reduced bearing (d) tangent of reduced bearing
5.7 The Gale method of traversing consists of plotting the points by
(a) independent coordinates (b) consecutive coordinates
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) chords
5.8 In a traverse survey, closing error means
(a) the error in the closing of the traversing operation
(b) the actual distance by which the traverse fails to close
(c) the distance between the starting and end point of an open traverse
(d) the bearings observed are unaffected by local attraction
5.9 In case of angular measurements being more precise than the linear
measurements, the traverse can be balanced by
(a) graphical method (b) theodolite correction
(c) Bowditch rule (d) transit rule
212 Surveying
5.19 Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I
(i) Adjustment of surveying instruments
(ii) Bowditch’s rule
(iii) Triangulation
(iv) Bessel’s method
List-II
(A) Bringing the various fixed parts of the instruments into proper relations with
one another
(B) Solution of three point problem
(C) Measuring all the angles and base line
(D) Balancing the latitudes and departures
Codes:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (A) (B) (C) (D)
(b) (C) (D) (A) (B)
(c) (A) (D) (C) (B)
(d) (C) (B) (A) (D)
5.20 Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?
(a) Declination : Horizontal angle between magnetic meridian
and true meridian.
(b) Bowditch’s rule : Employed to adjust closing error of a closed
traverse.
(c) Deflection angle : Measured in case of open traverse instead of
measuring included angle.
(d) Reconnaissance survey : Employed for detailed and precise survey.
Introduction
The relative position of a point in terms of the vertical distance, above or below
another point is designated by its elevation. The elevation of a point may thus
be defined as its vertical distance above or below a reference surface (datum)
having zero elevation. Therefore, elevation of a point may be considered as its
vertical coordinate. It is treated as positive if the point is above and as negative
if the point is below the datum. Grade and altitude are the two terms frequently
used as an alternate to the term elevation. Grade is an expression of elevation
in construction activities, whereas altitude is the vertical distance of a point in
space. Usually sea level is considered to be the standard datum, but sometimes
an arbitrary assumed surface is taken as the reference. The value for mean sea
level (m.s.l.) as datum is obtained by averaging the elevations of high and low
tides, at several points, for a long period of time, say about 19 years. However,
any surface may be assumed as datum when relative elevation over a limited area
is to be established. This is done by assigning an elevation to some permanent
control point and determining the elevation of the desired points in the area with
respect to the assigned value of the control point. The assigned value can be of
any magnitude. For convenience, a sufficiently large value should be used so that
no point in the system has a negative value. The vertical heights of points above or
below a datum are referred to as simply levels or reduced levels and the operation
of determining the difference of elevation of points with respect to each other on
the surface of the earth is called levelling.
Most of the civil engineering projects are built on calculated slopes. Determination
of differences of elevations is therefore very important for many purposes such as
topographic mapping, setting up grade stakes for sewer lines, ensuring a proper
drainage system so that the flow takes place in the proper direction, carrying
out excavations up to a prescribed depth (elevation) for footing of a structure,
construction of bridge piers to a design elevation, measuring the settlement of
existing buildings, laying out highways and railways, delineating shore lines for a
proposed reservoir, and so on.
In some cases, the points for which the difference in elevation is required are
located next to other one below/above the other, as may be the case, of a boundary
wall, multistorey building, etc. In such cases, a tape may be suspended from the
Measurement of Vertical Distances 215
top and the vertical distance can be measured. However, in general, this may not
be feasible for all situations. For example, it may be required to find the difference
in elevation between two points of different levels about 1 km apart. In such a
case, it is not feasible to stretch a tape vertically between the two points. The
difference in elevations in such cases is determined by levelling.
The method of levelling may either be direct, e.g., simple levelling, differential
levelling, profile levelling, cross sectioning, reciprocal levelling, precise levelling,
check levelling, and fly levelling, or may be indirect, e.g., trigonometric levelling,
barometric levelling, hypsometry and aerial survey.
In direct levelling, the difference in elevation between two points is obtained by
measuring the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line. An instrument
level is used to observe it on a graduated staff placed on the points. This is the most
precise method of levelling and is also known as spirit levelling. In trigonometric
levelling, the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles observed
with a transit and the distances measured with either chain or tape. The stadia
method described in Chapter 7 is also a form of trigonometric levelling. Barometric
levelling is based on the fact that atmospheric pressure is inversely proportional
to the elevation, whereas hypsometry, in addition to this, uses the fact that the
boiling point of water is lowered as the pressure decreases (a barometer is used to
measure atmospheric pressures at the points). These methods are not very accurate
as compared to the trigonometric method because the atmospheric pressure at a
point is influenced by weather conditions.
Since spirit levelling, and specially differential levelling, is the most common
method of determining the elevations, most of this chapter has been devoted to
the same.
6.1 Definitions
Some of the basic terms defined below are illustrated in Figs. 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3.
216 Surveying
102 102
102 102
B.M.
6.2 leVel
The levelling operation involves the measurement of vertical distance of a point
relative to a horizontal line of sight. To accomplish this, it requires an instrument
that will provide a horizontal line of sight and a graduated staff. The instrument
that provides the horizontal line of sight is known as level and the graduated staff
is called levelling staff. A level essentially consists of a telescope to provide the
line of sight, a level tube to make the line of sight horizontal, a levelling head to
bring the bubble of the level tube at the centre of its run, and a tripod to support
the level. However, since the level need not be set up over any particular point,
a plumb bob is not required.
6.2.1 telescope
The principle of a telescope is based on the optical phenomenon
that all parallel rays of light incident on a convex lens get bent due to refraction
and they leave the lens in such a manner that they intersect at a common point,
generally known as the focus, and all other rays passing through the optical centre
of the lens, leave the lens without bending.
A line diagram of typical external and internal focussing telescopes
are shown in Fig. 6.4. A telescope essentially consists of a diaphragm ring and
two convex lenses. The lens near the eye is called eyepiece and that towards the
object is called objective. The objective provides a real inverted image in front
of the eyepiece, at a distance lesser than its focal length, and hence the eyepiece
in turn produces a magnified and vertical image of the object on the same side
of eyepiece.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 219
Fluid with
Spring low viscosity
Hinge
Adjusting screws
The radius of the circular longitudinal curve of the tube varies according to
use. A very short radius makes a slow moving bubble, while a long radius makes
Measurement of Vertical Distances 221
a very sensitive bubble. It is important that the curve should be exactly circular so
that equal distances on the tube subtend equal angles at the centre of curvature.
The level is provided with a scale having uniform graduations (generally of 2
mm length) etched on the exterior surface of the tube to show the exact position
of the bubble. A point mid-way on the tube is selected as the zero point and the
graduations are considered as numbered both ways from that point. The position
of the bubble in the bubble tube is determined by noting the positions of both the
ends. This is necessary because the bubble will change its length with changes in
temperature, and consequently, the reading of one end is not sufficient to determine
the position of the bubble. On account of the action of gravity on the liquid, the
bubble will always move towards the higher end of the tube; hence, when the axis
of the tube is horizontal, the bubble is central.
Sensitivity of a level tube depends upon the
following:
1. Radius of curvature of the internal surface: Larger the radius, greater is
the sensitiveness.
2. Diameter of the level tube: Larger the diameter, greater is the
sensitiveness.
3. Length of the vapour bubble: Larger the length, greater is the
sensitiveness.
4. Viscosity and surface tension of the liquid: Lesser the viscosity, more is
the sensitiveness.
5. Smoothness of the finish of the
internal surface of the tube:
Greater the smoothness, more
is the sensitivity.
e xample 6.1 Find the radius of the longitudinal curvature of the bubble tube
on which the divisions are 2 mm long, if the angular value of one division is 30
seconds.
s olution
R = l/
l = 2 mm = 0.002 m
= 30/206 265 radians
e xample 6.3 A level with a three-screw levelling head is set up with the
telescope parallel to two of the foot screws and is sighted on a staff 100 m away.
The line of sight is depressed by manipulating these two foot screws until the
bubble on the telescope tube reads 4 divisions at the object glass end and 10
divisions at the eyepiece end. These readings represent divisions from a zero at
the centre of the bubble tube. The reading on the staff was 1.350 m. By similarly
elevating the sight, the bubble readings were 9 and 5 divisions at the object
glass end and the eyepiece end, respectively, and the staff reading was 2.235 m.
Determine the sensitivity of the bubble tube and the radius of curvature of the
bubble tube if the length of one division is 2 mm.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.8.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 223
2.235 D
2 div. C
100 m 3 div.
A B
1.350
E
First case
Difference in bubble readings = 10 – 4 = 6 divisions
Bubble is off the centre by 6/2 = 3 divisions
Second case
Difference in bubble readings = 9 – 5 = 4 divisions
Bubble is off the centre by 4/2 = 2 divisions
Total number of divisions the bubble has moved from the first to the second
case = 3 + 2 = 5
5 divisions represent a staff intercept of
2.235 – 1.350 = 0.885 m
The angle DCE caused by the movement of the bubble by 5 divisions
0.885 = 0.00885 radians
= _____
100
Hence, one division = 0.00885
_______ radians
5
0.00885 ____
= _______ 180 60 60
5
= 365.08
Thus, sensitivity of bubble tube is 365.08 per division.
Now, DCE = 0.00885 radians
Arc, AB = nl = 5 2 = 10 mm
10 = 0.00885
___
R
or 10
R = _______ = 1129.94 mm
0.00885
or R = 1.129 m
224 Surveying
Capstan
adjusting screw Spirit bubble Capstan adjusting
screw
Line of sight
Ramsden eyepiece
Crown and flint
glass objective lens Diaphragm with
cross-hairs and
Tribrach stadia wires
Internal focussing
lens
Foot screw
6.3.2 Wye-level
This is similar to the dumpy level except that the telescope in this is supported
by two Y-shaped uprights (Fig. 6.10) fixed to a horizontal bar and attached to the
vertical spindle about which the instrument rotates. The telescope can be lifted
clear of the Y-supports by releasing the two clamping collars which fit across the
tops of the Y-supports. Wye-level has an advantage over dumpy level in that its
adjustments can be tested rapidly. The disadvantage is that is carries many loose
and open parts, which are liable to frictional wear.
Eye piece
Wyes
Level tube
adjusting screw Hinge
Clamp screw
Tangent screw
Foot screw
Tribrach
Fixing screw
Tribrach
Foot screw
The automatic levelling utilises the action of gravity in its operation. A prismatic
device called compensator is suspended on fine non-magnetic wires. A compensator
is an optical system consisting of two fixed prisms (Fig. 6.12 (b)) placed in the
optical path between the eyepiece and the objective. An inverted pendulum supported
by four non-magnetic wires, operates the compensating prism that keeps the image
of the sighted point at the intersection of the cross-hairs at D. When the instrument
becomes approximately level, the action of gravity on the compensator causes the
optical system to swing into the position that provides a horizontal line of sight.
The pendulum moves until its centre of gravity is over the intersection of the lines
of the wire supports. This moves the compensating prism so that the horizontal line
of sight is brought to the horizontal cross-hair at D (Fig. 6.12 (c)).
In addition to the levelling procedure, a test should be made to see if the
compensator is functioning before readings commence. One of the levelling foot-
screws should be moved slightly off level and, if the reading to a levelling staff
remains constant, the compensator is working. If the reading changes, it may be
necessary to gently tap the telescope to free the compensator. On some automatic
levels, this procedure is not necessary since a button is attached to the level
which is pressed when staff has been sighted. If the compensator is working, the
horizontal hair is seen to move and then return immediately to the horizontal line
of sight.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 227
Pivot
Tilting screw
Circular bubble
Central pivot
The main feature of the tilting level is the telescope which can be tilted by 4°
in a vertical plane with the help of a tilting screw. Further, it is not necessary that
the line of collimation and the vertical axis of the tilting level be at right angles
during observations. Before taking the observations, the level is approximately
levelled with the help of footscrews with reference to the circular bubble provided
on the tribrach. While reading the staff, the bubble of the main level tube is centred
exactly by means of tilting screw. This saves time and increases the speed of work.
It is advantageous to use a tilting level when only a few observations are to be
taken with one set up of the level, e.g., in fly levelling.
It is an attachment, sometimes fitted to the tilting
levels and precise levels to enable fine readings to be taken.
It is made up of a disc of fine glass with ground flat parallel surfaces. It is
mounted in front of the objective (Fig. 6.14) in such a way that it can be tilted
slightly away from the vertical. The amount of tilt can be measured on a graduated
drum or arc. A horizontal ray from the staff is deviated slightly in its passage by
tilting the plate so that is emerges from the plate parallel to the original ray but
displaced slightly in a vertical direction with reference to the original ray. Thus, in
Fig. 6.14, the ray ab from the staff is refracted at the surface of the parallel plate
and follows bc in the glass to emerge as the ray cf parallel to ab. Hence, point
a instead of c is actually sighted. Consequently, in passing through the plate, the
ray fc has been displaced vertically by the amount ae.
228 Surveying
Telescope objective
Staff
Unrefracted ray
Hinge
f c e
d
b a
Refracted ray
Glass plate
The glass and the tilting device are so designed that a complete revolution of
the graduated drum, or the movement through a whole number of divisions of the
graduated arc, causes the line of sight to be raised or lowered through one or two
of the smallest divisions on the staff. The vertical displacement d, for small angles
of rotation, of the ray is directly proportional to the angle of rotation of the plate.
(
1 i
ae = d = t 1 – __ )
where i = angle of incidence,
r = angle of refraction,
= refractive index = sin i/sin r and
t = thickness of the plate.
To use the attachment, the instrument is levelled and the staff is bisected.
The line of sight generally strikes the staff at a point somewhere between two
graduations. The disc is then tilted until the cross-hairs appear to coincide with
one of the lower staff divisions. The image of the bubble is reflected from the
silvered portion of the mirror and recording the observation consists of noting the
readings of the staff against the cross-hairs when the centre of the bubble appears
to be against the cross-hairs.
The amount of tilt required to do this is measured in terms of subdivisions
on the drum or arc. The desired reading is then the reading on the staff plus the
reading on the micrometer drum or vernier.
In order to be able to run programs and code readings, a control panel, which
is essentially a special keypad, is fitted to the front of the digital level. All data
stored on the recording module can be transferred to a computer using a reader.
The module is removed from the level and is inserted into the reader which is a
device: the contents are then sent by the reader to whatever computer is interfaced
with it. The user can then process the data using any software.
25
6 3 32 mm
26 mm
23 mm
2
6
Locking 1 0
device 1 Folding handle 5 mm
6 5 mm
0 0 0
0
232 Surveying
To find the true vertical position of the staff when a circular bubble is not
provided on its back, it is waved slowly towards and away from the level. The
lowest reading on the staff will be when the staff is truly vertical.
e xample 6.4 The staff reading at a point A was observed as 2.920 m. If the
staff was 10 cm off the vertical through its bottom, find the correct reading.
s olution _______________
Correct staff reading at A = (2.920)2 – (0.10)2
= 2.918 m
e xample 6.5 The staff reading, with a 4 m staff, at a point A was 3.50 m.
The top of the staff was found to be 10 cm off the vertical through the bottom of
the staff. If the staff was held vertically, determine the correct reading.
s olution
The deviation of staff in 3.500 m height = 10 3.5/4
= 8.75 cm
________________
Correct staff reading at A = (3.500)2 – (0.875)2
= 3.388 m
Measurement of Vertical Distances 233
6.5.1 setting up
Level is not to be set at any fixed point for making the observations as it is with
other surveying instruments which are to be set up on station, the point of interest.
Therefore, setting up of a level is much simple; centring is not required. While
locating the level, the ground point should be so chosen that (a) the instrument is
not too low or too high to facilitate reading on a bench mark, (b) the length of
the backsight should preferably be not more than 98.0 m, and (c) the backsight
distance and the foresight distance should be equal, and the foresight should be so
located that it advances the line of levels. Setting up includes fixing the instrument
and approximate levelling by leg adjustment.
The clamp screw of the instrument is
released. The level is held in the right hand. It is fixed on the tripod by turning
round the lower part with the left hand and is firmly screwed over the tripod.
The instrument is placed at a convenient height with the tripod
legs spread well apart and so adjusted that the tripod head is as nearly horizonal
as can be judged by the eye. Any two legs of the tripod are fixed firmly into the
ground and the third leg is moved right or left in a circumferential direction until
the main bubble is approximately in the centre. The third leg is then pushed into
the ground.
6.5.2 levelling up
1. The clamp is loosened and the upper plate is turned until the longitudinal
axis of the plate level is parallel to a line joining any two levelling screws,
say A and B.
2. The two foot screws are turned uniformly towards each other or away
from each other until the plate bubble is central (Fig. 6.22 (a)).
3. The telescope is swing through 90° so that it lies over the third foot screw
(Fig. 6.22 (b)).
4. The third screw is turned until the plate bubble is central.
5. The telescope is swing again through 90° to its original position and the
above procedure is repeated till the bubble remains central in both the
positions.
6. The telescope is now swing through 180°. The bubble should remain
central if the instrument is in proper adjustment.
1. The clamp is loosened. The upper plate is turned until the longitudinal
axis of the plate level is approximately parallel to the line joining any two
diagonally opposite foot screws, such as B and D (Fig. 6.23).
2. The bubble is centred by moving the two foot screws towards or away
from each other (Fig. 6.23 (a)).
Measurement of Vertical Distances 235
C
C
A B
A B
(a) (b)
D C
D C
A B
B
A
(a) (b)
3. The upper plate is turned through 90° until the plate level axis is parallel to
the other two diagonally opposite screws, such as A and C (Fig. 6.23 (b)).
4. The bubble is centred by turning both the screws towards or away from
each other.
5. The above steps are repeated until the bubble remains central in both the
positions.
6. The telescope is swing through 180°. The bubble should remain central
if the instrument is in proper adjustment. If the bubble is not central, the
instrument requires to be corrected in its permanent adjustment.
Since the bubble is very sensitive and easily disturbed, walking around the
instrument or touching the tripod legs should be avoided.
1. Bring the bubble halfway back to a central position by using the two
footscrews. This makes the vertical axis truly vertical.
2. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of the capstan screw
provided at one of the ends of the bubble tube. This makes the axis of
the bubble tube truly horizonal.
To make the line of sight perpendicular to the vertical axis
(or parallel to the axis of the bubble) when the instruments is truly levelled.
60 m
1. This test is known as the
two-peg test. A C B D
2. Choose two suitable points A
and B about 60 m apart and
place the level mid-way at C as shown in Fig. 6.24.
3. Level the instrument and read the staff at A and B. Calculate the difference
in elevation between A and B. The difference will be correct even if the
line of sight is not parallel to the axis of the bubble tube as the error
resulting from the line of sight being inclined is directly proportional to
the length of sight.
4. Choose another point D in line with A and B about 15 m ahead of B.
5. Level the instrument at D and again take the observations at A and B.
6. Calculate the difference in elevations. If it is same as calculated before
(step 3), the adjustment is correct.
7. If not, the reading at A will have a bigger error than that at B, since the
error is proportional to sight distance.
1. The error is removed with the capstan screws securing the diaphragm to
the telescope tube.
2. Move the diaphragm screws in steps and keep on reading at A and B,
till the correct difference is obtained. This is, therefore, a trial-and-error
procedure.
Alternatively, the adjustment can be made as follows.
1. Workout the reading that should be obtained at A from D, to make the
line of sight horizontal.
Let, reading at A from C – reading at B from C = h1
and, reading at A from D – reading at B from D = h2
Required increase in the reading at A = (h1 – h2) (DA/BA)
2. Correct the staff reading at A.
3. Keep the staff at A and take the observation from D.
4. Diaphragm capstan screws are turned to get the same staff reading as
calculated above (step 1).
e xample 6.6 A dumpy level was set up mid-way between two peg points
80 m apart. The readings on the staff at the two pegs were 3.200 m and 3.015
m, respectively. The instrument was then moved, by 20 m ahead of the second
238 Surveying
peg, in line with the two pegs. The respective staff readings were 2.825 m and
2.690 m. Calculate the staff readings on the two pegs to provide a horizontal line
of sight.
s olution Let the two pegs be A A C B D
and B and the instrument position be 20 m
C when mid-way and D when 20 m
from B (Fig. 6.25).
Instrument at C
True difference in elevation of A and B
d1 = 3.200 – 3.015
= 0.185 m (B being higher)
Instrument at D
Apparent difference in elevation between A and B,
d2 = 2.825 – 2.690
= 0.135 m (B being higher)
Since d1 and d2 are not the same, the line of collimation is not in adjustment.
Now the observed reading on A = 2.825 m
True difference of elevation, d1 = 0.185 m
The corresponding reading on B = 2.825 – 0.185 = 2.64 m
Since the observed reading on B (2.69 m) is more than the correct one (2.64
m), the line of collimation is inclined upwards.
The collimation error = 2.69 – 2.64 = 0.05 m
Increase in staff reading at A = 80 + 20 0.05
_______
80
= 0.0625 m
Therefore, the correct staff reading at A,
= 2.825 + 0.0625
= 2.8875 m
20 × 0.05 = 0.0125 m
Increase in staff reading at B = ___
80
Therefore, the correct staff reading at B
= 2.690 + 0.0125 = 2.7025 m
Check: The true difference in elevation of A and B
= 2.8875 – 2.7025 = 0.185 m
e xample 6.7 The following observations were taken during the testing of a
dumpy level:
Instrument at Staff readings at
A B
A 1.275 2.005
B 1.040 1.660
Measurement of Vertical Distances 239
C 0.125
2.355
A
B
B.M.
1. Let A and C be the two points and let the level be set up at B any where
in the ground (Fig. 6.26). A is a point of known elevation, say benchmark
of R.L. 100 m.
2. The instrument is set up and levelled at B.
3. The telescope is directed towards A and the reading is taken on a vertically
held staff at point A. Let, the backsight observed at A be 2.355 m as shown
in the figure.
4. The staff is then held vertically at point C whose elevation is to be found.
The telescope is directed on the staff and focussed. Before sighting the
staff at C, the surveyor should examine to see that the bubble preserves
its central position. The staff reading is then obtained. Let, the foresight
be 0.125 m as shown in the figure.
5. The difference in the two readings is calculated and added/subtracted to
the R.L. of A depending upon whether C is higher/lower than A. The
difference in the two readings is 2.230 m. Since C is higher than A, the
R.L. of C = 100 + 2.230 = 102.230 m.
F.S.
F.S. I.S.
B.S. B.S. 2.450
1.565 2.000
3.200 1.400
B.S. I.S. I.S. H
0.665 0.825 2.540 F G I
E
A
C 0.385 J
B
B.M. D
Measurement of Vertical Distances 241
B.S. F.S.
B.S. F.S.
E
D
C
B
B.M.
A
B.S. F.S.
B.S. F.S.
B.S. F.S.
O2
C D
O3
O1
B.M.
A B
a1 b1
a b
O
O B
A
D D
2_____ 4.2426
mm = ________
d 206 265
d = 97235 mm 98 m
The distance from the level to the staff can be increased up to 150 m by
employing levels with a magnifying power of about 30 and with a value of level
tube division not exceeding 20 .
6.10.1 reconnaissance
Before undertaking the levelling operation, a reconnaissance should be made. The
positions of fundamental benchmarks are determined to control the location of
level lines. The route to be followed is then studied in detail so as to decide the
positions of temporary benchmarks. Thereafter, the position of the staff stations
is decided.
6.10.2 observations
Before starting the work, a surveyor should check the adjustments of the instrument
and should ensure that it is in good order. The observations are taken on the
levelling staff corresponding to the horizontal hair. If the diaphragm is also
provided with stadia wires, the readings corresponding to the stadia wires may
also be taken. The mean of the two stadia hair readings should be the same as
that of the cross-hairs reading—this is a check.
When levelling is done in busy and noisy area, it becomes impossible for the
instrument man to give oral instructions to the surveyor holding the staff. Hand
signals as listed in Table 6.1 and correspondingly shown in Fig. 6.32 are very
useful in such a case.
The elevation of
the plane of collimation for the first set up of the level is determined by adding
backsight to the reduced level of a B.M. The reduced level of plane of collimation
is also known as height of instrument (H.I.). The reduced levels of the intermediate
points and the first change point are obtained by subtracting the staff readings taken
on these points, i.e., by subtracting successively (one by one) I.S. and F.S. from
the H.I. The instrument is then shifted to the second position and a new plane of
collimation is set up by taking a B.S. on the change point. By means of backsight
and foresight taken on the change point, the levels of the two planes of collimation
are correlated. The elevations of the new plane of collimation is obtained by adding
the backsight, taken on the change point from the second position of the level, to
the reduced level of the first change point. Then the reduced level of successive
points and the second change point is obtained by subtracting their staff readings
from the elevation of the new plane of collimation.
Check: B.S. – .F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
The above check is not complete for the following reason. For instance, in
the following page 1 entries of a level book (Table 6.2), if on subtracting 0.825
from 100.665 to get the R.L. of 99.84, one wrote it as 97.84 instead, the error of
Measurement of Vertical Distances 245
2.0 (99.84 – 97.84 = 2.0) would remain undetected. Thus, the intermediate sights
remain unchecked in working out reduced levels by the collimation method. Here,
the entries of the page 1 of the level book correspond to Fig. 6.27.
It can be observed that the reduced level of any subsequent station depends
upon the reduced level of the preceding station. For example, reduced level of
(98.125) is obtained by subtracting the fall (1.715), from B to D, from the reduced
level (99.84) of the preceding station B. Similarly, reduced level of E (100.28) is
obtained by adding the rise (2.155), from D to E, to the reduced level (98.125) of
the preceding station D. In case if by mistake the reduced level of D is booked
wrongly as some value other than 98.125, the reduced level of E will also be in
error. Consequently, the reduced levels of the subsequent points, e.g., J, etc., and
the value of the last R.L. – first R.L. will be in error. Thus, this value of the last
R.L. – first R.L. will not match with the others in the final check indicating the
error somewhere in the calculation of the values of R.L. Thus, if the final check
is not satisfied, the error can be detected and rectified.
e xample 6.8 The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and
a 4.0 m staff on a continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 30 m:
0.780, 1.535, 1.955, 2.430, 2.985, 3.480, 1.155, 1.960, 2.365, 3.640, 0.935,
1.045, 1.630, and 2.545.
The reduced level of the first point A was 180.750 m. Rule out a page of a
level field book and enter the above readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the
points by the collimation system, and the rise and fall system. Also calculate the
gradient of the line joining the first and the last points.
s olution The first reading of 0.780 at station A must be a backsight reading.
Since the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground with a 4.0 m
staff, the largest reading that can be taken is 4.0 m. Therefore, the position of
the level must have been changed after the largest reading of each series. Such as
after 3.480 (of the 1st series) and 3.640 (of the 2nd series). The last observation
of 2.545 must be a foresight reading. Hence, the observations 3.480, 3.640, and
2.545 are booked in the foresight column. Each of the foresight readings 3.480 and
Measurement of Vertical Distances 247
3.640, at the change point, are preceded by backsight readings 1.155 and 0.935,
respectively. All the remaining readings are intermediate sight readings.
e xample 6.9 Following is the page of a level field book. The readings in
the level book were written with pencil and some of these got erased. The erased
readings are marked with question marks. Calculate the missing readings.
Station B.S. I.S. F.S Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
1 ? 150.00 B.M.
2 2.457 0.827 ?
3 2.400 0.057 ?
4 2.697 ? ? 148.070 C.P.
5 ? 2.051 0.646 148.716 C.P.
6 2.500 1.068 149.784
7 2.896 ? 149.388
8 ? 0.124 ?
9 2.672 0348 149.612
s olution The backlight reading at station 1 is missing. The intermediate sight
of station 2 is 2.457 m and there is a fall of 0.827 m from station 1 to station 2.
Therefore, the back sight at station 1 must be less than the intermediate sight at
station 2.
Backsight at station 1 = 2.457 – 0.827 = 1.63 m
The R.L of station 2 is missing. R.L of station 1 is 150 m and there is a fall
of 0.827 m from station 1 to station 2. Therefore, R.L of station 2 must be less
than that of station 1.
R.L. of station 2 = 150 – 0.827 = 149.173 m
The R.L. of station 3 is missing. R.L. of station 2 is 149.173 m and there is a
rise of 0.057 m from station 2 to station 3. Therefore, R.L. of station 3 must be
more than that of station 2.
R.L. of station 3 = 149.173 + 0.057 = 149.230 m
Fall from station 3 to station 4 is missing. R.L. of station 3 is 149.230 m, which
is more than R.L of station 4 (148.070 m). Therefore,
Fall from station 3 to station 4 = 149.230 – 148.070 = 1.160 m
Foresight at station 4 is missing. The intermediate sight at station 3 is 2.400 m.
There is a fall of 1.160 m from station 3 to station 4. Therefore, the foresight at
station 4 must be more than the intermediate sight at station 3.
Foresight at station 4 = 2.400 + 1.160 = 3.560 m
Backsight at station 5 is missing. There is a rise of 1.068 m from station 5 to
station 6. Therefore, the backsight at station 5 must be more than the intermediate
sight at station 6.
Backsight at station 5 = 2.500 + 1.068 = 3.568 m.
Fall between station 6 to station 7 is missing. Since R.L of station 6 is more, it
is at higher level than station 7. Therefore, the fall can be determined by subtracting
R.L. of station 7 from R.L. of station 6.
Fall between station 6 and station 7 = 149.784 – 149.388 = 0.396 m
Intermediate sight of station 8 is missing. There is a fall of 0.124 m from station 7
to station 8. Therefore the intermediate sight at station 8 must be more than that
of station 7.
Intermediate sight station 8 = 2.896 + 0.124 = 3.020 m
Measurement of Vertical Distances 249
e xample 6.10 The following readings have been taken from a page of an old
level book. It is required to reconstruct the page. Fill up the missing quantities
and apply the usual checks.
s olution
Rise between points 1 and 2 = 1.325
Hence, F.S. on point 2 = 3.125 – 1.325 = 1.8
R.L. of point 2= 125.505
Rise from point 1 to 2= 1.325
Hence, R.L. of point 1= 125.505 – 1.325 = 124.180
Fall from point 2 to 3= 0.055
I.S. on point 3= 2.320
Hence, B.S. of point 2= 2.320 – 0.055 = 2.265
R.L. of point 3 = 125.505 – 0.055 = 125.450
R.L. of point 4 = 125.850
Hence, rise from point 3 to 4 = 125.850 – 125.450 = 0.40
250 Surveying
140.00
C
134.00
(2180 Chains)
B
(2100 Chains)
118.00
A
(2040 Chains)
It is proposed to raise the rail level at A by 1.50 m and to improve the existing
gradient from A to B to 1 in 140. Calculate the greatest change of rail level which
will be involved and the chainage of the point where the new gradient meets the
existing gradient between B and C.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.33.
Distance AB = 2100 – 2040 = 60 chains = 60 30 = 1800 m
Distance BC = 2180 – 2100 = 80 chains = 80 30 = 2400 m
Level difference between A and B = 134.0 – 118.0 = 16.0 m
Level difference between B and C = 140.0 – 134.0 = 6.0 m
______________
Horizontal distance from A to B = (1800)2 – (16.0)2 = 1799.93 m
_____________
Horizontal distance from B to C = (2400)2 – (6.0)2 = 2399.99 m
16.0 = 1 in 112.5
Existing gradient of AB = _______
1799.93
6.0 = 1 in 400
Existing gradient of BC = _______
2399.99
It is proposed to raise the rail level at A by 1.5 m. The new position of A will
be A . The new gradient to which A B is to be laid is 1 in 140. In laying this
gradient let us assume that the point B has to be shifted downwards: Let BB = y
(Fig. 6.34). Then
R.L of B = R.L. of A + 1.5 + gradient of AB + BB
134.0 = 118.0 + 1.5 + 1799.93/140 + y
or y = 1.64 m
1 in 140
1 in 400 C
1 in 112.5 D
B
1 in 140 D
D
B
A
B
1.5 m L
A
252 Surveying
Hence, 353.23
z1 = ______
400
= 0.883 m
_________________
Distance BD = (353.23)2 + (0.883)2
= 353.23 m
Hence, the chainage of the point where the new gradient meets the existing
353.231 = 2111.77 chains.
gradient between B and C is 2100 + _______
30
The results have been worked out by the H.I. system. However, the booking and
reduction can also be done by the rise and fall system.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 253
e xample 6.12 Find the height of a Tee-beam above the floor level. The R.L of
the floor is 100.855 m and the staff reading on the floor is 2.055 m. The reading
on a staff held upside down against the underside of the beam is 3.565 m.
s olution R.L. of plane of collimation,
H.I. = 100.855 + 2.055 = 102.910 m
R.L. of the underside of Tee-beam = 102.910 + 3.565 = 106.475 m
Hence, the height of the Tee-beam above the floor level
= 106.475 – 100.855 = 5.62 m
e xample 6.13 The reduced level of a factory floor is 30.00 m and the staff
reading on the floor is 1.40 m. The staff reading when held inverted with the
bottom touching the Tee-beam of the roof is 3.67 m. Find the height of the beam
above the floor.
s olution R.L. of factory floor = 30.00 m
Staff reading on floor = 1.40 m
Inverted staff reading = 3.67 m
Height of the Tee-beam above the floor = 1.40 + 3.67 = 5.07 m
6.13.1 curvature
In case of a long sight the horizontal line is not a level line due to curvature of the
earth. The vertical distance between a horizontal line and the level line represents
the effect of curvature of the earth.
In Fig. 6.36, let ABD be a level line through A, and O be the centre of the
earth. A is the instrument position. AC, the line of collimation, will be a horizontal
line. R is the radius of the earth.
The curvature correction, Cc = BC
Now OC2 = OA2 + AC2
or (R + Cc )2 = R2 + D2
or R + 2R Cc + C c2 =
2
R 2 + D2
or Cc (2R + Cc) = D2
or D2
Cc = _______
2R + Cc
Since Cc is very small as compared to the radius of the earth R,
D2
Cc = ___
2R
Taking the radius of the earth as 6370 km,
Cc = 0.0785 D 2
where D = distance in km
Since the curvature increases the staff reading, the correction is therefore
subtractive.
True staff reading = observed staff reading – 0.0785 D 2
Horizontal line
A
Instrument C
position E Line of sight
R B
R
Level line
O
6.13.2 refraction
Refraction of the ray passing through the atmosphere from the signal to the
observer is the main source of external error. The rays of light while passing
through layers of air of different densities refract or bend down. These densities
depend upon the temperature and pressure at all points along the track of the rays.
Consequently, ray from a staff follows a curved path, let us say AE (Fig. 6.36).
CE is the amount of refraction correction and varies considerably with climatic
conditions. The average refraction correction can, however, be taken as 1/7th of
the curvature correction.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 255
e xample 6.15 In order to find the difference in elevation between two points
A and B, a level was set up on the line AB, 50 m from A and 1300 m from B. A
and B being on the same side of the instrument. The readings obtained on staff
held at A and B were 0.435 m and 3.950 m, respectively. Find the true difference
in elevation between A and B.
s olution The curvature and refraction corrections are applied only if the
observations are taken for a length greater than 200 m. Therefore, corrections are
not applied to the staff reading at A.
The combined correction for curvature and refraction at B
= 0.0673 D2 = 0.0673 (1.3)2 = 0.1137 m
Hence, corrected staff reading at B = 3.950 – 0.1137 = 3.8363 m
True difference in elevation between B and A is = 3.8363 – 0.435
= 3.40126 m
e xample 6.16 Five bombers were flying at different levels as indicated below:
Bomber No. 1 1366.20 m
Bomber No. 2 1300.00 m
Bomber No. 3 1262.25 m
Bomber No. 4 1207.30 m
Bomber No. 5 1152.25 m
The bombers want to bomb a city K. Another bomber No. 6 starts flying after
repairs from an aerodrome B. The distance of city K from aerodrome B is 80 km.
Bomber No. 6 goes up in vertical direction up to 1100.00 m level. After that it
flies horizontally and its pilot wants to go below bomber No. 5 whose level is
1152.25 m. To his utter surprise, the pilot finds himself even above bomber No.
1. Find out the cause and justify your answer.
e xample 6.17 An observer stands on the top of a tower with his eye level
at 85 m. Determine the distance to visible horizon and the dip of horizon. The
radius of the earth may be taken as 6400 km.
s olution
h = 0.0673 D2
85 = 0.0673 D2
D = 35.54 km
35.54
Dip of horizon = 20
6400
Measurement of Vertical Distances 257
e xample 6.18 The captain of a ship just sees the top of a light house 75 m
in height. If the eye level of captain was 7 m above the sea level, determine the
distance of the ship from the light house.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.39
h 7
Distance, AB = D1 =
0.0673 0.0673
75
Distance, BC = D2 =
0.0673
D = D1 + D2
7 75
= = 43.58 km
0.0673 0.0673
e xample 6.19 A line of level was run in the form of a loop 600.00 m long.
The initial elevation of the starting point was 29.0 m. When the last foresight
reading of 3.005 m was made on the starting point, the height of instrument was
32.0 m. Compute the closing error. Is it tolerable?
s olution
Final elevation = 32.0 – 3.005 = 28.995 m
Closing error = 29.0 – 28.995 = 0.005 m = 5 mm
Permissible closure error for precise levelling
_____
C=4 600 = 3.09 mm
_____
1000
Permissible closure error for accurate levelling is
_____
C = 12 600 = 9.29 mm
_____
1000
Since the actual error of closure (5 mm) is less than the permissible error of
closure (9.29 mm) and more than that (3.09) for precise levelling, the levels are
acceptable for accurate levelling.
are extended to intersect the boundaries, forming the hatched portion shown in the
figure. The elevation of these points of intersection and of the corners of squares
or rectangles are obtained.
For a large plot of land, the method discussed above is slightly modified. The
entire area is divided into squares or rectangles with sides of several hundred metres.
The elevations of these corner points of squares or rectangles are determined by
a level. The elevations so obtained serve as a point of vertical control for further
work. The bigger square or rectangular units are subdivided into smaller squares
or rectangles. From the established points of vertical control, the levels of the
corners of all small units so formed are determined.
of the section. The information regarding the various features like bed level of
stream, road, railway, culvert, etc., lying on the section line must also be noted.
The profiles are plotted as a graph with the elevations of the various points
represented by the ordinates and the horizontal distances between the stations
shown on the abscissa. The vertical scale is kept much larger than the horizontal
one (5 to 15 times) to accentuate the difference in elevations. The plotted points
are connected by a free hand line. The plan view of the profiled line is usually
shown on the top portion of the sheet and the profile on the lower portion.
a e b
A B
d e
c
A B
during which time the value of refraction may change. Therefore, to ensure better
results, some surveyors recommend the use of two levels, one at each bank, so
that sights are taken simultaneously. Although this will give better results but each
level may have a different collimation error. The instruments should therefore be
interchanged and the entire procedure repeated. The mean of the four values will
be the most probable difference in the level between the two points.
e xample 6.20 The following notes refer to the reciprocal levels taken with
one level:
Find:
(i) True R.L. of B
(ii) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
(iii) The error in collimation adjustment of the instrument.
s olution
(i) True R.L. of B
Instrument at A
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 1.630 – 1.03 = 0.600 m
Instrument at B
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 1.540 – 0.95 = 0.59 m
True difference of level between A and B = mean of the two incorrect
differences
0.6 + 0.59
= _________
2
= 0.595 m (fall from A to B)
The results can also be obtained by using the expression
(b – a) + (c – d) (1.630 – 1.03) + (1.540 – 0.95)
h = _______________ = ___________________________ = 0.595 m
2 2
(ii) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
= 0.0673 D 2
(
800
= 0.0673 _____
1000 )2
= 0.043 m
(iii) Error in collimation adjustment
Reading of A = 1.03 m
Fall from A to B = 0.595 m
Required reading of level lime = 1.03 + 0.595 = 1.625 m
The actual staff reading at B (touching horizontal line)
= 1.625 + 0.043 = 1.668 m
264 Surveying
e xample 6.21 The following notes refer to the reciprocal levels taken with
one level:
Find:
(i) True R.L. of B
(ii) Correction for collimation
(iii) Correction for refraction
(iv) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
s olution
(i) True R.L. of B
Instrument at A
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 2.724 – 1.425 = 1.299 m
Instrument at B
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 2.504 – 1.429 = 1.075 m
True difference of level between A and B = mean of two incorrect differences
1.299 1.075
= 1.187 m
2
(ii) Correction for collimation
0.003
Collimation error = 1150 = 0.023 m
150
Correction for collimation = –0.023 m
(iii) Correction for refraction
Error due to curvature = 0.0785 D2 = 0.0785 × 1.152 = 0.104 m
Correction for curvature = – 0.104 m
Let, the correction for refraction be CR.
Combined correction for curvature and refraction = – 0.104 + CR
Total correction for collimation, curvature and refraction
= – 0.023 – 0.104 + CR
Correct staff reading at B with instrument at A
= 2.724 – 0.023 – 0.104 + CR = 1.172 + CR
Measurement of Vertical Distances 265
This must be equal to the calculated true difference of elevation between A and B
1.172 + CR = 1.187
or CR = 0.015 m
(iv) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
Cco = –0.104 + CR = –0.104 + 0.015 = –0.089 m
The level page for precise levelling is somewhat different than that of ordinary
levelling and is as shown in level book page 3 (Table 6.4). There is no need to
compute each H.I. and elevation of the turning points, since this is resorted to only
for establishing a B.M. The desired difference in elevation between benchmarks
is merely the difference between sum of the backsight and foresight readings. To
equalise backsight and foresight distances, stadia wires are also read in addition
to the horizontal cross-wire as shown in the level page book 3. Though costly
and time consuming, the accuracy of the staff reading is considerably improved
by reading all the three wires and taking the mean of the three readings.
Thus, precise levelling involves the use of suitable instruments, protection of the
level from disturbing elements, careful manipulation of the level, and a program
of procedures designed to reduce the errors.
__
First order ± 4 __
k mm
Second order ± 8 k__mm
Third order ± 12 __
k mm
For a closed loop ± 24 k mm
Here k is distance in km
e xample 6.22 In running fly levels from a B.M. of R.L. 250.00 m, the
following readings (in m) were obtained:
Backsight: 1.315, 2.035, 1.980, 2.625
Foresight: 1.150, 3.450, 2.255
From the last position of the instrument, five pegs at 20 m interval are to be set
out on a uniform rising gradient of 1 in 40. The first peg is to have a R.L. of
247.245 m. Work out the staff readings required for setting the tops of the pegs
on the given gradient.
s olution Enter the B.S. and F.S. readings in the level book page and work
out the reduced levels of stations.
The first peg is fixed with the R.L. of its top at 247.245 m and the height of
instrument is 251.150 m. The R.L. of the subsequent pegs at 20 m interval will
depend upon the rising gradient, which is 1 in 40. Difference in level, between
268 Surveying
e xample 6.23 Starting from a point A of elevation 92.5 m, levels were taken
from a section extending to a point B the reduced level of which was found to be
98.15 m. Check levels were carried back along the shortest route from B to A, the
reading being given below. Find the error of closure on the starting point.
B.S. F.S. Remarks
1.120 B
0.740 3.050
1.800 2.795
2.490 0.375
0.730 1.235
1.820 3.390
0.720 1.915
2.290 A
s olution
B.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks
1.120 99.270 98.150 B
0.740 3.050 96.960 96.220
1.800 2.795 95.965 94.165
2.490 0.375 98.080 95.590
(Contd.)
Measurement of Vertical Distances 269
The above methods are used when the distance between the instrument and the
object is small. However, if the distance is large, the corrections for curvature
and refraction should also be applied.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 271
h1 – h2 = A A = S2 – S1 = S
From triangle O1 A F, h1 = D tan 1 (6.8)
From triangle O2 A F, h2 = (D + d) tan 2 (6.9)
272 Surveying
h2 – h1 = S1 – S2 = S (say)
From triangle O1 A F, h1 = D tan 1 (6.10)
From triangle O2 A F, h2 = (D + d) tan 2 (6.11)
Subtracting Eq. (6.10) from Eq. (6.11) to get
h2 – h1 = (D + d) tan 2 – D tan 1
or S = D tan 2 – D tan 1 + d tan 2
= D (tan 2 – tan 1) + d tan 2
(d tan 2 – S)
or D = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
But h1 = D tan 1
(d tan 2 – S) tan 1
or h1 = __________________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
Hence, R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + h1
If the difference
in elevation (S2 – S1) between the two instrument stations is too large and cannot
be measured on a staff at the B.M., then the following procedure is adopted:
1. Set up the instrument at O1 and measure the vertical angle at the point F
(Fig. 6.50).
2. Transit the telescope and establish a point O2, at a distance d from O1.
3. Shift the instrument to O2
and measure the vertical
angle at the point F.
4. Observe the staff reading r
with respect to horizontal
cross-wire on the staff at O1
(Fig. 6.51).
Let S be the difference in
level between the two axes
at O1 and O2.
274 Surveying
S = h2 – h1
We know that
(d tan 2 – S)
D = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
(d tan 2 – S)
and h1 = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
Height of station O1 above the axis at O2= h – r
= d tan –r
S = d tan – r + h
Hence, R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + S + h1
= R.L. of B.M. + S1 + d tan – r + h + h1
e xample 6.24 A vane 3.0 m above the foot of a staff was sighted at a point
3000 m away from the instrument. The observed angle of elevation was 2°30 .
The reduced level of the trunnion axis being 200 m. Find the reduced level of
the staff station.
s olution Let O be the instrument station and A be the staff station.
V = 3000 tan 2°30 = 130.98 m
Since, the distance of 3000 m is quite large, the correction for curvature and
refraction must be applied.
Correction, Cco = 0.0673 D2, where D is in km
= 0.0673 ( _____
1000 )
3000 2
= 0.6057 m
h1
30 42 Transmission
tower
2 30
h2
O
200 m
e xample 6.28 To find the elevation of the top of a chimney, the following
observations were made from two stations P and Q, 50 m apart.
Horizontal angle at station P, between chimney and Q = 60°
Horizontal angle at station Q, between chimney and P = 50°
Angle of elevation from P to the top of chimney = 30°
Angle of elevation from Q to the top of chimney = 29°
R.L. of the line of collimation at P = 22.5 m
R.L. of the line of collimation at Q = 20.5 m
Determine the elevation of the top of the chimney.
Solution Refer to Fig. 6.55.
F
h2
29
h1
Q Chimney
50
30 A
60
Let P and Q be the instrument stations and F be the top of the chimney.
In triangle APQ: APQ = 60° and AQP = 50°
PAQ = 180° – (50° + 60°) = 70°
Applying the sine rule,
QA
PA = ______
______ PQ
= ______
sin 50° sin 60° sin 70°
or (
PA = 50 × sin )
50° = 40.76 m
______
sin 70°
278 Surveying
and QA = 50 × sin ( )
60° = 46.08 m
______
sin 70°
Also, h1 = PA tan = 40.76 tan 30° = 23.533 m
and h2 = QA tan = 46.08 tan 29° = 25.543 m
Hence, R.L. of chimney top = R.L. of line of collimation + h1 (or h2)
R.L. of F from observations at P = 22.5 + 23.533 = 46.033 m
R.L. of F from observations at Q = 20.5 + 25.543 = 46.043 m
(46.033 + 46.043)
Hence, elevation of F = _______________ = 46.038 m
2
( T1 + T2
H = 18336.6 (log10 h1 – log10 h2) 1 + _______
500 )
where
H = the difference in elevation between the two points,
h1, h2 = the barometric readings (in cm) at the lower and higher points,
respectively, and
T1, T2 = temperatures of air (in °C) at the lower and higher points,
respectively.
6.24.1 Barometer
Barometers are used in levelling for rough determination of elevations, difference
of elevations and the flying height of aeroplanes in aerial photogrammetry.
They are also used for calculating the refraction correction in certain kinds of
astronomical observations. Since, levelling with the barometer is not very accurate,
Measurement of Vertical Distances 279
4 7 6 11
2
8
1
5
1
3 9
2. It should be done in summer during the first four hours after sunrise and
during the last four hours before sunset.
3. Observations should be avoided during high wind, before a thunderstorm,
and in foggy weather.
4. When arriving at the point, it is necessary to wait for 5 – 10 min. for the
aneroid to assume the temperature and pressure of the ambient air.
5. During observations the aneroid should be kept horizontal in a thick leather
casing to avoid jolts and for protecting from direct action of sunlight.
6. The top of the aneroid should be slightly tapped to overcome the pointer
inertia before reading.
7. Eye should be properly positioned with the pointer to overcome
parallax.
8. Instrument readings should be taken repeatedly, at a number of points, in
intervals of 10 min.
If any one of the above conditions is not observed, it will result in serious errors.
An error in the aneroid of 0.1 mm causes an error in elevation equal to 1 m, and
an error in determining the barometer temperature of 1°C causes an error in height
equal to 2 m. Under favourable conditions and by careful work, the aneroid can
be used to determine the elevation of points with a maximum error of 3 m.
e xample 6.29 Find the elevation of a station B from the following data:
Station A Station B
Time 9 – 11 a.m. 10 a.m.
Barometer reading 75 – 75.2 cm 72 cm
Temperature of air 16 – 18°C 8°C
Elevation 50.0 m ?
(
T1 + T2
H = 18336.6 (log10 h1 – log10 h2) 1 + _______
500 )
(
17 + 8
= 18336.6 (log10 75.1 – log10 72) 1 + ______
500 )
= 352.48 m
Measurement of Vertical Distances 281
6.25 HypsoMetry
The altitudes of various points may be obtained by
using an instrument known as hypsometer. It works
on the principle that a liquid boils when its vapour
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. It
may be noted that the boiling point of water is
lowered as the pressure decreases, i.e., as a higher
altitude is attained. The method, therefore, consists
in determining the boiling point temperatures at
various stations. The corresponding atmospheric
pressures may be obtained from the tables. In
the absence of tables, the following approximate
formula may be used:
h = 76.00 ± 2.679 t
where t is the difference of boiling point from
100°C, and h is the pressure in cm. The difference
in elevations may be obtained by using the formula
given in Section 6.24.
The hypsometer (Fig. 6.57) consists of a
thermometer graduated to 0.1°C. It is fitted inside
a telescopic tube and is suspended over a small
boiler filled with distilled water. The thermometer
is kept in steam and is adjusted so as not to touch
the water. The temperature of air in the shade
is also observed simultaneously with a detached
thermometer.
e xample 6.30 Determine the altitude difference between two points A and
B from the following data:
s olution
t1 = 100 – 98.6 = 1.4°C t2 = 100 – 94 = 6°C
Pressure at A, h1 = 76.00 – 2.679 t1
= 76.00 – 2.679 × 1.4 = 72.249 cm
Pressure at B, h2 = 76 – 2.679 t2
= 76 – 2.679 × 6 = 59.926 cm
282 Surveying
[
T1 + T2
H = 18336.6 (log10 h1 – log10 h2) 1 + _______
500 ]
[
16 + 12
= 18336.6 (log10 72.249 – log10 59.926) 1 + _______
500 ]
= 1572.63 m
F.S.
A B
than the staff length, the staff can be held inverted with its zero end touching the
top of the wall and the reading is observed. This reading when added to the H.I.,
gives the R.L. of the top of the wall. The instrument is then shifted to the other
side of the wall. The staff is kept inverted with its zero end touching the top of the
wall and reading is observed. This reading when subtracted from R.L. of the top
of the wall, gives the new H.I. and the levelling operation may be continued.
On the other hand, if the wall is too high and an inverted staff cannot be used,
a tape is used. With the instrument to one side of the wall, a mark is made on the
wall where the line of sight strikes it, say at point A (Fig. 6.61). The height from
A to the top of the wall is measured with a tape suspended from the top of the
wall. When this height is added
to the H.I., the R.L. of the top Wall top
of the wall is determined.
The instrument is then shifted
to the other side of the wall and
a new line of collimation is set
up. A mark, say B, is made on
the other side of the wall, where
the line of sight strikes it. The
height of the top of the wall
above this mark is measured
with a tape. This height when B
subtracted from the R.L. of the A
top of the wall gives the new
H.I. The levelling operation is
then continued.
The main adjustment of the level makes the line of sight parallel to the
axis of the bubble tube, so that a horizontal plane is traced out as the telescope
is revolved (Fig. 6.2). The error introduced can be eliminated by equalising the
backsight and foresight distances, which is often impractical due to the field
conditions. The bubble of the level tube, if sluggish, may rest in a wrong position,
i.e., even if the instrument is not perfectly level, it may rest in the centre of its
run. Thus, it may give a false impression that levelling of the instrument has been
achieved. The error may be avoided by checking the bubble after bisecting the
target. An experienced surveyor looks at the bubble both before and after reading
the staff.
The levelling staff should be held vertically on a point. Because
of careless holding the staff may lean forward or backward, increasing the staff
reading in both the cases. To obtain an accurate reading it should be ensured
that the staff is truly vertical by waving the staff and observing the minimum
reading.
The levelling staff and its graduations may not be of correct length. The error
is minimised by testing the length of the staff and its graduations with a standard
tape from time to time.
In the case of an extendible staff, the joints may be improperly joined or they
may be worn out. Such a staff should be discarded.
staff properly, allowing the turning point to change before its purpose is satisfied,
and incorrectly recording the field notes.
Summary
Measurement of vertical distance consists in determining the relative position of different
points with respect to each other. In general, the height of different points is determined with
respect to a reference point called datum. For large scale work datum is the mean sea level
(m.s.l) which for India is considered to be the m.s.l at mumbai. The height of point relative
to the datum is termed as reduced level. For small scale works the datum may be assumed
a convenient value, say 100 m, and the reduced level of various points determined.
The instruments required are a level and a graduated levelling rod. The level may be a
dumpy level, tilting level, automatic level or digital level (listed in order of advancement).
The essential condition in levelling operation is the line of sight provided by the telescope
of level should be horizontal and is called line of collimation. It should rotate in a horizontal
plane when telescope is rotated about the vertical axis. Level can be kept anywhere in the
field and the levelling staff in kept vertical at the point of interest (station) whose reduced
level is required. The reading of levelling staff on the point whose reduced level is known
(the reference point), i.e., the first point, is called the back sight reading and that on the
point of interest is called the fore sight reading (on the last point of interest) or intermediate
sight reading (on intermediate points between the first point and the last point with one set
up of instrument).
The two methods for determining reduced level of various points, the Height of Instrument
method (Collimation method) and Rise and Fall method, are described in detail. Rise and
Fall method is better one as it provides check on intermediate sight as well. It must be
remembered that the checks in the two methods are only on arithmetic performed. In case,
if the entries in the level book page are made in the wrong columns, the results will be
absurd.
As it is well known that the earth surface is curved and not plane, for small distances, a
level line and a horizontal line are practically not different and result in same reading. But
for long distances the earth’s curvature does affect the reading and accordingly curvature
correction is applied. Because of the refraction of the light rays, the line of sight deviates
from its horizontal path; the refraction correction also becomes important. The curvature
correction (negative) and the refraction correction (positive) are opposite in nature and a
net correction (negative of 0.0673D2) is applied to the observed staff readings.
Different types of levelling, the sectioning, the cross sectioning, the reciprocal, the precise,
the fly, the trigonometric, the hypsometric and the barometric levellings are discussed and
described in detail. The latter two types of levelling do not result in accurate levels, but
are discussed from academic view point and may be used for crude estimation purposes.
Difficulties are a part of the survey field work and some of the possible difficulties that
may be encountered in the field are discussed and possible solutions suggested.
Exercises
6.1 List in tabular form, for comparison, the advantages and disadvantages of the dumpy
level, wye level, and tilting level.
6.2 Define the terms line of collimation, height of instrument, backsight, reduced level,
parallax and dip of horizon.
6.3 Describe the collimation method of reducing the levels. Compare the collimation
method with the rise and fall method.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 287
2.485
2.530
2.815
0.325 0.15
2.775 B.M2
B.M. = 65 m
0.775
2.145
0.155
1.435
B.M. = 80 m
B.M2
288 Surveying
6.16 The following staff readings were taken with a level. The instrument having been
shifted after the 4th, 7th and 10th readings. R.L. of the starting B.M. is 100.00 m.
Enter the readings in the form of a level book page and reduce the level by the
collimation method and apply the usual checks.
2.65, 3.74, 3.83, 5.27, 4.64, 0.38, 0.96, 1.64, 2.84, 3.48, 4.68 and 5.26.
[Ans. 100.00, 98.91, 98.82, 97.38, 101.64, 101.06, 99.86, 99.22, 98.64]
6.17 During fly levelling the following note is made.
B.S.: 0.62, 2.05, 1.42, 2.63 and 2.42 m
F.S.: 2.44, 1.35, 0.53 and 2.41 m
The first B.S. was taken on a B.M. of R.L. 100.00 m. From the last B.S. it is
required to set 4 pegs each at a distance of 30 m on a rising gradient of 1 in 200.
Enter these notes in the form of a level book and calculate the R.L. of the top of
each peg by the rise and fall method. Also, calculate the staff readings on each
peg.
[Ans. R.L. 100.00, 98.18, 98.88, 99.77, 99.99, 100.14, 100.29, 100.44, 100.59.
Staff reading on pegs 2.27, 2.12, 1.97, 1.82 m]
6.18 The reduced level of ground at four points A, B, C and D are 54.35, 54.30, 54.20,
54.30 m, respectively. A sewer is to be laid so that its invert is 3.048 m below the
ground at A and it falls with a uniform gradient of 1 in 340 to D. The distances
AB, AC and AD are 35.845, 80.742 and 134.7 m, respectively. Find the invert level
and depth of the trench at B, C, and D.
[Ans. Level 51.1966, 51.0645, 50.906 m.
Depth 3.103, 3.135, 3.394 m, (negative)]
6.19 Reciprocal levelling was done between two points A and B situated on the opposite
sides of a valley 730 m wide. The following data was collected:
Determine the difference in level between A and B and the amount of collimation
error if any. [Ans. 0.3485 m (fall from A to B, 0.1594 m (negative)]
6.20 The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level and 4 m levelling
staff on a continuously sloping ground at 30 m intervals.
0.680, 1.455, 1.855, 2.330, 2.885, 3.380, 1.055, 1.860, 2.265, 3.540, 0.835, 0.945,
1.530, and 2.250.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 289
6.23 In levelling between the two points A and B on opposite banks of a river, the level
was set up near A and the staff readings on A and B were 2.150 m and 3.565 m,
respectively. The level was then moved to B and the respective staff readings on A
and B were 1.965 m and 3.260 m. Find the true difference in levels of A and B.
[Ans. 1.355 m fall]
6.24 Find the combined correction for curvature and refraction for a distance of (a) 400
m (b) 3 km. [Ans. 0.1137 m, 3.8363 m]
6.25 A level is set up at C on a line AB at 60 m from A and 700 m from B. The B.S.
on A is 2.650 m and the F.S. on B is 2.780 m. Find the difference in levels between
A and B. [Ans. 0.097 m fall]
6.26 The following staff readings in metres were obtained when levelling along the
centreline of a straight road ABC using a digital level.
0.720 B
1.465 0.260
2.630 0.905
1.305 40.0 B.M.
[Ans. R.L. of A = 37.950 m, R.L. of B = 37.655 m]
6.30 In a two-peg test of a dumpy level, the following readings were taken:
Instrument at R, mid-way Staff readings
between pegs P and Q: at P 1.525 m
at Q 1.230 m
Instrument near P: at P 1.420 m
at Q 1.025 m
How much is the line of collimation inclined upwards or downwards? What should
be the correct staff reading at Q with the instrument near P to keep the line of
collimation truly horizontal?
[Ans. 0.10 m, downwards, 1.125 m]
6.31 Two pegs A and B are driven 100.0 m apart. In the adjustment of a dumpy level,
following observations were recorded:
6.41 The following observations were made on a hiltop to ascertain its elevation. The
height of the target F was 5 m.
Instrument Staff reading Vertical angle on R.L. of B.M. (m)
station on B.M. target at hiltop
Q2 2.550 18°6 345.580
Q1 1.670 28°42 345.580
The instrument stations were 100 m apart and were in line with F.
[Ans. 425.539 m]
6.42 The following observations were made in running fly levels from a bench mark of
R.L. 60.65m:
Back sight: 0.964, 1.632, 1.105, 0.850
Fore sight: 0.948, 1.153, 1.984.
Five pegs at 20 m intervals are to be set on a falling gradient of 1 in 100 m from
the last position of the instrument. The first peg is to be at R.L. 60 m.
Work out the staff readings required for setting the pegs and prepare the page of
the level book.
[Ans. Staff reading of peg 1: 1.116 m, peg 2: 1.316 m,
peg 3: 1.516 m, peg 4: 1.716 m, peg 5: 1.916 m]
Objective-type Questions
6.1 What will be the correction for curvature for a distance of 1000 m?
(a) 0.0673 m (b) 0.0785 m (c) 78.50 m (d) 6.73 m
6.2 The reading on a 4.0 m. staff at a point is observed as 2.895 m. If the staff was 8
cm out of the plumb line, the correct reading should have been
(a) 2.8938 m (b) 2.8150 m (c) 2.8961 m (d) 2.8950 m
6.3 A back sight reading on B.M. = 100 m was 3.250 m. The inverted staff reading to
the bottom of a girder was 1.250 m. The R.L. of the bottom of girder is
(a) 101.250 (b) 102.0 (c) 104.50 (d) 103.250
6.4 The sensitivity of a bubble tube is 20 . A staff is held at a distance of 200 m. What
is the error in reading it if the bubble is out by one division.
(a) 0.704 m (b) 0.0704 m (c) 0.0194 m (d) 0.1940 m
6.5 A level when set up 25 m from peg A and 50 m from peg B reads 2.847 m on staff
held on A and 3.462 m on staff held on B, keeping the bubble at its centre while
reading. If the reduced levels of A and B are 283.665 m and 284.295 m respectively,
what is the collimation error per 100.0 m?
(a) 0.015 m (b) 0.30 m (c) 0.045 m (d) 0.060 m
6.6 Levelling deals with measurement in
(a) horizontal plane
(b) vertical plane
(c) both horizontal and vertical planes
(d) inclined plane
6.7 The datum adopted in India is the mean sea level at
(a) Kolkata (b) Chennai (c) Mumbai (d) Karachi
6.8 Height of instrument may be defined as
(a) height of the instrument at the time of observation
(b) the elevation of the plane of collimation, when the instrument is accurately
levelled
294 Surveying
Introduction
The most common method of measuring horizontal distances is chaining and that
for measuring vertical distances is differential levelling. Both of these methods
give results to the required accuracy. Chaining, however, on rough grounds does
not furnish very accurate results. When the ground is rough and more observations
at a faster rate with ordinary precision are acceptable, then tacheometry is the
choice. An example of the use of tacheometry for the above-said conditions is
the collection of data to draw contours on a topographic map. As compared to
chaining on flat grounds, the accuracy of tacheometric distances is low, but on
rough and steep grounds the accuracy is more. Tacheometry is defined as an optical
distance measurement method. Though less accurate, this method of surveying is
very rapid and convenient. The other names given to tacheometry are tachymetry
or telemetry.
The primary object of a tacheometric survey is the preparation of a contoured
plan. It is particularly suitable for filling in details on topographical maps,
preliminary location surveys (e.g., for railways, roadways, canals, reservoirs, etc.)
and surveying steep grounds, broken boundaries and water stretches, etc. Also, on
surveys of higher accuracy, it may be used to provide a ready check on distances
measured with a chain or tape.
A tacheometer is essentially a transit theodolite, the diaphragm of which is
furnished with stadia wires in addition to the cross-wire. Observations are made on
stadia rod, usually a level staff but with a larger least count (1 cm), and horizontal
as well as vertical distances are computed from these observed readings.
able to read easily and accurately the staff intercepts through the telescope. The
staff can be held either vertical or normal to the line of sight.
wires strikes some graduation on the staff. The other stadia wire is also read. The
difference of the two readings is the staff intercept. Then the middle cross-wire
and the corresponding vertical angle is read. Some of the surveyors keep the
middle hair reading equal to H.I. which results in minor arithmetical work. But
this practise should be disregarded as the error due to refraction of rays near the
ground creeps in, resulting in erroneous observations.
Levelling head
It is a horizontal metal bar to which two targets are fixed at a known distance
of 0.3 – 3.0 m apart. In India, the subtense bars are usually 3.5 m long. It is
mounted on a tripod. A small spirit level is provided to level it. The alidade
provides a line of sight perpendicular to the bar, which is thereby set normal to
the line of measurement. After aligning and levelling the bar, it is clamped by the
screw underneath the tripod top. The targets are usually 20 cm in diameter and are
painted half red and half white with a 7.5 cm black centre. Sometimes targets are
made square as shown in Fig. 7.5. The targets are set apart at a known distance
and the horizontal angle between them is read by a theodolite. The vertical angle
to the bar is also read. Then the horizontal and vertical distances are computed.
wires. When the parallactic angle (Fig. 7.6), defined by means of stadia wires, is
kept fixed and the staff intercept is varied, e.g., AB and A B , the method is called
fixed hair method. A tacheometer and a staff is used to make the observations.
Another way can be to keep the staff intercept fixed, e.g., AB and A B , and
varying the parallactic angle, e.g., and (Fig. 7.6). In the latter case the stadia
wires will have to be moved and is accordingly known as the movable hair or
subtense method. A subtense theodolite in conjunction with a staff or subtense bar
is used to make the observations.
The principle of the stadia method is that “in isosceles triangles, the ratio of
perpendiculars from the vertex on their bases, and the bases is constant”.
Let OAA , OBB and OCC be the three isosceles triangles (Fig. 7.7). Then,
OO = ____
____ OO = _____
OO = __1 cot __ = K
AA BB CC 2 2
where K is a constant and is the parallactic angle.
Hence, if the staff intercepts AA , BB and CC are known, the horizontal
distance OO , OO and OO can be determined, provided the parallactic angle
is known.
d f
f2 f1
A
A O B
i C C s
F
B A
B
C D C
or D = Ks + C (7.4)
Equation (7.4) is known as the tacheometric distance equation. K and C are
the respective multiplying and additive tacheometric constants. The multiplying
constant is also known as stadia interval factor.
The tacheometric distance formula may also be deduced
in another way by drawing rays passing through either the interior or exterior
Tacheometry 305
principal focus, as shown in Fig. 7.8 by dark lines, of the object glass. The rays
proceeding from A and B parallel to the principal axis of the objective lens must
after refraction, at A and B , pass through F —the exterior principal focus of the
objective. Since A and B are at a constant distance from the axis, A and B are
therefore fixed points. Consequently, as F is fixed, the angle AF B is also fixed
in magnitude.
From similar triangles ABF and A B F
CF
AB = ____
_____
A B OF
Since A B = AB
CF
_s = ____
i f
f
or CF = _ s
i
Now, D = CF + OF + d
f
=_s+f+d
i
or
f
()
D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
or D = Ks + C
Elevation of the staff station = elevation of the instrument axis –
horizontal cross-wire reading
The constant K equals f / i. Its value, therefore, depends upon the stadia interval
and the principal focal length of the objective. To facilitate computation of
distances, the stadia wires are so spaced as to make the multiplying constant equal
to 100. The additive constant C equals (f + d). Practically, it is a constant value
for a tacheometer, as the value of d varies by only a small and negligible amount
when focussing the telescope on different objects. The value of C ranges from
0.25 to 0.35. If an anallactic lens is built into the telescope, it is so placed that
all the observations are reduced to the centre of the instrument and the constant C
becomes zero and the Eq. (7.4) is simplified to D = Ks. Thus, if the staff intercept
is known, the horizontal distance can be readily obtained by multiplying it by
100.
In the preceding paragraphs, it has been assumed that the tacheometer was
oriented horizontally. In general, it is seldom possible to keep the line of sight
horizontal and perpendicular to the stadia rod due to the undulations of the ground
surface, or more precisely, when the staff stations and the instrument station have
large differences in elevation. In such a case an inclined line of sight must be taken
with the staff vertical or normal to it. Before we modify the distance equation for
the said cases, consider the procedure to determine the constants experimentally
as outlined below.
1. A line AB about 200 – 250 m long is set out on a fairly level ground.
Then pegs are fixed at 25 – 30 m interval.
306 Surveying
2. The tacheometer is set up at one end of the ranged line and the staff
intercepts are obtained by taking stadia readings on the staff held vertical
on every peg.
3. By substituting the value of different distances and staff intercepts in
Eq. (7.4), a number of equations are obtained:
D1 = Ks1 + C
D2 = Ks2 + C
D3 = Ks3 + C
4. These equations are solved in pairs to obtain several sets of constants K
and C. The mean of all the obtained values of K and C are reported as
the values of the constants K and C.
e xample 7.1 The stadia readings with horizontal sight on a vertical staff held
50 m from a tacheometer were 1.285 m and 1.780 m. The focal length of the
object glass was 25 cm. The distance between the object glass and the vertical
axis of the tacheometer was 15 cm. Calculate the stadia interval.
s olution C = f + d = 25 + 15 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
s = 1.780 – 1.285 = 0.495 m
f
Now, D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
0.25
50 = ____ 0.495 + 0.4
i
i = 2.49 × 10–3 m = 2.49 mm.
A A
90
C s
L h
B B
V
E
O
F
O F
V
L B B
C
90 s
h
A
A
E
Let,
AB = s = staff intercept,
CE = h = central hair reading,
= angle of elevation, and
OC = L = inclined distance.
Drop perpendicular CF to horizontal OF. Then,
L = Ks + C
OF = (Ks + C) cos
But D = OF + F F
= (Ks + C) cos + h sin
Elevation of the staff station, V = OC sin
= L sin
= (Ks + C) sin
Elevation of staff station = H.I. + V – h cos
D
O F F
L V
A
C C
s
Bh
E E
D
L = Ks + C
OF = L cos = (Ks + C) cos
Now, D = OF – FF = OF – EE = (Ks + C) cos – h sin
Tacheometry 309
f2
m f1
b3 A
f
b2 a1
b
M O s
i i
N F1
a
a2 b1
n B
a3
d
f1 – f
= _____
f [ ( )
f
ff1
_____
1 – f
n+f
_____________
f ]
ff1 + ( f1 – f )( f – n)
= __________________
ff
f1( f + f – n) _________
f(n – f )
= ___________ +
ff f +f +n
ff f(n – f )
_s – _________
f1 = _________
f +f –n i f +f –n
Now, D = f1 + d
ff f(n – f )
_s – _________
or D = __________ +d (7.9)
( f + f – n) i f +f –n
or D = Ks + C (7.10)
ff f (n – f )
where K = ___________ and C = d – _________
( f + f – n) i f +f –n
For an anallactic lens, the value of the additive constant C is made zero.
Hence,
f (n – f )
d – _________ = 0
f +f –n
f(n – f )
or d = _________
f +f –n
fd
or n = f + _____
f+d
fd
The anallactic lens is so placed that n = f + _____. This is done by bringing
f+d
the apex of the tacheometric triangle ANB at the centre of the instrument.
312 Surveying
The value of f and i are so adjusted, that the value of the constant K is a
suitable number, say 100.
Equation (7.10) thus reduces to
D = Ks = 100s
e xample 7.2 It was required to determine the distance between two points A
and B by a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens (K = 100, C = 0). With the
instrument at A and staff at B, the observations made were a vertical angle of +
9°46 and staff intercept of 1.915 m. What is the horizontal distance AB? Later on
it was found that the constants of the instrument were 100 and 0.5. What would
be the percentage error in the horizontal distance computed?
s olution K = 100 and C = 0
D = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 100 1.915 cos2 9 46 + 0 = 185.9893 m
K = 100 and C = 0.5
D = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 100 1.915 cos2 9 46 + 0.5 cos 9 46
= 185.9893 + 0.4927 = 186.482 m
The actual distance = 185.9893 m
Error 186.482 – 185.9893 = 0.4927 m
e xample 7.3 A levelling staff is held vertical at distances of 100 m and 300 m
from the axis of a tacheometer and the staff intercept for horizontal sights are 0.99
m and 3.00 m, respectively. Find the constants of the instrument.
The instrument is set up at station A and the staff is held vertical at a point B.
With the telescope inclined at an angle of depression of 10° to the horizontal, the
readings on the staff are 2,670, 1.835, 1.000 m. Calculate the R.L. of B and its
horizontal distance from A. The H.I. is 1.42 m and R.L. of station A is 450.5 m.
s olution D = Ks + C
Given: D1 = 100 m, s1 = 0.99 m
D2 = 300 m, s2 = 3.00 m
Now, D1 = Ks1 + C
or 100 = K 0.99 + C
D2 = Ks2 + C
or 300 = K 3.00 + C
From the above equations
2.01 K = 200,
200 = 99.50
K = ____
2.01
Tacheometry 313
e xample 7.4 Determine the gradient from a point P to another point Q from
the following observations made with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens.
The constants of the instrument were 100 and 0, and the staff was held vertical.
Instrument station Staff station Bearing Vertical angle Staff readings (m)
R P 130° + 10°32 1.255, 1.810, 2.365
Q 220° + 5°06 1.300, 2.120, 2.940
Instrument station H.I. (m) Staff station Vertical angle Staff readings (m)
O 1.45 B.M. – 6°00 1.335, 1.895, 2.460
O 1.45 C.P. + 8°30 0.780, 1.265, 1.745
P 1.40 C.P. – 6°30 1.155, 1.615, 2.075
= 100 1.125
__________ sin 12 + 0.0 sin 6 = 11.695 m
2
R.L. of plane of collimation = R.L. of B.M. + h1 + V1
= 250.00 + 1.895 + 11.695 = 263.590 m
Instrument at O and staff at C.P.
s2 = 1.745 – 0.780 = 0.965 m
H.I. = 1.45 m, 2 = 8 30
Ks2 sin 2 2
V2 = _________ + C sin 2
2
100 0.965 sin (2 8°30 )
= _________________________ + 0 sin 8 30 = 14.10 m
2
Tacheometry 315
V3 H.I.
P
h3 h2 V2
C.P.
V1
O
h1
B.M.
e xample 7.6 Two sets of tacheometric readings were taken from an instrument
station A (R.L. = 100.00 m) to a staff station B as shown below.
Instruments P Q
Multiplying constant 100 95
Additive constant 0.30 0.45
Height of instrument 1.40 m 1.45 m
Staff held Vertical Normal
Determine:
(i) The distance between instrument station and staff station.
(ii) The R.L. of staff station B.
(iii) Stadia readings with instrument Q.
316 Surveying
V = Ks sin 2 + C sin
________
2
= 100 0.705 sin 11 28 + 0.3 sin 5 44 = 7.038 m
__________
2
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + H.I. + V – h
= 100.00 + 1.400 + 7.038 – 1.440 = 106.998 m
Instrument Q at station A and staff held normal at B
AB = (Ks + C) cos + h sin
= (95 s + 0.45) cos 5 44 + h sin 5 44
= (95 s + 0.45) 0.995 + h 0.0999
or 70.095 = (95 s + 0.45) 0.995 + 0.0999 h
or 946.1962 s + h = 697.167
or h = 697.167 – 946.1962 s (i)
V = (Ks + C) sin
= (95s + 0.45) sin 5 44
= (95s + 0.45) 0.0999
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + H.I. + V – h cos
= 100.00 + 1.450 + (95 s + 0.45) 0.0999 – h (0.995)
or 106.998 = 100.00 + 1.45 + (95 s + 0.45) 0.0999 – h 0.0995
or 9.5382 s – h = 5.5307
h= 9.5382 s – 5.5307 (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
697.167 – 946.1962 s = 9.5382 s – 5.5307
955.7344 s = 702.698
or 702.698 = 0.735244 m
s = ________
955.7344
h = 9.5382 0.735244 – 5.631 = 1.4819 m
0.735244 = 1.1143 m
upper stadia wire reading = 1.4819 – ________
2
lower stadia wire reading = 1.4819 + 0.735244
________ = 1.8495 m
2
e xample 7.8 A tacheometer is fitted with an anallactic lens and the constants
are hundred and zero. The reading corresponding to the cross-wire on a staff held
vertical on a point B was 2.295 m when sighted from A. If the vertical angle was
+ 25° and the horizontal distance AB was 190.00 m, calculate the stadia wire
readings and thus show that the two intercept intervals are equal. Using these
values calculate the level of B if that of A was 50.00 m and the height of the
instrument is 1.35 m
s olution D = Ks cos2 + C
or 190 = 100 s cos2 25
or s = 2.313 m
From Fig. 7.16, F G = s cos 25 = 2.313 cos 25 = 2.096 m
A E = A E sec 25 =190 sec 25 = 209.64 m
318 Surveying
2 2.096 = 36
= ______
209.64
or = 18
Now, E G = D tan (25 – )
= 190 tan (25 – 18 ) = 88.578 m
E E = D tan 25 = 190 tan 25 = 88.598 m
E F = D tan (25 + ) = 190 tan (25 + 18 ) = 88.618 m
Stadia intercept interval, GE = 88.598 – 88.578 = 0.020 m
Stadia intercept interval, FE = 88.618 – 88.598 = 0.020 m
Hence, the two staff intercepts are equal, and
s = GE + FE = 0.020 + 0.020 = 0.04 m
Middle cross-wire reading = 2.295 m
Lower stadia wire reading = 2.295 + 0.020 = 2.315 m
Upper stadia wire reading = 2.295 – 0.020 = 2.259 m
E E = V = D tan 25 = 88.598 m
R.L. of B = 50.00 + 1.35 + 88.598 – 2.295 = 137.653 m
e xample 7.9 Three points A, B and C were selected on the centre line of
an existing road curve to find its radius. The instrument was set up at B and
the readings were taken on a staff held vertical at A and C with the telescope
horizontal.
tan 25.92
= _______
175.472
or = 8 24 18
and 25.92
CA = ___________ = 177.33 m
sin 8°24 18
F.B. of CA = F.B. of BC + BCA
8 24 18 = 195 30 + (360 – ) – 540
or = 7 5 42
e xample 7.10 The ruins of an old fort exist on a hill. It was required to
determine the distance of the fort from the road and the height of its roof above
the plinth with a tacheometer. Observations were made on a 4 m staff held vertical
on the entrance gate of the fort and on the roof from the road. Constants of the
instrument were 100 and 0.
e xample 7.11 To determine the distance between two points X and Y and
their elevations, the following observations were recorded upon vertically held
staves from two traverse stations R and S.
The tacheometer was fitted with an anallactic lens and the instrument constant
was 100.
Traverse R.L. (m) H.I. Coordinates Staff Bearing Vertical Staff readings
station (m) of station station angle (m)
L D
R 1020.60 1.50 800 1800 X 15°14 + 8°09 1.10, 1.85, 2.60
S 1021.21 1.53 950 2500 Y 340°18 + 2°03 1.32, 1.91, 2.50
Compute the distance XY, the gradient from X to Y and bearing of XY.
Tacheometry 321
A
A1
b b
b1 F
M C C1
i i s
a1
a a
d f
B B1
P
C D C Q
D
D1
f
FC = _ s
i
Now, the distance D = FC + MF
f
or D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
This is the distance equation for the subtense method for a horizontal line of
sight. The staff intercept in the subtense method is fixed, whereas the stadia interval
is varied, so f/i varies with the staff position. The stadia interval is measured with
the help of micrometer screw.
Let m = total number of revolution of micrometer screw,
p = pitch of micrometer screw, and
e = index error
Thus, i = mp
Substituting this value in the distance equation
f
D = ___
mp s + ( f + d)
K
= __
m s+C
f
where K = __p = multiplying constant, and
C = (f + d) = additive constant
If the index error e is there, the distance equation can be written as
Ks
D = ______
m–e +C
If the line of sight is
inclined at an angle and staff is vertical,
Ks
D = ______ 2
m – e cos + C cos
and Ks
V = ______ sin 2 + C sin
______
m–e 2
Usually, the constant K is fixed to 1000. Experimentally, it can be determined
as follows:
1. Two targets are fixed on a staff at some distance, say s.
2. A line is ranged on fairly level ground and distances D1 and D2 are measured
along it.
3. The micrometer readings m1 and m2 to move the stadia hairs are noted. The
linear distance moved by the stadia hair is equal to the number or revolutions
multiplied by the pitch.
f Ks
D1 = ____ ___
m1 p s + ( f + d) = m1 + C (7.11)
f Ks
D2 = ____ ___
m2 p s + (f + d) = m2 + C (7.12)
Solving Eqs. (7.11) and (7.12) leads to
(D1 – D2)m1 m2 (D1 m1 – D2 m2)
K = ______________ , C = ______________
m1 – m2
s(m1 – m2)
The value of the multiplying constant varies between 600 and 1000.
324 Surveying
or D + D = ______
_______
D –
D
or D = ______
–
d
Similarly, D = ______ (when D is negative and is positive)
+
Since is too small in comparison with ,
d
D = _____ (7.14)
Tacheometry 325
A C
B
h
Q
O
E
D
326 Surveying
e xample 7.12 Find out the total number of turns a micrometer screw had
to be moved in the subtense method for a staff intercept of 2.00 m, with the staff
held vertical at a distance of 100 m from the instrument. The vertical angle was
6°00 and the constants of the instrument were 1000 and 0.5.
Ks
s olution D = ___
m cos
2
+ C cos
1000 2.0
100 = _________
m cos2 6 + 0.5 cos 6
m = 19.88
or m = 12.51
cases for deducing distance and elevation formulae depending upon the nature of
the vertical angles.
V
P
O 1
2
K
h
O
D
s
or D = _____________
tan 2 – tan 1
But V = D tan 2
s tan 2
= _____________
tan 2 – tan 1
s
or D = _____________
tan 2 + tan 1
But V = D tan 2
s tan 2
V = _____________
tan 1 + tan 2
Elevation of staff station P = elevation of station O + h – V – r
Tacheometry 329
e xample 7.14 In the tangential method of tacheometry, two vanes were fixed
2 m apart, the lower vane being 0.5 m above the foot of the staff held vertical at
station A. The vertical angles measured were +1°12 and –1°30 . Find the horizontal
distance of A from the instrument, if the height of line of collimation is 100 m.
Also find the R.L. of A.
s 2
s olution D = _____________ = ___________________ = 42.433 m
tan 1 + tan 2 tan 1°12 + tan 1°30
V = D tan 2 = 42.433 tan 1 30 = 1.111 m
R.L. of A = 100 – V – 0.5 = 100 – 1.111 – 0.5 = 98.388 m
7.7.1 features
A range finder consists of two mirrors M1 and M2, (Fig. 7.24 (a)) placed at the
end of a line AB usually about 1 – 2 m long and also placed perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. Mirror M1 is a fixed mirror and its reflecting surface makes an
angle of 45 to AB. Whereas, mirror M2 is allowed to rotate about an axis in its
plane and through its centre about B. P1 and P2 are the two right-angled prisms
fixed at the mid-point of AB. The prism P1 is mounted above the prism P2. The
parallel plane faces of both of these prisms are kept perpendicular to AB and also
to the plane of the paper. Two objectives O1 and O2 are placed at equal distances
from the mid-point of AB and an eyepiece E is placed at right angles to AB so as
to receive the reflected rays from both the prisms.
From Fig. 7.24 (b), the distance AC can be computed since ACB = cBb = 2
and the distance AB is known.
7.7.3 Telemeter
It is about 12 cm long and 4 cm Telescope
in diameter (Fig. 7.25). It consists Eyepiece Scale
of a metal tube enclosing two
mirrors one of which is known
as the index glass and the other
the horizon glass. At one end
of the tube there is telescope, Window
whereas at the other end a
graduated collar is connected to
the index mirror by a metal arm.
The index mirror can be moved in azimuth. The horizon mirror can also be turned
by a few degrees by a small toothed wheel.
It works on the principle that if a ray is successively reflected from two plane
mirror surfaces, the angle between the initial and final direction of the ray is twice
the angle between the mirrors.
Let O be an object whose range is to O
be found from A (Fig. 7.26). The observer
stands at A with the range finder and adjusts
the instrument so that the mirrors make an
angle of 45 and directs the telescope in
the direction approximately at right angles
to AO. The telescope is then adjusted until
a ray from the object O, entering from a
rectangular opening on the side of the tube,
is reflected from the index mirror and forms
C A D
an image in the lower part of the horizon
glass. The observer then sees through the 20 m
front of the tube directly and fixes a ranging
rod at C which will be at right angles to AO,
and moves to a point D in line with CA. The distance AD is, say 20 m. At D, the
observer directs the telescope towards C and rotates the collar until the image of
O is seen again which will be coincident with the direct vision of C.
The angle between the mirrors will be half of ODA. The arrangements on
the scale are so made that instead of giving this angle, the tangent of this angle
with a base of 20 m is indicated directly, which is the required distances AO.
The accuracy of the results very much depend upon how precisely the base AD
is measured. By exercising proper care, results with an accuracy of 1 in 100 can
be obtained.
7.7.4 mekometer
This type of range finder is obsolete nowadays. It was extensively used by the
military in the past. It consists of two instruments connected by silk covered
332 Surveying
of the range and is indicated on the scale. The reading is observed from another
eyepiece. Cylindrical lenses C1 and C2 known as astigmatisers, are used to convert
the image of a point, such as stars, into the vertical line. The observations can be
made with an accuracy of 1 in 250.
90
80
80
70
20
70
Vertical Beaman
90
60
10
circle arc
80
60
50
70
0
60
40 10 50 50
20 40
30 30
20
20 10 0
3
10 20
10
30 20 30
10 10 20
Vernier
334 Surveying
Let the index read 48 or 52, then the line of sight is inclined by an angle
corresponding to the second division. Then,
1
V = ks __ sin 2 = 100 s 0.02 = 2s
2
Since the central graduation on the V-scale is marked 50, when the reading is
less than this value it indicates an angle of depression, while a reading of more
than 50 indicates and angle of elevation.
The H-scale is graduated to such values so as to represent the percentage
by which an observation is to be reduced to obtain the corresponding distance.
Therefore, the reading on the H-scale multiplied by the staff intercept gives the
correction to be subtracted from the distance computed from D = Ks.
When using the instrument it is preferred to set the V-scale to a whole number
to simplify the calculations and read the corresponding
value of H. The H-scale will not read a whole number.
Since V is proportional to (1/2) sin 2 , and the 3 2 1
correction for H to sin2 , the spacing between
graduations decrease as the vertical angle increases
24 22 20
and this restricts the use of the vernier. Therefore, an V V
accurate reading can be obtained only by setting the
V-scale to read a whole number. The H-scale, in such 3 2
a case, will not read a whole number (Fig. 7.30) and H
the value may be interpolated.
As an example let staff intercept, s = 2 m and let
the cross-wire reading = 2.35 m. Let the observation
made on the Beaman scale be as shown in Fig. 7.30. Then,
V = 2 22 = 44 m
The staff station is (44 – 2.35) = 41.65 m above the instrument axis. To facilitate
calculation of horizontal distance, the stadia arc also carries a scale of percentage
reductions to be applied to the distance readings. The distance scale in Fig. 7.30
reads 2.1, so that
The horizontal distance = 2 100 – 2 2.1 = 195.8 m.
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
0
90
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
70
0 9 80
0
70
90 60
10
80
70 50
60
50 40
40 30
30 20
20
10 10
0 0
7.8.3 Gradienter
It is mainly used in setting out gradients, but is also used in tacheometry. When
the tangent screw actuating the vertical circle of a theodolite is provided with a
micrometer head and a scale for counting the whole turns by which it has been
turned, it is called gradienter. The pitch of the screw is kept such that when moved
by one revolution, the line of sight moves by tan–1 0.01.
The telescope of the instrument is directed towards the staff, with the line of
sight horizontal, and the staff reading is made. The screw is then given one turn
and the staff is again read. The difference in the two readings is the staff intercept
s. Then, distance D = 100 s.
For inclined sights, the staff may be held vertical or normal to the line of
sight. Usually, the vertical staff position is employed. For an angle of elevation
(Fig. 7.32) the observation is first made to a lower point, say B, and the vertical
angle is recorded. The line of sight is then moved by tan–1 0.01, say to A, by
the gradienter screw, and the reading is made again. Let the staff intercept AB be
equal to s. In case A and B are the two fixed targets then s = nc, where n is the
number of turns the screw has to be moved and c is the distance by which the
line of sight moves by one revolution of the screw. The horizontal distance D and
the vertical distance V can be calculated from the following equations:
nc
tan = ____
100
(100 cos2
D = s _________
nc
1
__
2
sin 2 )
(100 sin 2
V = s _________ × sin2
2nc )
336 Surveying
A
s
B
As an example, let the noted readings be 1.85, 1.40 and 1.05 m, then
horizontal distance, D = 100 (1.85 – 1.40) = 45 m
vertical distance, V = 10 (1.40 – 1.05) = + 3.5 m
The instrument derives this name
from its Hungarian inventor Joseph Szepessy. It overcomes the inadequacies of the
tangential tacheometry in which two
telescope pointings are required. A
scale of tangents of vertical angles is
13
engraved on a glass plate attached to
the vertical circle cover, so that it does
not rotate when the telescope is moved 14
in a vertical plane. It uses percentage
angles. With the help of prisms the
15
scale is brought in the view through
an eyepiece, and when the telescope
is directed towards a staff, the image 16
of the latter is placed alongside that
of the scale (Fig. 7.34).
17
The scale of tangents is divided
into 0.005 and is figured at every 0.01
in terms of 100 times the tangent.
Thus, the graduation 14 corresponds
to tan–1 0.14 or 14%.
To take a reading, the staff is sighted and the vertical circle tangent screw is
adjusted so that preferably a numbered graduation falls opposite the horizontal
cross-hair. Read the staff intercept between the small 0.005 divisions immediately
above and below this numbered division. The horizontal distance will be this
length of staff intercept multiplied by 100. The vertical distance, V, is found by
multiplying the intercept by the number corresponding to the division opposite the
horizontal cross-wire. As an example, if the number against which the horizontal
cross-wire is set at 15 and the staff intercept is 1.15 m
then,
D = 1.15 100 = 115 m
and V = 15 1.15 = 17.25 m
sign means depression). D and d-curves are the height curves. The multiplying
constant for the distance curve is 100 whereas for the height curves D and d it
is 10 and 20, respectively.
D D
10 + 10
20
+ 20
d Dd
d d
E E
N
N
To take a reading the N-curve is made to bisect the specially marked zero point
of the staff. In such a condition the perpendicular edge of the prism should be in
line with the staff. The staff readings are then taken with the distance curve and
height curves. The distance curve reading is multiplied by 100 to get the desired
horizontal distance. The readings corresponding to the D (d)-curve when multiplied
by 10 (20), gives the difference in elevations between the instrument and staff
stations.
millimetres are obtained from the graduated micrometre head which is responsible
for rotation of the rhomboid prism about a vertical axis.
7.9 omnImeTer
This is an instrument similar to the transit theodolite, invented by Eckohold, and
was used for the tangential method of tacheometry. It is obsolete nowadays.
It is a transit theodolite with a compound microscope at right angles to the
optical axis of the telescope and passing through the horizontal axis. When the
line of collimation of the telescope is horizontal, the microscope tube will be
vertical. If the telescope is moved in a vertical plane, the microscope also moves
correspondingly. A graduated scale is placed upon the vernier plate and is read
with the help of the microscope. This scale is fitted into a slide and can be moved
either way by means of a micrometer screw. The longitudinal movement of the
scale is required so that the graduation corresponding to the approximate reading
may be brought into the line of sight of the microscope. When the telescope is
horizontal, the zero of the scale should be on the middle of the scale.
The telescope is directed towards a graduated staff provided with two targets
at a fixed distance apart. Instead of reading vertical angles to these vanes, the
corresponding readings of the scale are recorded. In Fig. 7.37, A is the point at
which the line of collimation would cut the vertical through A (the staff station),
A1 the point at which the microscope cross-hairs intersect the horizontal scale.
OA1 will be at right angles to OA . When the vane b is sighted, the microscope
cross-wire intersects the graduated scale in b1 and when vane c is sighted, the
corresponding scale reads c1 . Either or both the points b and c may be below A
and will be an indication of the angle of depression.
From Similar triangles OA c and OA1 c1
bc
OA = OA1 _____
b1 c1
s
D = OA1 _____
b1 c1
340 Surveying
c
s
b
A O
A
Scale
c1 b1 A 1
7.11 mIsTakes
Some of the mistakes in tacheometry are recording wrong staff intercepts, using
a wrong stadia interval, and confusion in indicating whether the vertical angle is
an angle of elevation or an angle of depression.
7.12 accuracy
The degree of accuracy of the measurements that can be achieved by a tacheometer
depends by and large, upon the power and optical precision of the instrument, and
on the type and scale markings of the stadia rods. The vision of an observer, the
length of sight, and the inclination of the line of collimation are also responsible
for the obtainable accuracy. However, the position of the sun (whether in front
or behind the observer) also affects the accuracy of the measurements made. It
Tacheometry 341
also varies with the conditions prevailing at the time an observation is made. The
atmospheric conditions that undermine accuracy are large temperature variation
near the ground surface and high winds which prevent the staff from being held
steady.
The main factor affecting accuracy is probably the length of sight, since for long
sights the graduations become indistinct. The error in reading the rod is accidental.
Therefore, it will not be directly proportional to the length of the traverse but the
error tends to compensate and reduces as the length of the survey increases. For
a single short sight, under normal conditions for ordinary angles of inclination,
the expected error in the horizontal distance may be of the order of 1 in 500 and
for a vertical distance, it should not be more than 0.1 m. For long lines, where a
number of set ups are required, the error will tend to be proportional to the square
root of the number of set ups. An accuracy of 1/3000 to 1/10 000 in distance is
obtainable for sights up to about 120 m. The average error in horizontal distance
varies from 1 in 600 to 1 in 850. The closing error in a stadia traverse should
__
not be greater than 0.055 p , where p is the __ perimeter of the traverse.__The error
in closure for elevation varies from 0.08 k on level ground to 0.25 k on hilly
areas, where k is distance in kilometres.
Summary
Tacheometry is a very useful method in rough terrains, and yields fairly good results, where
measurement with chain/tape will be crude and not reliable. In this method of surveying,
the horizontal and vertical distances are calculated trigonometrically using the observed staff
readings corresponding to the horizontal cross-wire and stadia-wires, and vertical angels.
The surveying, using a tacheometer, can be performed by any of the three methods, the
stadia method (the fixed hair method) and the subtense method (the movable hair method)
the tangential method (the most convenient and preferred for contouring) and; range finding.
In the tangential method the readings are taken with cross-wire on two targets fixed on
wooden rod at known distance apart and with bottom target fixed at known height from
the bottom of the staff. In the first method, the staff readings are observed corresponding
to the cross-wire and stadia wires.
In fixed hair method the basic distance equation used is D = Ks + C, where K and
C are constants and s is the staff intercept. An anallactic lense is placed in the telescope
at such a place that K becomes 100 and C zero. This simplifies the equation to D = Ks
making the calculation of distance D simpler. The staff in this method can be kept vertical
or normal to the line of sight depending upon the field conditions. In vertical subtense
method, the equation is same expect that m – e term appears in the denominator where
m is number of revolutions of micrometer screw and e the index error. The equation is
Ks
D = + C. the value of constant K is usually adjusted to be 1000 to make the
m e
calculation simpler. The subtense method can also be applied by keeping a subtense bar
(staff) horizontal and the method is called horizontal base subtense method.
Sometimes it becomes impossible to access objects in field and keep staff over them.
In such cases range finders are used. The principle, working and types of range finders are
described. Some of the most commonly used range finders, the telemeter, the mekometer
and the Barr and Stroud finder are described.
Special instruments, attachments and modifications to tachometer are discussed at the
end of the chapter. These facilitate the reduction of observations. Sources of errors, mistakes
342 Surveying
and degree of accuracy that can be achieved in tacheometry under various conditions are
discussed.
Exercises
7.1 Define tacheometry. What are the various methods employed in tacheometric survey?
Explain the method most commonly used.
7.2 Explain the procedure to determine the tacheometric constants by
(a) Fixed hair method
(b) Movable hair method
7.3 Derive the distance equation for an anallactic lens. What are its advantages?
7.4 What do you understand by tacheometry? Discuss the errors in stadia surveying.
What is the utility of an anallactic lens in a tacheometer?
7.5 What is the principle of the subtense bar method of measuring horizontal distances?
Explain the construction details of a subtense bar.
7.6 Explain how a subtense bar is used to determine horizontal distances.
7.7 Explain briefly the construction of each of the following.
(a) Subtense bar (b) Auto-reduction tacheometer (c) Telemeter
7.8 Define the term range. How are the range finders classified? Explain the working
principle of a range finder.
7.9 Write short notes on: (a) telemeter (b) mekometer (c) Barr and Stroud range
finder.
7.10 Explain briefly the types of special fittings to a tacheometer with special reference
to the Beaman stadia arc.
7.11 A tracheometer fitted with stadia wires 4 mm apart, has its object glass
(f = 200 mm) fixed at a distance of 250 mm from the trunnion axis. From the first
principles, establish the tacheometric distance equation if the staff intercept is s.
[Ans. D = 100 s + 0.45 m]
7.12 Write short notes on
(a) Fergusson’s percentage unit system
(b) Beaman stadia arc
(c) Gradienter
(d) Szepessy direct reading tacheometer
(e) Omnimeter
7.13 Describe briefly the construction and working of
(a) Auto-reduction tacheometer
(b) Double image tacheometer
7.14 Briefly discuss the following:
(a) Errors in tacheometry
(b) Accuracy of tacheometric observations
7.15 Following observations were recorded with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic
lens (K = 100; C = 0). Calculate the reduced levels of change point and of station
T. The staff was held vertical during the observations and the reduced level of B.M.
was 500.0 m.
Instrument H.I. (m) Staff Vertical Staff readings (m)
station station angle
O 1.500 B.M. – 4 30 1.250, 1.400, 1.550
O 1.500 C.P. + 6 12 1.550, 1.750, 1.950
T 1.350 C.P. – 7 45 1.390, 1.550, 1.710
[Ans. 506.291 m, 510.767 m]
Tacheometry 343
7.16 The following readings were taken by a tacheometer from station B on stations A,
C and D in clockwise direction:
Sight Horizontal Vertical Stadia readings (m)
circle reading angle Top Middle Bottom
A 301 10
C 152 6 – 5 00 1.044 2.283 3.522
D 205 06 + 2 30 0.645 2.376 4.110
The line BA has a bearing of 58°46 and the instrument constants are 100 and 0.
Find the slope of the line CD and its bearing.
[Ans. Slope 1 in 7.54 rising, W.C.B. 7 16 26.7 ]
7.17 A tacheometer has a multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of 0.
When set 1.35 m above station B, the following readings were obtained:
Station Sight Horizontal Vertical Staff readings (m)
angle angle
A 28 21
B 82 03 00
C 20 30 1.140, 2.292, 3.420
The coordinates of A are N00 and E163.86 while that of B are N118.41 and
E163.86.
Find the coordinates of C and its height above the datum, if the level of B is
27.30 m. [Ans. N88.87, E375.37, height = 101.148 m]
7.18 A tacheometer is set up at an intermediate point on a traverse course PQ and the
following observations were made on a vertically held staff:
Staff station Vertical angle Staff intercept (m) Axial hair reading (m)
P + 9 30 2.250 2.105
Q + 6 00 2.055 1.875
The instrument is fitted with an anallactic lens. The multiplying constant is 100.
Compute the length PQ and the R.L. of Q if the R.L. of P is 350.50 m.
[Ans. PQ = 422.13 m, R.L. = 335.46 m]
7.19 The following readings were taken by a tacheometer with the staff held vertical.
The tacheometer is fitted with an anallactic lens and the multiplying constant is 100.
Find out the horizontal distance from A to B and the R.L. of B.
7.21 Determine the gradient from a point P to a point Q and the distance PQ. Observations
were made with a tacheometer and the staff was held vertical at each of the stations.
The instrument was fitted with an anallactic lens.
Instrument Staff Bearing Vertical angle Staff readings (m)
station station
P 134° + 10°32 1.365, 1.920, 2.475
O Q 224° + 5°6 1.065, 1.885, 2.705
[Ans. 1 in 36.1 (falling), 194.89 m]
7.22 It was required to find the distance between two points A and B and their reduced
level. Two arbitrary points C and D were suitably selected and the tacheometric
observations recorded were as follows. The reduced levels of C and D were 100 m
and 110 m, respectively.
Objective-type Questions
7.1 The standard accuracy of tacheometric distance determination is
(a) 1 : 10 (b) 1 : 100 (c) 1 : 500 (d) 1 : 10.000
Tacheometry 345
(c) Jeffcott direct reading tacheometer does not reduce vertical distances.
(d) In Szepessy direct reading tacheometer, the scale of tangents is divided to
0.005 and is figured at every 0.01.
7.22 Which of the following represents a correct match?
(i) Movable hair method: The intercept of the staff is kept constant and stadia
hair interval is variable.
(ii) Fixed hair method: The intercept on staff is variable and stadia hair intervals
is fixed.
(iii) Tangential method: The stadia hair are not used.
(a) Only (iii) is correct
(b) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) All three statements are correct
(d) Only (ii) and (iii) are correct
7.23 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) In the subtense method, the staff intercept is varied,
(ii) Tangential method of tacheometry is superior to the subtense method,
(iii) An anallactic lens can be provided only in external focussing telescopes.
(iv) Anallactic lens reduces the multiplying constant to zero.
(a) (i) is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (iii) is correct (d) (iii) and (iv) are correct
7.24 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Range finding is a method of obtaining vertical distance.
(ii) Telemeter is an example of a range finder.
(iii) Sextant is an example of a range finder.
(iv) Mekometer is an example of a range finder.
(a) Only (iv) is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (ii) and (iii) are correct (d) (ii) and (iv) are correct
7.25 Match List-I (Instrument) with List-II (Use) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(i) Subtense bar (A) To determine difference in elevation
between points.
(ii) Sextant (B) To determine horizontal distance.
(iii) Tangent clinometer (C) To measure angles.
(iv) Range finder (C) To establish right angles.
Codes:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (B) (D) (A) (C)
(b) (A) (C) (B) (D)
(c) (B) (C) (A) (D)
(d) (A) (D) (B) (C)
Introduction
The plane table is an instrument used for surveying by a graphical method in
which the field work and plotting are done simultaneously. The main advantage
of plane tabling is that the topographic features to be mapped are in full view. It
is most suitable for small and medium scale-mapping (1 : 10,000 to 1 : 2,50, 000).
Because of development in aerial survey techniques, plane tabling is now not
so universally used. But being the best method of teaching the principles of
topographic survey, providing ground control for aerial survey and for preparing
a triangulation network for reconnaissance survey, plane tabling is preferred even
today and sustains its importance.
A plane table is a drawing board mounted on a tripod (Fig. 8.1). An alidade is
used to plot the directions and a clinometer to measure the elevations. Accessories
such as a plumbing fork or U-frame,
trough compass, spirit level, drawing
sheet and waterproof cover are also
required for the field work.
In using the plane table, a
drawing sheet is mounted, with
adhesives or pins, on the drawing
board. Before commencing a plane
table survey, the instrument stations
are fixed to control the entire
area. These stations may be fixed
by surveying a trigonometrical
framework, establishing a network
of control points on a pattern to suit
the scale at which plane tabling is
to be carried out. The elevations
of these points are determined by
methods described in Chapter 6. The
surveyor then starts filling in details
from any of these control points, one
by one, and traverses all the control
Plane Table Surveying 349
axis, and clamped in any required position. It also consists of an alidade and some
accessories which are described in the following paragraphs.
8.1.1 board
The drawing board is carefully made of well-seasoned wood in a way to counteract
the effect of warping and damages from weathering. The upper surface is kept
smooth. The table at the centre of the underside, is attached to the tripod by means
of a screw and wing nut (Fig. 8.3). By means of the wing nut, the table can be
clamped in any position. Plane
tables are available in the
following different sizes. Levelling
Designation Size screw
(mm × mm)
B0 1500 × 1000 Wing nut
B1 1000 × 700
B2 700 × 500
B3 500 × 350
8.1.2 Tripod
An open frame type light tripod is usually provided. In the simplest form of
plane tables, levelling of the board is achieved by manipulating the tripod legs
and checking the horizontality of the board by means of two spirit levels fixed
at right angles to each other in a
block of wood. For a beginner it Orientation
Ball clamp screw
is rather difficult to keep the plane
table level throughout the work, Clamp
piece Socket
since even with a slight pressure
on any side of the table, the level
of the board is disturbed. In some
of the other forms of the tripod
heads, levelling screws (Fig. 8.3),
or ball-and-socket joint (Fig. 8.4) Spring Wing nut
is provided to facilitate levelling.
8.1.3 alidade
It is a wooden or brass ruler of about 50–60 cm in length. It is also known
as sight rule. Two vanes, the ‘object vane’ and the ‘sight vane’ (Fig. 8.5), are
hinged at its two ends. It is
essential that the plane of the
vanes should be perpendicular
to the underside of the alidade
while the observations are made.
These vanes should be folded
over the alidade top surface,
when not in use. The line of
sight thus provided, is parallel
Plane Table Surveying 351
to the ruling or fudicial edge of the alidade, but it is unnecessary that the line of
sight be parallel to the fudicial edge, provided the horizontal angle between the
two remains constant. A scale is attached to the bevelled fudicial edge so as to
plot distances to the scale. Owing to the limited range of inclination of the line of
sight of the simple alidade, it is inconvenient to work in the hilly country.
Where points too high or low are to be sighted, the accuracy and the range
are considerably increased by providing a telescopic alidade. With the addition
of stadia wire and a vertical graduated circle, the need of a clinometer can be
eliminated. It is preferable to use the plain alidade rather than a telescopic one,
since the former is much lighter, easier to manipulate on the table and quicker in
operation. This is true even in hilly areas where a telescopic alidade may be thought
to be particularly useful for measuring steep vertical angles, but for subsequent
details, a simple and light instrument is always preferred.
station occupied by the instrument. The use of a plumbing fork is justified only
if the scale of plotting is large, the rays being short. However, for small-scale
mapping, which is usually done with a plane table, the use of plumbing fork is
a sheer waste.
should be carried flat in a portfolio. The sheet should be well stretched and held
firmly on the board to prevent any displacement of the sheet by the friction of the
alidade. For small works, the sheet may be fixed by means of ordinary drawing
pins or adhesive tape. However, the pin heads cause inconvenience and interfere
in the placing of the alidade. The perforations made by inserting pins may enlarge
during the work itself and the sheet is apt to shift. A better way is to use six screw
clamps, and if any of these get in the way of the alidade, they may be shifted.
However, the best way is to paste linen round the margins of the board and then
to mount the sheet on the board.
8.3.1 centring
It is the operation of bringing the plotted station point exactly over the ground
station. To achieve this the pointed leg of the plumbing fork is placed against the
plotted point and the plumb bob is suspended from its other leg. Exact centring
is important for large-scale mapping only. For small-scale mapping, an error in
centring of about 30 cm is permissible.
354 Surveying
8.3.2 levelling
It is the operation of bringing the plane table in a horizontal plane. Set the plane
table at a convenient height, which is elbow level, by spreading the legs. Level
the board with the help of a spirit level.
8.3.3 orientation
It is the operation of keeping the plane table parallel to the position it occupied
at the first station. In such a condition all the lines plotted will be parallel to the
corresponding lines on the ground. If the board position is different at successive
stations, the relative positions of the plotted details will not remain the same as
the relative positions of the details on the ground. Consequently, the plotted work
of the previous stations cannot be connected to that of the successive stations. It
should be noted that during orientation the table is rotated and the plotted position
of the instrument station is also disturbed and shifts relative to the ground stations
except when the plotted point happens to lie on the vertical axis of the instrument.
The operations of orientation and centring are therefore interrelated.
Since accurate orientation is an essential condition, a compromise can be made
with centring, though within permissible limits. Whenever an exact centring is
required, for example, in large-scale surveys, repeated orientation and centring by
shifting the table are necessary. However, accurate centring will be a needless effort.
Since, usually, the distance of the instrument station from the stations to be plotted
is quite large and since a small scale is used for plotting, the error in centring is
rendered negligible. There are three methods of orienting the plane table.
The trough compass is placed on the top right corner of
the plane table in such a way that the magnetic needle points exactly towards the
N – S direction. Draw this line along the edge of the compass. Shift and set up
the plane table on the next station. Place the trough compass along the N – S line.
Rotate the table till the magnetic needle coincides with N – S line drawn previously.
This is a crude method of orientation and cannot be employed at stations where
local attraction is suspected.
This is the most accurate method of orientation. The plane
table is set on a new station and the alidade is placed against the line joining the
new station with the preceding station. The table is rotated until the line of sight
bisects the previous station.
To achieve this, let the plane table be shifted from station A to B (Fig. 8.10),
and let the line ab has been plotted with the plane table at A. Set up the table on
B, place the alidade along the plotted line ba and rotate the table until the line of
sight bisects the station A. Clamp the board. The line ba truly represents the line
BA on the ground.
The method of resection will be discussed in details in Section 8.8.
the visibility between stations which are to be plotted from the instrument stations,
the possibility of obtaining the required measurements and the measurements
available to locate the instrument station itself. At each station, in addition to
drawing rays to assist in fixing further points, the surveyor will fix nearby details
by radiation. In the figures illustrating these methods, capital letters such as A, B
and C have been used to indicate the ground points and small letters such as a, b
and c are their corresponding plotted positions on the drawing sheet.
8.5 raDiaTion
In this method the instrument is setup at a station and rays are drawn to various
stations which are to be plotted. The distances are cut to a suitable scale after
actual measurements (Fig. 8.9).
8.6 TraverSing
This method is similar to compass or theodolite traversing. The table is set at
each of the stations in succession. A foresight is taken to the next station and the
distance is cut to a suitably chosen scale.
356 Surveying
Set up the plane table at the initial station A (Fig. 8.10). Transfer
ground station A as a on the drawing sheet. Draw a ray aB along the fudicial edge
with the alidade pivoted against a. Cut the distance ab to the selected scale. Shift
and set up the table at B. Orient the plane table. Place the alidade at b and sight
station C. Draw a ray bC along the alidade and cut the distance bc to the selected
scale. The procedure is carried out till all the stations are traversed.
8.7 inTerSecTion
In this method two stations are so selected that all the other stations to be plotted
are visible from these. The line joining these two stations is called base line. The
length of this line is measured very accurately. Rays are drawn from these stations
to the stations to be plotted. The intersection of the rays from the two stations
gives the position of the station to be plotted on the drawing sheet. Sometimes,
this method is also termed as graphical triangulation.
Let A and B be the two accessible stations (Fig. 8.11), such that A
and B can be suitably plotted. C is the station to be plotted by intersection. Place
the plane table at A. Set it up. Plot the N – S direction. Transfer ground station A
as a onto the drawing sheet. With the alidade centred at a, sight station B. Draw
a ray aB and cut ab to a suitable scale. With the alidade at a, sight C also and
draw a ray aC. Shift the table to B and set it up. Place the alidade at b and sight
C. Draw a ray bC. The intersection of the two rays gives the position of station
C as c on the plane table.
This method is very commonly used for plotting details. It is preferred
when the distance between the stations is too large, or the stations are inaccessible,
or the ground is undulating. The most suitable example is of broken boundaries
which can be very conveniently plotted by this method.
Plane Table Surveying 357
c
A a B
b Base line a b
8.8 reSecTion
It is a method of orientation employed when the table occupies a position not
yet located on the drawing sheet. Therefore, it can be defined as the process of
locating the instrument station occupied by the plane table by drawing rays from
the stations whose positions have already been plotted on the drawing sheet. The
resection of two rays will be the point representing the station to be located,
provided the orientation at the station to be plotted is correct, which is seldom
achieved. The problem can be solved by any of the methods such as resection
after orientation by back ray, by two points, or by three points. These methods
are described in the sections to follow.
This method is employed when during surveying the surveyor feels
that some important details can be plotted easily by choosing any station other than
the triangulation stations. The position of such a station is fixed on the drawing
sheet by resection.
against b, sight B and draw a back ray. The resection of this ray with the previous
ray gives the position of station C as c on the drawing sheet.
intersecting the previous ray cb at d. Place the alidade along bd, and turn the table
until B is sighted. With the alidade touching a bisect A and draw a ray through a
resecting bd at t. Thus, station T is plotted as t. If the work is correct, cC must
also pass through t.
B C
A C
B
A
b d c d
b b
a b
c a b c
a
T T t T
The adjustment in
orientation is facilitated by Lehmann’s rules
for estimating the exact position of t from the
triangle of error.
1. The distance of the point t to be fixed from each of the rays aA, bB, and
cC is proportional to the respective distances of the stations A, B, and C
from the station T.
2. While looking towards the stations the point t to be fixed, will either be
to the left or to the right of each of the rays.
Plane Table Surveying 361
From the above two rules it follows that the plotted position of the instrument
station t lies within the triangle of error only when the ground station T lies
within the triangle ABC. These two rules are sufficient to reduce the triangle of
error to one point. In addition, some derivatives may be used to provide a quick
solution.
1. When T is outside the great circle ABC, t is always on the same side of
the ray drawn to the most distant station as the intersection of the other
two rays.
2. When T falls within any of the three segments of the great circle ABC,
formed by the sides of the triangle ABC, the ray towards the middle station
lies between t and the intersection of other two rays.
3. If plane table station T lies on the great circle (passing through the points
A, B and C) the correct solution is not possible, because the three rays
will always meet at a point even if the table is not oriented.
office. On the other hand, in plane table traversing, the directions of lines are
drawn with an alidade directly on a drawing sheet in the field at the time each
object is sighted. The plane table survey saves a lot of time since only 50 – 60%
of points will be sufficient to make a contour map as compared to the theodolite
stadia survey with the same degree of accuracy. This is so because in a plane
table survey the lay of land is always in view and exact contours can be drawn
even with less number of points. But the plane table has a great disadvantage in
that it cannot be used in wet climate, whereas a theodolite can be used. Also, a
theodolite can be used to locate the points more accurately than by a plane table.
Since the plane table is quite large in size, it is not as stable as a theodolite and
often its levelling is disturbed during the work.
from C and B. The angular error at B and C due to the centring error will be
aBa and aCa . Extend aa to o.
B C
b o c
b c
a
d e
a
or __e = ___
1
k 40
k
or e = ___
40
It should be noted that the error should not exceed the scale divided by 40.
Therefore, accurate centring is not required except for short sights which are in
case of large-scale surveys.
e xample 8.1 After surveying an area with plane takle at a station it
was detected that the centring of the instrument was not done accurately. The
displacement of the plotted point at sight angles to the ray was 20 cm. The scale
used was 1 cm = 15 m. Determine the error in the plotted position of the point.
What is the significance of the error incurred?
S olution Scale is 1 cm = 15 m
1
Representative fraction, k =
1500
1
Displacement of the plotted position, e = 20 × = 0.013 cm < 0.025 m
1500
Since permissible error in plotting is 0.025 cm and the error was 0.013 cm
only, it is not significant.
Summary
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying in which field work and plotting
are done simultaneously. The advantage of this method of surveying is that since the
entire area being surveyed is in view of the surveyor, there is no possibility of omitting
any important detail. However, in poor and wet atmospheric conditions, plane table survey
can not be resorted to. Further, a lot of accessories are required which are likely to be lost
while surveying, if proper care is not taken.
The instrument, plane table, consists of a board (with drawing sheet) mounted on
a tripod. An alidade used to sight the detail and plot the lines is placed over the sheet
mounted on the table and the details plotted. The various methods, i.e., radiation, traversing,
intersection and reaction to be used depending upon the terrain are described. The two-
point and three-point problems for locating the stations are discussed along with their short
comings. The accuracy of fixing the plane table position has been discussed with regards
to centring and orientation. These two processes, centring and orientation, influence each
other and one of these has to be sacrificed.
Exercises
8.1 State the advantages and disadvantages of plane tabling.
8.2 What are the various methods of plane tabling? What is the permissible error in
centring of a plane table?
8.3 What are the various methods of resection? Explain resection by back sighting.
8.4 State the three-point problem. Explain how is it solved by the graphical method.
8.5 State the two-point problem. How is it solved?
8.6 Tabulate the advantages and disadvantages and one practical use of each of the three
methods of orienting a plane table.
Plane Table Surveying 365
Objective-type Questions
8.1 During orientation of a plane table
(a) the farthest point is sighted (b) the nearest point is sighted
(c) Either (a) or (b) (d) the previous station is sighted
8.2 A mosque is situated on the far side of a river and is inaccessible. It can be located
by
(a) radiation (b) traversing (c) intersection (d) resection
8.3 Accurate centring in plane table surveys is necessary for
(a) small-scale maps (b) large-scale maps
(c) filling in details
(d) to solve triangle of error rapidly
8.4 The three-point problem fails when an instrument station lies
(a) on the great circle
(b) in any of the segments formed by the great triangle and great circle
(c) on the orthocentre of the great triangle
(d) Both (b) and (c)
8.5 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Centring and orientation are interrelated in a plane table survey.
(b) Exact centring of plane table is essential for a large-scale map.
(c) Centring of plane table cannot be sacrificed at the cost of orientation for a
small-scale map.
(d) Plane table survey is most suited for filling in details if the country is open
with good intervisibility.
8.6 Choose the correct statement.
(a) U-frame is used for orienting the plane table.
(b) The drawing sheet used in plotting a plane table survey needs no special care
in fixing on the board.
(c) An alidade is also called a sight rule.
(d) A simple alidade and Indian pattern clinometer serve the same purpose.
8.7 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Irregular objects can be plotted accurately by plane table survey.
(b) The absence of field notes is inconvenient, if the plane table survey is to be
replotted to some other scale.
(c) Orientation means keeping the plane table at successive stations parallel to
the position it occupied at the first station.
(d) The method of radiation in plane tabling is most suited for a built-up area.
366 Surveying
8.8 If the plotted position of an instrument station is not known, the most accurate
orientation of the plane table can be achieved by
(a) a trough compass
(b) backsighting
(c) observations of two well-defined points
(d) observations of three well-defined points
8.9 The most accurate method of orientation by the three-point method of plane tabling
is the
(a) tracing paper method (b) graphical method
(c) trial-and-error method (d) Both (a) and (b)
8.10 It is necessary to go to one of the plotted stations in the method of resection
(a) by trough compass (b) by a back ray
(c) by both (a) and (b) (d) by three points
8.11 Lehmann’s rule states that while looking towards the station, the plane table location
to be fixed is always to the
(a) left of each of the rays
(b) right of each of the rays
(c) left or right of the ray to the most distant station
(d) left or right of each of the rays
8.12 The major source of error is small-scale mapping by plane table is due to
(a) inaccurate centring (b) long sight
(c) shrinkage of drawing sheet (d) few observations.
8.13 Select the correct statement(s).
(i) In plane tabling, checks can be applied to the work in the office.
(ii) Plane table survey is best for temperate countries.
(iii) Accurate centring of the plane table is necessary for a large-scale survey.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) Both (ii) and (iii) are correct
8.14 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Plane tabling for filling in details is most suited to built-up areas.
(ii) Plane table survey is most suited to equatorial countries.
(iii) In plane tabling, strength of fix means the true clamping of the plane table
board.
(iv) Exact orientation is more important in plane tabling than accurate centring
for small-scale maps.
(a) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (b) Both (ii) and (iv) are correct
(c) Only (iv) is correct (d) Both (iii) and (iv) are correct.
8.15 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) A plane table is more stable than a theodolite.
(ii) A plane table can be used to locate the points more accurately than by a
theodolite.
(iii) Contour maps can be prepared in less time by a plane table than by theodolite
stadia method.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Only (iii) is correct (d) Both (ii) and (iii) are correct
8.16 Match List-I (Methods) with List-II (Procedures) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(i) Traversing (A) Rays are drawn to locate the station
on which the tabel is set up.
Plane Table Surveying 367
(ii) Resection (B) At least two rays are drawn from two different
stations to the details to be located.
(iii) Intersection (C) Rays are drawn in the direction of details
through the station point on which the table
is set up.
(iv) Radiation (D) Rays are drawn on the map by setting up the
table over each of the stations towards the
subsequent station.
Codes
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (D) (C) (B) (A)
(b) (B) (A) (D) (C)
(c) (D) (A) (B) (C)
(d) (B) (C) (D) (A)
8.17 Plane table is most suitable instrument for surveying of
(i) small scale survey.
(ii) medium scale survey.
(iii) large scale survey.
Of these
(a) (i) is correct (b) (ii) is correct
(c) (i) and (ii) both are correct (d) (iii) is correct
8.18 Consider the following in plane table surveying:
(i) Alidade
(ii) Trough compass
(iii) Indian clinometer
The fudicial edge is related to
(a) (i) only (b) (ii) only
(c) Both (i) and (ii) (d) Both (i) and (iii)
8.19 In plane table survey of small extent, the accuracy of the plotted work can be
increased by the use of a tachometer in which of the following method?
(a) Radiation (b) Traversing
(c) Intersection (d) Resection
8.20 For survey of broken boundaries with a plane table most appropriate method will
be
(a) open traversing (b) intersection
(c) radiation (d) resection
Introduction
The relative position of points in plan are represented by a map. The value of a
map is enhanced if the relief, or variation in the elevation of earth’s surface, is
also included along with their relative positions in plan. There are two methods
by which the conformation of the ground may be presented on a map. One way
is by delineating the surface slopes by hachures, shading, etc., intended to give an
impression of relative relief. The relative elevations of the points are not indicated
in such a case. To a layman, this method of portraying relief is very simple and
legible and is very commonly used for geographical mapping. The other way,
which is usually employed in plans for engineering purposes, is plotting the contour
lines (imaginary line passing through points of equal elevations) on maps. These
lines are so arranged that the form of the earth’s surface can be portrayed with
greater accuracy and thoroughness, and can readily be interpreted. Practically, all
the surveying instruments may be used to an advantage at one time or another to
obtain the relative elevation of the points and, therefore, one should be conversant
with the various instruments required and the methods of vertical as well as
horizontal measurements explained in the previous chapters.
Contours are used by engineers in a variety of ways. Some of the engineering
uses of contours are the following:
1. With the help of a contour map, proper and precise location of engineering
works such as roads, canals, etc., can be decided.
2. In location of water supply, water distribution and to solve the problems
of stream pollution, etc.
3. Planning and designing of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, transmission lines,
etc.,
4. To select sites for new industrial plants.
5. To ascertain the intervisibility of stations.
6. To ascertain the profile of the country along any direction.
7. To estimate the quantity of cutting, filling and the capacity of reservoirs.
Contouring 369
9.1 Definitions
9.1.1 Contour
A contour may be defined as an imaginary line passing through points of equal
elevation. Thus, contour lines on a plan illustrate the conformation of the ground.
A contour line may also be defined as the intersection of a level surface with the
surface of the earth. When the contours are drawn underwater, they are termed
as submarine contours, fathoms or bathymetric curves. Usually the contours are
not visible on the grounds excepts in the case of shorelines. The best method of
representation of features such as hills, depressions, undulations, etc., on a two-
dimensional paper is by contours. Contour lines are usually drawn free hand with
breaks in the drawn contours for placing the numbers representing the elevations.
A contour representation along with the ground profile is shown in Fig. 9.1. From
the contour representation of Fig. 9.1, it is evident that steeper the slopes of the
surface the more crowded are its contour lines. Hence, contour lines are usually
found spaced on a map or plan with different densities.
650
600
Ground
Profile
650
600
A B
A B
Section
A A B B
contour gradients is a common field operation in the location of road and railway
routes over a range of hills.
9.2.1 Construction
It consists of a hollow tube with an eye hole at one end and cross-wire at the other
end to provide a line of sight. It is attached to a sliding A-shaped bracket with a
hole for suspension (Fig. 9.5). A weight is attached to the tube. The top edge of
the weight is bevelled. When it is at zero, the line of sight is horizontal. In case
the weight is towards the observer, the line of sight is elevated, and when towards
the cross-wire, it is depressed. The scale attached to the tube gives the gradient.
Target Supporting
hole
A-frame Stand
Tube
Graduated scale
9.2.2 Working
The instrument is placed on a point A, with its centre above it on the line, say
AB, whose gradient is to be measured. The target is placed on the other point B,
at the same height as that of the centre of the tube. The observer sees through
the eye hole and moves the weight till the target is bisected. The corresponding
reading on the tube is noted.
In case the points are to be established along a given gradient, say 1 in 30,
from a point, say A, the instrument is kept at A with the reading on the tube as
30. The target, set at the same height as that of the centre of the tube, is directed
to move along the line of sight till it is resected. This fixes the point, say B, on
the desired gradient. The instrument is moved from A to B and the procedure is
repeated for any number of desired points.
9.3.1 slopes
A slope may be gentle or steep. A gradient up to 1 in 2.5 (20° with horizontal)
is referred to as gentle slope (Fig. 9.6 (a)), whereas higher gradients (20° – 45°
with horizontal) are termed as steep slopes (Fig. 9.6 (b)). In the former case,
the contours are far apart, and are spaced closely in the latter case. A very steep
slope is termed as scrap. A high scrap is known as crag. When the ground bulges
outward, it is referred to as a convex slope (Fig. 9.6 (c)). The gradient at higher
levels will be gentle, but quite steep at lower levels. Thus, the contours at the
higher levels will be far apart, whereas quite close towards the ground. In case
of a concave slope (Fig. 9.6 (d)), the ground has a depression. The ground at the
lower levels is gentle but is quite steep at higher levels. Thus, the contours will
be far apart at the lower levels, but they become progressively closer with increase
in elevation.
400 500
10 200300
400
300
0
200
100
Metres Metres
400 500
300 400
300
200
200
100 100
0
0
400
40
35 250 35
0 0
30 0
0 0 25
3
200 200
Metres Metres
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
374 Surveying
700
60
65
0 650 500 700
0
55 600
550 500 0 0
400 00 50
3
Metres Metres
750
700
700
Metres 650
650
600 500 600
550 400 550
500 300 500
10
0 00
5
10
0 9
0
0 90
90 0
0 85
85 0
gently, it is referred to as a depression (Fig. 9.6 (j)). The contours will be quite
few and far apart. When the valley floor is very narrow and has steep sides on
a level terrain, it is termed as gorge (Fig. 9.6 (k)) and in mountains as canyons.
Because of the steepness of sides, the contours are crowded.
0
150
0
140
0 0 0
13 120
00
1500
11
1400 300
00
10
1
1200
200
1100
1000
300
400
500
Metres
1500
Metres 1400
500 1300
400 1200
300 1100
200 1000
9.3.5 saddle
The lowest points on the watershed are known as passes. A pass is narrow low
land passing through high mountains on either sides. Sometimes this narrow low
land is cut back by the streams. This steep-sided depression is known as a col.
When the depression is broad and low, it is known as saddle (Fig. 9.6 (m)).
376 Surveying
9.3.6 spur
A part of land in form of tongue, which
juts out from a hilly area is known as spur 1500 1400
(Fig. 9.6 (n)). The contours are similar to
that of a valley, with a difference that here 1300
1200
the counter values decrease towards the 1100
1000
Vee.
Metres
9.3.7 escrapment 1500
A high land, having flat narrow top with 1400
steep (scrap) slope on one side and gentle 1300
1200
(dip) slope on the other side is known as 1100
1000
escrapment (Fig. 9.6 (o)). The contours will
be closer towards the steep side and far apart
towards the gentle side.
1000
900
800 00 00
0 00 0
10 9
50 6 70
700
0
600 80
500
Metres Metres
1000 1000
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500
9.3.8 Cliff
These are the steep rock faces along the sea coast and may be vertical (Fig. 9.6 (p))
where the contour lines coincide with each other or an overhanging cliff (Fig. 9.6 (q)
where the contour lines intersect each other.
250
200
150
100
50
Metres
250
200
150 500
100
50 400 300
0 200
present, it indicates a flat terrain. A zero metre contour line represents the
coast line.
2. Two contour lines do not intersect each other except in the cases of an
overhanging cliff (Fig. 9.6 (q)) or a cave penetrating a hillside.
3. A contour line must close onto itself, not necessarily within the limits of
a map.
4. Equally spaced contour represent a uniform slope and contours that are
well apart indicate a gentle slope.
5. A set of close contours with higher figures inside and lower figures outside
indicate a hillock, whereas in the case of depressions, lakes, etc., the higher
figures are outside and the lower figures are inside.
6. A watershed or ridge line (line joining the highest points of a series of
hills) and the thalweg or valley line (line joining the lowest points of a
valley) cross the contours at right angles.
7. Irregular contours represent uneven ground.
8. The direction of the steepest slope is along the shortest distance between
the contours. The direction of the steepest slope at a point on a contour
is, therefore, at righ angles to the contour.
interpolation. Usually the indirect methods of contouring are preferred as they are
not that tedious and less time consuming. Though not as accurate as the direct
methods, it is a general practise to opt for indirect methods so as to increase the
number of contours rather than to consume more time and obtain fewer contours
which are difficult to interpret.
103 103
98.8 108.0 98.8 108.0
100
106
102
104 108
101.9
106.7 110.5
Transverse
lines
140
Traverse
lines 135 150
145
9.6.1 By estimation
This is a very crude method and is usually adopted where the ground forms are
quite regular, the scale of the map is small, and high accuracy is not required.
The positions of the contour points between the ground points are estimated and
contours are drawn through them. It is assumed that the slope between the ground
points is uniform.
hc bc
The length bc and ba may be scaled off from the relation, __ = ___, using
ha ba
bc
property of similar triangles. Thus hc = ___ ha, where ha = contour interval (= 1 m
ba
in the present case). The height of point c = 50 + hc.
If the distance bc is 3/4 of ba, then hc = 3/4ha = 3/4 1 = 0.75 m, and height
of point c = 50.75 m.
Let a line on the ground AB (Fig. 9.10) be at an
angle to the horizontal. The tangent of this angle is called the gradient of the
line and is given by
B
h
i = tan = __ (9.1)
d
h
Thus the gradient of a line is equal to the
ratio of the height difference h to the horizontal A
C
distance d which may be scaled off from the plan d
or map.
382 Surveying
t 45°
1.00 30°
0.70 20°
0.50 15°
0.40 10°
0.30
5°
0.20
0.10 4°
3°
0.07
0.05a 2°
b
0.03 1°
0.01 d d 0°30
(a) (b)
The horizontal equivalent of ba (scaled off) transferred from the plan to this
graph gives = 3.3°.
9.11 appliCations
Since a contour map is a three-dimensional representation of the earth’s surface,
it furnishes a lot of information. Some of the uses that a contour map can be put
to, are as follows.
From a contour map it can be ascertained
whether any two points are intervisible or not.
Let it be required to ascertain the intervisibility of two stations A and B
having elevations 62 m and 90 m, respectively, as shown on the contour map
(Fig. 9.14 (a)).
Join A and B. The difference in elevation of A and B is 28 m (90 – 62 = 28).
The line of sight will have an inclination of 28 m in the distance ab (Fig. 9.14
(b)). Draw projections to mark points of elevation of 90, 85, ...., 62 on the line
ab. Compare these points with the corresponding points in which the contours cut
the line ab. At the point e, the ground has an elevation more than 75 m, whereas
line of sight will have an elevation less than 75 m (between 75 and 70 m).
Contouring 385
It can be seen that there will be obstruction in the range CD. Similarly, checks
can be made for other points.
The extent of a drainage area may be estimated on a contour
map by locating the ridge line around the watershed. The ridge line should be
located in such a position that the ground slopes are down on either side of it. The
area is found by planimetreic measurements as explained in Section 12.6.
Reservoirs are made for water supply and for power
or irrigation projects. A contour map is very useful to study the possible location
of a dam and the volume of water to be confined. All the contours are closed
lines within the reservoir area.
The areas A1, A2, A3, ...., An between successive contour lines can be determined
by a planimetre and if h is the contour interval, the capacity of the reservoir can be
estimated by the application of either the trapezoidal or the prismoidal formula.
Volume, [
A1 + An
V = h _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An – 1
2 ] (9.3)
h
Volume, V = __ [A1 + An + 4 (A2 + A4 + + An – 1)
3
+ 2 (A3 + A5 + + An – 2)] (9.4)
386 Surveying
mathematically are used to delineate the exact intensity of light and shade on the
ground surface.
9.12.7 Combinations
Often the advantages of the two or more methods are combined together to
pronounce the relief. Contour lines furnish quite exact information about slope and
elevation, hachuring and plastic shading bring out visibility, altitude tints emphasise
elevations, and the form lines represent mountains. Any or all the above methods
can be combined to represent any relief in the desired way and to produce the
best possible results.
9.13 aCCuraCy
The accuracy for contouring cannot be specified in simple and definite terms. The
accuracy with which the contours fulfil their functions of portraying ground forms
depend on the slope of the ground and on the error in the height of contour. The
standard error of contours may be from one-third to one-quarter of the contour
interval.
e xample 9.3 From a topographic map, the areas enclosed by contour lines
for a proposed dam are given below. Find the volume of impounded water using
trapezoidal formula.
Contour (m) Area enclosed (hectares)
500 20
505 100
510 400
515 900
520 1100
s olution
[
A1 + An
V = h _______ + A2 + A3 + A4
2 ]
[
20 + 1100
= 5 _________ + 100 + 400 + 900
2 ] 104
= 9,800 10 4 cu. m.
Summary
Contours are the lines joining the points of equal elevation. When plotted on maps or
plans, the form of the earth’s surface can be portrayed with accuracy and can be readily
interpreted. When contour plans are available the location of engineering projects can be
decided and planned in a better way. The conventional contour representations for various
features of earth’s surface are presented. Some of the important characteristics of contours
are explained for clear understanding and to aid plotting. Various methods of plotting
contours, instruments and procedures are described. Methods for interpolating contours of
specific value are discussed. The applications of contours for specific engineering purpose
are elaborated. Some of the other methods of depicting ground relief are also presented.
Some guidelines are also presented to decide the contour interval to help the beginner in
the professional life.
Exercises
9.1 Define a contour. State the various characteristics of contour lines.
9.2 Discuss in detail, the methods of direct and indirect contouring.
9.3 What are the various methods of interpolating contours? State the suitability of each
one of them.
9.4 Write a short note on the uses of contour maps for engineering purposes.
9.5 The area within the contour lines at the site of a reservoir and the face of a proposed
dam are as follows:
Contour (m) Area (m2)
300 620
302 8 400
304 60 240
306 90 510
308 100 200
(contd.)
Contouring 389
N
400
600
500
0
40
600
500
300
10
0
0
Scale: 1: 100,000
9.7 On the contour map (Fig. 9.16) given below, show the relief features.
(a) Spur (b) Cliff (c) Saddle (d) Steep slope
(e) An isolated hill
N
400
0
0
40
20 0
3 00 10
0
30
400
500
0
30
0
40 00
3
0
10
Scale: 1: 200,000
390 Surveying
Objective-type Questions
9.1 At what angle does a ridge line intersect contours?
(a) 90° (b) 45° (c) 30° (d) 0°
9.2 For mountainous region, a suitable contour interval may be
(a) 0.2 m (b) 2 m (c) 20 m (d) 200 m
9.3 The direction of steepest slope on a contour is
(a) along the contour (b) at right angles to the contour
(c) at 45° to the contour (d) at 30° to the contour
9.4 The method usually adopted to contour a rough country where ordinary levelling is
tedious and chaining is slow and inaccurate is
(a) spirit levelling (b) differential levelling
(c) plane tabling (d) tacheometry
9.5 The lines joining the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth are known
as
(a) isohytes (b) isogonics (c) agonics (d) contours
9.6 A series of closed contours on a map indicates
(a) a close traverse (b) a depression
(c) a summit (d) Either (b) or (c)
9.7 Pick out the incorrect statement.
(a) The contour interval depends upon the time available.
(b) Contours can be drawn underwater.
(c) Usually the contour interval is kept constant, but a variable interval may be
used if required.
(d) A ground of contours with higher figures inside indicates a depression.
9.8 The relief of the earth’s surface can be represented by
(a) hachures (b) shading (c) contours (d) all of these.
9.9 On geographical maps, the relief of the earth’s surface is usually portrayed by
(a) contours (b) isohytes
(c) shading and hachures (d) kitiro method
9.10 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Contour maps cannot be used to ascertain the intervisibility of points.
(b) Contours drawn underwater are known as aqueous contours.
(c) Contour interval may be located in the field by a gradienter.
(d) Contour interval is inversely proportional to the square of the scale of a
map.
9.11 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Two contour lines intersect in the case of a vertical cliff.
(b) A watershed crosses the contours at right angles.
(c) The direction of steepest slope is along the longest distance between the
contours.
(d) In the direct method of contouring, the contours are not interpolated.
9.12 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) A hand level is used for direct contouring.
(b) Direct contouring methods are very useful for small-scale maps.
(c) For a canal survey, the method of cross sections is most suited.
(d) In the indirect method of contouring, the contours are interpolated.
9.13 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Indirect contouring methods are useful for country with a gentle slope.
(b) Method of squares for plotting the contours is best suited for route surveys.
Contouring 391
Introduction
In field survey, use of electronics-based instruments is now so widespread that
it would be difficult to imagine any contemporary site surveying without it. The
recent applications of electronics in surveying instruments have enabled surveyors
to collect and process field data much more easily and to a higher precision than
is possible using routine instruments.
A total station, also known as electronic tacheometer, is an optical instrument.
It is a combination of an electronic theodolite (Section 4.27)—for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles, an electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM)
device (Section 2.18)—for measurement of slope distances and on-board software
to convert the raw observed data to three dimensional coordinates. Thus with a total
station one may determine the actual positions (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and
elevation) of surveyed points, or the position of the instrument from known points,
in absolute terms. Further, the EDM that measures the slope distance can calculate
and display horizontal distance and difference in level. This is accomplished
with the help of microprocessor normally working concentric with the telescope
eyepiece, and is generally housed in a casting that forms part of the telescope.
Total stations are operated using a multifunction keyboard which is connected
to a microprocessor built into the instrument. The microprocessor in the total
station can not only perform a variety of mathematical operations—for example,
averaging multiple angle measurements, averaging multiple distance measurements,
calculation of rectangular coordinates, calculation of slope corrections, distances
between remote points, remote object elevations, atmospheric and instrumental
corrections—but in some cases, can also store observations directly using an
internal memory. In addition to the above facilities, the total station can interface
with data loggers or other computers, either to store survey data or to retrieve
previously prepared setting out data. The provision of a removable card of the
size of a credit card, which can be slot into the side of the total station, makes it
unique. Typically each card has 1 MB of memory, which can store or supply data
for about 10,000 points.
Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-
optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotation glass
394 Surveying
cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best-quality total stations are capable
of measuring angles down to 0.5 arc-second. The low-cost construction-grade total
stations can generally measure angles up to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave
or infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument’s optical path, and bounced off of the object to be measured. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the on-board
computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and receiving
multiple frequencies and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the
target for each frequency. Most total stations use a purpose-built glass Porro
prism as the reflector for the EDM signal and can measure distances out to a few
kilometres, but some instruments are reflectorless, and can measure distances to
any object that is reasonably light in colour, out to a few hundred metres. The
typical total station EDM can measure distances accurate to about 3 millimetres
or 1/100th of a foot.
Though a number of companies are manufacturing total stations, to acquaint
the reader, Leica TCA 1800 and Nikon C-100 total stations are shown in Plates 8
and 9. Their technical specifications are summarised in Table 10.1. However, the
features common to the majority of total stations are described as follows.
reflected image of the line pattern is read by a linear CCD array and then used to
mathematically determine both tilt components. These components are then used
to immediately correct all angle measurements.
to be surveyed. The intersection of the vertices of the prism lies exactly at the
intersection of the reflector and can therefore be used directly as the target. When
using a theodolite in conjuction with an EDM for measuring over short distances,
it is recommended that the single-prism holder be used. The height difference
between the telescope’s optical axis and the infra-
red beam is corrected by the corresponding
difference at the target; therefore the cross-hair
at the centre of the reflector is to be aimed at
1000Z56
measurement. An example of single-prism holder
is shown in Fig. 10.3 by a GPH1Z/GRZ3 single-
prism holder.
The 360-degree reflector prism is also available
as an option. It allows measurements and
automatic target recognition from any direction.
Since it does not always need to be turned
towards the instrument, the reflector provides
additional comfort for a rod-man and improved
surveying efficiency. The grouping of six prisms
of the 360° reflector makes the accuracy of
horizontal measurement and that of vertical
measurement with automatic target recognition
independent of the position of the reflector. As
an example, the overall positioning accuracy of
the GRZ4 360° reflector prism is ±5 mm in
distance and ±5 mm for the angle (horizontal and
vertical). When the arrow on the upper rubberized
mount points towards the instrument and therefore
the front face of a prism points towards the EDM,
the accuracy is improved. The GRZ4 reflector is
highly recommended for topographic and stake-
out surveys. Leica circular prisms are
recommended for surveys requiring higher
accuracy than that provided by the GRZ4 prism.
Figure 10.4 shows a GRZ4 360° reflector
prism.
10.1.6 accessories
It is a visible light which enables a pole-mounted
prism to be set directly on the line of sight. The device flashes three colour lights.
If the prism is to the left of the line of sight, a green light flashes. If the prism is
to the right, a red light is seen. And if the prism is on line, a white light flashes,
the frequency of which doubles when it strikes the prism, confirming that the
prism is in the correct position.
It is a communication system which allows speech to be
transmitted from the instrument to the prism. This consists of a small microphone
on the control panel which is activated by pressing a key and a receiver with small
loudspeaker mounted on the prism pole.
A special form of reflector known as corner cube prism, which
is pole mounted, is used as a target. These are constructed from glass cubes or
blocks, and they return a beam along a path exactly parallel to the incident path
over a range of angles of incidence of about 20° to the normal of the front face of
the prism. As a result, the alignment is not critical and is quickly set when making
observations. Associated with all reflecting prisms is a prism constant. This is the
distance between the effective centre of the prism and the plumbing and pivot point
of the prism. The effective centre of a prism is normally well behind the physical
center or vertex. A typical prism constant value is – 30 or – 40 mm.
When storing the equipment, particularly in summer and inside a vehicle, take
the storage temperature limits into account (– 40°C to + 70°C/– 40°F to + 158°F).
Data cards, cables and plugs should be kept clean and dry. Blow away any dirt
lodged in the plugs of the connecting cables. Unplugging connecting cables or
removing the card during the measurement may cause loss of data. Always switch
off the instrument before removing the cables or the card.
The reflector prisms that are cooler than the ambient temperature tend to fog. It
is not enough to simply wipe them. Keep them for some time inside your jacket
or in the vehicle to allow them to adjust to the ambient temperature.
Total-station Survey 403
If the instrument becomes wet, leave it unpacked. Wipe down, clean and dry
the instrument (at not more than 40°C/104°F). Pack up the equipment only when
it is perfectly dry.
The battery chargers are intended for indoor use only. Use a battery charger
in a dry room only, never outdoors. The batteries should be charged only at an
ambient temperature between 10°C and 30°C (50°F to 86°F). A temperature of
0°C to + 20°C (32°F to 68°F) is recommended for storing the batteries.
10.2.1 Centring
The tripod is placed over the station and its three legs are spread. It is ensured
that tripod is at suitable height so that the surveyor can work conveniently when
the total station is tightened over its top.
One of its leg is placed firmly in the ground and the other two legs are moved
radially in or out so as to bring approximately centre of the total station over the
station mark. With the laser beam emitted by the total station ensure the centring has
been achieved. The laser plummet is located in the standing axis of the instrument
(Fig. 10.5). If not, slide the instrument over the tripod by loosening it, by the use
of tightening screw provided with the tripod plate to achieve exact centring.
404 Surveying
A B
A B
C
Total-station Survey 405
Using the plummet, make sure the total station is still over the reference point.
If not, centre exactly the instrument by shifting the tribrack on the tripod plate.
Rotate the instrument through 90°, 180° and 270° to check that the total station
is perfectly levelled. In most total stations, a compensator takes care of the final
levelling up.
The process of levelling and centring are repeated until the required accuracy
is achieved.
10.2.4 orientation
After the instrument has been switched on, the instrument model and software
model are briefly displayed. The instrument carries out a system test and then
engages the main menu.
The horizontal circle can be oriented and application programs started. For this
first, the coordinates of the station point are set, and the point number of station
point is entered. The coordinates of the station is entered directly or is imported
from data file of the memory card. The station data consists of point number,
easting, northing, station height and instrument height. Orientation implies fixing
line of sight in a particular known direction w.r.t. which measurement of angles
or bearings are done.
For traversing by measurement of angles the reference point is back sighted,
and the Hz direction is set to 0° 00 00 , or a known value is entered. The total
station is ready for making the measurements of angles. The total station can also
be oriented in north direction with an attachment consisting of a magnetic needle.
This facility is available in some of the makes of total station. In others where this
arrangement is not available, the Hz direction is set to 0°00 00 for measurement of
bearing of the first survey line and traverse measurements are made. This method
of orientation is carried out with the help of on-board software and is explained
in Section 10.3.2.
on-board software calculates and displays the angle V0 on the display screen.
The calculations performed by the on-board software are explained in Fig. 10.9.
The total station would now be ready for further coordinate measurements or for
setting out.
10.3.5 resection
This is also known as free stationing. Many a time some additional control points
called minor control points are fixed in surveying. The coordinates of these will
have to be entered in the total station. These points are sighted and the distances
and circle readings are measured. The total station calculates the coordinates of
these stations.
408 Surveying
6. Offset distance
7. Face 1 or Face 2 selection
8. Height of instrument (HI)
9. Height of reflector (HR)
10. Automatic point number incrementation
11. Point numbers and code numbers for occupied and sighted stations
12. Date and time settings
10.6.5 Procedure
Refer to Fig. 10.11.
1. The total station is mounted on tripod, centred and levelled. The initial
data and occupied station data are entered.
(i) When the instrument is set up and turned on it sets itself to be pointing
to zero degrees (north) when power is first supplied. The total station
is then reset to zero degree when it is actually pointing north.
(ii) If battery dies during measurements, the instrument must be reset to zero
degrees.
2. Sight at desired station, say 120; press the zero set button to set the
horizontal circle at zero.
3. Enter code 20 (BS).
412 Surveying
robotic allowing the operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote
control. This eliminates the need for an assistant staff member to hold the reflector
prism over the point to be measured. The operator holds the reflector himself and
controls the total station instrument from the observed points.
When these automated total stations are combined with monitoring software,
these are called monitoring stations. The monitoring stations are very useful in
systematically surveying the control points located on a monitored structure,
without an operator. For bridges, dams, tunnels, multi-storey buildings and other
structures of importance, it is crucial to monitor their positional changes over
time, observing even small movements, to indicate potential danger of structural
failure. Another functionality offered recently in the total stations is that of grid
scanning. This is accomplished by a servo station combined with a reflectorless
distance measurement device. The surveyor can program the measurement of the
points by specifying a view window area and setting the horizontal and vertical
intervals of the points to be measured. This needs only specifying optimum point
interval (grid interval) to represent the object with sufficient accuracy, rather than
aiming at each individual point. A grid scanner total station (Plate 10) is capable
of measuring 20 points per seconds. This facility of scanner in total station is of
immense value, to the safety of the structures and in prevention of loss of life,
since it can identify even a minute distressed location in a structure.
The total stations with imaging capabilities have also been developed. Such total
stations have coaxial digital camera sensors built into the telescope and are called
imaging stations (Plate 11). With an imaging station the surveyor can immediately
take a photo, write a note on touch screen and save it after measuring the point.
The photo is automatically referenced to the station point and the measured point.
It is also possible to create ortho-rectified images by taking several photographs
of the object of interest and combine them to form one single image.
Recently, total stations have become available that can integrate conventional
robotic surveying with Global Positioning System (GPS). The GPS unit is mounted
above the reflector prism in addition to the remote controller operating the total
station (Plate 12). Since both the total station and the GPS operate on the same
software, the surveyor can opt to measure points either using the total station or
the GPS. The use of GPS enhances the capability of a total station as the line
of sight is not required between points to be measured, and as compared to the
traditional total station, high precision for the measurement is enhanced especially
in the vertical axis compared with GPS. These reduce the consequences of each
technology’s disadvantages, i.e., GPS for poor accuracy in the vertical axis and
lower accuracy without long occupation periods, and total station which requires
line-of-sight observations and must be set up over a known point or with a line of
sight of two or more known points. Therefore, the instrument can be used to its
full potential; on open sites measurements can be made with GPS and in covered
areas, where the GPS fails, the work can be continued with the total station.
Summary
Recent unprecedented developments in surveying equipments have been closely associated
with advances in electronic and computer technologies. Digital theodolite for measuring
414 Surveying
horizontal and vertical angles combined with electronic distance measurement (EDM)
device with data collector and electronic field books, with interfaces to computer, printer
and plotter have resulted in total station surveying. A total station has now replaced the
traditional instruments because of the precise and accurate measurements without much
of site problems and less number of survey personals required. Moreover, the errors are
eliminated which may otherwise arise due to wrong reading and recording of data or missing
data because of use of traditional instruments. The detail of total station and the procedure
for making measurements are described.
Exercises
10.1 Describe how a total station has brought revolution in surveying.
10.2 Describe briefly the salient features of total station.
10.3 Write short notes on
(a) Retroreflector (b) Geotronics unicom
(c) Lumi-guide (d) Orientation
10.4 Write short notes on
(a) Centring (b) Approximate levelling up
(c) Measurements of coordinates
(d) Measurement of bearing with regards to total station
10.5 What on-board softwares are available in total stations? Discuss briefly.
10.6 What are the various electronic data recording devices available? Compare their
merits and demerits.
10.7 Discuss setting up and orientation of a total station.
10.8 Explain briefly, how can we perform topographic survey with a total station.
10.9 Discuss briefly about the recent advancements in total stations and their usefulness
in monitoring structures.
Objective-type Questions
10.1 LCD in the control panel of a total station stands for
(a) Light control device (b) Liquid crystal display
(c) Light centred device (d) Lasting calibrated device
10.2 EDM in a total-station measures directly
(a) vertical angles (b) horizontal angles
(c) slope distances (d) horizontal distances
10.3 A total station displays
(a) slope distances (b) horizontal distances
(c) gradients (d) contours
10.4 Geotronics union in total station is
(a) visible light device (b) communication device
(c) special reflector (d) battery system
10.5 Laser plumet in total-station is used for
(a) centring (b) levelling
(c) orientation (d) bisection of point sighted
Introduction
Curves are defined as arcs, with some finite radius, provided between intersecting
straights to gradually negotiate a change in direction. For example, when two
straights of a highway or railway are at some angle to each other, a curve is
introduced between them to avoid an abrupt change in direction and to make the
vehicle move safely, smoothly and comfortably. This change in direction of the
straights may be in a horizontal or a vertical plane, resulting in the provision of
a horizontal or a vertical curve, respectively.
11.1 ClassifiCation
Curves are basically classified as horizontal or vertical curves, the former being
in the horizontal plane and the latter in the vertical plane.
The horizontal curves are further classified as simple circular, compound,
reverse, transition, combined, and broken-back curves. Vertical curves are usually
parabolic and are classified as summit and sag vertical curve. When vertical
and horizontal curves overlap, their study is simplified by considering them
separately.
of these two angles, i.e., and is 180°. O is the centre of the circular curve.
The point T1, where the circular curve begins is known as point of curve (P.C.).
The last point of the tangent, T2 is known as point of tangency (P.T.). IT1 and IT2
are known as tangent lengths and are always equal in length. The length T1 CT2
is called the total length of curve. The middle point C of the curve is called the
apex or summit of the curve. It lies on the bisector of the angle of intersection.
The chord joining the point of curve and the point of tangency is known as long
chord. The ordinate from the apex of the curve (C) to the mid-point (D) of the
long chord is known as mid-ordinate (CD). A chord of the curve between two
consecutive regular stations (station at chain length) on it is called normal chord or
full chord. Any other chord shorter in length than this, is called subchord. Usually,
the first and the last chords of a curve are subchords. The distance between the
point of intersection I and the apex of the curve (C), i.e., IC is known as apex
Curves 419
distance. Angle T1 OT2 subtended at the centre of the curve (O) is known as central
angle. The central angle is equal to the deflection angle.
11.2.2 Designation
The curvature of a circular arc is perfectly defined by its radius. However, where
the radius is long (highways) the centre of the curve is inaccessible or remote.
In such a case the radius is of no value for surveying operations, though still
needed in certain computations; it must be replaced by a different characteristic
of the curve which is most useful. The characteristic commonly used is known as
degree of curve. A simple circular curve may, however, either be designated by
radius (in feet, metres or chains) or by degree of the curve. The former system
is adopted in UK and Australia, whereas the latter is in use in U.S.A., Canada,
France and India.
The degree of a curve can be defined either on the basis of an arc or a chord.
According to the arc definition, the degree of a curve is the central angle subtended
by an arc of 30 or 20 m length (Fig. 11.8(a)). According to the chord definition, the
degree of a curve is the central angle subtended by a chord of 30 or 20 m length
(Fig. 11.8(b)). In India, it is customary to use the arc definition for highways,
whereas the chord definition is utilised in railways.
Apex distance,
2 (
IC = IO – CO = R sec __ – R = R sec __ – 1
2 )
Mid-ordinate,
2 (
O0 = CD = CO – DO = R – R cos __ = R 1 – cos __
2 )
or O0 = R vers __
2
Therefore, mid-ordinate is also known as versed sine of the curve.
The other formulae needed for computing and laying out of a simple circular
curve are developed in the section to follow.
e xample 11.1 A circular curve has a 200 m radius and 65° deflection
angle. What is its degree (i) by arc definition and (ii) by chord definition. Also
calculate:
(a) length of curve, (b) tangent length, (c) length of long chord, (d) apex
distance, and (e) mid-ordinate.
s olution (i) Arc definition
Assuming a 30 m chord length,
R × D × ____ = 30
180º
30 180 30 180
or D = ________ = ________ = 8.595°
R 200
(ii) Chord definition
Assuming a 30 m chord length,
15 D D
R = ________ (but since D is small, sin __ __ radians)
sin (D/2) 2 2
15
Hence, R = _________
D
__ ____
2 180
422 Surveying
15 2 180
or D = ____________ = 8.595°
200
(
2 ) 65º
(
(d) Apex distance = R sec __ – 1 = 200 × sec ___ – 1 = 37.13 m
2 )
(
(e) Mid-ordinate = R 1 – cos __
2 ) = 200 × ( 1 – cos ___
2 )
65º
= 31.32 m
T2 are then established at tangent length distances from the P.I. by providing line
of sights along the two straights.
The various linear
methods of setting out a simple circular
curve are
1. offsets from the long chord
2. perpendicular offsets from the
tangent
3. radial offsets from the tangent
4. successive bisection of arcs
5. offsets from the chord pro-
duced.
Let it be
required to lay a curve T1CT2 between
the two intersecting straights T1I and T2 I
(Fig. 11.9). R is the radius of the curve,
O0 the mid-ordinate, and Ox the offset at
a point P at a distance x from the mid-
point M of the long chord.
From triangle OMT1
____________
_ ____________
OM = (OT12 – MT12) = (R2 – (L/2)2)
Now, CM = OC – OM
or O0 = R – OM
__________
or O0 = R – R2 – (L/2)2
In triangle OP G
_______
OG = R2 – x2 and OM = R – O0
The required offset
PP = OG – OM
_______
Hence, PP = R2 – x2 – (R – O0)
_______
or Ox = R2 – x2 – (R – O0 ) (exact expression)
2 2 1/2
= R (1 – x /R ) – R + O0
= R (1 – x2/(2R 2) + ) – R + O0
x2
= O0 – ___ (approximate expression)
2R
By assigning different values to x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox can
be determined. The calculated offsets can be laid from the long chord and points
can be established in the field which when joined produce the required curve.
This method is suitable for small values
of the radius, length of curve and deflection angle. In Fig. 11.10, Ox is the offset
perpendicular to the tangent at a distance x from the point of curve T1.
424 Surveying
The second offset O2 (bb ) is set out to get point b. Points a and b are joined
and produced further by distance C3 (full chord length). The third offset O3 (cc )
is set out to get point c. The procedure is repeated till the curve is completed.
a T1a = 1 = deflection angle of the first chord
So that O1 = a a = T1a 1 = C1 1 (11.7)
T1Oa = 2 aT1a = 2 1
T1a = R × 2 1
T 1a
___ C1
or 1 = = ___
2R 2R
Putting this value of 1 in Eq. (11.7) we get
C1 C12
O1 = C1 × ___ = ___
2R 2R
For computing O2, a tangent PQ is drawn to the curve at a, and is produced
both ways.
ab = ab = C2 (length of second chord)
O2 = b b = b Q + Qb
b Q = O2
Qb = O2 (offset between the tangent and the chord)
C2 C22
O2 = C2 × 2 = C2 × ___ = ___
2R 2R
C1
O2 = C2 × 1 = C2 × ____2
2R
So that O2 = O2 + O2
C1C2 C22
= _____ + ___
2R 2R
C
= ___ (C1 + C2)
2
2R
C3
Similarly, the third offset O3 = ___ (C2 + C3 ) = cc
2R
Normally, C3 = C4 = = Cn – 1 = C (normal chord)
The last or the nth offset is given by
Cn
O n = ___ (Cn – 1 + C n )
2R
where C n is the last subchord.
From the property of a circle that the angle subtended by a chord at the centre
is twice the angle between the tangent and the chord. Then,
T1Oa = 2 × IT1a = 2 1
Now R×2 1 = T1a = C1
C1
___
or 1 = radians
2R
C1 ____
___ 180º
or 1 = degrees
2R
C1 180º
= ___ ____ minutes
2R
C1
___
i.e., 1 = 1718.9 minutes
R
C2
___ C3
Similarly, 2 = 1718.9 minutes, 3 = 1718.9 ___ minutes
R R
For the first chord T1 a, the deflection angle 1 is its tangential angle 1. For
the second point b on the curve, the deflection angle 2 = IT1b.
Let the tangential angle for chord ab = 2, i.e., the angle between the tangent
at a and chord ab.
The angle subtended by the chord ab at T1 is aT1b = 2, so that
2 = IT1b = IT1a + aT1b
= 1+ 2= 1+ 2
Similarly, bT1c = 2,so that
3 = IT1c = IT1b + bT1c
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 2 + 3
and n= 1+ 2+ + n
= n–1+ n
Last point of the curve is T2, so that
n IT1T2 = __
=
2
Check: Sum of all the individual deflection angles is equal to half the deflection
angle of the circular curve.
7. With the zero of the tape held at a and an arrow at the other end (chord
distance = ab), swing the tape about a, till the arrow is bisected by the
theodolite at b. This establishes the second point b on the curve.
8. The same steps are repeated till the last point T2 is reached.
1. Set up one theodolite at P.C. (T1) and the other at P.T. (T2).
2. Set the vernier A of both the theodolites to zero.
3. Direct the theodlite at T1 towards I, and the theodolite at T2 towards T1.
4. Set an angle 1 in both the theodolites so as to direct the line of sights
towards T1a and T2a, thus the point a, the point of intersection of the two
line of sights, is established on the curve.
5. Similarly, point b is established by setting 2 in both the theodolites and
bisecting the ranging rod at b.
6. The same steps are repeated with different values of to establish more
points.
This method is expensive and time consuming, but most accurate. The various
points are established independent of each other and thus the error in establishing
a point is not transferred to the subsequent points.
This method is similar to the Rankine’s method of
deflection angles. The theodolite at T1 may be used as a tacheometer and the
tacheometric observations are made. This is a less accurate method than Rankine’s
method but the advantage is that chaining is completely dispensed with.
A point on the curve is established by feeding the deflection angle in the
tacheometer and measuring the distance of a point on the curve by placing a staff
on it.
The length of the chords joining points a, b, c, etc., to the point of curve T1
(Fig. 11.16) is given by
430 Surveying
( )
f
D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
or ( )
f
D = _ s cos2 + ( f + d) cos
i
This method is used when vision is obstructed, after setting a point on the curve.
Suppose a point a has been set from the point T1, and after that it is not possible
to set the next point d and onwards due to vision being obstructed (Fig. 11.17).
Curves 431
1. The line of sight T1a is produced to C1, and a ranging rod is fixed in line
with it.
2. The theodolite is set at a, both the plates are clamped to zero and C1 is
bisected accurately.
3. The vernier plate is released and vernier A is set to 2 (the same deflection
angle 2 which was to be set from T1), so that the line of sight is
directed towards d. Distance ad is measured from a and the point d is
established.
aT1d = Fad = 2 (CF is the tangent at a)
IT1d = deflection angle for point d
= IT1a + aT1d
= 1+ 2= 2
But, C1ad = C1aF + Fad
= 1 + 2 = 2
Hence, IT1d = C1ad = 2
sin
Hence, IA = AB ×
sin ( )
sin
and IB = AB × __________
sin ( + )
Now, AT1 = IT1 – IA = R tan __ – IA
2
Also, BT2 = IT2 – IB = R tan __ – IB
2
Thus, points T1 and T2 are established. The curve can now be set out from the
point of curve T1.
e xample 11.2 Two straight lines T1 I and T2 I intersect at chainage ( 375 + 12),
the angle of deflection being 110°. Calculate the chainage of the tangent points of
a right-handed circular curve of 400 m radius, if 20 m chain was used.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.1.
Chainage of l = (375 + 12) = 375 (chains) + 12 (links)
Deflection angle, = 110°
Tangent length = R tan 110°/2 = 400 tan 55° = 571.26 m
Length of curve = R /180° = × 400 × 110°/180° = 767.94 m
The length of chain = 20 m
Chainage of P.I. = 375 (chains) + 12 (links) = 7502.40 m
Deduct tangent length – 571.26 m
Chainage of P.C. 6931.14 m
Add length of curve + 767.94 m
Chainage of P.T. 7699.08 m
Chainage of P.C. = (346 + 55.7)
Chainage of P.T. = (384 + 95.4)
e xample 11.5 It is required to set out a curve of radius 100 m with pegs
at approximately 10 m centres. The deflection angle is 60°. Draw up the data
necessary for pegging out the curve by each of the following methods:
(i) Offsets from long chord (ii) Chord bisection (iii) Offsets from tangent.
s olution
(i) Offsets from long chord
Refer to Fig. 11.21.
Set out AC = CD = DE = EF = FG
where AG = PM = 100 × sin 30° = 50.0 m
Set pegs at 10 m interval.
______
Offset from tangent = R – R2 – x2
_________
CK = 100 – 1002 – 102 = 0.5 m
_________
DJ = 100 – 1002 – 202 = 2.02 m
_________
EH = 100 – 1002 – 302 = 4.60 m
_________
FL = 100 – 1002 – 402 = 8.35 m
_________
GM = 100 – 1002 – 502 = 13.40 m
Then, GM = IM cos 30°
(
= R sec __ – 1 cos 30°
2 )
= 100 × (sec 30° – 1) × cos 30° = 13.40 m (checked)
e xample 11.6 The following are the bearings of three lines AB = 21°45 , BC
= 80°30 , CD = 147°15 . Find the radius of a curve tangential to the three lines.
Length BC = 450 m. Also determine the tangent lengths.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.24.
T1, T2 and T3 are the tangent points.
58 45 66 45
450 = R tan tan
2 2
R = 368.35 m
58 45
Tangent length, T1B = 368.35 tan = 207.34 m
2
66 45
Tangent length, T2C = 368.35 tan = 242.65 m
2
e xample 11.7 A simple circular curve of radius 450 m and deflection angle
70° was to be set out. The chainage of
point of curve was 1022 m. Due to
inaccessibility problem it was required to
rotate the forward tangent by 12° about
the point of tangency. Find the new radius
and chainage of the tangent points and
that of point of intersection.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.25.
= 70°
Tangent length IT2 = R tan (70°/2)
= 450 tan (70°/2)
= 315.09 m
= 70° + 12° = 82°
From triangle IT2 I1, by sine rule
I I1 I T2
=
sin 12 sin [180 (12 70 )]
sin 12
II1 = I T2
sin 98
sin 12
= 315.09 = 66.15 m
sin 98
sin 70
I1T2 = 315.09 = 299 m
sin 98
R
Length of new arc, T1 T 2 =
180
343.96 82
=
180
= 492.26 m
Curves 439
e xample 11.8 In making a survey for a new road, the intersection point of
two straights was found to be inaccessible. Four points P, Q, R, S (see Fig. 11.26)
were therefore selected two on each straight, and the distance between Q and R
was found to be 122.20 m. If the angle PQR was 169°47 40 and the angle QRS
148°22 20 , draw up a table of deflection angles and chainages for setting out a
200 m radius curve by pegs driven at every 20 m through chainage. Chainage of
Q = (140 + 90) chains.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.26.
= deflection angle
= IQR + IRQ
= (180° – 169°47 40 ) + (180° – 148°22 20 )
= 41°50 00
By sine rule
sin (180 148 22 20 )
IQ = × 122.20 = 96.08 m
sin (180 41 50 00 )
Chainage of I = (140 × 20 + 90 × 0.2) + 96.08 = 2914.08 m
Tangent length, IT1 = R tan ( /2) = 200 tan 20°55 00 = 76.44 m
Chainage of T1 = 2914.08 – 76.44 = 2837.64 m
C1C2 = 4 m, = 42°
IC1 = R1 (sec /2 – 1) = 800 (sec 21º – 1) = 56.92 m
IC2 = IC1 + 4 = 56.92 + 4 = 60.92 m
Thus, 60.92 = R2 (sec 21º – 1)
R2 = 856 m
Tangent length, IT1 = R2 tan /2 = 856 tan 21º = 328.6 m
C1 30
Deflection angle for 30 m chord = 1719 __ = 1719 × ____ = 1º 00 14
R 856
856 42
Curve length = R /180º = = 627.5 m
180
Length of final subchord = 627.5 – 600 = 27.5 m
sin 70º
IQ = 180 × _______ = 195.31 m
sin 60º
Tangent lengths IA = IB = R tan __
2
120º
____
= 500 × tan = 866.02 m
2
AP = AI – IP = 866.02 – 159.22 = 706.8 m
BQ = BI – IQ = 866.02 – 195.31 = 670.71 m
Chainage of point A = Chainage of P – AP
= 2500.00 – 706.8 = 1793.2 m
Length of curve = R × ×
180º
= 500 × 120° × = 1047.19 m
180º
Chainage of point B = Chainage of point A + length of curve
= 1793.2 + 1047.19 = 2840.39 m
MD = R1 tan ___
1
2
DN = R2 tan ___
2
2
Now, MN = MD + DN
MN = R1 tan ___
1
or
2
+ R 2 tan ___
2
2
446 Surveying
1. Set up the theodolite at T1 and set out the first arc T1D by Rankine’s
method of deflection angles.
2. Shift the theodolite and set it up at point D.
3. Set the vernier A to read (360° – 1/2), take a backsight on T1 and transit
the telescopes. Swing the telescope by 1/2 so that the telescope is directed
along DN and vernier A reads zero.
4. Now lay out the second arc DT2 in the same manner till T2 is reached.
5. Check the observation by measuring the angle T1DT2 which should be
equal to (180° – ( 1 + 2)/2) or (180° – /2).
e xample 11.13 A compound curve, consisting of two simple circular curves
of radii 350 m and 500 m, is to be laid out between two straights. The angles of
intersection between the tangents and the two straights are 25° and 55°. Calculate
the various elements of the compound curve.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.32.
Curves 447
Chainage of T1 = 920.00 m
Chainage of I = 920.00 – 441.05 = 478.95 m
Length of first arc = 320 54° /180° = 301.6 m
Length of second arc = 510 46° /180° = 409.45 m
Chainage of D = 920.00 + 301.60 = 1221.60 m
Chainage of T2 = 1221.60 + 409.45 = 1631.05 m
Central angles 1 and 2 and length of common tangent are given, 2 > 1
To find out the common radius R and chainage of T1, E and T2.
Refer to Fig. 11.34.
R1 = R2 = R
T1U = UE and IUE = 1
T2V = VE and CVE = 2
UV = d = UE + EV
1 = 2 = (say). Hence O1T1 and O2T2 are parallel and O1CO2 joins them.
V = T1A + BT2
= (O1T1 – O1A) + (O2T2 – O2B)
= (R1 – R1 cos 1) + (R2 – R2 cos 2)
= R1 (1 – cos 1) + R2 (1 – cos 2)
V = (R1 + R 2) (1 – cos ) (11.13)
T1T2 = L = T1C + CT2
= 2R1 sin ( 1/2) + 2R2 sin ( 2/2)
L = 2 (R1 + R2) sin ( /2) (11.14)
V
Using sin __ = __ in Eq. (11.14) we get
2 L
V
L = 2 (R 1 + R2) × __
L
or L2 = 2 (R 1 + R 2) V
__________
or L = 2V (R1 + R2) (11.15)
Also, D = AC + CB
= R1 sin 1 + R2 sin 2
D = (R1 + R 2) sin (11.16)
If, as a special case, R1 = R2 = R (say), the above Eqs. (11.13)
to (11.16) are transformed to
V = 2R (1 – cos )
L = 4R sin ( /2)
___
L = 2 RV
D = 2R sin
720
= ________________________________ = 301.496 m
sin 47º30 + 2 cos 52º12 + sin 25º12
Now, the central angle T1O1E ( 1) of the first arc
= 1 + 90° – = 47°30 + 90° – 52°12 = 85°18
The central angle T2O2E ( 2) of the second arc
= 2+ 90° – = 25°12 + 90° – 52°12 = 63°
R 301.496 85º18
Length of the first arc = _____ = ___________________ = 448.86 m
1
180º 180º
R 2 301.496 63º
Length of the second arc = ______ = ________________ = 331.51 m
180º 180º
e xample 11.17 A reverse curve ACB is to be set out between two parallel
straights 30 m apart (Fig. 11.37). If R1 = R2 and the distance between tangent
points A and B is 120 m, calculate the radius. Also, calculate the length of the
offsets if the whole curve is to be laid by means of offsets, from the long chord
at 10 m intervals.
e xample 11.18 A reverse curve is to join two straights having a very acute
angle of intersection. The common tangent (140 m) makes an angle of intersection
of 120° and 130° with the main straights. Calculate the suitable common radius.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.38.
5. Its length should be such that full cant or superelevation is attained at the
points C and C .
6. Rate of increase of curvature along the transition should be same as that
of increase of cant.
11.5.2 superelevation
Superelevation on curves is defined as the raising of the outer end of a road or
the outer rail over the inner one. C is a point on the outer edge and D is a point
on the inner one (Fig. 11.40 (a)). The difference of elevation between C and D is
called superelevation or cant at the point C.
When a vehicle moves on a curved path, there are two forces acting on it:
weight W of the vehicle and the centrifugal force P.
The notation employed in Fig. 11.40 (b) is given as follows:
h = superelevation (in m)
B = width of pavement (in m)
= angle of superelevation
W = weight of the vehicle
P = centrifugal force
v = speed of the vehicle (in m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
R = radius of the curve (in m)
The weight of the vehicle W and the centrifugal force P acting on the vehicle,
pass through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. Weight W acts vertically
downwards and centrifugal force P acts horizontally away from the centre of the
curve. For equilibrium, the resultant R of these two forces should be perpendicular
to the road surface.
Wv2
We know P = ____
gR
458 Surveying
P
__ v2
or = ___
W gR
From Fig. 11.40(b),
P
tan = __
W
h
Also, tan = __
B
h__ P v2
Hence, = __ = ___
B W gR
h
__ v2
= ___
B gR
Bv2
or h = ___
gR
In the railways, the width of the track is taken as the distance between the two
rails and is represented by a gauge G (in m). However, if speed of the vehicle
in kilometres per hour, and G and R in metres, then the cant h in centimetres is
given by
( 1000 2
v_________
60 60
h = G × ___________ × 100
)
9.81 R
Gv2 Gv2
h = _________ = ______ cm
1.27137 R 1.27 R
In the case of railways, if the
superelevation is provided as is given by the superelevation equation, the load
distributed on the two rails will be equal, consequently the springs of the train
will be equally compressed, and it will be in a state of balance or equilibrium.
Such a cant is called equilibrium cant.
According to the equation of superelevation, if the speed is more than the design
speed, the value of cant will be more (width and radius remaining constant) and
if the speed is less than the design speed, the value of cant will be less. This
excess or shortage of cant over the equilibrium cant (at design speed) is called
cant deficiency of the track. It means that if the equilibrium cant (at design speed)
is h and the cant deficiency permitted on the track is e, the track can permit a
limiting speed corresponding to cant = h ± e.
P
__ 1 v12
Thus, for roads, = __ = ___
W 4 gR
____
or v1 = gR/4
P 1 v22
and for railways, __ = __ = ___
W 8 gR
____
or v2 = gR/8
Having given a design speed v, the radius R should not be less than as given
by the above equations. For a given radius R of the track,
____
v__2 gR/8
_______
___ ___
v1 = ____ = 4/8 = 1/2
gR/4
v1 __
v2 = _____ , or v1 = 2 v2
2
Hence, for a given
__
track radius, the speed on a highway can be higher, than
on railways by 2 times.
(
v 1000
3600
v
= _________ m/s = ___ m/s , then
3.6 )
1
L = ____
0.3R ( ___
3.6 )
v 3
Curves 461
v3
L = ____
14R
For sharp curves, however, the superelevation angle would be too great for
the safety of the vehicles at rest, on the curve, especially under a strong inward
wind. It is therefore desirable to limit the superelevation angle and reduce the
speed accordingly. Thus, __
(gR tan )3/2 R
L = ____________ = (g tan )3/2 ___
R
If angle is limited, the length of the transition curve will be directly
proportional to the square root of the radius of the circular curve.
This method is most commonly used for finding arc length of the transition curves.
Centrifugal
force ratio
P
__ 1 v2
= __ = ___
W 8 gR
For Railways
L = v3
1
_____
0.3R
__
= ( ) gR
___
4
3/2
1
_____
0.3R
= 4.52 R
__
Thus, approximately L = 4.5 R
For Roads
1 gR 1
L = v3 × _____ = ____
0.3R 8 0.3R
__
L = 12.80 R
or ( 2
dx = dl 1 – __ + __ – ...
2!
__
4!
4
)
We know that l=K
Differentiating partially,
K__
dl = ____ d
2
Hence,
2
K__
dx = ____ d ( 2 4
1 – ___ + ___ – ...
2! 4! )
464 Surveying
( )
3/2 7/2
K 1__
= __ ___ – _____ + _____ – ... d
2 2! 4!
Integrating, we get
K
( 1/2
x = __ ____ – ____ + ...
2 1/2 5
5/2
)
=K
__
( 2
1 – ___ + ...
10 )
l2 l2 ____
We know = ___2 = ____ and K = 2LR , hence
K 2LR
( l2
x = l 1 – _____4 + ...
____
10K )
Substituting K = 2RL
( l4
x = l 1 – _______
40 R2 L2
+ ... ) (11.24)
dy
___
Similarly, = sin
dl
or dy = dl sin
= dl ( 3
– __ + ___ – ...
3! 5!
5
)
K__
Substituting dl = ____ d we get
2
K
dy = __
2 ( 1/2
5/2
– ____ + ____ – ... d
6 120
9/2
)
Integrating, we get
( 3/2
y = K ____ – ____ + _____ – ...
3 42 1320
7/2 11/2
)
K 3/2
= _____
3 ( 2 4
K 3/2
1 – ___ + ____ ... = _____
14 440 3 ) ( 14
2
1 – ___ + ... )
l2 l2 ____
We know = ___2 = ____ and K = 2LR , hence
K 2LR
(2LR)1/2 l2
y = _______ ____
3 2LR ( ) ( 3/2
l4
1 – _______
56 R2 L2
+ ... )
l3 l4
So y = ____
6LR (
1 – _______
56 R2 L2
+ ... (11.25)
)
Equations (11.24) and (11.25) give the Cartesian coordinates of a point on an
ideal transition curve, i.e., on a true spiral or clothoid. If we take only the first
term of Eq. (11.25), i.e.,
Curves 465
l3
y = ____
6LR
We get cubic spiral. It may be noted that l is measured along the curve. The
total length of the curve is same as in the case of true spiral.
If we take the first term of both the Eqs. (11.24) and (11.25), we get
l3
x = l and y = ____
6LR
x3
i.e., y = ____
6LR
We get a cubic parabola. In the equation for cubic parabola x is measured
along the tangent.
A cubic parabola is also known as Froude’s transition curve. The use of both
the Cartesian coordinates is necessary to set out the curve.
In a cubic spiral we make only one approximation, viz. sin = , whereas in
cubic parabola we make two approximations, viz. cos = 1 and sin = . Hence,
a cubic spiral is superior to cubic parabola, but the latter is more widely used
because of its simplicity in setting out. In case of cubic parabola, the minimum
radius of curvature is obtained at a particular value of ___, the polar angle. The
minimum value of radius of curvature is given by 1.39 RL at = 8°1 54 . The
relation between polar angle and deflection angle is developed in the following
section.
and tan
dy d
( )x3
= ___ = ___ ____
dx dx 6LR
x2
or tan = ____ (11.27)
2LR
From Eqs. (11.26) and (11.27)
1
tan = __ tan
3
Since and are both small, we can write
1
= __
3
1 l2 l2
= __ × ____ = ____ rad
3 2LR 6LR
l2 180º 573 l 2
Also, = ____ × ____ × 60 = ______ min
6LR LR
L2 L
At point D when l = L; s= ____ = ___ rad
6LR 6R
L2 L
and s = ____ = ___ = 3 s rad
2LR 2R
so s = s– s=3 s– s=2 s
D is the end of the transition curve, where it joins the circular curve. DB is
the extended portion of the circular curve.
BOD denoted by s is the spiral angle of the tangent at D.
L L
Now, arc BD = R × s = R ___ = __
2R 2
L
Also, CD = BD = __
2
Hence the shift AB bisects the transition curve at C.
S = AB = EA – EB
= y – (OB – OE)
= y – (R – R cos s)
= y – R (1 – cos s)
2
= y – R × 2 sin ( s/2)
2
= y – 2R ___
4
s
( sin s __s
_____
2
=
2 )
L3 L2
At D y = ____ = ___
6LR 6R
L
and s = ___
2R
L2 L2 L2 L2 L2
S = ___ – 2R × _______ = ___ – ___ = ____
6R 4R 2
4 6R 8R 24R
For point C (i.e., mid-point of transition curve)
L
x = __ , y = CA
2
(L/2)3 L2 S
y = _____ = ____ = __
6LR 48R 2
Hence the transition curve bisects the shift.
(Refer to Fig. 11.44)
Total tangent length, IT1 = IA + AT1
= IA + (T1D1 – AD2)
= IA + (T1D2 – ED)
= (R + S) tan __ + (x – R sin s)
2
L
x = L, sin s = s = ___ rad
2R
L
IT1 = (R + S) tan __ + L – R ___
2 2R ( )
468 Surveying
L
= (R + S) tan __ + __
2 2
(
x = L 1 – ___
10
s
2
) s
L
= ___
2R
Tangent length, IT1 = IA + AT1
= (R + S) tan __ + (x – R sin s)
2
2 10(
= (R + S) tan __ + L 1 – ___
s
2
) ( )
–R s
3!
3
– ___
s
(
L2
= (R + S) tan __ + L 1 – _____2
2 40R ) ( ) L L3
– R ___ – _____3
2R 48R
L L2
= (R + S) tan __ + 1
2 2 120 R 2
L S
(
= (R + S) tan __ + __ 1 – ___
2 2 5R )
Refer to Fig. 11.45.
It is given by T1B + BB + B T2
R ( – 2 s)
Length of the circular curve BB = ____________
180º
R
= ____
180º ( L
– __
R ) = ____
R
180º
– L rad
R R
Total length = _____ – L + L + L = _____ + L
180° 180º
Alternatively, length of total curve
= K BB J + T1C + C T2
R L L R
= _____ + __ + __ = _____ + L
180º 2 2 180º
Now, the perpendicular offsets to the transition curve at different points are
computed from the formula y = x3/(6LR) till the point B is fixed. x is measured
along the tangent from the point T1 and the corresponding perpendicular offset (y)
is set out, thus giving a number of points on the transition curve. Perpendicular
offsets at x = L/4, L/2, 3L/4 and L are also computed and laid in the field and
the points are marked with the help of arrows. The process is repeated from the
other tangent point T2, that is the other end of the curve till point B is fixed.
The circular curve BB can be laid (by offsets from the chord produced) using
the formula
Cn (Cn – 1 + Cn)
On = ____________
2R
1. Place the theodolite at I, mark the direction of the two tangent lines ID
and ID . Locate the tangent points T1 and T2 by measuring the tangent
lengths from I.
2. Set the theodolite at T1 and direct the line of sight to I, and keep the
vernier at zero.
3. Set the vernier to the first deflection angle 1, thus directing the line of
sight to the first point on the transition curve.
573l 2
1 = _____ min
LR
4. With the zero of the tape pinned at T1, measure a length l1 till an arrow
held at that distance along the tape is bisected by the line of sight. The
first point is thus fixed.
470 Surveying
= POP = polar deflection angle, the angle between the polar ray OP
and the initial tangent OI, and
OP = length of the polar ray
The polar equation of a lemniscate is given by
_______
= K sin 2
Differentiating with respect to , we get
d
___ cos 2
K _______
= _________
d sin 2
We know that,
d
tan = ___
d
_______ sin 2
tan = K sin 2 = tan 2
K cos 2
Therefore, =2
and as = + , hence = + 2 = 3 .
Thus for the lemniscate curve, the deviation angle is exactly equal to three
times the polar deflection angle. For clothoid and cubic parabola, this is only
approximately true.
472 Surveying
Substituting K = _______
______ in Eq. (11.28) we have
sin 2
r = _______ (11.29)
3 sin 2
From Eq. (11.28),
K = 3r sin 2
______
Substituting sin 2 = /K
K = 3 r (11.30)
If l is the length of the curve corresponding to a deviation angle , then
dl
___ K
= r = _________
_______
d 3 sin 2
Integrating the above equation
K__
l = ___
2 [ 1 1
2 tan1/2 – __ tan5/2 + ___ tan9/2 – ...
5 12 ]
The limitation of the above expression is that it involves tedious computations.
The transition curve shown in
Fig. 11.48 is transitional throughout.
Let the total deflection angle of the
tangents IT1 and IT2 be , IM the apex
distance, AMB the common tangent
to the two branches of lemniscate,
the polar angle for T1 M and n the
polar deflection angle for T1 M.
AIB = 180° –
1
AIM = __ (180° – ) = 90° – __
2 2
IMA = 90°
IAM = n =3 n
1 1
n = __ n = __ __ = __
3 3 2 6
Curves 473
Consider triangle T1 IM
1
T1 IM = (180° – )
2
= 90° – __
2
T1 MI = 90° + 2 n = 90° + __
3
IT1 M = n = __
6
If the apex distance and the total deflection angle are given the two sides, T1 I
and T1 M can be calculated by sine rule. Knowing the tangent lengths, the tangent
points T1 and T2 can be located and the curve can be set out.
If the minimum radius at the end (M) and the deflection angle are known,
the length of the polar ray can be calculated by
T1 M = = 3r sin 2 n
Knowing T1 M, the lengths T1 I and IM can be calculated by sine rule. The
tangent points can then be located and the curve can be set out.
L L3 L2 S
Offset at x = __ : y = __________ = ____ = __ = 0.0221 m
2 8 6 LR 48R 2
3L
Offset at x = ___ : y = 27 × (0.00276) = 0.07452
4
L2
Offset at x = L: y = ___ = 4S = 0.1772 m
6R
e xample 11.20 Lay out the transition curve of Example 11.19 by the method
of deflection angles, taking the peg interval as 5 m.
s olution Chainage of T1 = 3422.84 m
So, first chord = 3425 – 3422.84 = 2.16 m
Deflection angles from main tangent:
573l 2
= _____ min.
LR
573 2.162
1 = ___________ min = 0.499 = 29.9
17.86 300
573 7.162
2 = ___________ min = 5.4 = 0°5 28.9
17.86 300
573 12.162
3 = ____________ min = 15.8 = 0°15 48.8
17.86 300
573 17.162
4 = ___________ min = 31.49 = 0°31 29.4
17.86 300
573 17.862
5 = ____________ min = 34.11 = 0°34 6.7
17.86 300
Check:
1 L 180º 30L 30 17.86
5 = __ ___ × ____ = ____ = = 0°34 6.7
3 2R R 300
L
( L
)
P1 P1 P1 = tan–1 ___ – ___ = tan–1
2R 6R ( ___
3R )
L
= tan–1 ( ________
3 225 )
75
= 06°20 25
c r
c
__ R
or = __
r (2)
C
From Eqs. (1) and (2)
R
__ __
r = L
or
1
__ ___ d
___
r = RL = d ( 1
__ d
___
r = curvature = d )
478 Surveying
or d = ___ d
RL
Integrating the above equation
2
1
= ___ .d = ____ + k
RL 2RL
where k is a constant of integration.
But as the origin was taken at the tangent point T,
= 0, at =0
Hence, k=0
Equation of ideal spiral is 2 = 2RL
In this example, = 52°24 , v = 80 km/h = 22.22 m/s, = 0.3 m/s3 (Shortt’s
value)
= 0.25
v2
___
Since = 0.25
gR
(22.22)2
R = __________ = 201.32 m
9.81 0.25
2
We know that = 2RL
When = L,
L = 2R
and = __
2
Hence L = 2R × ( __2 )
=R×
= 201.32 × 0.914 = 184.00 m (since 52°24 = 0.914 rad)
v3 (22.22)3
= ___ = = 0.296
LR 184 201.32
< 0.3 which is OK.
(The value of is less than 1; had it been more than 1, a great value of L or R
would have been necessary.)
L2
Shift, S = ____
24R
(184)2
= __________ = 7.00 m
24 201.32
54º24
AIM = 90° – __ = 90° – ______ = 62°48 (Refer to Fig. 11.48)
2 2
54º24
IT1M = n = ______ = 9°4
6
IMT1 = 90° + 2 n = 90° + 2 × 9°4 = 108°8
Curves 479
sin IMT1
Tangent length, T1I = IM × ________
sin IT1M
sin 108 8
= 30 × = 180.92 m
sin 9 4
These points define the directions of two railway straights OAC and BC, which
are to be connected by a reverse curve formed of circular arcs of equal radii (Fig.
11.51).
Similarly, QB = (R + S) tan __
2
Equating (AP + PQ + QB) to AB, and expressing both lengths in chains by
taking both the radii equal to R and the shifts in chains, lead to
__ 1856 – 867
(R + S) tan __ + R + (R + S) tan __ = __________
2 2 30
__
or 1.2 (R + S) = 32.97 – R
__
or 1.2 (R + S) + R = 32.97 (1)
__
2 2 __
L ( R)
Since, S = ____ = _____ (as L = R chains)
24R 24R
1
= ___ = 0.042 chain
24
Equation (1), therefore, reduces to
__
1.2R + R – 32.92 = 0
Taking R as a variable in the above quadratic equation:
R = 23.4 chains
1
__ x
and since = R at x = L
R
__ x
= __
L
dy 2 3/2
where
{ ( )}
1 + ___
dx
= _____________
2
dy
___
dx2
But since dy/dx is small, the above equation may be taken as
1
= _______
d y/dx2
2
1
__ d2y x
or = ___2 = ___
dx RL
Integrating the above equation
x3
y = ____
6RL
dy
(with no constants of integration since ___ = 0, where x = 0)
dx
Now the radial acceleration = v2/ , and its rate of increase with time is given by
d v2
( )
= __ __
dt
( )
d v2x
= __ ___
dt LR
v2
= ___
LR
But v is known from the requirement of no lateral pressure on a superelevation of
75 mm (Fig. 11.53).
75 v2
tan = _____ = ___
1000 gR
75
or v2 = _____ × 9.81 × 200
1000
or v = 12.13 m/s
v3
Hence, = ___ = 0.25
LR
12.133
or L = __________ = 35.69 m
0.25 200
Hence, the length of transition required is 35.69 m.
maximum superelevation of the outer curb, and prepare a table giving all necessary
data required to set out the first transition with pegs at 10 m intervals of through
chainage.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.54.
For a design speed of 15 m/s, we have
v2
___ = tan
gR
v2 152
or = ___ = __________ = 0.1311
gR 9.81 175
so that the superelevation on a 10 m width is
10 × 0.1311 = 1.311 m
v3
Rate of gain of radial acceleration = ___
LR
153
or 0.50 = _____
175L
or L = 38.57 m
The equation of the transition is therefore,
x3 x3 x3
y = ____ = ______________ = _______ (1)
6LR 6 175 38.57 40498.5
and the shift
L2 38.572
S = ____ = ________ = 0.35 m
24R 24 175
Refer to Fig. 11.55.
L
Tangent length T1 I = (R + S) tan __ + __
2 2
38.57
= (175 + 0.35) tan 24°49 + _____ = 100.37 m
2
Curves 483
s olution Let 1, 2 and 3 be the reduced bearings of the lines AB, BC and
CD, respectively. Refer to Fig. 11.56.
departure
Then using tan = ________
latitude
The bearings 1, 2 and 3 are as follows:
3792.6 – 3309.6 483.0
tan 1 = _______________ = _____
769.2 – 711.6 57.6
or 1 = N83°12 E
4249.6 – 3792.6 457.0
tan 2 = _______________ = ______
1435.6 – 769.2 666.4
or 2 = N34°27 E
4691.2 – 4249.6 441.6
tan 3 = _______________ = _____
1448.4 – 1435.6 12.8
or 3 = N88°20 E
Deflection angle 1 between AB and BC = 83°12 – 34°27 = 48°45
Deflection angle 2 between BC and CD = 88°20 – 34°27 = 53°53
Length of BC = (1435.6 – 769.2) sec 34°27 = 808.2 m
__
Length of the transition curve = 4.472 R
484 Surveying
__
L2 (4.472 R )2
Shift, S = ____ = __________ = 0.833 m
24R 24R
Total tangent length of the first circular curve
L
= (R + S) tan ___ + __
1
2 2 __
48º45 R
= (R + 0.833) tan ______ + 4.472 ___
2 2
Total tangent length of the second circular curve __
53º53
______ R
___
= (R + 0.833) tan + 4.472
2 2
Now BC = the sum of these two tangent lengths
__
= (R + 0.833) (0.45309 + 0.50825) + 4.472 R = 808.2 m
__
Hence, 0.96134 R + 0.833 × 0.96134 + 4.472 R = 808.2 m
__
or R + 4.652 R = 807.4
Solving this quadratic equation, we get R = 685.4 m
= (g1 + g2)%. Similarly, if a – g1% grade is followed by a + g2% grade the total
change of grade is [– g1 – (+ g2)]% = – (g1 + g2)%.
For first class railway work 0.1% change of grade per chain (of 30 m) is
permitted at summits and 0.05% per chain (of 30 m) at sags. The rate of change
of grade is 0.06% per chain (of 20 m) at summits and 0.03% per chain (of 20 m)
at sags. Twice of these value may be adopted for second class railways. The length
of a vertical curve should always be an even number of chains so that half of it
can be provided on either side of the apex (Fig. 11.59).
It has already been pointed out that the parabolas
in vertical curves can be approximated to circular curves. Therefore, rate of change
of grade will equal curvature. Thus, for a length of curve 2l and radius R,
d2 y 1
2
2a
dx R
We know that, y = ax2 = a(2l)2 = 4al2
g1l g2 l g1 g2
Also, y l
100 100 100
g1 g2
Hence, 4 al 2 l
100
g1 g2
or a
400l
1 g g
2 1 2
R 400l
200l v2
R
g1 g2 f
( g1 g2 )v 2
l
200 f
( g1 g2 )v 2
or L (since L = 2l)
100 f
where f = allowable centrifugal acceleration for velocity v.
1. For summit curves where algebraic change of gradient is large, visibility
governs length of vertical curves.
2. For sag curves and summit curves formed by flat gradients, centrifugal effect
governs the length of vertical curves.
3. For flat gradients, it is sufficiently accurate to treat the length along the
tangents, since the length along the curve and the long chord equal to length
2l (Fig. 11.59).
g1
R.L. of T1 = R.L. of I – ____ l
100
g2
R.L. of T2 = R.L. of I – ____ l
100
1
R.L. of H = __ (R.L. of T1 + R.L. of T2)
2
Hence, IH = R.L. of I – R.L. of H
1
and IM = __ IH
2
Curves 489
To compute offsets to the curve, let y1, y2, y3, etc., be the offsets at distances
x1, x2, x3, etc., so that
y1 __
___ x12
= 2
IM l
x1 2
or ( )
y1 = __ IM
l
x
Similarly, ( )
y2 = __
l
2 2
IM
and so on.
R.L. along the tangent
g1
R.L. of point a = R.L. of T1 + ____ x1
100
g1
R.L. of point b = R.L. of T1 + ____ x2
100
R.L. along the curve.
at a = R.L. of a – y1
at b = R.L. of b – y2
All the offsets are thus computed and R.L. of the points on the curve are
found.
In case of a sag curve, the offsets are to be added to the R.L. of the points on
the tangent to get the R.L. of the points on the curve.
dy
At x = 0, ___ = g1
dx
g1 = 2a × 0 + b
or b = g1
Hence, the equation of the parabola is
y = ax 2 + g1 x
Now, PQ = PR – QR
or PQ = g1 x – y
or PQ = – ax 2 (by substituting value of y in equation of parabola)
2
or PQ = h = cx (from Fig. 11.61, considering c = –a)
Thus, the difference in elevation between a vertical curve and a tangent to it,
varies as the square of the horizontal distance from the point of tangency. This
difference in elevation is known as tangent correction.
The offsets are measured vertically, although theoretically they should be
measured parallel to the axis of the parabola to obtain a true curve. When the
grades are equal, the axis is vertical, and the theoretical condition is fulfilled. But when
the grades are unequal, the axis is slightly tilted. Hence, there will be a slight distortion
by making the ordinates vertical instead of making them parallel to the tilted axis. For all
practical purposes, the distortion is negligible.
The value of c may be found as follows. Refer to Fig. 11.62.
Let n be the number of 30 m chords on either side of the apex of the curve.
Produce OI to C, so that OI = IC and C is vertically above A.
Through I draw IB horizontal, meeting AC in B, so that
AC = BC + AB
= ng1 + (– ng2 )
= n (g1 – g2) (11.34)
The horizontal distance of the last station A on the curve is n + n, i.e., 2n
chains, and its vertical distance CA from the tangent OIC is given by:
Curves 491
h = cx 2
or AC = c (2n)2 = 4 cn2 (11.35)
From Eqs. (11.34) and (11.35)
n (g1 – g2) = 4 cn2
g1 – g2
or c = ______ (11.36)
4n
Proper care should be taken to put the signs of g1 and g2.
P and Q draw vertical lines P1PP2 and Q1QQ2. Through P draw a horizontal
PQ3.
The difference in elevation between P and O is
PP2 = P1P2 – P1P = g1 – c
First chord gradient = g1 – c (from y = cx2, x = 1)
g1 – g2
where c = _______
4n
Similarly, Q1 Q2 = 2g1, Q1 Q = 22 c = 4 c, Q3 Q2 = PP2 = g1 – c
The difference in elevation between P and Q is
QQ3 = Q1 Q2 – Q1 Q – Q3 Q2
= 2g1 – 4c – (g1 – c) = g1 – 3c
Hence, second chord gradient = g1 – 3c. We can similarly show that third chord
gradient = g1 – 5c.
Hence, N th chord gradient = g1 – (2N – 1) c
Knowing the chord gradients for different points, their elevations can be
calculated as follows:
Elevation of first station = elevation of tangent point O + first chord gradient
Elevation of second station = elevation of first station + second chord gradient.
We know that y = cx 2.
g1 – g2 L
AC = ______ __ (L is the length of curve)
100 2
2
when x = L, h = cL (Refer to Section 11.6.5)
g1 – g2 L
or cL2 = _______ __
100 2
g1 – g2
______
c= (i)
200L
g1 – g2 L g1 – g2
IM = cx 2 = _______ __
200 2 ( ) 2
= _______ L2
800
(ii)
Sight distance,
L
S = __ + 100 ×
2 ( h1
__ h2
__
g1 + g2 ) (11.38)
L 100
S = __ + ____
2 n [ h1
____
__
__ ( h1 +
__
h1
__
__ h2
h2 ) + ____
__ __
__ ( h1 + h2 )
h2 ]
L ( h1 + h2 )2
= __ + 100 ____________
g1 – g2
2
__ __
200 ( h1 + h2 )2
or L = 2S – _______________
g1 – g2 (11.39)
If h1 = h2 = h,
200
L = 2S – g______ × 4h
1 – g2
800h
or L = 2S – ______
g1 – g2 (11.40)
Curves 495
e xample 11.27 If the sight distance equals half the total length of the curve,
determine the true length of curve for the following data:
g1 = 2%, g2 = 1.5%
Observer’s eye level above the ground =1.2 m
s olution ( g1 g2 )S 2
L
800h
h = 1.2, S = L/2
L2
[2 ( 1.5)]
L 4
800 1.20
L = 1097.14 m
e xample 11.28 A 3% rising gradient meets a 2% down gradient. A vertical
curve 200 m long is to be used. The pegs are to be fixed at 20 m interval. Calculate
the elevation of the curve points, by tangent corrections and chord gradients, and
calculate the staff readings required, given that the height of collimation is 350.0
m, R.L. of the apex is 350.0 m and its chainage is 1000.00 m.
s olution By tangent corrections method
200
The total number of stations on the curve = ____ = 10
20
Number of stations on each side of the apex n = 5
(i) Chainage of O = 1000 – 5 × 20 = 900 m
Chainage of I = 1000 + 5 × 20 = 1100 m
(ii) The pegs are fixed at an interval of 20 m. Hence,
20
g1 = ____ × 3 = + 0.6
100
20
g2 = – ____ × 2 = – 0.4
100
(iii) Elevation of O = 350 – 5 × 0.6 = 347.00 m
Elevation of A = 350 – 5 × 0.4 = 348.00 m
g1 – g2 0.6 – (– 0.4) ___
1
(iv) c = ______ = __________ = = 0.05
4n 4 5 20
y1 = 12c = 0.05
y2 = 22c = 4 × 0.05 = 0.20
y3 = 32c = 9 × 0.05 = 0.45
yn = (2 × 5)2 c = 100 × (0.05) = 5.0 m
Elevation of station 1 on the tangent = 347.00 + 1 × g1
= 347.00 + 0.6 = 347.6 m
Elevation of station 2 on the tangent = 347.00 + 2 × 0.6 = 348.2 m
496 Surveying
The required staff readings for pegs are obtained by subtracting the elevations
of the points from the height of collimation.
Taking the origin and axis as shown in Fig. 11.66, the coordinates of P (x , y ),
distant 165 m from the car, are
x = 165 cos 1° = 164.97 m
y = 0.8 + 165 sin 1° = 0.8 + 2.88 = 3.68 m
498 Surveying
Take origin and axes as shown in Fig. 11.67. Knowing that gradient of P which is
5/100, we require to determine the length L.
From Eq. (1) above
Slope at x = L is 2.7 × 10 –4 × L
5
____ = 2.7 × 10–4 × L
100
L = 185.18 m
Hence, required length of sag vertical curve is 185.18 m.
s olution Let L be the length of the new vertical curve. The equation of the
parabola may be written as
y = k x2
No appreciable error is involved if the chord lengths are assumed to be of the
same length as the distance along the curve, i.e., are assumed to be L and L along
the chord and the curve, respectively. It is required to find L
y = k x2
dy
___ = 2kx
dx
1 dy
x = ___ ___
2k dx
Equating this successively to the gradients (a + b) and then (c + d ), we get
1
L = ___ (a + b)
2k
1
___ L
or = _____
2k a+b
1
and L = ___ (c + d)
2k
(c + d)
or L = L ______
(a + b)
which is the required length of the new vertical curve.
474.68
Length of the curve on either side of the apex = ______ = 237.34 m
2
Chainage of point of intersection = 1000 m
Chainage of first tangent point = 1000 – 237.34 = 762.66 m
Chainage of second tangent point = 1000 + 237.34 = 1237.34 m
R.L. of point of intersection = 75 m
R.L. of the beginning of the curve = 75 – 237.34 × g1
237.34 1.5
= 75 – ___________ = 71.44 m
100
R.L. of the end of the curve = 75 + 237.34 g2
237.34 0.5
= 75 – ___________ = 73.81 m
100
1
g1 = ___ × 100 = 2%
50
1
g2 = – ____ × 100 = – 0.25%
400
Let us assume S < L, then
S 2 (g1 – g2) 3002 × (2 + 0.25)
L = ________________
__ __ = ___________________
___ ___
200 ( h1 + h2 )2 200 ( 1.2 + 0.1 )2
= 508.79 m
Length of the vertical curve = 508.79 m
Curves 501
508.79
Length of the curve on either side of the apex = ______ = 254.395 m
2
Chainage of the point of intersection = 1200 m
Chainage of the first tangent point = 1200 – 254.395 = 945.605 m
Chainage of the second tangent point = 1200 + 254.395 = 1454.395 m
R.L. of the point of intersection = 150 m
R.L. of the beginning of the curve, i.e., of O = 150 – 254.395 g1
254.395 2
= 150 – ___________ = 144.912 m
100
R.L. of the end of the curve, i.e., of B = 150 + 254.395 g2
254.395 0.25
= 150 – ______________ = 149.36 m
100
1
R.L. of E = __ (R.L. of O + R.L. of B)
2
1
= __ (144.912 + 149.36) = 147.136 m
2
Since F is mid-way between I and E, hence
1
R.L. of vertex F = __ (R.L. of I + R.L. of E)
2
1
= __ (150 + 147.136) = 148.568 m
2
11.8 mistakes
Some typical mistakes that occur in laying out a curve in the field are as
follows:
1. Failure to double or quadruple the deflection angle at the P.I. before
computing or laying out the curve.
2. Adding the tangent distance to the station of the P.I. to get the station of
the P.C.
502 Surveying
Summary
Curves are arcs of finite radius introduced between two straights (roads, railways, etc.) to
negotiate the change of angle of intersection and to provide smooth riding conditions. They
are classified as horizontal curves and vertical curves. The horizontal curves are further
classified as simple circular curves, compound curve, reverse curve, etc. To make a smooth
transition from a finite radius of curve to infinite radius of the straight, transition curves are
introduced. The various elements of the different types of curves, their laying in the field
by linear methods, angular methods and by a combination of the two have been described
highlighting their limitations. The obstacles in laying out simple circular curves and the
methods to overcome the problems are discussed.
To make a smooth and comfortable change of curvature from straight to the curve, a
transition curve is introduced. The transition curve may be true spiral (clothoid), a cubic
spiral, or a cubic parabola. A cubic spiral is superior to cubic parabola, but the latter is more
widely used because of its simplicity in setting out. Bernoulli’s lemniscate is another form
of transition curve which is preferred for roads being of autogenous nature and a smoother
change of curvature along its length. Suitability of type of transition curves for highways
and railways is discussed and the ideal transition curve is formulated. Characteristics of
various transition curves are discussed as well. Different methods of finding the length of
transition curves are described.
Vertical curves are provided to negotiate the gradients of the two straights. The vertical
curves are discussed in detail. Parabola is most suitable shape for vertical curves, since it
provides a uniform rate of change of gradient and produces smooth riding condition. The
length of vertical curve depends upon the stopping sight distance and overtaking sight
distance, and on the change of grade to be negotiated. Types and setting out of vertical
curves are discussed.
Exercises
11.1 What purpose do curves serve? What are the elements of a simple circular curve?
Explain how a simple circular curve is designated.
11.2 Explain the following:
(a) Tangent point and point of curve
(b) Mid-ordinate
(c) Deflection angle
(d) Normal chord and subchord
(e) Full station
11.3 List the various methods of setting out a simple circular curve. Explain briefly the
Rankine method of deflection angles.
11.4 What is a transition curve? State the various types of transition curves with the help
of a neat sketch. Explain briefly its necessity.
Curves 503
11.16 A straight BC deflects 24º right from a straight AB. These are to be joined by a
circular curve which passes through a point P, 200 m from B and 50 m from AB.
Calculate the tangent length, length of curve and deflection angle for a 30 m
chord.
[Ans. R = 3802.6 m, IT = 808.27 m, curve length = 1592.8 m, = 0º13 33 ]
11.17 A new railway line is to have its centre line on the courses of a traverse, the details
of part of which are as follows:
Course Length Bearing
BC 1458.20 85°29 20
CD 180.20 99°9 00
DE 84°16 40
If the minimum straight between curves is 20 m, find the maximum allowable radius
and the chainage of the four tangent points the chainage of B being 0.0 m.
[Ans. 640 m, 1381.54 m, 1534.14, 1554.14 m, 1720.26 m]
11.18 A compound curve is to consists of an arc of 900 m radius followed by one of
1200 m radius and is to connect two straights intersecting at an angle of 93°28 .
At the intersection point, the chainage, if continued along the first tangent, would
be 2329.20 m and the starting point of the curve is selected at chainage 1354.20
m. Calculate the chainage at the junction point of the two branches and at the end
of the curve. [Ans. 1850.57 m, 3001.09 m]
11.19 A right-hand circular curve is to connect two straights PQ and QR, the bearings of
which are 60°30 and 120°42 , respectively. The curve is to pass through a point S
such that QS is 79.44 m and the angle PQS is 34°36 . Determine the radius of the
curve. If the chainage of the intersection point is 2049.20 m, determine the tangential
angles required to set out the first two pegs on the curve at through chainage of 20
m. [Ans. 452.6 m, 0°50 8 , 1°15 57 ]
11.20 A reverse curve AB is to be set out between two parallel railway tangents, 12 m
apart. If the two arcs of the curve are to have the same radius, and the distance
between the tangent points A and B is 96 m, calculate the radius of the curve. The
curve is to be set out from A and B at 8 m intervals along that line. Calculate the
offsets.
[Ans. R = 192 m, Om = 0.0 m, 0.838 m, 1.339 m, 1.505 m,
1.339 m, 0.838 m, 0.0 m]
11.21 A reverse curve is to be run from a point T1 on AA to the point T2 on CC . Determine
the common radius, and the lengths of the two parts of the curve, given that T1T2
is 720 m and the angles AT1T2 and T1T2C are 47°30 and 25°12 , respectively.
[Ans. R = 301.496 m, length of first arc = 448.86 m,
length of second arc = 331.51 m]
11.22 Calculate the chainage at the beginning and at the end of a B.G. railway track when
it deflects through an angle of 30° with a centre line radius of 300 m. Given:
(a) The rate of radial gain of acceleration is 0.3 m/s2.
(b) The design speed of the train is 60 km/h.
(c) The chainage of the intersection point is 1400 m.
[Ans. 1293.80 m, 1502.23 m]
11.23 Two straights on the centre line of a proposed railway curve intersect at 2610.0 m, the
deflection angle being 46°. A circular curve with 400 m radius and transition curves
are to be inserted, the latter being 90 m in length. Make all necessary calculations
Curves 505
to set out this curve by deflection angles. Pegs are to be set out at every 30 m of
continuous chainage.
[Ans. First transition curve: 25 , 19 40 , 1°7 33 , 2°8 55
Circular curve: 22 8 , 2°31 3 , ..., 16°32 35
Second transition curve: 3 11.76 , 31 , 1°27 37 , 2°8 55 ]
11.24 Two tangents intersect at 2865 m, the deflection angle being 52°30 . It is proposed
to put in a circular curve of 480 m radius with a cubic parabolic transition curve,
60 m in length, at each end. The circular curve is to be set out with pegs at every
30 m and the transition curve at every 15 m of through chainage. Tabulate the data
relative to stations at chainages 2640 and 2700, and the junctions of the transition
curves with the circular arc.
[Ans. Deflection angle at chainage 2640 = 34 52 ,
deflection angle at chainage 2658.11 = 1°11 37 ,
deflection angle at chainage 2700 = 2°29 55 ,
deflection angle at chainage 3037.99 = 22°39 26 ]
11.25 Two straights deflecting at an angle of 48°40 are to be connected by an arc of radius
__
300.0 m with clothoid transition curve of the form S = m and 75 m long at each
end. Using the first two terms of the expansions for sin and cos , calculate:
(a) The Cartesian coordinates of the first junction point taking the tangent point
as origin and the straight as the X-axis
(b) The shift
(c) The tangent length from the intersection point
(d) The total length of the curve
[Ans. 74.88 m, 3.12 m, 0.78 m, 173.52 m, 329.69 m]
11.26 Find the length of the vertical curve connecting two uniform grades from the
following data:
(a) + 0.8% and – 0.6%; rate of change of grade = 0.1% per 30 m.
(b) – 0.5% and + 1%; rate of change of grade = 0.05% per 30 m.
[Ans. 420 m, 900 m]
11.27 Calculate the reduced levels of the various station pegs on a vertical curve connecting
two uniform grades of + 0.5% and – 0.7%. The chainage and reduced level of the
point of intersection are 500 m and 330.75 m, respectively. Take the rate of change
of grade as 0.1% per 30 m.
[Ans. 329.85, 329.985, 330.09, 330.165, 330.21, 330.225, 330.21,
330.165, 330.09, 329.985, 329.850, 329.685, 329.49]
Objective-type Questions
11.1 The long chord and tangent length of a circular curve of radius R will be equal if
the angle of deflection is
(a) 30° (b) 60° (c) 120° (d) 150°
11.2 The ratio of the radius and the apex distance of a curve of radius R deflecting
through is
11.4 If the angle of intersection of a curve is , then the deflection angle will be
(a) /2 (b) 180° – (c) 180° + (d) 90° +
11.5 For a curve of radius 100 m and normal chord 10 m, the deflection angle given by
Rankine formula is
(a) 1°45.95 (b) 2°51.53 (c) 0°35.95 (d) 1°25.95
11.6 If r is the radius of curvature at any point of transition curve and l is the distance
from the beginning of the transition curve to that point, then for ideal transition
(a) l r (b) l r 2 (c) l 1/r (d) l 1/r 2
11.7 If l is the length of a transition curve and R is the radius of a circular curve, then
the shift of each curve is directly proportional to
l l l 1
(a) R and __ (b) __ and l 2 (c) ___ and l (d) R 2 and _ .
l 2 R R 2 l
11.8 If the radius of a circular curve is five times the length of a transition curve, then
the spiral angle is given by
1 1 1 1
(a) __ rad (b) ___ rad (c) ___ rad (d) ___ rad
5 10 20 40
11.9 Total angle of deflection of a transition curve is
(a) spiral angle (b) spiral angle/2
(c) spiral angle/3 (d) spiral angle/4
11.10 If the rate of gain of radial acceleration is 0.3 m/s3 and a full centrifugal ratio is
developed on the curve, the ratio of the length of the transition curve of same radius
on road and rail is
(a) 2.844 (b) 3.844 (c) 1.351 (d) 0.351
11.11 A lemniscate curve between the tangents will be transitional throughout if the polar
deflection angle of its apex is
(a) /2 (b) /3 (c) /4 (d) /6
11.12 A lemniscate curve will not be transitional throughout if its deflection angle is more
than
(a) 45° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 180°
11.13 In a lemniscate curve the ratio of the angle between the tangent at the end of the
polar ray and the straight, and the angle between the polar ray and the straight is
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 6 (d) 3/2
11.14 If an upgrade of 1.5% is followed by a downgrade of 0.5% and the rate of change
of grade is 0.2% per 20 m chain, then the length of the vertical curve is
(a) 100 m (b) 200 m (c) 300 m (d) 400 m
11.15 If the sight distance (S) is equal to the length (2l ) of the vertical curve joining the
two grades g1% and g2%, the height of the apex will be
(g 1 – g2)l
________ (g1 – g2)l
(a) (b) ________
400 200
S–l
____ (g1 – g2)l
(c) (g1 – g2) (d) ________
400 800
11.16 The minimum radius of curvature of a cubic parabola is
___ ___
(a) 1.39 RL at = 24°5 41 (b) 2.78 RL at = 12°2 50
___
(c) RL at = 0° (d) None of the above.
11.17 For what deflection angle is there little difference between lemniscate, clothoid and
cubic parabola types of curves?
(a) 12° (b) 24° (c) 45° (d) 60°
Curves 507
11.18 If centrifugal ratio is given and the rate of change of radial acceleration is 0.3 and
the comfort condition also holds good, the length of the transition curve for railway
is given by
__ __ V V3
(a) 4.5 R (b) 12.80 R (c) ____ (d) ____
14R 0.3R
11.19 For a maximum centrifugal ratio, the limiting velocity on railways is (if R is the
radius)
(a)
gR (b) gR (c)
gR (d)
gR
2 4 8 16
11.20 For a transition curve, the radius should decrease with increase in deflection angle,
but for a cubic parabola, the radius starts increasing after a particular value. That
value of the deflection angle is
(a) 8° (b) 12° (c) 16° (d) 24°
11.21 An upward grade of 1% meets with a descending grade of 1%. The rate of change
is 0.05% per 20 m chain. The length of curve is
(a) 800 m (b) 80 m (c) 40 m (d) 220 m
11.22 If the radius of a simple circular curve is 400 m and deflection angle is 120°, the
mid-ordinate is
(a) 100 m (b) 200 m (c) 400 m (d) 800 m
11.23 A simple circular curve of radius 400 m has to be laid out by radial offsets from
the tangents. The radial offset along the tangent and 20 m away from the point of
curve is
(a) 0.5 m (b) 2 m (c) 4 m (d) 0.25 m
11.24 The chainage of a point of tangent is 1435 m. If 20 m chain has been used to lay
out a simple circular curve of 400 m by the method of deflection distances, the
offset required at last chord will be
(a) 0.43 m (b) 0.53 m (c) 0.55 m (d) 0.66 m
11.25 The total deflection angle for a simple circular curve at a point is 90°. A tangent
is drawn which has a length of 150 m between the two tangents and this makes an
angle of 45° with the back tangent. The radius of the curve is
(a) 181 m (b) 451 m (c) 305 m (d) 498 m
11.26 In a compound curve there are seven factors which decide the nature of curve. These
are radii of the curves, back tangent and forward tangent, total deflection angle,
deflection angle between back tangent and common tangent, and deflection angle
between forward and common tangent. How many elements should be known for
designing the curve.
(a) All should be known (b) Any 2
(c) Any 3 (d) Any 4
11.27 The three transition curves deviate after an angle of
(a) 4° (b) 12° (c) 8° (d) 20°
11.28 In setting out a vertical curve by chord gradient method if the first chord gradient
is 0.16, the fourth chord gradient will be (take c = 0.01)
(a) 0.12 (b) 0.10 (c) 0.09 (d) 0.08.
11.29 A curve tangential to four sight lines and consisting of arcs of different radii is
known as
(a) one-centred compound curve (b) two-centred compound curve
(c) three-centred compound curve (d) four-centred compound curve
11.30 Overturning of vehicles on a curve can be avoided by using a
(a) compound curve (b) vertical curve
(c) reverse curve (d) transition curve
508 Surveying
Introduction
One of the objects of many of the surveys is to obtain quantities such as areas and
volumes. After plotting and finishing a plan, the surveyor has to make a true record
of areas and earthworks of the various properties shown on it. This chapter deals
with the methods employed for the measurement of areas. The British units of area
measurements are square feet or acres, whereas the metric units are square metres
or hectares. Tables 12.1 and 12.2 give the relations between the two systems.
F G
A
D
The field work consists of a series of linear and angular measurements defining
the outline of a piece of land, forming a closed polygon. In practise, it is seldom
the case that the boundaries of the piece of land under consideration form a
regular figure. In such cases, the irregularities in the boundary lines are adjusted
by establishing mean lines. The boundary ABCDE may be represented by a mean
line FG (Fig. 12.1). The area calculated should be the area as projected on a
horizontal plane rather than the actual land surface area. The following are some
of the prevalent methods of area determination:
These may be made by dividing the area into
geometrical figures, offsets from base line, double meridian distances, and coordi
nates.
These may be made by computations based on
measurements scaled from plan or by use of a planimeter. The former method is
more accurate, since the errors that may creep in because of plotting and scaling
in the latter method are eliminated. However, the method of measurements on plan
is more common and less troublesome.
O1 h1 O2 h2 O3 h3 O4 h4 O5 h5 O6 h6 O7 hn On
d
L = nd
For all the rules given below, reference may be made to Fig. 12.3 unless stated
otherwise.
O2 + O3
Area of second trapezoid = ________ d
2
On – 1 + On
Area of last trapezoid = __________ d
2
Summing up, [
O1 + O2 O2 + O3 On – 1 + On
A = d ________ + ________ + ... + __________
2 2 2 ]
[
O1 + On
= d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
12.3.4 simpson’s one-third rule
The boundary between the extremities of three consecutive offsets
is a parabolic arc whose axis is parallel to the ofsets. Refer to Fig. 12.4.
O1 + O3
Area of trapezoid ABDC = ________ 2d
2
The area of the parabolic segment formed by the chord and the curve is known
to be twothirds of the area of the (circumscribed) parallelogram bounded by the
chord, a parallel tangent and the extended end offsets.
2
Area enclosed by segment CIDHC = __ × area of parallelogram CDFE
3
2
= __ (HI × AB)
3
2
= __
3 [( O1 + O3
O2 – _______ 2d
2 ) ]
(O1 + O3
2 )
2
3 (
O1 + O3
Area of first two divisions = ________ 2d + __ O2 – ________ 2d
2 )
d
= __ (O1 + 4O2 + O3)
3
d
Similarly, area of next two divisions = __ (O3 + 4O4 + O5)
3
d
and area of last two divisions = __ (On –2 + 4On – 1 + On)
3
516 Surveying
Summing up,
d
Total area: A = __ [O1 + 4O2 + 2O3 + 4O4 + ... + 2On – 2 + 4On – 1 + On]
3
d
= __ [(O1 + On) + 4 (O2 + O4 + ... + On – 1) + 2 (O3 + O5 + ...
3
+ On – 2)]
The essential condition for the application of Simpson’s rule is the division of
the required area into even number of segments, i.e., the number of offsets should
be odd.
In case an apex is formed at the boundary of either or both the ends as shown
by dotted curved lines in the Fig. 12.4, the offset O1 or On becomes zero. This
should not be disregarded from the formula and in no case should O2 or On – 1 be treated
as the first or the last offset.
d
Area = d h + ___ (O1 – h1 + On – hn)
12
d
Area = d h + ___ (8O1 + h2 – 9h1 + 8On + hn – 1 – 9hn)
72
e xample 12.1 Determine the area in hectares between the line AB and a
meandering stream for offsets taken at a regular interval of 20 m along the line
AB (Fig. 12.5). Use both the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule.
A B
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Point A B
Distance (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Offset length (m) 23 40 42 30 32 60 10 14 22
s olution
Interval, d = 20 m
Trapezoidal rule
[ O1 + On
A = d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
Measurement of Area 517
[
23 + 22
= 20 _______ + 40 + 42 + 30 + 32 + 60 + 10 + 14
2 ]
2
= 5010 m = 0.5010 hectares
Simpson’s rule
d
A = __ [(O1 + On) + 4 (O2 + O4 + + On – 1) + 2 (O3 + O5 + + On – 2)]
3
20
= ___ [(23 + 22) + 4 (40 + 30 + 60 + 14) + 2 (42 + 32 + 10)]
3
20
= ___ [45 + 576 + 168]
3
= 5260 m2 = 0.5260 hectares
e xample 12.2 The following perpendicular offsets were taken from a chain
line to an irregular boundary:
3.80 + 3.75
h3 = __________ = 3.775 m
2
3.75 + 4.65
h4 = __________ = 4.20 m
2
4.65 + 3.60
h5 = __________ = 4.125 m
2
3.60 + 5.00
h6 = __________ = 4.30 m
2
5.00 + 5.80
h7 = __________ = 5.40 m
2
A = (h1 + h2 + + hn) d
= (1.325 + 3.225 + 3.775 + 4.20 + 4.125 + 4.30 + 5.40) × 30
= 793.2 m2
[O1 + On
A = d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
[
0 + 5.80
= 30 × ________ + 2.65 + 3.80 + 3.75 + 4.65 + 3.60 + 5.00
2 ]
= 790.5 m2
(iv) Simpson’s rule
Since there are even number of offsets (8), Simpson’s rule cannot be applied
directly. Area between the first and seventh offset (A1) has therefore been
computed by Simpson’s rule and between seventh and eighth offset (A2) by
the average ordinate method. The total area will be the sum of these two
areas.
d
A1 = __ [(O1 + On ) + 4 (O2 + O4 + O6 ) + 2 (O3 + O5)]
3
30
= ___ × [(0 + 5.00) + 4 (2.65 + 3.75 + 3.60) + 2 (3.80 + 4.65)]
3
= 619 m2
5 + 5.80
A2 = ________ × 30 = 162 m2
2
A = 619 + 162 = 781 m2
Xcoordinate must always be taken in the same order around the traverse. Refer
to Fig. 12.7.
1
Area = __ [YA (XB – XD) + YB (XC – XA) + YC (XD – XB) + YD (XA – XC)]
2
r=n
1
also, Area = __ N (E – Er – 1)
2 r=0 r r + 1
where n is the number of sides of the figure, and (N0, E0), (N1, E1), , (Nn, En),
(N0, E0) are the coordinates of the points.
This formula is based on the
summation of the areas of a series
of trapezoids. The coordinates
used are the total latitudes and
total departures for the stations.
N and E coordinates are taken to
be plus and S and W coordinates
are taken to be minus. It is
advantageous to have the traverse
in the first quadrant so that the
coordinates of all the stations
may be rendered positive. Some
of the other prevalent methods
for computing areas by coordinates are as follows.
I4
d5 d4
I3
d1 d2 d3
I1 I2
[
d1 l1 d5 l4 d3 l2 d3 l3
2 2 2 2 2 ] [
d2 (l1 + l2) d4 (l3 + l4)
= ____ + ____ + ____ – ____ + _________ + _________
2 ]
l1 (d1 + d2) l2 (d2 + d3) l3 (–d3 + d4) l4 (d4 + d5)
= _________ + _________ + __________ + _________
2 2 2 2
e xample 12.3 The following table gives the corrected latitudes and departures
(in metres) of the sides of a closed traverse PQRS:
Latitude Departure
Side
N S E W
PQ 128 9
QR 15 258
RS 143 9
SP 0 276
Measurement of Area 521
Compute its area by (i) D.M.D. method, and (ii) M.D. method.
s olution
( i) By D.M.D. method
e xample 12.4 In Fig. 12.10, the coordinates are given is metres with the
first number in parentheses being the north coordinate and the second, the east
coordinate. Compute the area of the figure using (i) coordinate method, and
(ii) trapezoidal rule.
522 Surveying
s olution
Independent coordinates
Points Interval (m) Ordinate
North (Y) East (X)
A 100 802 – 0
B 711 802 50 711 – 100 = 611
C 635 852 50 635 – 100 = 535
D 994 902 50 994 – 100 = 894
E 241 952 50 241 – 100 = 141
F 844 1002 50 844 – 100 = 744
G 266 1052 50 266 – 100 = 166
H 811 1102 50 811 – 100 = 711
I 100 1102 50 100 – 100 = 0
[
O1 + On
A = d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
[
611 + 0
= 50 _______ + 535 + 894 + 141 + 744 + 166 + 711
2 ]
= 174 825 m 2
12.6.1 Construction
A planimeter (Fig. 12.11) essentially consists of two bars hinged together. At the
extreme end on one of the bars, a weight is suspended over a ‘needle point’ or
‘anchor point’ which is used to anchor the bar outside the area to be measured. The
other bar known as the tracing arm, has a ‘tracing point’ at its extreme end. The
tracing point is moved as desired, about the needle point. At the other end of the
tracing arm, there is a roller which rolls on the surface of the plan as the pointer
is moved. Thus, when in use, the planimeter has three contact points on the surface
of the plan, the anchor point, the tracing point, and the roller circumference. The
roller drum circumference is graduated in one hundred parts. A fixed vernier is
attached to the roller drum, which reads onetenth of the drum division. A disk is
also connected to the roller, by a ‘work drive’, which is graduated into ten parts.
One revolution of the roller turns the disk through one part. The length is so
designed that the tracing point is moved completely around the boundary of the
area to be measured when the roller makes one complete revolution. The statement
is true when the anchor point is outside the figure.
Weight
Polar arm
Collar Needle point
Tracing arm
Pivot Tracing index
Graduated wheel
524 Surveying
In large planimeters the tracing arm is made adjustable. This arrangement has
two distinct advantages. Firstly, the arm can be adjusted to the unit area of the
plan; and secondly, the planimeter may be tested for any unit area, and if found
to be incorrect, the error can be eliminated by adjusting the arm.
dA = rLd
L2
2 (
+ __ – LL ) d (12.3)
dA = rLd + ( L2
__
2
– LL ) d (12.4)
When the directing curve AA1 is exterior to the area X (Fig. 12.12 (a),
rLd = rL = Lz (where z = r )
d = 0, since AB returns to its original position without having made a circuit
about O.
x
dz B
F Y x
B A
R A
B1 A1 R O
B2 F d
O
Y
(a) (b)
Measurement of Area 525
A = Lz + 2 ( L2
__
2
– LL )
A = A + R2
= Lz + (L2 – 2LL + R2)
_____________
= Lz + area of a circle of radius L2 – 2LL + R2 (12.6)
where R = the length of the anchor arm from the hinge to the point
The sign of 2LL is negative if the wheel is between the tracing point and the
pivot point, otherwise it is positive.
If r is the radius and n the number of revolutions of the wheel (drum), then
Lz = L × 2 r × n
= Mn (12.7)
where M is known as the multiplier constant (= 2 r L)
If B is to travel along a circle of radius R, no rotation of the wheel will be
caused and such a circle is called zero circle. Its area forms a constant to be
added to the recorded results when the anchor point is placed within the area to
be measured. The area of this zero circle may be determined by tracing a closed
figure, first with the anchor point outside the boundary of the figure, and then
with the anchor point inside. The difference between the two areas thus obtained
will be the area of the zero circle.
Area of zero circle, A = (L2 ± 2LL + R 2)
where L = length of the tracing arm,
L = distance between the pivot and the wheel, and
R = length of the anchor arm.
Use plus sign when the wheel is outside the pivot and tracing point and minus
sign when it is between the pivot and the tracing point.
12.6.3 Working
To measure an area with a planimeter, the following procedure may be adopted:
1. The tracing arm is so adjusted as to give the results in the desired units.
2. The anchor point is suitably fixed outside the area to be measured. It
should be in such a commanding position that the tracing point may reach
all parts of the boundary. However, for large areas, the anchor point may
be kept inside the area.
3. A point is marked on the boundary and the tracing point is placed over
it.
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4. Observe the wheel, the counting disc and the vernier. The reading is
recorded and is known as initial reading (I.R.).
5. The tracing point is guided clockwise along the boundary till it returns to
the starting point.
6. The disc and drum readings are noted. This is known as the final reading
(F.R.). The difference of the final and initial reading gives the required
plan area A. Hence,
A = M (F.R. – I.R. ± 10 N + C ) (12.8)
where M = multiplying constant.
N = number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the fixed mark.
It is positive if zero of the dial passes the fixed index in the
clockwise direction.
C = a constant marked on the tracing arm. It is additive when the
anchor point is inside the figure, and is zero when anchor point
is outside the figure.
7. The true area of the land is obtained by multiplying the plan area by the
scale to which the plan is drawn.
(i) The accuracy of the planimeter should be tested regularly. This is done by
carefully drawing a square, say of 15 cm side, and by moving the planimeter
around its boundary.
(ii) A correction for zero circle must be applied if the anchor point is placed
inside the area to be measured.
(iii) To check the area measured, the boundary of the area may be traced in the
opposite direction to that made in the beginning. The initial and final readings
at the starting point should agree within a limit of two to five units.
This is attained by adjusting the screws near the bearings, for which purpose
it is necessary to loosen the corresponding clamp screws. Thereafter, the
screws are tightened and a clearance between the edges of the registering
roller and the vernier must be provided for the passage of a thin sheet of
paper.
2. The plane of the registering roller rim must be perpendicular to the axis
of the tracing arm.
As a test, a figure is traced twice with the planimeter with the registering
roller in two different positions. If the obtained values differ by a value
exceeding 1 : 200 of their arithmetical mean, the area should always be
determined at two positions of the registering roller and the arithmetic
mean of the resulting values should be taken.
12.6.6 accuracy
If the relationship between the number of revolutions and an area is established
accurately, the errors involved in the planimetric measurements are accidental and
are principally due to the inability of the observer to follow exactly the boundary
of the figure with the tracing point. For the same care and skill on the part of
an observer, the smaller the area, the larger is the relative error of measurement.
Hence, the area determined with a planimeter is more accurate when the area is
greater and particularly when the plotting scale is large. It can safely be considered
that for an area of about 15 cm2 on paper, the planimeter provides an average
precision of 1 : 400 when the planimeter and the plan are both in good condition.
In any case, the error should not exceed 1 in 200.
( )
50 2
Actual drainage area = 225.46 × ___ = 563 650 m2
1
= 56.365 hectares
e xample 12.6 The area of a square of 10 cm side was measured by a
planimeter with the anchor point outside the figure and the initial and final readings
were found to be 6.852 and 8.704, respectively. With the same setting of the tracing
arm and the anchor point outside, another irregular figure was traversed clockwise
and the initial and final readings were found to be 2.378 and 8.626, respectively.
What is the area of the figure?
If the plan scale is 1 cm = 10 m, calculate the area in m2.
s olution Area of the figure = M (F.R. – I.R. ± 10 N + C )
Here, N = 0 and C = 0, as the anchor point is outside the figure.
First case:
10 × 10 = M (8.704 – 6.852)
100
or M = _____
1.852
Second case:
Area = M (8.626 – 2.378)
(100
)
= _____ × 6.248 = 337.365 cm2
1.852
Again, 1 cm2 = 100 m2 (since 1 cm = 10 m)
2
Area of the figure = 337.365 × 100 = 33 736.5 m
e xample 12.7 Calculate the area of the zero circle with the following data:
Assume that the tracing arm of the planimeter was so set that one revolution
of the measuring wheel measures 100 cm2 on the paper.
s olution
First case
C = 0, N = 1
Area of the figure = M (F.R. – I.R. + 10N )
= 100 × (2.724 – 6.520 + 10 × 1),
= 100 × 6.204 = 620.4 cm2
Second case
Area of the figure = M (F.R. – I.R. – 10N + C)
= 100 × (7.720 – 1.222 – 10 × 2 + C)
= 100 × (–13.502 + C)
Equating the two values,
100 × (–13.502 + C) = 620.4
or C = 19.706
Hence, the area of the zero circle
= M × C = 100 × 19.706 = 1970.6 cm2
e xample 12.8 The length of tracing arm of a planimeter is 15.92 cm. The
distance from the hinge to the anchor point is 16.0 cm. The diameter of the rim of
the wheel is 2 cm. The wheel is placed outside (beyond the hinge from the tracing
point) at a distance of 3.00 cm from the hinge. Calculate the area corresponding
to one revolution of the wheel and the area of the zero circle.
s olution We know that the value of M is the area of the plan corresponding
to one revolution of the wheel point.
Here, L = 15.92 cm, d = 2 cm
Hence, M = 15.92 × × 2 = 100.03 cm2
Area of the zero circle = (L2 + 2LL1 + R 2 ); wheel being outside
Here, L = 15.92 cm, L1 = 3.0 cm, R = 16.0 cm
Area of the zero circle = [(15.92)2 + (2 × 15.92 × 3.00) + (16.0)2]
= (253.446 + 95.52 + 256.0) = 1900.555 cm2
12.7.1 Construction
A typical digital planimeter model XPLAN 380 d III is shown in Plate 13. It
consists of the following keys:
530 Surveying
CE/c is the clear entry/clear key to clear the displayed number, cancel
measurements, and interrupts printing. When pressed during
calculations only the last entry made is cleared. If pressed second
time the entire calculation is cleared.
RM Recall memory key
+M Adds displaced figures to internal memory
+ is the summation key.
END is the end key for completed measurement value
COPY Prints display without effecting display measurement
SET The set key is used for setting the required unit and scale. The first
depression of the key is for unit setting, the second depression for the
vertical scale ratio, and the third depression for horizontal scale ratio.
YES Affirms option posed by display
NO Rejects option posed by display
P/NP print/No print key
0 – 9 Number input keys
#P Number point key
SFT Shifts to secondary function key
MARK Used to initiate/ terminate the mark mode—for coordinate point
marking
. Decimal key
+/– Changes the sign of the displayed figure
+ – × Arithmetic keys
= Equals key
F0, F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9—When X PLAN is connected to a computer,
these become function keys.
CLM Clear memory key
CL Clear summation key
FEED Feed paper into printer
SET Interface set key
# Automatic memory function key
Measurement of Area 531
12.7.2 Working
For measuring an area of a polygonal figure
(Fig. 12.14) consisting of straight and curved
lines, both the point and continuous mode of
device are used. The former mode is used to
measure straight lines, whereas the latter is
used for curved lines.
The tracing arm fixing lever is lifted to
switch on the power. The SET key is pressed
to set up the measurement conditions for
measurement of area. When on the display
screen AREA appears the YES key is pressed.
Then the unit of measurement is set. Scale ratio can now be entered by selecting
scale ratio assignment. The required horizontal and vertical scale ratios are set.
For example, let 1 in 1000 be the horizontal scale ratio to be set. When set key is
pressed for the second time, the symbol RX blinks on the display. The denominator
of the given scale ratio, i.e., 1000 is set with the number keys and the set key
is pressed again. Now the symbol RY blinks and the vertical scale ratio may be
set.
532 Surveying
To start with the measurement, the center mark of the tracer lens is set at the
initial point, say A, and the Start/ Point switch is depressed. If a straight line is
to be traced, say AB, the trace mark is set at the other point B of the straight line
and the Start/Point switch is depressed again. But in case, the path to be traced
is a curved one such as between points C and D, the CON, continuous switch is
pressed for continuous mode operation and the path is traced precisely from C to
D. Since the line from point D to point A is a straight line, the [CON] switch is
pressed again at point D to return to straight line mode (point mode).
To find the area enclosed by the figure [S/P] key is pressed at point A. The
area enclosed is displayed on the screen. The area and the length in given units
and ratios are displayed. The trace arm fixing lever is pushed down to switch off
the power.
Let there be an area ABCDEF from which a definite area A1 is to be cut off
from a point G on the boundary (Fig.
12.15). The following procedure may
be followed:
1. Calculate the area of the figure
ABCDEF from the known coor
dinates and plot the figure on a
fairly large scale.
2. By judgement, or by trial and
error, find a station, say F, so
that the area bounded on one
side of the line GF is approx
imately close to the desired
value.
3. Compute the length and bearing
of GF and the area of the figure GFABG. Let it be A .
4. Length and bearing of GF is known. The bearing of FH is also known.
Hence, angle GFH can be computed. The actual line of subdivision GH
can be found from the relation:
1
A1 – A = __ FH FG sin GFH
2
(A1 – A )
or FH = 2 ________ sin GFH
FG
5. Once length of FH is known, the coordinates of H can be found.
5. From these three angles and the computed distance CA, the lengths CG
and AG can be calculated.
6. Calculate the coordinates of G.
7. Using the coordinates of G, A, B and C, calculate the area of the figure
CGABC.
8. If KJ is the actual cut off line, then
A1 – A = area of figure CGJKC.
9. From C and G drop perpendiculars CI and GH on line KJ. Let CI = GH
= x, angle JGH = , and angle KCI = . These angles can be found,
since the bearings of the lines are known.
10. Length JK = CG – x tan + x tan
x
11. Area of figure CGJKC = __ (CG + JK)
2
x
= __ (CG + CG – x tan + x tan )
2
x
= __ (2CG + x (tan – tan ))
2
x2
= x CG + __ (tan – tan )
2
x2
A1 – A = x CG + __ (tan – tan )
2
12. The above equation is quadratic which can be solved for x.
13. Having found x, calculate GJ and CK.
GJ = x sec , CK = x sec
14. Calculate the coordinates of J and K.
e xample 12.9 Derive an expression for the area of a piece of ground enclosed
by straight lines joining a series of points having coordinates (N1, E1) , , (Nn,
En), (N0, E0). Find the area enclosed by the traverse ABCDEFA whose coordinates
are, respectively, (0, 0), (300, 100), (450, 350), (425, 600), (200, 600), (– 100,
350), (0, 0) and find the position of a fence due north and south which divides
the area in two halves.
s olution Refer to Fig. 12.17.
Let there be a closed traverse ABCDEA running in clockwise direction.
Area ABCDEA = Trapezium [BC 32 + CD 43 + DE 54 – EA15 – AB 21]
1
Area BC 32 = __ (NB – NC) (EC + EB)
2
1
Area CD 43 = __ (NC – ND) (ED + EC)
2
1
Area DE 45 = __ (ND – NE) (EE + ED)
2
1
Area EA15 = __ (NA – NE) (EE + EA)
2
Measurement of Area 535
1
Area AB 21 = __ (NB – NA) (EA + EB)
2
1
Area ABCDEA = __ [NB – NC) (EC + EB) + (NC – ND) (ED + EC)
2
+ (ND – NE) (EE + ED) – (NA – NE) (EE + EA)
– (NB – NA) (EA + EB)]
1
= __ [NC (– EC – EB + ED + EC) + ND (– ED – EC + EE + ED)
2
+ NE (– EE – ED + EE + EA) + NB (EC + EB – EA – EB)
+ NA (EA + EB – EE – EA)]
1
= __ [NA (EB – EE) + NB (EC – EA) + NC (ED – EB)
2
+ ND (EE – EC) + NE (EA – ED)]
It will be seen from the above that we must multiply each north coordinate
by the difference between the following and preceding east coordinates (always
subtracting the preceding east coordinate from the following one), add together
algebraically and then halve.
In general form, if a figure has coordinates
(N0, E0 ), (N1, E1 ), , (Nn , En), (N0, E0)
n
Area = 1/2 Nr (Er + 1 – Er – 1 )
r=0
where n = number of sides of the figure.
The coordinates of the closed traverse ABCDEFA are as follows.
1
A = __ [NA (EB – EF) + NB (EC – EA) + NC (ED – EB) + ND (EE – EC)
2
+ NE (EF – ED) + NF (EA – EE)]
1
= __ [0 (100 – 350) + 300 (350 – 0) + 450 (600 – 100)
2
+ 425 (600 – 350) + 200 (350 – 600) – 100 (0 – 600)]
1
= __ [0 + 105 000 + 225 000 + 106 250 – 50 000 + 60 000]
2
= 223 125 square units.
From inspection it can be found that CF is a north–south line which may divide
the area ABCDEFA in a approximately two halves. Required half area = 1/2 × 223 125
= 111 562.5 square units
Area of figure CDEFC
1
= __ [NC (ED – EF) + ND (EE – EC) + NE (EF – ED) + NF (EC – EE)]
2
1
= __ [450 (600 – 350) + 425 (600 – 350) + 200 (350 – 600) – 100 (350 – 600)]
2
1
= __ [+ 112 500 + 106 250 – 50 000 + 25 000]
2
= 96 875 square units.
Since this area of 96 875 units is less than half the area by 14 687.5 units
(111 562.5 – 96 875), so the line FC will have to be shifted to its left by a distance
x so as to make up this deficiency.
Let the required dividing line be GH at a distance x from CF, as shown in
Fig. 12.18.
NC – NG ________
________ NC – NB
x =
EC – EB
450 – GK _________
_________ 450 – 300
x =
350 – 100
Measurement of Area 537
3
or GK = 450 – __ x
5
350 –
____ = _______x
HK
Also,
100 350
2
or HK = 100 – __ x
7
Hence, GH = GK + KH
3 2 31
= 450 – __ x + 100 – __ x = 550 – ___ x
5 7 55
1
( 31
Area of trapezium GCFH = __ 550 + 550 – ___ x x
2 55 )
31
= 550 x – ___ x2
70
31
or 14 687.5 = 550x – ___ x2
70
or x2 – 1241.9x + 33 165.3 = 0
or x = 27.30 units
Hence, the required north–south dividing line runs 350 – 27.3 = 322.70 units due
east of A.
12.10 Mistakes
Some of the mistakes in computing area are:
1. Confusion in signs of coordinates, latitudes, departures, and double
meridian distances.
2. Failing to consider the area of the zero circle in case the anchor point is
kept inside the area to be measured.
3. Failing to repeat the starting point while listing coordinates in using the
difference between sums of products of adjacent diagonal terms taken
down to the right and those taken up to the right.
538 Surveying
Summary
One of the objects of surveying is to determine the area of the land surveyed. Different
methods of finding area, e.g., by geometrical figures, from offset, from coordinates and
by planimeter are described. The instrument, planimeter is discussed in detail. Problem of
division of land parcel is discussed and methods of solution, fitting in the field conditions
are described.
Exercises
12.1 State and derive the following:
(a) Trapezoidal rule (b) Simpson’s rule
12.2 Discuss in brief the various methods of measurements of area by offsets from the
base line. State the relative merits and demerits of each method.
12.3 Describe the principle underlying the construction of a planimeter.
12.4 Describe the procedure of measuring a given area with the help of a planimeter. What
is meant by ‘zero circle’? How is it accounted for in the measurement of areas?
12.5 Briefly describe the procedure of partitioning a given property.
The three sides of a triangle are 51.240 m, 68.25 m and 72.20 m. What is the area
of the triangle in hectares?
[Ans. 0.167 hectare]
12.6 In order to obtain the area of a plot, a series of perpendicular offsets—2.2 m, 3
m, 1.65 m, 2.46 m, 2.00 m, 2.25 m and 1.68 m—were laid from a survey line
to an irregular boundary at regular intervals of 5 m. Find the desired area using:
(a) Trapezoidal rule, (b) Simpson’s rule.
[Ans. 66.5 m2, 70.03 m2]
2
12.7 Find the area (in m ) from the following field notes of a chain survey.
72.00 F
E 36.45 52.60
38.20 24.00 C
D 52.00 16.40
10.20 32.00 B
0.0 A
[Ans. 3734.72 m2]
12.8 The following offsets were taken from a chain line to a hedge at regular intervals
of 5.0 m:
Offsets (m): 2.72, 3.46, 5.23, 6.80, 4.86, 3.35, 3.00, 2.50, 1.60.
Determine the area included between the chain line and the hedge by:
(a) Midordinate rule, (b) Average ordinate rule and (c) Trapezoidal rule
[Ans. 156.8 m2, 150.84 m2, 156.8 m2]
12.9 A series of perpendicular offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary.
Determine the area using Simpson’s rule.
Distance (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Offset (m) 2.2 2.6 0.85 1.24 2.05 1.66 1.00 0.84
[Ans. 112.53 m2]
Measurement of Area 539
12.10 The data of a closed traverse survey is shown below. Determine the area.
12.16 Calculate the area enclosed by a traverse ABCD for the following data.
Objective-type Questions
12.1 The area of an oblique triangle ABC of base b and perpendicular height h
is
(a) 1/(2bh)
___________________
a+b–c
(b) s (s – a) (s – b) (s – c) where s = _________
2
1
(c) __ b c sin A
2
(d) All of the above
12.2 One hectare of an area is equivalent to
(a) 102 m2 (b) 104 m2 (c) 106 m2 (d) 109 m2.
12.3 If n is the number of sides and L the length of sides of a regular polygon, its area
is
n 180° n 180°
(a) __ L2 cot2 ____
n (b) __ L2 sec2 ____
n
4 4
n 2
__ 180°
2 ____ n 2
__ 180°
2 ____
(c) L cosec n (d) L tan n
4 4
12.4 The method of computing areas by subdividing a plot into triangles is suitable for
(a) work of small nature (b) work of big nature
(c) road work (d) canal work
12.5 The method suitable for computing the area when the boundary line departs
considerably from a straight line is
(a) midordinate rule (b) average ordinate rule
(c) trapezoidal rule (d) Simpson’s rule
12.6 Meridian distance of a survey line is the
(a) distance of its midpoint from the meridian
(b) distance of its far end from the meridian
(c) distance of its near end from the meridian
(d) departure of the line
12.7 In calculating the area of a plan by a planimeter, the area of zero circle is excluded
when the
(a) anchor point is inside the area
(b) anchor point is outside the area
(c) tracing arm is inside the area
(d) tracing arm is outside the area
Measurement of Area 541
12.8 The area of an irregular plotted figure can be accurately obtained with the help of
a
(a) pentagraph (b) parallax bar
(c) planimeter (d) Any of these
12.9 Area enclosed between a curved boundary and a chain line can be found by
(a) Simpson’s rule (b) Poncelet’s rule
(c) Francke’s rule (d) All of these
12.10 Simpson’s rule for calculating area is applicable only when the ordinates are
(a) odd (b) even
(c) Either (a) or (b) (d) None of these
12.11 Which of the following figures are equal to one acre?
(i) 43560 sq. ft
(ii) 40 gunthas
(iii) 10 sq. Gunter’s chain
(iv) 4840 sq. yards
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) (b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) (i), (ii) and (iv) (d) (i), (iii) and (iv)
12.12 For calculating area of a right angled triangle ABC with angle C being 90° which
of the following(s) is (are) correct?
Of these
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) Only (i) and (iii) are correct (d) All (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct
12.13 The assumption that the boundaries between the extremities of three consecutive
offsets is a parabolic arc whose axis is parallel to the offsets is made for
(i) Average ordinate rule
(ii) Midordinate rule
(iii) Simpson’s onethird rule
Of these
(a) (i) and (iii) are correct (b) (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) Only (iii) is correct (d) only (i) is correct
12.14 In measuring area of the land surveyed the numbers of offset were 16. Which of
the following rule(s) can not be used directly for estimating the area?
(i) Midordinate rule (ii) Trapezoidal rule (iii) Simpson’s onethird rule
Codes
(a) (i) (b) (i) and (ii) (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (iii)
12.15 The area of a closed traverse is given by algebraic sum of the products of latitude
of each line with its longitude. The method is known as area by
(i) Coordinates
(ii) Latitude and meridian distance
(iii) Latitude and double meridian distance
(iv) Departure and total latitude
Codes
(a) (ii) only (b) (iv) only
(c) (i) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iii) only
542 Surveying
Introduction
An important application of practical surveying is to measure volumes of earthwork,
masonry and concrete for various types of construction projects. As an example, a
surveyor will be called upon to estimate the amount of earth moved in a highway
construction, since the contractor is often paid on the basis of the amount of earth
moved. As another example, if earth is taken from a private property, the land
owner would like to be paid for it and will, therefore, call upon a surveyor to
estimate the amount of earth taken away. Some of the other applications of volume
computations are determining the capacity of bins, tanks, reservoirs, borrow pits,
pipelines, sewers, cellars, grading, etc.
Masonary and concrete volume may be computed by solid geometry from
dimensions on a plan. But in practise, the quantities are computed from actual
structural dimensions taken in the field. These solids are usually prisms, pyramids,
cones or frustums of these solid figures.
Most of this chapter deals with the methods of computing earthwork for cuts
and fills for ordinary grading. The earthwork volumes, in general, are computed
from the cross sections. The cross sections taken before construction are called
original cross sections and those after the construction is completed are called
final cross sections. These cross sections define parallel areas at definite points at
known distances apart, along the centre line of the project. The solid between these
cross sections approximates a prismoid. Since the exact geometrical form of the
solid is not realised in the field, the accuracy of the results in impaired. The unit
of volume is cubic metres, but the capacity of reservoirs is measured in millions
of litres. The volumes may be of objects having straight or curved surfaces. For
the computation of volumes in curved surfaces, the effect of curvature is taken into
account. It is common practise to first calculate the volumes between the straight
surfaces and then to apply a correction, if any, for curvature.
After the quantities of the cut and fill have been determined, a ‘mass diagram’
is used to balance the quantities of cut and fill and in solving the problems of
length and direction of haul. Before discussing the procedures for determining
and calculating the earthwork volumes, it is important to understand a few terms
which will be encountered frequently.
544 Surveying
13.1 Definitions
The grade or gradient between two points of fixed elevations is equal
to the difference in elevation divided by the distance between the points. The grade
is generally given as a percentage: 1.5%, 2%, 3%, etc.
A cut and fill at any point is the difference between the grade
elevation at that point and the elevation of the existing structure.
A geometrical solid bounded by planes is known as
polyhedron.
It is a polyhedron with two of its faces (bases) as equal polygons
lying in parallel planes and having their homologous sides parallel. The other
faces are parallelograms formed by planes passing through the homologous sides
of the equal polygons.
If the two bases in the prism are not parallel, it is known as truncated prism.
If one of the bases is perpendicular to the lateral edges, the prism is known as
right truncated prism.
It is a solid that has parallel plane bases or ends and is bounded
on the sides either by planes or warped surfaces. It may be conceived as generated
by a right line generatrix moving continuously around the perimeter of the two
bases as directrices. It may be composed of any combination of prisms, pyramids,
wedges, cylinders, cones, or frustums whose bases and apices lie in the bases of
the prismoid. Since cylinders and cones are special forms of prisms and pyramids,
it may be said that prismoids may be resolved into prisms, pyramids and wedges,
and any formula for volume applicable to all the three, will also be applicable to
a combination of these.
In practise, the slope lines of a cross section
(assumed to be straight lines in determining its area) may not be straight lines.
This may cause a decrease or an increase of actual area than the calculated one.
If the variation is such as to cause a decrease in the cross-sectional area, it is
known as over break. On the other hand, if the area increases, the increase is
called under break.
When the volume of a completed embankment is less
than the volume of the excavation from which the material for fill was obtained,
the difference is known as shrinkage. Whereas, if the volume of embankment is
greater, the difference is called swell.
The estimates of the cost of excavation are usually based on a
specified length of haul called the free haul. The average excess of haul is known
as overhaul.
s:1
s:1
d d1
Measurement of Volumes 547
E
n:1
D
h2
h s:1
h1
s:1
G A F B H
b/2 b/2
d d1
Area ABEDC = Area ACF + Area CDF + Area DEF + Area FEB
1 b
2 2( b
= __ __ h1 + hd + hd1 + __ h2
2 )
= __ ( __ (h + h ) + h (d + d ) )
1 b
1 2 1
2 2
b h
A = __ (h1 + h2) + __ (d + d1)
4 2
Now, GA = GF – FA
b
or sh1 = d – __ (13.1)
2
b
or sh1 = (h – h1) n – __ (since d = (h – h1) n)
2
or
b
h1 (s + n) = n h – ___
2n ( )
or
n b
h1 = _____ h – ___
s+n 2n ( )
From Eq. (13.1)
b
d = __ + sh1
2
or
b
2 n+s
sn b
d = __ + _____ h – ___
2n ( )
Similarly,
n
h2 = _____
b
___
n – s h + 2n ( )
548 Surveying
and
b sn
d1 = __ + _____
2 n–s ( b
h + ___
2n )
Substituting the values of d1, h1 and h2 in Eq. (13.1) and simplifying,
s(b/2)2 + n2 (bh + sh2)
A = ____________________
(n2 – s2)
13.4.3 three-level section
Refer to Fig. 13.4.
Expressions for d, d1, h1 and h2 can be derived as was done for a two-level
section:
( ) ( _____
b
d = h + __
2s
ns
n + s)
ns
d = ( h + __ ) ( ______
2s n – s )
b 1
1
1
Area ABCDE = Area ACF + Area FCD + Area FDE + Area FEB
1 b
2 2 [ b
= __ __ h1 + hd + hd1 + __ h2
2 ]
b h
A = __ (h1 + h2) + __ (d + d1)
4 2
13.4.4 side-hill two-level section
Refer to Fig. 13.5.
b
w = __ + nh; d = (h2 – h)n
2
( b
h2 = h + ___
2n ) ( _____
ns
n – s );
b
(
ns ___
d = __ + _____
2 n – s 2n
b
+h )
Measurement of Volumes 549
n:1
h2
s:1
h
h1 w1 w
b/2
d1 d
Area in excavation,
wh 2 w2
b
__
2
+ nh
A = ____ = _______ = ________
2
( )
2 2(n – s) 2(n – s)
w1 = b – w
(
b
) ( _____
h1 = ___ + h
2n
ns
n – s); d 1
b ns ___
= __ + _____
2 n – s 2n
b
(–h )
( – nh )
b 2
__
w h 2
A = ____ = ________
1 1
Area in embankment, 1
2 2(n – s)
F
H
G
D E
h2 h h3 h4
h1 s:1 s:1
A B
b
w2 w4
w1 w3
2. Multiply each upper term by the algebraic sum of the two adjacent lower
terms using the signs facing the upper term.
3. Half the algebraic sum of these products will be the required area.
1
[ ( b
)
A = __ h1 + __ – w2 + h2 (+ w1 + 0) + h (+ w2 + w3) + h3 (+ 0 + w4)
2 2
( b
+ h4 – w3 + __
2 )]
13.5 VoluMe forMulae
The volume of earthwork may be calculated either by the end area formula or
the prismoidal formula. The prismoidal formula usually yields a volume less than
that obtained by the end area formula. An exception occurs when at one of the
sections the centre height is large, with a narrow base, and at the other consecutive
section the centre height is small with a large base. The difference between the
volume obtained by the two formulae is known as prismoidal correction. In rock
excavations and concrete work the prismoidal formula is normally unjustified. This
is because of the low precision of the field data. In such cases, it is preferable to
compute volume by the end area method to which when a prismoidal correction is
added, gives the prismoidal volume. The end area formula is not exact when the
end areas of the prismoids are unequal. The greater the difference in the end areas,
the greater will be the error in the volume computed by the end area formula. The
maximum value of this error can be 16.66% when one of the end areas is zero,
e.g., when a cut changes to a fill on a side hill. The error in volume computation
by the end area formula is usually less than even 2%. Though approximate, its
precision is usually consistent with the field method used in determining the end
areas, and since it involves less computations, it is preferred over the prismoidal
formula. Use of the prismoidal formula is justified only when there is a large
difference between the end areas of a prismoid, when the cross sections are spaced
at short intervals, and when the surface irregularities have been measured in the
Measurement of Volumes 551
field. Usually the end area formula is used for preliminary estimates, whereas
prismoidal formula is used for final estimates.
or [
A1 + An
V = _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An – 1 L
2 ]
where A1, A2, A3, , An are the end consecutive areas and L is the distance
between them.
D2
A2 End area
B2
C2
H
Mid-area
E O
F
G
A1 D1
End area
B1
C1
1
= __ L (2 area EFO)
3
2
= __ L (area EFO)
3
Similarly,
2
Volume of pyramid OC1D1C2D2 = __ L (area GHO)
3
2
Volume of pyramid OA1D1A2D2 = __ L (area EHO)
3
2
Volume of pyramid OB1C1B2C2 = __ L (area FGO)
3
1 1 2
Total volume = __ A1L + __ A2L + __ L (area EFO)
6 6 3
2 2
+ __ L (area GHO) + __ L (area EHO)
3 3
2
+ __ L (area FGO)
3
1 1 2
= __ A1L + __ A2L + __ L (area EFGH)
6 6 3
1 1 2
= __ A1L + __ A2L + __ AnL
6 6 3
1
= __ (A1 + A2 + 4An)
6
Measurement of Volumes 553
Let A1, A2, , An be the areas of various cross sections spaced at a uniform
interval L.
Volume between first three sections constituting the first prismoid,
2L L
V1 = ___ (A1 + 4A2 + A3) = __ (A1 + 4A2 + A3)
6 3
L
Volume of next prismoid = __ (A3 + 4A4 + A5) and so on
3
Total volume,
L
V = __ (A1 + 4A2 + A3 + A3 + 4A4 + A5 + A5 +
3
+ An – 2 + An – 2 + 4An – 1 + An )
L
or V = __ (A1 + 4A2 + 2A3 + 4A4 + 2A5 +
3
+ 2An – 2 + 4An – 1 + An )
L
or V = __ [(A1 + An) + 4 (A2 + A4 + An – 1)
3
+ 2 (A3 + A5 + + An – 2)]
It is necessary to have an odd number of cross sections to use this formula. In
case of even number of cross sections, the end strip is treated separately and the
volume of the remaining strips is calculated by the prismoidal formula. The volume of the
last strip is calculated either by the end area or prismoidal rule. In case if the latter is to
be applied, the area half way between the sections is interpolated by averaging the
dimensions of the end sections and not by averaging the end areas.
L b
[( ) (
Cp = ___ (d1 – d 1 ) __ – nh –
12s 2
b
__
2
– n h )]
for hill
d
Three-level section, Cp = ___ (h – h ) [(d + d1) – (d + d1 )]
12
where d, d1, h and n refer to the cross section at one end and d , d1 , h and n
refer to the same at the other end.
554 Surveying
L b
Cc = ± ___ (d 2 – d 21 ) h + __
6R 2s ( )
where R is the radius of the curve and Cc is the curvature correction for a length
of L in meters.
Plus (minus) sign indicates that the centroid is on the opposite (same) side of
the centre line as is the centre of curvature.
Ae
___
Cc = per unit length
R
1
( b
where e = __ d + __ – nh ,
3 2 ) for large area
and e = __ ( d
1
3 1
b
+ __ + nh ,
2 ) form small area
are a1, b1, c1 and d1, respectively, and A is the area of the figure abcd, then the
volume is given by
a1 + b1 + c1 + d1
V = _______________ A
4
a b b
a1 b1 a c
1 2 1
d d1 c1 c e
d f
(a) 2 4 2
f i j
f1 g k
2 4 3 1
g1 k1
g k 1 2 2 1
(b)
l m n o
(c)
b
a c
1 3
2
7 e 3
d f
3
i j
g k
3 6 5
3
2 4
2 1
l m n o
(d)
stated above. Then, if h1, h2, , and so on are the sum of heights used once,
twice, ... and so on, respectively; the total volume is given by
(1 h1 + 2 h2 + 3 h3 + 4 h4 + ...)
V = _________________________________
3
obtained for every point of intersection of the contours of the graded surface
and those of the existing surface; subtract the difference in elevation of the two
intersecting contours. By joining the points of equal cut or fill, a set of lines are
obtained shown by thick lines in Fig. 13.10. The thin lines in Fig. 13.10 represent
the existing contour lines and the graded surface contours are represented by
broken lines.
The irregular area bounded by the thick lines can be obtained by the use of a
planimeter. Then the volume between any two successive areas can be determined
by multiplying the average of the two areas with the depth between them or by
the prismoidal formula.
The contour map shown in Fig. 13.10 depicts the area entirely in cutting. The
contour interval is 1 m. The thick lines are the lines of 1, 2, 3, and 4 m cutting.
Let A1, A2, , An be the areas enclosed between successive thick lines, h be
the contour interval and V the total volume. Then,
h
__
V= (A + A2) (Trapezoidal formula)
2 1
h
__
= (A + 4A2 + A3) (Prismoidal formula)
3 1
1
3
4 4 1
93 4 2
4
4
3 4
3
94 3 1
3 99 4
2 2
2 4
1 98 100
95 3
97 98
2
1
1 1
96 95 1
94
96
97 98 99 100
13.10.1 Construction
A mass diagram is a curve plotted on a distance base with the ordinate at any
point on the curve representing the algebraic sum of the volume of earthwork
up to that point. The sign convention used for cuts is plus and that for fills is
minus. Thus, the positive total volumes are plotted above the distance base and
the negative volumes below it. The ends of the ordinates are joined by a smooth
curve. The resulting mass curve, therefore, consists of positive and negative peaks.
Since the slope of the mass curve for earthwork can be positive and negative, it
Measurement of Volumes 559
can be used to advantage in earthworks. For example, a mass curve has been
plotted in Fig. 13.12 at regular intervals of 20 m for the volumes of earthwork
listed in Table 13.1
0 — — 0
20 16 + 16
40 30 + 46
60 19 + 27
80 24 +3
100 30 – 27
120 28 – 55
140 27 – 28
160 22 –6
13.10.2 Characteristics
1. Upward slope of the curve indicates excavations and downward slope
indicates a fill.
2. The peak occurring at the end of an excavation is known as maxima point,
whereas the peak occurring at the end of an embankment is known as
minima point.
3. The vertical distance between a maxima point and the next minima point
represents the total volume of cutting.
560 Surveying
4. The vertical distance between two points, on the curve, which have no
maxima or minima points between them represents the volume of earthwork
between their chainages.
5. The algebraic difference between the ordinates at adjacent maxima and
minima points represents the haulage between the two points.
6. A horizontal (base) line drawn to intercept the mass diagram cuts it in
two points, between which the cut exactly balances the fill. For example
in Fig. 13.12, a and c are projected to A and C respectively, and the
earthwork is balanced between A and C, i.e., the earth excavated from AB
will be sufficient to fill BC.
7. The length of the base line intercepted by a loop of the mass diagram
represents the maximum haul distance in that section.
8. The area bounded by a loop of the mass diagram and the base line
measures the haul in that section.
9. The haul is minimum when the base line is so selected that the sum of
all areas cut off by it, without regard to sign, is a minimum.
13.10.3 uses
In using a mass diagram, the selection of the base line plays an important role in the
economy of the project. Different base lines are assumed, each of which provides
possible methods of distributing the excavated material. The one which gives the
economical scheme is selected and the overhaul and haulage is computed.
Mass diagram finds its applications in the following activities.
There is a close link between the mass haul diagram and the formation
level. If several formation levels are tried and a mass haul diagram constructed
for each, that formation, which gives the most economical result and maintains
any stipulated standards, for example, gradient restrictions in vertical curve design,
can be used.
Once the formation level has been designed the mass haul diagram
can be used to indicate the most economical method of moving the earth around
the project and a good estimate of the overall cost of the earth moving can be
calculated.
The required volumes of material are known before construction
begins, enabling suitable plant and machinery to be chosen, sites for spoil heaps
and borrow pits to be located and directions of haul to be established.
The mass haul diagram can be used to indicate the effect
that other engineering works, for example tunnels and bridges, within the overall
project will have on the earth moving. Such construction upset the pattern of the
mass haul diagram by restricting the directions of haul but, since the volumes and
hence the quantities of any waste and borrow will be known, suitable areas for
spoil heaps and borrow pits can be located in advance of construction, enabling
work to proceed smoothly.
Measurement of Volumes 561
13.12 Mistakes
Some of the typical mistakes are:
1. Errors in arithmetic.
2. Using the prismoidal formula when end area volumes are sufficiently
accurate.
3. Mixing cut and fill quantities.
4. Failing to consider transition sections when passing from cut to fill, or
from fill to cut.
(
24 + 10
2 ) (
8+1
)
Am = _______ × _____ = 76.5 m2
2
L
V = __ (A1 + 4Am + A2)
3
2
__
= × (192 + 4 × 76.5 + 10) = 338.66 m3
3
e xample 13.2 Calculate the volume of earthwork in an embankment for
which the cross-sectional areas at 20 m interval are as follows:
s olution
L
V = __ [(A1 + An) + 4 (A2 + A4 + A6) + 2 (A3 + A5)]
3
20
V = ___ × [(42 + 11) + 4 (64 + 16 + 26) + 2 (72 + 18)]
3
= 4380 m3
562 Surveying
[
A1 + An
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An–1
2 ]
[
64.935 + 33.66
= 20 × _____________ + 41.34 + 72.00 + 58.14 + 45.36 + 49.50
2 ]
= 6312.75 m3
Prismoidal rule
L
V = __ [(A1 + A7) + 4 (A2 + A4 + A6) + 2 (A3 + A5)]
3
20
= ___ × [(64.935 + 33.66) + 4 (41.34 + 58.14 + 49.50) + 2 (72.00 + 45.36)]
3
= 6194.9 m3
[
A1 + A5
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + A4
2 ]
[
15.375 + 7.360
= 50 × _____________ + 12.935 + 1.66 + 4.375 = 1516.875 m3
2 ]
Prismoidal rule
L
V = __ [(A1 + A5) + 4 (A2 + A4) + 2A3]
3
50
= ___ × [(15.375 + 7.360) + 4 × (12.935 + 4.375) + (2 × 1.66)]
3
= 1588.25 m3
e xample 13.5 A road at the formation level is 6 m wide and has a side slope
of 2:1. The road is to have a constant R.L. of 200 m. The ground is level across
the centre line of the road. The following observations were made:
Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Surface level along c/l of 204.6 203.0 200.8 201.6 202.0 200.2
road
Estimate the volume of earthwork.
s olution The road is to have a constant R.L. of 200 m. From the data available
it is observed that since the surface levels are more than 200 m, ground is in
cutting. The depth of cutting can be found by subtracting the formation from the
respective ground levels.
564 Surveying
Volume, [
A1 + A6
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
2 ]
[
69.92 + 1.28
= 20 × ___________ + 36.00 + 6.08 + 14.72 + 20.00 = 2248 m2
2 ]
Prismoidal rule
Since there are even number of sections (6), the prismoidal rule cannot be applied
directly. Hence, by applying prismoidal rule between first five sections and then
applying Trapezoidal rule between the 5th and 6th sections, the total volume can
be found.
L
V1 = __ [(A1 + A5) + 4 (A2 + A4) + 2A3]
3
20
= ___ × [(69.92 + 20.00) + 4 (36.00 + 6.08) + (2 × 14.72)]
3
= 1917.86 m3
[
A5 + A6
] [
20.00 + 1.280
V2 = L _______ = 20 × ____________ = 212.80 m3
2 2 ]
3
Volume, V = 1917.86 + 212.80 = 2130.66 m
Gradient is 1 in 30.
Length of the road = 120 × 30 = 3600 m = 3.6 km
Area of cross section = (b + sh) h = (12 + 2 × 4) × 4 = 80 m2
Volume of earthwork, V = 80 × 3600 = 288 000 m3
e xample 13.7 For a 10 m wide formation level and 100 m long railway
cutting, the side slope is 1:1. The surface of the ground has a uniform side slope
of 7:1. Find the volume of earthwork from the following notes:
Chainage (m) 0 50 100
Depth of cutting, h(m) 2.0 3.0 4.0
7:1
1
1:
10 m
From cut
2x
___________ = tan 20°
(10 – b + x)
or 2x = (10 – b + x) 0.3639
or 2x – 0.3639 x = (10 – b) 0.3639
0.3639
or x = ______ × (10 – b)
1.636
1
Area of cut A1 = __ (10 – b) 2x
2
1 0.3639
= __ (10 – b) × 2 × ______ (10 – b) = 0.222 (10 – b)2
2 1.636
From fill
y
_______ = tan 20°
(b + y)
or y = (b + y) × 0.3639
or y – 0.3639 y = 0.3639 b
0.3639
or y = ______ b
0.6361
or y = 0.5720 b
1 1
Area of fill, A2 = __ by = __ b × 0.5720 b = 0.286 b2
2 2
Since, area of cut is equal to area of fill
A1 = A2
Measurement of Volumes 567
h = 3 m, 3.5 m and 4 m
Section 1:
10 2 × 10
( 10
)
d1 = ___ + ______ × 3 + ______ = 13.75 m
2 10 – 2 2 × 10
Uphill side:
b
2 n+s
sn
( b
d = __ + _____ h – ___
2n )
Section 1:
10 2 × 10
( 10
)
d = ___ + ______ × 3 – ______ = 9.166 m
2 10 + 2 2 × 10
(
L A1 + A3
V = __ _______ + A2
2 2 )
30
2 (
50.52 + 75.52
)
= ___ × ____________ + 62.50 = 1882.80 m3
2
Measurement of Volumes 569
(
50.52
Vc = 30 × _____
2
1.905 _____
_____
150
+
75.52
2
2.104 _____
_____
150
+
62.50
2
2.00
____
150 )
= 38.01 m3
The correction so found is added or subtracted from the volumes found for straight
c/ l if the centre of curve lies on the uphill side or downhill side of the embankment,
respectively.
e xample 13.11 From the contour map of a reservoir, the following contour
areas were planimetered:
The top water level is 200 m and the lowest point in the reservoir is 180 m.
Find the quantity of water intake.
s olution Contour interval, L = 5 m
Trapezoidal rule
Volume of water between 180 and 200 m contours
(
A1 + An
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An–1
2 )
(
3850 + 450
= __________ + 3450 + 2600 + 800 = 45 000 m3
2 )
Prismoidal rule
L
V = __ [(A1 + An) + 4 (A2 + A4 + ) + 2 (A3 + A5 + )]
3
570 Surveying
5
= __ × [(3850 + 450) + 4 × (3450 + 800) + 2 × 2600]
3
= 44 166.66 m3
Summary
Measurement of volume of earthwork is one of the main application of surveying
measurements made for new projects. The earthwork volumes are generally computed from
cross sections. But, these may also be calculated from contour maps and spot levels. The
areas of various types of cross sections are computed and then using the end area formula
or prismoidal formula the volume is calculated. While using the latter formula prismoidal
correction to be applied is described.
In the calculation of volumes, it is assumed that the c/l of the cutting or embankment
is a straight line. However, in practise it is not so and the curvature correction to be
applied is discussed. Methods of calculating volumes from spot levels and contour maps
are described.
Mass haul diagram which is the key for economy of the earth volume movement is
discussed in detail. One of the most important application of measurements of volumes, the
estimation of water stored in reservoirs for various purposes, e.g., for hydroelectric power
projects, is described.
Exercises
13.1 Define the following:
prism, prismoid, grade elevation, haulage.
13.2 Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
(a) Overhaul and free haul (b) Over break and under break
(c) Shrinkage and swell
13.3 Define a prismoid. Derive the prismoidal formula and state its validity.
13.4 Derive an expression for the trapezoidal formula for volumes.
13.5 Derive expressions for side widths and areas of
(a) a level section (b) a two-level section
(c) a three-level section
13.6 Explain the procedure to find out the (a) capacity of a reservoir and (b) the volume
of a borrow pit.
13.7 Define the term prismoidal correction and obtain an expression for it.
13.8 Explain the method of obtaining the volumes of curves.
13.9 Explain in detail the mass curve. How is it helpful in estimation of earthwork
quantities?
13.10 A railway embankment is made level for 180 m. The ground has a uniform slope
of 1 in 12. The formation width is 9 m and the side slope is 2:1. The ground is
level across the c/ l of the embankment. Determine the volume of the embankment
if the high end terminates vertically. (Take 10 intervals). [Ans. 39 123 m3]
13.11 A road embankment is 6.0 m wide at the formation level. The average height of
the embankment is 2.4 m at an average gradient of 1 in 50 from the 85 m contour
to the 229 m contour. If the side slopes are 2:1, find the length of the road and the
volume of the embankment. [Ans. 7200 m, 186 624 m3]
13.12 In a railway cutting, the side slopes are 1.5:1 and the surface of the ground has a
uniform side slope of 1 in 10. The width at the formation level is 4.0 m. Determine
the volume of excavation between two points 50 m apart on the c/l with the depth
Measurement of Volumes 571
of cutting at the first point being 6.0 m and at the second point being 8.0 m, while
at a point halfway between them the depth is 6.5 m. If the points at which the depth
of cutting is measured lie on a curve of radius 300 m, what will be the correction
to be applied? [Ans. 4806.75 m3, 20.46 m3]
13.13 Levels were taken at every 40 m along a piece of ground. The following observations
were recorded:
Distance (m) 0 40 80 120 160 200
R.L. (m) 105.0 114.2 123.6 128.0 130.2 125.6
A cutting is to be made for a line of uniform gradient through the first and the last
point. Determine its gradient. Calculate the volume of excavation if the formation
width is 8.0 m, with side slopes in cutting being 1.5:1, and the natural ground slope
being 10:1. The ground across the c/ l is level. [Ans. 1 in 9.7, 30 478.7 m3]
13.14 A railway embankment 400 m long is 12 m wide at the formation level. The side
slope of the embankment is 2:1. The formation level at zero chainage is 107.00.
The embankment has a rising gradient of 1 in 100. The ground is level across the
c/ l. Calculate the volume of earthwork using the prismoidal rule with the following
observations:
Distance (m) 0 100 200 300 400
R.L. (m) 104.8 106.2 107.5 107.2 108.3
[Ans. 14 583 m3]
13.15 At a station, a trench was measured and found to be 1 m wide and 1.25 m deep.
At the next station, 10 m away from the first one, it was 1.1 m wide 2.8 m deep.
Determine the volume of earthwork between the two stations using the prismoidal
formula. [Ans. 21.39 m3]
13.16 From the following set of notes, estimate the cross-sectional area:
3.0
_____ 1.5
____ 4.0 1.5 2.4
+ ___ ____ ___
–10.0 –4.0 0.0 +6.0 8.0 [Ans. 36.5 m2]
Width of formation = 12 m; side slope = 1.1
13.17 For a piece of borrow pit shown in Fig. 13.15 estimate the volume of earth removed.
At each corner, the data mentioned is the amount of mean cut in metres.
2.60 9m 2.80 1.42
1.32
9m
1.4 1.6 1.75 1.3
Objective-type Questions
13.1 What is the volume of a 6 m deep tank having rectangular shaped top 6 m 4 m
and bottom 4 m 2 m (computed through the use of prismoidal formula)?
(a) 96 m3 (b) 94 m3 (c) 92 m3 (d) 90 m3
13.2 In the volume computations by trapezoidal formula, the prismoidal correction is
(a) subtractive (b) additive
(c) may be subtractive or additive (d) not applicable
13.3 Volume of earthwork can be calculated by
(a) mid-ordinates (b) average ordinates
(c) prismoidal rule (d) Hund’s rule
13.4 Because of irregular boundaries, if the computed area of a cross section works out
to be less than the actual one, it is known as
(a) under break (b) over break (c) free haul (d) overhaul
13.5 Which of the following formulae is unjustified in rock excavations?
(a) Trapezoidal (b) Prismoidal (c) Simpson’s (d) Hund’s
13.6 The curvature correction in the earthwork computation is
(a) always positive
(b) always negative
(c) positive if the centroid and centre of curvature are to the opposite side of the
centre line
(d) positive if the centroid and centre of curvature are to the same side of the
centre line.
13.7 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The downward slope of the curve of a mass diagram in the direction of
increasing abscissa indicates a fill.
(b) The algebraic difference between a maximum ordinate and the next forward
minimum ordinate represents the total volume of the embankment.
(c) The vertical distance between a minima ordinate and the next forward maxima
ordinate represents the whole volume of cutting.
(d) All of the above.
574 Surveying
Introduction
Setting out is a survey undertaken in order to transfer onto the site the plans
prepared as a result of some previous survey. Setting out, in a sense, is the
reverse of the conventional surveying. Here, instead of using data from the site
to prepare plans, the plans and designs prepared by the designer are transferred
accurately onto the actual site using the instruments and techniques described in
the previous chapters. It may be described as the fixing of well-defined points
in the field showing the horizontal and vertical positions required by the plans.
As such task of the surveyor (the site engineer) is very important and consists of
horizontal control—to ensure that the new structure is in correct place; vertical
control—to ensure that the levels of its various important points are correct and;
vertical alignment—to ensure that the construction is plumb.
To build according to the plan, a contractor must have reference lines and points
established in the field. This involves placing of pegs or marks to define the lines
and levels of work whereafter, the construction proceeds according to these marks.
Some factors to be considered during setting out works are:
1. The reference lines and points should be well defined, not easily perishable,
close to the work yet out of the way or actual construction operations.
2. A very high degree of accuracy should be maintained and only extremely
low tolerances should be allowed. In order to achieve this, frequent and
independent checking should be done. Further, it is important that the
surveyor is aware of the accuracy achievable with the equipment at his
disposal and that the technique appropriate is used.
3. The instruments used should be checked frequently and discrepancies, if
any, should be removed.
In most of the setting out works, the principle is very simple, but in practise,
difficulties like skew plans, obstructions, etc., are encountered which often
necessitate the use of indirect methods. The use of surveying methods provide
the tool for layout or setting out works as well as the control which makes the
proper layout possible.
The contemporary construction scenario encompasses a wide variety of
structures. As such, it will be impossible to cover every conceivable setting
576 Surveying
out problem in this book. Instead, a few more common and important ones are
discussed herein.
14.1 DefinitiOnS
The information on the plan of the proposed structure should be transferred to
the ground in a format that can be understood by the workforce of the survey
team on site. Following are some control points which are established so as to
accomplish the task.
These are the stations on the control traverse
or control triangulation system. The station should be of permanent type, clearly
marked and protected so as not to get disturbed by the construction traffic, and
should have sufficient space for the instrument to be set up and freely accessed.
These are the stations established close to the
points of detail on the site, and are referenced by measurements from the primary
points. They must be robust and rigid enough to survive the construction period.
These are points used to mark the location of the features of
interest such as the column center or building corner. Generally square timber pegs
of 50 mm square are used as markers.
These are used for vertical control to provide a
bench mark close to the site. The bench mark should be rigid.
Some terms which are used frequently in setting out works are defined below.
The term stake refers to any type of keel which is driven into the ground
so as to act as a permanent identification mark. Stakes may be made to timber,
steel, copper, etc. Generally, these are pointed at the end to facilitate their anchoring
into the ground. Depending upon
the purpose it serves, it is termed
as guard, grade, or line stake.
In the setting out ng
ildi
works, post is used to refer to any Bu
circular or square pole, generally
wooden, which is used for various
purposes, e.g., acting as a peg to Wires
support horizontal members like
sight rails.
Batter
This is also board
known as a slope rail. In setting
out works of large magnitudes, Stake
where absolute accuracy is
required, batter-boards are used
in conjunction with the wooden
stakes or pins (Fig. 14.1 (a, b)).
A batter-board is generally a flat,
Setting Out Works 577
D C
2m
2m 2m
2m
A B
580 Surveying
(i) In steps (d) and (e), after marking points D and C, respectively, the
diagonals BD and AC should be measured. These lengths should correspond
to the distances on the plan.
(ii) After setting out the point C, the length CD should be measured and should
be exactly same as that of AB.
2m
D C
2m
A B
(c) By using these stakes, the position of any point can be obtained by plotting
its coordinates using the reference stakes.
Setting Out Works 581
7. The other corners of the wing walls and the abutments are marked in a
similar way.
8. The final outline of each abutment is marked by stretching a chord around
the periphery passing through the marked points. In case of curved wing
walls, the points on the curve can be set out using the method of offsets
to the chord.
3. The length of the base line AD is calculated using the measured length of
base line BC and the corrected angles.
4. The calculated length is then compared with the measured length. If the
difference is less than 1 in 5000, the length of centre line AB is calculated
from these corrected angles and thereafter the length of the base line,
otherwise, the operation is repeated until the desired degree of accuracy
is obtained.
Two methods are used for location
of piers.
The steps involved are:
1. After accurately measuring the length
of the centre line AB (Fig. 14.11),
base lines are laid out on each bank,
perpendicular to the centre line. Let
it be required to fix the position of
piers P1 and P2.
2. On each base line, and on both the
sides of the centre line AB, points P1,
P 1 and P2, P 2 are marked such that
AP1 = AP 1 = AP 1 and AP2 = AP2 =
AP 2 or BP1 = BP1 = BP 1 and BP2 = BP2 = BP 2.
3. The intersecting lines P 1 – P 1, P 2 – P 1 and P 2 – P 2, P 2 – P 2 make
angles of 45° with the base lines on the opposite bank as well as with the
center line.
4. The centre point P1 (on the centre line) is located by simultaneous sighting
at the intersection of two lines P 1 – P 1 and P 1 – P 1. The second point
P2 can be located in a similar way.
The advantage of this method lies in the fact that the intersection lines can be
established from a point on one bank to the corresponding point on the opposite
bank. The only problem encountered is that of the difficulty in establishing truly perpendicular
base lines.
(d) The top edge of each sight rail is set truly horizontal with the help of a
spirit level.
(e) Using a level, the top of each rail is set at a whole number of metres
above the invert of the sewer.
(f) A boning rod (Fig. 14.13 (b)) of the same length is prepared.
(g) A nail is driven in the top edge of the sight rail, at the exact centre, to
define the centre line of the sewer.
(h) The gradient of the invert of the sewer is given by the gradient of a line
joining the top edges of two consecutive sight rails.
(i) The depth of the excavations at the intermediate sections can be obtained
by stretching a chord between these rails and using the boning rod.
7. Now, the alignment is marked on markers driven into the holes, e.g., E,
drilled in the roof.
Levelling
on the surface is done in the usual way and the levels are transferred underground
at the ends of the tunnel by levelling from the nearest reference or benchmark. In
case of transfer of levels underground at the shaft, the steps involved are:
1. A steel wire loaded with a weight of
50–150 N is passed over a pulley at the
top of the shaft and is then lowered into
the shaft (Fig. 14.15).
2. Two fine wires AA and BB are stretched
at the top and bottom of the shaft
respectively.
3. The steel wire lowered into the shaft is
so adjusted that it is in contact with both
the wires AA and BB.
4. The points of contact are marked on the
steel wire by a chalk or by some other
marker.
5. The wire is withdrawn from the shaft and is stretched on the ground.
6. The distance between the two marks, on the wire, is measured using a
measuring tape and this gives the level of the bottom of the shaft.
Summary
After the survey field work and office work are over, the project for which survey was
conducted is set out. The instruments and procedures for setting out works are same as
those used for making measurements but with a difference that in setting out, the points
on the plan are transferred to the actual site.
The horizontal and vertical control points are established to accomplish the task. For
small structures, permanent features nearby may be used as control points, but for important
structures these are fixed from the triangulation points. Procedure for setting out of buildings,
culverts, bridges, tunnels, pipe lines and sewer lines are described.
Exercises
14.1 Describe the methods for setting out of a building.
14.2 Describe the methods used for setting out of culverts. Also state as to why these
cannot be used in the case of setting out of bridges.
14.3 Describe the procedure of setting out of pipelines and sewers.
14.4 It is desired to set out a rectangular building 40 m × 36 m with 15 cm thick walls.
The width of the foundation is 1 m. The building is divided into three equal parts.
The internal walls are 10 cm thick and the foundation width is 75 cm. Draw a
detailed plan showing all the pegs required for setting out this building.
14.5 Discuss in details the steps involved in setting the centre line of bridges.
14.6 Discuss the steps involved in setting out the positions of piers of a bridge.
Setting Out Works 587
Objective-type Questions
14.1 Setting out is done
(a) prior to the preparation of plans
(b) along with the preparation of plans
(c) after the preparation of plans
(d) if obstructions are present
14.2 Which of the following is associated with the setting out of sewers and pipe
lines?
(a) Batter-board (b) Cross-staff
(c) Cross-head (d) optical square
14.3 Pegs or stakes are not generally fixed at the exact corner of the buildings because
(a) it is difficult to set them there
(b) they might be lost during the excavations
(c) they are not required at corners
(d) they are made of wood and may rot
14.4 The setting out of culverts involves locating the corners of abutments and wing
walls, with respect to the
(a) centre line of the water body (b) centre line of the road
(c) Both of the above (d) None of these
14.5 In designing of culverts, the centre lines of the water body and road, and the point
of their intersection are considered analogous to
(a) the axes of coordinates and the origin
(b) the base lines and the origin
(c) the axes and the critical point
(d) None of the above
14.6 Bridges cannot be set out from the centre because
(a) they generally consist of more than one span
(b) the water body involved is generally a perennial one
(c) both of the above
(d) the width of the bridge is quite small
14.7 Setting out of bridges involves
(a) determination of the length of centre line and the height of piers
(b) determination of the direction of centre line and the height of piers
(c) determination of the length of centre line and the position of piers
(d) None of the above
14.8 Invert is defined as
(a) the R.L. of the inverted pipeline
(b) the R.L. of the top of the sewer
(c) the R.L. of the bottom of the inner surface of sewer or pipe
(d) the R.L. determined with staff inverted
14.9 Cross-heads are generally erected at
(a) 30 m intervals (b) change of grades
(c) change of direction (d) All of these
14.10 The length of a boning rod for a section of the sewer is
(a) kept constant
(b) changed frequently
(c) changed at the alternate intermediate sections
(d) changed at every section
588 Surveying
I. RefeRence of Maps
The system of reference and numbering map sheets is the reference of a map. To
facilitate the use of a map consisting of many sheets the convention is to give each
map sheet its own designation. The arrangement of the map sheets is indicated in
what is called a reference sheet.
of half-inch map is 54 K/SE, 54 K/SW (denoting the directions from the centre
of the 54 K sheet).
60 64 96 100
68 72 76 80 84 88 92
28 89
32 37 80
42 51 60 69 75
36 N
29 90
33 38 81
43 52 61 70 76
32
30
34 39 91
44 77 82
53 62 71
28
A E I M
31 92
35 40 B F J N 83
45 54 63 72 78
24 C G K O
D H L P
36 93
41 79 84
46 55 64 73
20
94
47 85
16 56 65 74
1 95
5 9 13 48 57 66
86
2 6 10 14 12
K
3 7 11 15 96
49 87
58 67
4 8 12 8
16
0 200 97
400 88
50 59 68
km 4
(b) (a)
FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal horizontal
angle
Remarks
a B angle a B angle
Sighted to
° ° ° ° ° ° °
Instrument at
nos. of Repetition
nos. of Repetition
Appendices
593
v. MeasuReMent of hoRIzontal angles—ReIteRatIon MethoD
594
FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal horizontal
a B angle a B angle angle
Sighted to
Correction
Instrument at
° ° ° ° ° ° °
Corrected Included angle
Surveying
vI. foRM foR MeasuReMent of BeaRIng ReIteRatIon MethoD
Date: Instrument No. ...
Weather: Party Members ...
Theodolite Traversing:
FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan Magnetic Vernier Vernier MEan Magnetic Magnetic
Bearing
Remarks
a B Bearing a B Bearing
Sighted to
° ° ° ° ° ° °
Instrument at
Appendices
595
vII. foRM foR MeasuReMent of veRtIcal angles
596
FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan Vertical Vernier Vernier MEan Vertical Vertical
angle
Remarks
C D angle C D angle
Sighted to
° ° ° ° ° ° °
Instrument at
Surveying
vIII. foRM foR MeasuReMent of veRtIcal DIstances—heIght of
InstRuMent MethoD
Date: Instrument No. ...
Weather: Type of Instrument ...
Levelling Instrument Man ...
Staff Man ...
Station Back sight Intermediate sight Fore sight height of instrument R.L. Remarks
(B.S.) (I.S.) (F.S.) (h.I.)
Appendices
Station Distance Back sight Intermediate Fore sight Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
(B.S.) sight (I.S.) (F.S.)
Surveying
The conic projection is based on the principle that a piece of paper can be
rolled into the shape of a cone. In the normal conic projection system (Fig. A.3),
the apex of the cone lies vertically above the pole on the earth’s axis produced,
and the surface of the cone will be tangent to the sphere along some parallel of
latitude. This is also known as lambert conformal conic projection.
Appendices 601
Standard parallel
Central meridian
For this purpose, the parallel which is selected is the one along which the cone
is tangential. The selected parallel is called the standard parallel. This becomes
an arc of a circle after the cone is unfolded along a plane. The axis along which
the cone is flattened, forms the central meridian of the map. Other meridians are
straight lines radiating from the vertex of the cone at equal intervals, dividing
the standard parallels into equal arcs. Other parallels will be concentric with the
standard parallels.
In cylindrical projection (Fig. A.4), the graticule is prepared by imagining the
surface of a globe projected on the surface of a hollow cylinder. When the cylinder
is unfolded into a flat surface, it gives a rectangular surface to the globe in which
the meridians and parallels are represented as straight lines, intersecting each other
at right angles. The cylindrical and zenithal projections are special cases of conic
projection: when the pole itself becomes the selected parallel, the angle at the
apex will be 180° — the surface of the cone will become similar to the tangent
plane of zenithal projection. When the selected parallel is the equator, the vertex
will be at an infinite distance and the cone will become a cylinder. This is also
known as Mercator projection.
In India, the topographic maps produced by the survey of India use polyconic
projection. In principle it represents the piling up of as many hollow cones as
the circles of latitude to which they closely correspond. Thus, all the cones are
tangent to the sphere along the corresponding parallels of latitudes, all of which
subsequently become standard parallels. But these are not concentric circles as in
the case of conic projection. In this projection, the scale is true only along the
602 Surveying
central meridian and parallels. The projection is, however, suitable for the topo-
graphic survey sheets prepared with their independent meridians. Under this system
while conic projection is used, the whole sheet is divided into four segments or
adjacent sheets. This enables to show surface features in more details. Though
the maps do not exactly fit in along their common edges, they provide a good
assemblage of the mosaic of a particular area represented on the maps. The
polyconic projection system is shown in Fig. A.5.
Y
N
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
180 10
W
150 30
120 60
90
DF) are short and are hinged together at end D, and are connected to long arms
at E and F, having equal sides in all the positions of the instrument. A weight
W, known as fulcrum, is attached to long arm AB to fix the frame in a desired
position and the instrument moves about this. The instrument is fixed on small
rollers to allow free movement on the plan.
A E C
F
D
G
B
W
Arms AB and DF are provided with graduations 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. to give
a corresponding enlargement or reduction. Arm AB carries a standing tubular
frame with an index line and a vertical axis of rotation which slides on the arm.
The arm DF also carries a frame with an index line and a sliding pencil. Both
these frames can be clamped at any division with the respective clamping screw.
In Fig. A.6 points C and G are the tracing point and pencil point, respectively.
The instrument in this position is used for reduction. These two points are
interchangeable. When G is used as tracing point and C as pencil point, the
instrument can be used for enlargement. The arm AC, carrying a tracing point
at C, when moved over the boundary of the plan with the pencil fixed at G,
produces the desired reduced scale copy.
The instrument is very suitable for reductions but for enlargements the results
are not satisfactory.
principle
The working of the pentagraph is based on the principle of similar triangles.
Let AB and AC be two straight arms hinged at A. E and F are two points on
the respective arms equidistant from A (Fig. A.7). AFDE is a parallelogram. Let
AC be hinged at J and the end B moved. The movement of points G and J will
be in the ratio of their distances from F and E, respectively.
ADEF is a parallelogram. Hence, FG is parallel to AE.
Also GFB = BAC
WGF and WJA are similar triangles.
604 Surveying
A
G
F
W
B
WG
____ FW
Hence, = ____
WJ AW
Any displacement of J will give a corresponding displacement of G through
FW/AW and hence the plan placed at J will be reduced.
eIDogRaph
The eidograph is also used for the same purposes as the pentagraph. The
pentagraph requires four supports on the paper and has numerous joints; its
action is apt to be unsteady. In contrast, eidograph has only one support upon which
the entire instrument moves steadily and regularly. All the joints of the eidograph
consist of fulcrums fitting in accurately ground bearings, the motion around these
fulcrums being capable of adjustment for regularity as well as accuracy. Further,
an eidograph may be set to form a reduced copy bearing any required proportion
to the original, while a pentagraph can be set for only few proportions specifically
marked on it.
construction
Figure A.8 shows the constructional details of an eidograph. The heavy weight
(H) of the eidograph is formed by lead with brass covering. It has three or four
needle-points to keep it steady on the paper. The pin, forming the fulcrum upon
which the whole instrument moves, projects from the centre of this weight on its
upper side, and fits into a socket attached to sliding box (K ). The centre beam
(C) fits into and slides through the box, and can be adjusted to any desired
position with respect to the fulcrum. It can be fixed by a clamping screw
attached to the box. The centre pins of the pulley-wheels (J) are fitted into the
deep sockets attached to each end of the centre beam. The pulley wheels have
two steel bands (I ) attached to their circumference, so that they can move only
simultaneously, and to exactly the same amount. By means of screw adjustments
these bands can have their lengths regulated so as to bring the arms of the instrument
into exact parallelism and, at the same time, to bring them to such a degree of
tension so as to provide the motions of the arms with the required steadiness,
Appendices 605
E J
K
C H B
R
G
which forms one of the advantages of the instrument over the pentagraph. The
arms, A and B, of the instrument pass through sliding boxes upon the under side
of the pulley wheels; these boxes, like that for the centre beam, being fitted with
clamping screws, by which the arms can be fixed in any desired position. At the
end of one of the arms is fixed a socket with clamping screw, to carry a tracing-
point, G, and at the end of the other is a socket for a loaded pencil, D, which
606 Surveying
principle
The pulleys being of exactly equal size, when the steel bands are adjusted so as
to bring the arms of the instrument into exact parallelism, they will remain
parallel throughout all the movements of the pulleys in their sockets, and thus
will always make equal angles with the centre beam. If, then, the two arms and
the centre beam are all set so that the readings of their divisions are the same, a
line drawn from the end of one arm across the fulcrum to the end of the other
arm will form, with the beam and arms, two triangles having their sides about equal
angles proportionals, and being, therefore, similar. Hence any motion communi-
cated to the end of one arm will produce a similar motion at the end of the other,
so that the tracing point being moved over any figure whatever, an exactly similar
figure will be described by the pencil.
Suppose it is required to set the instrument so that the proportion of the copy
to the original be a : b. Let x be the reading to which the instrument should be
set, then the centre beam and arms are each divided at their fulcrums into
portions whose lengths are 100 – x and 100 + x, respectively consequently,
(100 – x)/(100 + x) = a/b
x = 100 (b – a)/(b + a)
Thus, if the proportions are 1 : 2, we have x = 100 (2 – 1)/(2 + 1) = 33.3
The instrument must be set with the third divisions of the verniers beyond the
indices and the third divisions of the instrument beyond the 33rd. The readings
to which the instrument must be set for given proportions is given in Table 1.
Proportions 1:2 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:6 2:3 2:5 3:4 3:5
Readings 33.3 50 60 66.7 71.4 20 42.9 14.3 25
When the copy is to be reduced, the centre beam is to be set to the reading
found, as above, on the side of the zero next to the arm carrying the pencil point,
and this arm is also to be set to the same reading on the side of its centre or
zero nearest to the pencil end, while the tracer arm is to be set with the reading
farthest from the tracer. When the copy is to be enlarged, these arrangements must
of course be reversed.
Appendices 607
Figure A.9 represents the setting which makes the linear dimensions
get reduced to one-fourth (Fig. A.9 (a)) and get enlarged to four times
(Fig. A.9 (b)). For proportion 1 : 4, the reading to be set is 60. P represents the
position of the pencil point, T that of the tracer, and F the place of the fulcrum.
P P
60
60 60
F
60
60 60
F
T T
Minutes 0° 1° 2° 3°
hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 100.00 0.00 99.97 1.74 99.88 03.49 99.73 5.23
2 100.00 0.06 99.97 1.80 99.87 3.55 99.72 5.28
4 100.00 0.12 99.97 1.86 99.87 3.60 99.71 5.34
6 100.00 0.17 99.96 1.92 99.87 3.66 99.71 5.40
8 100.00 0.23 99.96 1.98 99.86 3.72 99.70 5.46
10 100.00 0.29 99.96 2.04 99.86 3.78 99.69 5.52
12 100.00 0.35 99.96 2.09 99.85 3.84 99.69 5.57
14 100.00 0.41 99.95 2.15 99.85 3.89 99.68 5.63
16 100.00 0.47 99.95 2.21 99.84 3.95 99.68 5.69
18 100.00 0.52 99.95 2.27 99.84 4.01 99.67 5.75
20 100.00 0.58 99.95 2.33 99.83 4.07 99.66 5.80
22 100.00 0.64 99.94 2.38 99.83 4.13 99.66 5.86
24 100.00 0.70 99.94 2.44 99.82 4.18 99.65 5.92
26 99.99 0.76 99.94 2.50 99.82 4.24 99.64 5.98
28 99.99 0.81 99.93 2.56 99.81 4.30 99.63 6.04
30 99.99 0.87 99.93 2.62 99.81 4.36 99.63 6.09
32 99.99 0.93 99.93 2.67 99.80 4.42 99.62 6.15
34 99.99 0.99 99.93 2.73 99.80 4.47 99.61 6.21
36 99.99 1.05 99.92 2.79 99.79 4.53 99.61 6.27
38 99.99 1.11 99.92 2.85 99.79 4.59 99.60 6.32
40 99.99 1.16 99.92 2.91 99.78 4.65 99.59 6.38
42 99.99 1.22 99.91 2.97 99.78 4.71 99.58 6.44
44 99.98 1.28 99.91 3.02 99.77 4.76 99.58 6.50
46 99.98 1.34 99.90 3.08 99.77 4.82 99.57 6.56
48 99.98 1.40 99.90 3.14 99.76 4.88 99.56 6.61
50 99.98 1.45 99.90 3.20 99.76 4.94 99.55 6.67
52 99.98 1.51 99.89 3.26 99.75 4.99 99.55 6.73
54 99.98 1.57 99.89 3.31 99.74 5.05 99.54 6.79
56 99.97 1.63 99.89 3.37 99.74 5.11 99.53 6.84
58 99.97 1.69 99.88 3.43 99.73 5.17 99.52 6.90
60 99.97 1.74 99.88 3.49 99.73 5.23 99.51 6.96
C = 0.2 m 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.01 0.20 0.01 0.20 0.01
C = 0.3 m 0.30 0.00 0.30 0.01 0.30 0.01 0.30 0.02
C = 0.4 m 0.40 0.00 0.40 0.01 0.40 0.02 0.40 0.02
Appendices 609
Minutes 4° 5° 6° 7°
hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 99.51 6.96 99.24 8.68 98.91 10.40 98.51 12.10
2 99.51 7.02 99.23 8.74 98.90 10.45 98.50 12.15
4 99.50 7.07 99.22 8.80 98.88 10.51 98.49 12.21
6 99.49 7.13 99.21 8.85 98.87 10.57 98.47 12.27
8 99.48 7.19 99.20 8.91 98.86 10.62 98.46 12.32
10 99.47 7.25 99.19 8.97 98.85 10.68 98.44 12.38
12 99.46 7.30 99.18 9.03 98.83 10.74 98.43 12.43
14 99.46 7.36 99.17 9.08 98.82 10.79 98.41 12.49
16 99.45 7.42 99.16 9.14 98.81 10.85 98.40 12.55
18 99.44 7.48 99.15 9.20 98.80 10.91 98.39 12.60
20 99.43 7.53 99.14 9.25 98.78 10.96 98.37 12.66
22 99.42 7.59 99.13 9.31 98.77 11.02 98.36 12.72
24 99.41 7.65 99.11 9.37 98.76 11.08 98.34 12.77
26 99.40 7.71 99.10 9.43 98.74 11.13 98.33 12.83
28 99.39 7.76 99.09 9.48 98.73 11.19 98.31 12.88
30 99.38 7.82 99.08 9.54 98.72 11.25 98.30 12.94
32 99.38 7.88 99.07 9.60 98.71 11.30 98.28 13.00
34 99.37 7.94 99.06 9.65 98.69 11.36 98.27 13.05
36 99.36 7.99 99.05 9.71 98.68 11.42 98.25 13.11
38 99.35 8.05 99.04 9.77 98.67 11.47 98.24 13.17
40 99.34 8.11 99.03 9.83 98.65 11.53 98.22 13.22
42 99.33 8.17 99.01 9.88 98.64 11.59 98.20 13.28
44 99.32 8.22 99.00 9.94 98.63 11.64 98.19 13.33
46 99.31 8.28 98.99 10.00 98.61 11.70 98.17 13.39
48 99.30 8.34 98.98 10.05 98.60 11.76 98.16 13.45
50 99.29 8.40 98.97 10.11 98.58 11.81 98.14 13.50
52 99.28 8.45 98.96 10.17 98.57 11.87 98.13 13.56
54 99.27 8.51 98.94 10.22 98.56 11.93 98.11 13.61
56 99.26 8.57 98.93 10.28 98.54 11.98 98.10 13.67
58 99.25 8.63 98.92 10.34 98.53 12.04 98.08 13.73
60 99.24 8.68 98.91 10.40 98.51 12.10 98.06 13.78
C = 0.2 m 0.20 0.02 0.2 0.02 0.19 0.02 0.19 0.03
C = 0.3 m 0.30 0.02 0.3 0.03 0.29 0.03 0.29 0.04
C = 0.4 m 0.40 0.03 0.4 0.04 0.39 0.04 0.39 0.05
610 Surveying
To construct the diagram (Fig. A.10), the scale of distance reading up to 300
metres is set out vertically. On the horizontal line at 30 m reading, the values of
horizontal correction (= Ks sin2 = 300 sin2 ) is marked off for vertical angle
increasing by a suitable interval at every 5 or 10 . These points are joined to
the origin to get various radial lines. Since the horizontal correction is directly
proportional to the distance reading for a given angle, these radial lines give
horizontal correction for other distance readings on the scale.
2. Reduction Diagram for Vertical Component
1
To construct the reduction diagram for the vertical component (V = Ks __ sin 2 ), the
2
distance reading (Ks) is set off on the horizontal scale and the vertical component
Appendices 617
A B
Abney hand level 230 Back bearing 97
Accuracy 21, 79, 279, 340, 387, 527 Back ray method 357
Aclinic lines 108 Back sight 216
Agonic lines 104 Back and fore sight distances 241
Additive constant 305 Balancing
Alidade 350 a traverse 192
Alidade assembly 127 in 133
Altimeter 278 Barometer 278
Altitude bubble 129 Barometric levelling 278
Anallactic lens 309 accuracy of 279
Apex distance 418 Barr and Stroud Range Finder 332
Arbitrary bearing 90 Baseline 9, 31
Arbitrary meridian 90 Bathymetric curves 369
Archaeological Survey 6 Beaman stadia arc 333
Area Bearing 89
by coordinate squares 522 adjustment 202
by geometrical figures 512 arbitrary 90
by longitude 519 back 97
from coordinates 202, 518 fore 97
from measurement by meridian forward 97
distance 519 grid 89, 90
from measurement by planimeter 520 magnetic 89, 90
from offsets 514 quadrantal 89, 96
subdivision 532 reduced 89, 97
Arrows 35 reverse 83
Assumptions on vertical curve 487 true 90
Astigmatisers 333 whole circle 89, 96
Automatic level 225 Bench mark 217
Autoreduction tacheometer 337 arbitrary 217
Average ordinate rule 514 great trigonometric survey 217
Axis correction method 195 permanent 217
Axis of temporary 217
level tube 133, 216 Bernoulli’s lemniscate curve 461
telescope 216 Bessel’s solution 359
Azimuth 90 Boning rod 578
Index 619
cadastral 4 linen 34
city 7 metallic 34
classification of 4 steel 34
control 7 Tape corrections 53
defence 6 Target staff 233
EDM 9 Telemeter 331
engineering 6 Telescope 131, 218
geodetic 5 external focussing 218
geographical 6 internal focussing 218
geological 7 inverted 133
hydrographic 7 normal 133
location 7 swinging 133
mine 6 Telescopic alidade 349
plane 5 Telluro meter 77
preliminary 7 Temperature correction 54
reconnaissance 7 Temporary adjustments 95, 134, 234, 353
topographical 7 Theodolite
total station 9 care 147
underground 7 electronic 156
Surveying 4 Three point problem 350
chain 8,30 Tie line 30
character of work 10 Tie station 30
measurements 5 Tilting level 227
classification 11 Topographic
practice 9 map 4, 341
principles 22 survey 7
Survey line Total-station 393
main 30 capabilities of 410
tie 30 characteristics of 409
Surveyor compass 93 with enhanced capabilities 412
Swinging telescope 133 features of 394
Systematic errors 20 Transit 126, 132
Szepessy direct reading technometer 337 Transit theodolite 127
Transit rule 132, 192
T Transition curve 416, 455
Table land 374 elements of 466
Tacheometer 298 equation 463
auto-reduction 337 froude’s 465
direct reading 336 ideal 461
double image 338 length 459
jeffcott direct reading 336 requirements 456
reduction diagrams 616 setting out 468
tables 608 types of 471
szepessy direct reading 337 Trapezoidal formula 551
Tacheometry methods 8, 301 Trapezoidal rule 514
Tally 32 Travelling rod 563
Tangent correction 491 Traverse
Tangential method 302, 326 closed 171, 190
Tangent screws 130 open 172, 190
Tape 34 plotting of 173
invar 34
Index 625
V Z
Valley line 375 Zero circle 525
Vernier theodolite 126 Zero correction 74
5
12
7
8
10
6 9