SK Duggal Vol 1

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 658

Surveying

volume 1
Fourth edition
About the Author
S K Duggal is currently Professor in the Department of Civil
Engineering at Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
(MNNIT), Allahabad. He obtained his BE, ME and PhD degrees
from Allahabad University. He has an experience of more than
36 years of teaching at both undergraduate and postgraduate
levels. Prof. Duggal has published numerous research papers
in various international and national journals/conferences
and is also the author of Design of Steel Structures, 3e
and Limit State Design of Steel Structures, 1e published by
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
Surveying
volume 1
Fourth edition

S K Duggal
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology
Allahabad

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited


New Delhi

McGraw Hill Education Offices


New Delhi New York St louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas
Kuala lumpur lisbon london Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal
San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
P-24, Green Park Extension, New Delhi 110 016
Surveying, Volume 1, 4e
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2004, 1996, by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without
the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listing (if any) may be entered, stored
and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.
This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.

ISBN (13): 978-1-25-902899-1


ISBN (10): 1-25-902899-2
Vice President and Managing Director: Ajay Shukla
Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan
Publishing Manager—SEM & Tech. Ed: Shalini Jha
Sr Editorial Researcher: Harsha Singh
Manager—Production Systems: Satinder S Baveja
Sr Production Manager: P L Pandita
Copy Editor: Preyoshi Kundu
Assistant General Manager—Higher Education (Marketing): Vijay Sarathi
Product Specialist—SEM & Tech Ed: Sachin Tripathi
Sr Graphic Designer (Cover): Meenu Raghav
General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela
Production Manager—Reji Kumar

Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources
believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education
(India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use
of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill Education
(India) and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or
other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional
should be sought.

Typeset at Text-o-Graphics, B-1/56, Aravali Apartment, Sector-34, Noida 201 301, and printed at
India Binding House, A-98, Sector 65, Noida, UP
Cover Printer: India Binding House
RYZLCRZORBLXL
Contents

Preface xv
Visual Walkthrough xviii

Introduction 1
1.1 Definitions 2
1.2 Surveying 4
1.3 Classification of Survey 5
1.4 Practice of Surveying 9
1.5 Surveying—Character of Work 10
1.6 Field Work 10
1.7 Office Work 13
1.8 Errors 19
1.9 Distinction Between Mistake and Error 20
1.10 Distinction between Precision and Accuracy 21
1.11 Principles of Surveying 22
1.12 Units of Measure 23
Summary 24
Exercises 24
Objective-type Questions 25
Answer to Objective-type Questions 28

Introduction 29
2.1 Chain Surveying 30
2.2 Chain 31
2.3 Tape 34
2.4 Accessories for Chaining 34
2.5 Line Ranger 36
2.6 Cross-Staff 37
2.7 Optical Square 38
2.8 Prism Square 40
2.9 Running Survey Lines 40
2.10 Linear Measurement with Chain 43
2.11 Errors in Chaining 48
2.12 Errors in Measurement with Incorrect Chain Length 49
2.13 Linear Measurements with Tape 51
2.14 Tape Corrections 53
2.15 Offsets 58
viii Contents

2.16 Field Book 62


2.17 Obstacles to Chaining 64
2.18 Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) 69
Summary 79
Exercises 79
Objective-type Questions 82
Answer to Objective-type Questions 87

Introduction 88
3.1 Definitions 89
3.2 Types of Compass 91
3.3 Temporary Adjustments of Compass 95
3.4 Designation of Bearings 96
3.5 Reduced Bearing 97
3.6 Fore Bearing and Back Bearing 97
3.7 Calculation of Included Angles from Bearings 98
3.8 Calculation of Bearings from Included Angles 101
3.9 Magnetic Declination 104
3.10 Dip 107
3.11 Local Attraction 108
3.12 Determining True Meridian 119
3.13 Chain Surveying Versus Compass Surveying 120
Summary 120
Exercises 121
Objective-type Questions 122
Answer to Objective-type Questions 125

Introduction 126
4.1 Classification 127
4.2 Construction Details 128
4.3 Taking out Theodolite From the Box 131
4.4 Placing Theodolite in the Box 131
4.5 Reading a Theodolite 131
4.6 Definitions 132
4.7 Changing Face 133
4.8 Temporary Adjustments 134
4.9 Permanent Adjustments 136
4.10 Plate Level Test 137
4.11 Cross-Hair Ring Test 138
4.12 Collimation in Azimuth Test 138
4.13 Spire Test 139
4.14 Vertical Circle Index Test 140
4.15 Vertical Arc Test 141
4.16 Measurement of Horizontal Angle 141
4.17 Measurement of Vertical Angle 144
Contents ix

4.18 Measurement of Direct Angle 145


4.19 Measurement of Deflection Angle 145
4.20 Measurement of Magnetic Bearing 146
4.21 Prolonging a Straight Line 146
4.22 Theodolite as a Level 147
4.23 Care of Theodolite 147
4.24 Errors 148
4.25 Micrometer Microscope 152
4.26 Optical Theodolite 153
4.27 Electronic Theodolite 156
Summary 163
Exercises 163
Objective-type Questions 165
Answer to Objective-type Questions 170

Introduction 171
5.1 Methods of Traversing 172
5.2 Plotting Traverse Survey 173
5.3 Checks 190
5.4 Closing Error 191
5.5 Balancing a Traverse 192
5.6 Distribution of Angular Error 202
5.7 Adjustment of Bearings 202
5.8 Computation of Area of a Closed Traverse by Coordinates 202
5.9 Omitted Measurements 203
Summary 208
Exercises 208
Objective-type Questions 211
Answer to Objective-type Questions 213

Introduction 214
6.1 Definitions 215
6.2 Level 218
6.3 Types of Level 224
6.4 Levelling Staff 231
6.5 Temporary Adjustments 234
6.6 Permanent Adjustments 236
6.7 Principle of Levelling 239
6.8 Balancing Backsight and Foresight Distances 241
6.9 Optimum Distance from Level to Staff 242
6.10 Field Procedure in Levelling 243
6.11 Use of Inverted Staff 252
6.12 Spot Levels 253
6.13 Curvature and Refraction 253
6.14 Checks in Levelling 257
x Contents

6.15 Levelling for Grading a Plot of Land 258


6.16 Levelling a Borrow Pit 259
6.17 Longitudinal or Profile Levelling 259
6.18 Cross sectioning 260
6.19 Reciprocal Levelling 261
6.20 Precise Levelling 265
6.21 Fly Levelling 267
6.22 Check Levelling 268
6.23 Trigonometric Levelling 269
6.24 Barometric Levelling 278
6.25 Hypsometry 281
6.26 Levelling Difficulties 282
6.27 Errors in Levelling 284
Summary 286
Exercises 286
Objective-type Questions 293
Answer to Objective-type Questions 297

Introduction 298
7.1 Instruments Used 298
7.2 Methods of Tacheometry 301
7.3 Fixed Hair Method 302
7.4 Anallactic Lens 309
7.5 Movable Hair Method or Subtense Method 322
7.6 Tangential Method 326
7.7 Range Finding 329
7.8 Special Instruments 333
7.9 Omnimeter 339
7.10 Sources of Error 340
7.11 Mistakes 340
7.12 Accuracy 340
Summary 341
Exercises 342
Objective-type Questions 344
Answer to Objective-type Questions 347

Introduction 348
8.1 Description of Plane Table 349
8.2 Temporary Adjustments 353
8.3 Setting up the Plane Table 353
8.4 Methods of Plane Table Surveying 354
8.5 Radiation 355
8.6 Traversing 355
8.7 Intersection 356
8.8 Resection 357
Contents xi

8.9 Resection After Orientation by Back Ray 357


8.10 Resection After Orientation by Two Points 358
8.11 Resection after Orientation by Three Points 359
8.12 Suitability of Resection 361
8.13 Strength of Fix 361
8.14 Plane Table Traversing Versus Theodolite Traversing 361
8.15 Plane Table Survey Versus Chain Survey 362
8.16 Sources of Error 362
8.17 Error Due to Inaccurate Centring 362
Summary 364
Exercises 364
Objective-type Questions 365
Answer to Objective-type Questions 367

Introduction 368
9.1 Definitions 369
9.2 Ghat Tracer 372
9.3 Typical Land Features and Their contour Forms 372
9.4 Characteristics of Contour Lines 376
9.5 Methods of Contouring 377
9.6 Interpolation of Contours 380
9.7 Determination of Height of a Point and Slope of a Line 381
9.8 Determination of the Rate of Slope 382
9.9 Plotting a Line of a Specified Gradient on a Map or Plan 383
9.10 Drawing Section from a Contour Map 384
9.11 Applications 384
9.12 Modern Methods of Depicting Relief on a Map 386
9.13 Accuracy 387
Summary 388
Exercises 388
Objective-type Questions 390
Answer to Objective-type Questions 392

Introduction 393
10.1 Features of Total-Station 394
10.2 Setting Up and Orienting a Total Station 403
10.3 On-Board Software 405
10.4 Electronic Data Recording 408
10.5 Summary of Total station Characteristics 409
10.6 Field Procedures for Total-Station in Topographic Surveys 410
10.7 Total-Station with Enhanced Capabilities 412
Summary 413
Exercises 414
Objective-type Questions 414
Answer to Objective-type Questions 414
xii Contents

Introduction 415
11.1 Classification 415
11.2 Simple Circular Curve 417
11.3 Compound Curve 445
11.4 Reverse Curve 449
11.5 Transition Curve 455
11.6 Vertical Curve 484
11.7 Sources of Error 501
11.8 Mistakes 501
Summary 502
Exercises 502
Objective-type Questions 505
Answer to Objective-type Questions 510

Introduction 511
12.1 Measurement of Area 512
12.2 Computation of Area by Geometrical Figures 512
12.3 Area from Offsets 514
12.4 Area from Coordinates 518
12.5 Area by Coordinate Squares 522
12.6 Area by Planimeter 523
12.7 Digital Planimeter 529
12.8 Subdivision of an Area 532
12.9 Sources of Error 537
12.10 Mistakes 537
Summary 538
Exercises 538
Objective-type Questions 540
Answer to Objective-type Questions 542

Introduction 543
13.1 Definitions 544
13.2 Methods of Measurements of Volume 544
13.3 Measurement from Cross Sections 545
13.4 Types of Cross Sections and Areas 545
13.5 Volume Formulae 550
13.6 Prismoidal Correction 553
13.7 Curvature Correction 554
13.8 Volume from Spot levels 554
13.9 Volume from Contour Map 556
13.10 Mass Diagram 558
13.11 Sources of Error 561
13.12 Mistakes 561
Summary 570
Contents xiii

Exercises 570
Objective-type Questions 573
Answer to Objective-type Questions 574

Introduction 575
14.1 Definitions 576
14.2 Setting Out of Structures 579
Summary 586
Exercises 586
Objective-type Questions 587
Answer to Objective-type Questions 588

I Reference of Maps 589


II to X Forms for Booking Measurements 591
XI The Projection Systems 600
XII Instruments for Enlarging, Reducing or Reproduction of Plans 602
XII Tacheometric Tables 608
XIV Tacheometric Reduction Diagrams 616
PrefACe

About the book


In the preparation of this book, my aim has been to present the text in a sequential
and lucid manner, containing all the essentials of practical surveying. The book
covers the ground suitable for a first degree course on the subject, and will also
prove to be a valuable source of study to those pursuing a diploma course. The
needs of self-studying students have been specially kept in view. In consequence,
many explanatory notes have been inserted particularly with reference to the more
common surveying operations.
The most outstanding and unique feature of the book is the condensation of
the exhaustive theory into a systematic, point-wise pattern and the inclusion of
objective questions at the end of each chapter. Numerical problems have also
been dealt with thoroughly. According to the international standards, most of the
calculations have been done in SI units, except for the details of old instruments.
An attempt has been made to also include all the recent developments in the field
of surveying.

salient features of this book


In-depth coverage of Theodolite traversing, Levelling and Contouring
Dedicated chapter on Total Station Survey
Provides exposure to recent developments in classification of surveys due
to rapid changes in instrumentation
Pedagogical features include:
Exercises 267
Solved Examples 167
MCQs 398

Chapter organisation
The subject matter in this volume is covered in 14 chapters. The first chapter
deals with an introduction to surveying. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 deal with the
measurement techniques with the instruments chain/tape, compass and theodolite
respectively. Chapter 5 deals with traversing. Chapters 6 and 7 describe level
and tacheometer respectively. Chapter 8 deals with plane table survey. Chapter 9
describes the representation of relief features. Chapter 10 deals with total-station
Survey. Chapter 11 describes laying and related field work of various types of
curves. Chapters 12 and 13 deal with the measurements of area and volume of
land respectively. Chapter 14 describes setting out of works.
xvi Preface

The text in this edition of the book has been thoroughly revised, updated and
made comprehensive. Many organisational changes have been made as well.
Other changes made in this edition include increased coverage in the chapters
on horizontal measurements and total-station survey. Extensive development in
the design and manufacture of surveying instruments has been witnessed due
to the introduction of electronics. The electromagnetic measurement technique
of measuring distances, which earlier was part of Surveying Volume 2, has now
been shifted to the present edition of Volume 1. The chapter of total-station
survey has been expanded and all the recent advancements have been included.
The goal of this revision has been to stress upon the fundamentals, make a strong
base for taking the foundation course and to update the readers with the latest
equipments. Desirable changes have also been affected in the text to maintain the
flow throughout the book.

Web supplements
The web supplements can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/duggal/s4vol1 and
contains the following material:
For Instructors

For Students

Acknowledgements
I am thankful to the various reviewers who took out time to review the book.
Their names are given below:
Arup Bhattacharya Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat, Assam
Sanjeev Kumar Suman National Institute of Technology, Patna, Bihar
G Bhaskar Institute of Road and Transport Technology,
Erode, Tamil Nadu
Pratap G Sonavane Walchad College of Engineering, Sangli, Maharashtra
S K Katiyar MANIT, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh
Archana Bohra Gupta MBM Engineering College, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
Keyur Nagecha VVP Engineering College, Rajkot, Gujarat
Vazeer Mahmmood College of Engineering, Andhra University, Andhra Pradesh
Ramakar Jha National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, Orissa

The continuous support of Dr S. Chakma and Dr N.R. Rawal, Assistant


Professors in Civil Engineering Department of MNNIT, for their critical comments
Preface xvii

is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due to Prof. A. K. Sachan, Dr R. D. Gupta,


Civil Engineering Department, MNNIT, for their suggestions to make this volume
versatile.
The author is thankful and expresses his gratitude to the faculty and students
of MNNIT Allahabad who have helped in the preparation of this book. I would
also like to thank the publishers for their immense cooperation in completing the
book in the shortest possible time.

feedback
No effort has been spared in keeping the book error-free, but still some might have
crept in. I will feel obliged if any such error is brought to my notice. Readers
may write to me at shashikantduggal@rediffmail.com.

S K Duggal

Publisher’s note
Do you have a feature request? A suggestion? We are always open to new ideas (the
best ideas come from you!). You may send your comments to tmh.civilfeedback@
gmail.com (kindly mention the title and author name in the subject line).
Piracy-related issue may also be reported.
VIsuAL WALKthrouGh

IntroDuCtIon
Each chapter begins with an
Introduction giving an overview of
Surveying is one of the oldest arts practised by man. History reveals that the
principles and practises of surveying were used, consciously or unconsciously, even
in the primitive ages, albeit in a crude manner. In the past few decades, however,
the chapter as well as its scope.
these have become more rational and channelised.
The introduction and practise of surveying is indispensable to all branches of
engineering. The training that a student receives, irrespective of his branch of
engineering, in the art of observing, recording and computing data, as well as in the
study of errors, their causes and effects, directly contribute to his success in other
professional courses. He develops inter alia such qualities as self-reliance, initiative
and the ability to get along with others. This also helps an engineer get acquainted
with the reasonable limits of accuracy and the value of significant figures. A
knowledge of the limits of accuracy can best be obtained by making measurements
with the surveying equipment employed in practise, as these measurements provide
a true concept of the theory of errors. An engineer must also know when to work
to thousandths, hundredths or tenths of a metre and what precision in field data
is necessary to justify carrying out computations to the desired number of decimal
place. With experience, he learns how the funds, equipments, time and personnel
available will govern the procedure and the results. Taking field notes under all

128 Surveying

A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one when its telescope cannot be revolv


through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis. Such theodolites
obsolete nowadays. Examples are Y-theodolite and Everest theodolite.

Point at which observations Vertical axis


are reduced

Transverse axis

90 Vertical circle rigidly


fixed to the telescope
90

fIGures
in face left

Figures have been used to Line of sight

describe the instrument details for


visualisation in simplified ways. Alidade
assembly

Horizontal
circle assembly

Levelling head
assembly
Visual Walkthrough xix

When the coordinates of the point to be set out are known, these coordinates

uP-to-DAte are entered into the total station after orientation. The setting-out mode is selected
and the difference between the calculated and measured bearings is displayed. The
telescope is rotated until the difference is zero, such that it points in the required
InforMAtIon direction. After the alignment, the prism-mounted pole is used and moved in a
way similar to the previous case for horizontal distance to set out the point.

Latest development of electronics- Earlier for plotting details, surveying was done manually. Later, with the advent of
based equipments and electronic computers, the practise was to key in the data recorded in the field books into the
computer for plotting details. The need for a better method of getting information
from the field to a computer was also accentuated with the introduction of a total
techniques of measurements are station. As a result, the conventional method of recording surveys was overtaken
by developments in computer mapping and survey instrumentation which made
described. electronic data recording and transfer essential.

Initially, the devices used were simple data loggers. But major advances were
made when it became possible to connect small portable computers to total
stations. These intelligent data loggers could be programmed to ask the surveyor

Therefore, 0.002 206 265 = 13.75 m


R = _______________
30
R = 13.75 m

If the bubble tube of a level has a sensitiveness of 30 per 2


division, find the error in staff reading, on a vertically held staff at a distance
150 m, caused by a bubble 2 divisions out of the centre.
exAMPLes
= (S/nD) 206 265
or S = nD /206 265 Examples help readers to relate
= 30 2 150/206 265
= 0.0436 m and apply the chapter content to
A level with a three-screw levelling head is set up with
telescope parallel to two of the foot screws and is sighted on a staff 100 m aw
real-life problems.
The line of sight is depressed by manipulating these two foot screws until
bubble on the telescope tube reads 4 divisions at the object glass end and
divisions at the eyepiece end. These readings represent divisions from a zero
the centre of the bubble tube. The reading on the staff was 1.350 m. By
elevating the sight, the bubble readings were 9 and 5 divisions at the obje
glass end and the eyepiece end, respectively, and the staff reading was 2.235
Determine the sensitivity of the bubble tube and the radius of curvature of
b if of di

ABD = 87°42 BD = 29.02 m


BDE = 282°36 DE = 77.14 m
DEC = 291°06
Calculate
(a) the length of line EC.
(b) the angle to be measured at C, so that the c/l of the road can be extended
beyond C.
(c) the chainage of C assuming the chainage of A to be 100 m and AB to be
130.64 m.

obJeCtIVe-tYPe [Ans. 17.82 m, 58°36 , 296.07 m]

QuestIons 5.1 If N is the number of stations and the least count of the instrument is 20 , then the
limit on the angular error of closure in traversing should
__ not be __
(a) <20 N (b) >20 N (c) <20 N (d) >20 N
Objective-type questions are help- 5.2 If n is the number of sides of a traverse, while traversing clockwise the sum of the
included angles should be
ful in the preparation for various (a) (2n – 4) 90°
(c) (2n ± 4) 90°
(b) (2n + 4) 90°
(d) 360°
5.3 Latitude of a line is defined as
competitive examinations. (a) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the E–W line
(b) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the reference meridian
(c) Length of a survey line corrected for various chain/tape corrections
(d) None of the above
5.4 The coordinates of A are 100 (northing) and 200 (easting), whereas that of B are
100 (southing) and 200 (easting). The length AB is,
(a) 200 (b) 282.84 (c) 244.94 (d) 400
5.5 In open traversing, which of the following methods is preferred?
(a) Method of direct angles (b) Method of exterior angles
(c) Method of deflection angles (d) Method of interior angles
5.6 The departure of a line of traverse is its length multiplied by
(a) cosine of reduced bearing (b) sine of reduced bearing
(c) secant of reduced bearing (d) tangent of reduced bearing
5.7 The Gale method of traversing consists of plotting the points by
xx Visual Walkthrough

A part of land in form of tongue, which


juts out from a hilly area is known as spur 1500 1400
(Fig. 9.6 (n)). The contours are similar to
that of a valley, with a difference that here 1300
1200
the counter values decrease towards the 1100
1000
Vee.
Metres
1500
A high land, having flat narrow top with 1400
steep (scrap) slope on one side and gentle 1300
1200
(dip) slope on the other side is known as 1100
1000
escrapment (Fig. 9.6 (o)). The contours will

fIeLD ProbLeMs be closer towards the steep side and far apart
towards the gentle side.

Applications of the principles are


1000
given to solve field problems. 900
800 00 00

0 00 0
10 9

50 6 70
700
0
600 80
500
Metres Metres
1000 1000
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500

APPenDICes
Appendices contain supplementary
matter helpful in enriching the
text.
The system of reference and numbering map sheets is the reference of a map. To
facilitate the use of a map consisting of many sheets the convention is to give each
map sheet its own designation. The arrangement of the map sheets is indicated in
what is called a reference sheet.

1. This method is most commonly used in triangulation survey.


2. For face left, the observations should be made in clockwise direction, whereas
for face right, they should be made in the anticlockwise direction.

The method of repetition is preferred for the measurement of a single angle and
when accuracy is desired beyond the least count of the instrument with a coarsely

QuAntIfICAtIon graduated circle. On the other hand, the method of reiteration is preferred in
triangulation, where a number of angles may be required at one point by the
instrument with a finely graduated circle. By exercising appropriate precautions,
instrumental errors can be eliminated theoretically, for either of the methods.
Quantification of instrumental Though the method of repetition appears to be better, it is more time consuming
and chances of personal errors are more and even many repetitions may yield
errors are explained with illustra- ordinary results.

tive figures. A vertical angle may be defined as the angle subtended by the line of sight and
a horizontal line at a station in the vertical plane.
If the point to be sighted is above the horizontal plane, the angle is called the
angle of elevation (+) and if the point is below it, the angle is called the angle of
depression (–).
1. Suppose AOB ( ), the vertical angle, is to be measured (Fig. 4.12). Set
up the instrument at O and level it.
A
2. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw, set the zero of the vertical vernier
to the zero of the vertical circle. Check the
1 Fundamental
ConCepts

Introduction
Surveying is one of the oldest arts practised by man. History reveals that the
principles and practises of surveying were used, consciously or unconsciously, even
in the primitive ages, albeit in a crude manner. In the past few decades, however,
these have become more rational and channelised.
The introduction and practise of surveying is indispensable to all branches of
engineering. The training that a student receives, irrespective of his branch of
engineering, in the art of observing, recording and computing data, as well as in the
study of errors, their causes and effects, directly contribute to his success in other
professional courses. He develops inter alia such qualities as self-reliance, initiative
and the ability to get along with others. This also helps an engineer get acquainted
with the reasonable limits of accuracy and the value of significant figures. A
knowledge of the limits of accuracy can best be obtained by making measurements
with the surveying equipment employed in practise, as these measurements provide
a true concept of the theory of errors. An engineer must also know when to work
to thousandths, hundredths or tenths of a metre and what precision in field data
is necessary to justify carrying out computations to the desired number of decimal
place. With experience, he learns how the funds, equipments, time and personnel
available will govern the procedure and the results. Taking field notes under all
sorts of field conditions trains a person to become an excellent engineer, capable
of exercising independent judgements.
Surveying is of special importance and interest to a civil engineer. Surveys are
required prior to and during the planning and construction of buildings, dams,
highways, railways, bridges, canals, tunnels, drainage works, water supply and
sewerage systems, etc. They may also be required for planning and construction of
factories, assembly lines, jigs, fabrications, missile ranges, launch sites and mine
shafts. Surveying is the starting point for any project or constructional scheme
under consideration. Details of the proposed work are plotted from the field notes.
The reliability of the estimation of quantities and the effectiveness of the design
depends upon the precision and thoroughness exercised during the survey.
Today, the art of surveying has become an important profession. An introduction
to the principles and practises of surveying is, therefore, desirable as an integral part
of engineering education and training, irrespective of the branch of specialisation.
2 Surveying

A knowledge of surveying trains the ability of engineers to visualise, think logically


and pursue the engineering approach. It promotes a feeling of confidence, a habit
of working in groups, neatness and care in documentation, and begin interpersonal
relations by ways of simultaneous and tactful handling of clients. For a better
understanding of the discussions to follow, brief definitions of a few important
terms as applied in surveying are presented.

1.1 deFinitions
The earth is not a true sphere and is slightly flattened at
the poles. Its polar axis is somewhat smaller in length (about 43.45 km) than that
of its equatorial axis. Any section of the earth parallel to the equator is a circle
and any of its section parallel through the poles is an ellipse. Such a figure may
be generated by revolving about its minor axis and is called an oblate spheroid.
Precisely, the equatorial section is also slightly elliptical and therefore such a
figure should be called an ellipsoid. Precise observations indicate that the southern
hemisphere is a trifle larger than the northern. Therefore, all the polar sections are
oval and can be called ovaloid.
In fact, no geometrical solid represents the true shape of the earth. However,
for all measurement purposes in surveying, the irregularities of the earth’s surface,
as discussed above, may be assumed to be absent and the resultant surface be
considered a spheroid. The earth is also recognised by a new name, geoid.
A level surface is a curved surface, every point on which is
equidistant from the centre of the Earth and every surface element is normal to
the plumb line. It is parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth. However,
for plane or ordinary surveying, a level surface at any point is assumed to be a
plane surface perpendicular to the plumb line at that point. The particular surface
at the average sea level is known as mean sea level.
Imagine a plane passing through the centre of the earth (Fig. 1.1).
The intersection of such a plane with the mean level surface of the earth is termed
as the great circle of the earth.
It is the line defined by the intersection of an imaginary plane,
passing through the poles and any point on the earth’s level surface (Fig. 1.2).
Fundamental Concepts 3

The plumb line is normal to the meridian. Considering the mean


level surface of the earth as spherical, these lines converge at the centre of the
earth (Fig. 1.2).
Earth being an oblate spheroid, the perpendiculars to the surface do not converge
at any point. The irregular distribution of the earth’s mass also causes some
deviations. But for plane surveying, all such deviations are ignored and plumb lines are
assumed to converge at the centre of the earth.

The latitude of a place (say point A) is the angle subtended at the


centre O from the equatorial plane along the meridian through the point (Fig. 1.3).
Thus it is the angle between the direction of a plumb line at the place and the
equator, the reference plane. If the point A is above the reference plane, the latitude
is positive (or northerly) and in case it is below the reference plane, the latitude
is negative (or southerly). Latitude can range up to +90° (or 90° north), and down
to –90° (or 90° south). Latitudes of +90° and –90° correspond to the north and
south geographical poles, respectively.

The longitude of a place is the angle between a fixed meridian


(prime meridian) and the meridian of the place of the observer (Fig. 1.3). The prime
meridian adopted for surveying work is that at Greenwich and will therefore be of
zero longitude. The longitude of a line is measured with respect to this longitude.
The longitude of the place may be east or west of the Greenwich meridian and are
termed accordingly the east longitude (positive) or the west longitude (negative).
The longitude can range up to +180° (east), and down to –180° (west).
The location of a point on earth’s surface is fixed by the latitude and longitude
of that point.
Any portion of the line lying on the great circle of the earth is
called a level line. It may also be defined as a line lying on the level surface and
normal to the plumb line at all the points.
4 Surveying

A plane through any point on the earth’s mean


level surface and tangent to the surface at that point is known as horizontal plane.
A line lying in the horizontal plane is termed as horizontal line. Through any
point on the earth’s surface, there can be only one horizontal plane but infinite
horizontal lines.
A line through a point perpendicular to the
horizontal plane is called a vertical line. A plane passing through that point and
containing the vertical line is termed as vertical plane. Through any point on the
earth’s surface, there can be only one vertical line but infinite vertical planes.
Imagine three points A, B and C (Fig. 1.4) on the mean
level surface of the earth. The three points when joined form a triangle having
a curved surface ABC, and AB, BC and CA being the arcs. The triangle ABC is
known as a spherical triangle and the angles A , B and C are spherical angles.
The amount by which the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle exceeds by
180° is called spherical excess.
It is defined as the slope of a line. It is
also called gradient.
It is the vertical distance of a point
above or below the reference surface (datum). When
elevations are with respect to the earth’s surface, the
datum is the mean sea level. The datum is a curved
surface and, therefore, its curvature should be given
due consideration even while determining elevations
in plane surveying. An imaginary line joining points
of equal elevations is known as contour.

1.2 surveying
The purpose of surveying is to determine the dimensions and contours of any
part of the earth’s surface, i.e., to prepare a plan or map, establish boundaries of
the land, measure area and volume, and select a suitable site for an engineering
project. Both plans and maps are the graphical representations of the features on
a horizontal plane. The former is a large-scale representation whereas the latter
is a small-scale one. When the topography of the terrain is depicted on map with
contours and spot levels, etc., it is called a topographic map.
Surveying may be defined as an art to determine the relative positions of points
on, above or beneath the surface of the earth, with respect to each other, by
measurements of horizontal and vertical distances, angles and directions. Surveying
may also be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions,
of natural and man-made features on, above or beneath the surface of the earth.
The land form and its features may then be represented in analog form as a
contour map, plan, or chart, or in digital form as a three-dimensional mathematical
model.
A person performing operations to obtain such measurements is known as a
surveyor. In his day-to-day work, a surveyor deals with a very small portion of
Fundamental Concepts 5

the earth’s surface. However, he is the best judge with regard to the earth’s surface
as plane or curved depending upon the character, magnitude of the work and the
precision desired.
In fact, for surveys of small extent the effect of curvature is quite negligible
and the mean surface of the earth is assumed to be a horizontal plane within the
area covered. Surveying methods based on this supposition are comprised under
the head plane surveying. The assumption becomes invalid in the accurate survey
of an area of such extent that it forms an appreciable part of the earth’s surface.
Allowance must then be made for the effect of curvature and the operations belong
to geodetic surveying. No definite limit can be assigned for the area up to which
a survey may be treated as plane, since the degree of accuracy required governs
this. However, some limits based on the sophistication of the instruments available
may be placed to draw a line between plane and geodetic surveys as mentioned
in the section to follow.
In addition to the broad classification of the survey on the basis of accuracy,
it can also be classed on the basis of purpose, place of survey and the instrument
used and are discussed in the section to follow.

1.3 ClassiFiCation oF survey


An attempt has been made here to group the types of survey. However, it is not that
significant or satisfactory as there are differences in objectives and dissimilarities
in the procedures employed to distinguish between them.

1.3.1 Based on accuracy desired


Survey in which the mean surface of earth is regarded as plane
surface and not curved as it really is, is known as plane surveying. The following
assumptions are made:
(a) A level line is considered a straight line and thus the plumb line at a point
is parallel to the plumb line at any other point.
(b) The angle between two such lines that intersect is a plane angle and not
a spherical angle.
(c) The meridians through any two points are parallel.
When we deal with only a small portion of earth’s surface, the above assumptions
can be justified. The error introduced for a length of an arc of 18.5 km is only
0.0152 m greater than the subtended chord and the difference between the sum
of the angles of spherical triangle and that of plane triangle is only one second
at the earth’s mean surface for an area of 195.5 km2. Therefore, for the limits of
the provisions stated above, the survey may be regarded as a plane survey.
Plane surveys are done for engineering projects on large scale such as factories,
bridges, dams, location and construction of canals, highways, railways, etc., and
also for establishing boundaries.
Survey in which the shape (curvature) of the earth’s surface
is taken into account and a higher degree of precision is exercised in linear and
angular measurements is termed as geodetic surveying. Such surveys extend over
large areas. The measurements must be made to the highest possible standard.
6 Surveying

A line connecting two points is regarded as an arc. The distance between two
points is corrected for the curvature and is then plotted on the plan. The angles
between the intersecting lines are spherical angles. All this necessitates elaborate
field work and considerable mathematical computations.
The geodetic surveying deals in fixing widely spaced control points, which may
afterwards be used as necessary control points for fixing minor control points for
plane survey. This is carried out by the Department of National Survey of India.

1.3.2 Based on purpose of survey


Surveys which are done to provide sufficient data for the
design of engineering projects such as highways, railways, water supply, sewage
disposal, reservoirs, bridges, etc., are known as engineering surveys. It consists
of topographic survey of the area, measurement of earth work, providing grade,
and making measurements of the completed work till date. These are also known
as construction surveys.
Surveys have a very important and critical application in
the military. They provide strategic information that can decide the course of
a war. Aerial and topographical maps of the enemy areas indicating important
routes, airports, ordnance factories, missile sites, early warning and other types
of radars, anti-aircraft positions and other topographical features can be prepared.
Aerial surveys can also provide vital information on location, concentration and
movement of troops and armaments. This information may be used for preparing
tactical and strategic plans both for defence and attack.
In this both surface and subsurface surveying is required
to determine the location, extent and reserves of different minerals and rock types.
Different types of geological structures like folds, faults and unconformities may
help to locate the possibility of the occurrence of economic minerals, oils, etc.
These are also required to decide upon the foundation treatment of important
engineering projects such as dams, bridges, etc.
Surveys conducted to provide sufficient data for
the preparation of geographical maps are known as geographical surveys. The
maps may be prepared depicting the land use efficiency, sources and intensity
of irrigation, physiographic regions and waterfalls, surface drainage, slope height
curve and slope profile and contours.
In this both surface and underground surveys are required. It
consists of a topographic survey of mine property and making a surface map,
making underground surveys to delineate fully the mine working and constructing
the underground plans, fixing the positions and directions of tunnels, shafts, drifts,
etc., and preparation of a geological map.
These are done to unearth the relics of antiquity,
civilisations, kingdoms, towns, villages, forts, temples, etc., buried due to
earthquakes, landslides or other calamities and are located, marked and identified.
Excavations of the surveyed area lead us to the relics, which reflect the history,
culture and development of the era. These provide vital links on understanding
the evolution of the present civilisation as well as human beings.
Fundamental Concepts 7

These are undertaken to locate and set out the adopted line on
ground for a highway or railway and to obtain all the necessary data. The sequence
of operations in a route survey is as follows:
A visit is made to the site and all the relevant
information is collected. It includes collection of existing maps of the area; tracing
the relevant map portion over a paper; incorporating the details of the area, if
missing, by conducting rough survey.
It is the topographical survey of the area in which the
project is located. Sometimes an aerial survey is done if the area is extensive. It
includes the depiction of the precise locations of all prominent features and fixing
the position of the structure on the map.
It consists in planning a general control system for preliminary
survey which may be triangulation or traversing. For location survey, it consists
of triangulation.
It consists in establishing the points, exactly on the ground, for
which the computations have been done in the control survey for location.

1.3.3 Based on place of survey


It consists of re-running old land lines to determine their
lengths and directions, subdividing the land into predetermined shapes and sizes
and calculating their areas and setting monuments and locating their positions
(monuments are the objects placed to mark the corner points of the landed
property). Topographical, city and cadastral surveys are some of the examples of
land surveying.
This is a survey conducted to obtain data to make a
map indicating inequalities of land surface by measuring elevations and to locate
the natural and artificial features of the earth, e.g., rivers, woods, hills, etc.
In India, topographical maps are produced by the Survey of India (SOI)
for referencing of these maps. SOI has adopted a sheet number system
(Appendix I).
This is referred to extensive urban and rural surveys made
to plot the details such as boundaries of fields, houses and property lines. These
are also known as public land surveys.
An extensive survey of the area in and around a city for fixing
reference monuments, locating and improving property lines, and determining the
configuration and features of the land, is referred to as a city survey. It is similar
to the cadastral survey except that refinement observed in making measurements
is made proportional to the land cost where the survey is being conducted.
It deals with the survey of water bodies like streams,
lakes, coastal waters and consists in acquiring data to chart the shore lines of
water bodies. It also determines the shape of the area underlying the water surface
to assess the factors affecting navigation, water supply, subaqueous construction,
etc.
8 Surveying

This is referred to as the preparation of underground


plans, fixing the positions and directions of tunnels, shafts and drifts, etc. This
consists in transferring bearings and coordinates from a surface base line to an
underground baseline. An example of this kind of survey is mine surveying.
When the survey is carried out by taking photographs with a
camera fitted in an aeroplane, it is called aerial or photogrammetric surveying. It is
extremely useful for making large-scale maps of extensive constructional schemes
with accuracy. Though expensive, this survey is recommended for the development
of projects in places where ground survey will be slow and difficult because of a
busy or complicated area.

1.3.4 Based on instrument used


When a plan is to be made for a very small open field, the
field work may consist of linear measurements only. All the measurements are done
with a chain and tape. However, chain survey is limited in its adaptability because
of the obstacles to chain like trees and shrubs. Also, it cannot be resorted to in
densely built-up areas. It is recommended for plans involving the development of
buildings, roads, water supply and sewerage schemes.
When the linear measurements are done with chain and tape
and the directions or angles are measured with compass or transit respectively, the
survey is called traversing. In traversing, speed and accuracy of the field work is
enhanced. For example, the boundaries of a field can be measured accurately by
a frame work of lines along it forming an open traverse. On the other hand, in a
densely populated area, the survey work can be carried out with a frame work of
lines forming a closed traverse. A traverse survey is very useful for large projects
such as reservoirs and dams.
This is a method of surveying in which both the horizontal
and vertical distances are determined by observing a graduated staff with a transit
equipped with a special telescope having stadia wires and anallatic lens. It is very
useful when the direct measurements of horizontal distances are inaccessible. It
is usually recommended for making contour plans of building estates, reservoirs,
etc.
This is a method of surveying in which the relative vertical heights
of the points are determined by employing a level and a graduated staff. In planning
a constructional project, irrespective of its extent, i.e., from a small building to a
dam, it is essential to know the depth of excavation for the foundations, trenches,
fillings, etc. This can be achieved by collecting complete information regarding
the relative heights of the ground by levelling.
It is a graphical method of surveying in which field work and
plotting are done simultaneously. A clinometer is used in conjunction with plane
table to plot the contours of the area and for filling in the details. This method of
surveying is very advantageous as there is no possibility of omitting any necessary
measurement, the field being in view while plotting. The details like boundaries,
shore lines, etc., can be plotted exactly to their true shapes, being in view. The
Fundamental Concepts 9

only disadvantage of plane tabling is that it cannot be recommended in humid


climate.
When the area to be surveyed is of considerable extent,
triangulation is adopted. The entire area is divided into a network of triangles. Any
one side of any of the triangles so formed, is selected and is measured precisely.
Such a line is called baseline. All the angles in the network are measured with a
transit. The lengths of the sides of all the triangles are then computed, from the
measured length of the baseline and the observed corrected angles, using sine
formula.
a = _____
_____ b = _____ b
sin A sin B sin C
This is the
electronic method of measuring distances using the propagation, reflection and
subsequent reception of either light or radio waves. The examples of EDM
instruments are tellurometer, geodimeter, distomat, etc.
The electronic theodolites combined with EDMs and
electronic data collectors are called total stations. A total station reads and records
horizontal and vertical angles, together with slopes distances. The instrument has
capabilities of calculating rectangular coordinates of the observed points, slope
corrections, remote object elevations, etc. The surveys carried out using total station
are called total station survey.
Remote sensing and global positioning system (GPS)
are the satellite-based surveys. Acquiring data for positioning on land, on the
sea, and in space using satellite based navigation system based on the principle
of trilateration is known as GPS. Global positioning system uses the satellite
signals, accurate time and sophisticated algorithms to generate distances in order
to triangulate positions. In remote sensing, the data about an object is collected
by sensors placed on satellites by employing electromagnetic energy as the means
of detecting and measurements.

1.4 praCtise oF surveying


Though the theory of surveying and especially that of plane surveying seems very
simple, its practical application is very complicated. Therefore, the training in
surveying should be chiefly directed towards a thorough competency in the field
methods, associated instruments and office work. A surveying problem can be
tackled by different methods of observations and by the use of different suitable
instruments. A surveyor must be thorough with the advantages and disadvantages of
the different methods of observations and also to the limitations of the instruments.
Normally the time and funds are limited. A surveyor’s competency, therefore, lies
in selecting methods which yield sufficient accuracy to serve the purpose.
A good surveyor should have a thorough knowledge of the theory of surveying
and skill in its practise. The traits of character and habits of mind are far more
potent factors in his success than the technical knowledge. A surveyor should be of
sound judgement and reason logically. He should be mild tempered, respectful to
10 Surveying

his associates, helpful to those working under him and should watch the interest of
the employer. Above all, he should not rely upon the results until the accuracy of
the work is established by applying suitable checks. By merely reading books about
surveying, a surveyor cannot develop skill and judgement and the probability of
him performing a satisfactory survey work is quite low. Proficiency can be attained
only by the long continued field practise under the supervision of a professional
surveyor.

1.5 surveying—CharaCter oF Work


The work of the surveyor which mainly consists of making measurements can
be divided into two parts—field work and office work and are described in the
following sections.

1.6 Field Work


For a true representation of the field conditions so as to plot the plans and
sections with desired accuracy, sufficient data should be obtained from field
work. It consists of adjusting instruments and taking due care of these, making
surveying measurements, and recording the measurements in the field notebook
in a systematic manner.
The adjustment of a surveying
instrument means the bringing of fixed parts of the instrument into proper relation
with one another. For this, a surveyor should understand the principles on which
adjustments are based, the process by which a faulty adjustment is discovered,
the effect of the adjustment on the instrument and the order of the adjustments.
Keeping the instruments in adjustment is logical for accurate field work. This
necessitates that some parts of the surveying instruments should be adjustable.
A proper care of the instrument keeps it in a fit condition for its usage.
Following are a few suggestions to be kept in mind while using the surveying
instruments:
(a) The chain should be checked for its links, rings, and length before its use.
All the knots and kinks should be removed by giving gentle jerks while
laying it on the field.
(b) Tape should be kept straight when in use.
(c) The staff and rod should be either placed upright or supported for the
entire length when in use.
(d) The instrument should be removed from and placed gently in the box.
(e) The instrument should be protected from vibration and impact.
(f) The tripod legs should not be set too close together and should be planted
firmly on the ground.
(g) During observation, the surveyor should see to it that the tripod is not
disturbed.
(h) The various clamping and adjusting screws should not be tightened far
more than necessary.
(i) The objective and eye piece lens should not be touched with fingers.
Fundamental Concepts 11

(j) The dirt and dust should regularly be cleaned from the movable parts of
the instrument.
(k) When the magnetic needle of the instrument is not in use, it should be
raised off the pivot.
The surveying measurements consists in measuring
horizontal and vertical distances, horizontal and vertical angles, horizontal and
vertical positions and directions and are discussed as follows. However, it must
be remembered that no measurement can be exact, since error and mistakes are
inevitable.
The distance between two points measured horizontally throughout is called the
horizontal distance. If a distance is measured on a slope, it is immediately reduced
to the horizontal equivalent by applying suitable corrections. Such a measurement
is made with a chain, tape or by an optical or electronic instrument. The distance
measured in the direction of gravity is called vertical distance and is equivalent
to the difference in height. This measurement is done with an instrument known
as level along with a levelling staff.
An angle measured in a horizontal plane at the points of measurement is
called a horizontal angle and an angle measured in a plane that is vertical at the
point of observation, and contains the points, is called a vertical angle. Vertical
angles are measured upwards or downwards from the horizontal plane. Angles
measured upwards are called plus angles or angles of elevation and those measured
downwards are called negative angles or angles of depression. Both the horizontal
and vertical angles are measured with an instrument known as transit.
The directions of the courses are expressed as bearings. A bearing is a clockwise
horizontal angle from a reference direction, usually north. This is measured with
an instrument known as compass.
The relative horizontal position of various points are determined by traversing or
by triangulation. A traverse consists of the measurement of a series of horizontal
courses (lengths) and the horizontal angles between the courses or the directions
of the courses. Triangulation consists of the measurement of the angles of a series
of connected triangles and its direction. Both in traversing and triangulation, the
final results are computed by trigonometry and are best expressed by rectangular
coordinates.
The relative position of the points are determined by a series of level observations
with the line of sight being horizontal. The results of levelling are referred to a
standard datum, normally mean sea level. The vertical heights above the datum
are called elevations. The methods of measurements will be dealt one by one in
the subsequent chapters to follow.
Field notes are the written records of the field work
made at the time the work is done. Records copied from field notes or data recorded
afterwards from memory, may be useful, but are not regarded as field notes. A
surveyor should keep in mind not only the immediate use of the data, but also
those which may be expected to arise in future. Therefore, the field notes must
be complete and accurate as far as possible. The importance, accuracy, legibility,
12 Surveying

integrity, arrangement and clarity that the field notes should have must be over
emphasised.
All the measurements should be accurate, depending upon the
precision desired. A surveyor must know how to achieve the desired accuracy
and how to check that the required accuracy has been achieved. Equipments and
techniques must be chosen to ensure that the specified accuracy is achieved.
It should always be kept clearly in mind that the notes may be
utilised by someone else who has never even visited the site of the survey.
Therefore, all the notes should be legible and contain a professional touch.
The notes should be complete in all respects before leaving the site
of the survey. Even a single omitted measurement may pose a serious problem
while computing or plotting in the office.
It should be made clear as to how the work began and ended.
The note forms should be appropriate to the particular survey and should be
arranged in the sequence of the work done in field.
Sketches and tabulation of field data should be clear and readable.
It should be remembered that the notes may be used by someone else in future.
Ambiguous notes lead to mistakes in drafting and computation.
Field notes are usually recorded on standard ruling sheets in a
loose-leaf or bound field book. The format of the standard ruled sheet depends
upon the type of the instrument used for surveying and is touched upon in detail,
in Appendices II to X. However, some general suggestions are presented below.
(a) Use a notebook that may stand hard usage.
(b) A hard lead pencil, 3H, should be used to record field notes. The reason is
that by using a hard pencil, indentations are made on the paper and later,
if due to any reason the notes are smeared, the data can still be ascertained
by examining the indentations.
(c) Erasure should never be made in the field book. If a measured value is
recorded incorrectly, it should be cut by a horizontal line and the correct
value should be recorded above the cut value.
(d) The notes should read from left to right, and from the bottom to top as in
the working drawings.
(e) The left page of the field book is used for recording data, while the right
page is used for sketches.
(f) All the calculations and reductions made in the field should be indicated
on additional sheets and may be cross-referenced as and when required.
(g) On the top of the field notes, names of the survey party, instrument used,
data, weather, etc., should be mentioned. This is particularly useful when
the field notes are presented as evidence in court.
(h) At the end of the day’s work, the notes should be signed by the
notekeeper.
In recording notes in the field book, a beginner is usually confused whether to
book it from the bottom to the top of the page or from top to down. Usually, in
Fundamental Concepts 13

making sketch of the course being surveyed, the field book is held with its top
towards the next station and if the field notes are recorded on opposite page, it
will be convenient to note and read from the bottom up so as to correspond with
the sketch. The examples are survey of railways and highways courses. Whereas,
when complete sketch is made on one page, such as for a closed traverse, it may
be more convenient to tabulate the corresponding notes on the opposite page to
read from the top down.

1.7 oFFiCe Work


It consists of making the necessary calculations or computations for transforming
the field measurements into a form suitable for plotting. Knowledge of geometry
and plane trigonometry, determining locations, plotting the measurements and
drawing a plan or map, inking-in and furnishing the drawings, and calculating areas
(Chapter 12) and volume (Chapter 13), all involve office work. This topic is dealt
within detail in the subsequent chapters depending upon the type and method of
surveying used for a particular work.
To make and understand a map, it is necessary to be convertant with the map
language. This involves understanding the art and science of mapping called
cartography. The basic elements of map making are projection, legend and scale.
For the projection of the features of the earth’s surface on a flat surface there are
several projections in use and the ones mostly used are given in Appendix XI.
Scales and legends are described here as these will be a general feature for all
types of surveys.
Scale is defined as the fixed proportion which every distance between
locations of the points on the map bears to the corresponding distances between
their positions on the earth’s surface. Primary considerations in choosing the
scale for a particular project are those to which the map will be put and the
extent of the territory to be represented. For most of the engineering projects,
the scale varies from 1 cm = 2.5 – 100 m. Frequently, the choice of the scale
is restricted to some scale small enough so that the whole map will fall within
a rectangle of a given size, the dimensions of which are determined by the size
of blue print frame, or by the size of sheet most convenient for handling. The
following rules may be observed in deciding the scale:
1. Choose a scale large enough so that in plotting or in scaling distances
from the finished map it will not be necessary to read the scale closer than
1/100.
2. Choose as small a scale as is consistent with a clear delineation of the
smallest detail to be plotted, due regard being paid to rule 1.
A scale may be represented numerically by engineer’s scale or representative
fraction. The engineer’s scale is represented by a statement, e.g., 1 cm = 40 m.
When a scale is represented by a fraction whose numerator is invariably unity,
it is called a representative fraction. In forming the representative fraction, both
the numerator and the denominator must be reduced to the same denomination.
For a scale of 1 cm = 1 km, the representative fraction is 1/100,000.
14 Surveying

The representative fractions and scales recommended for various types of


maps are as follows:

Type Representative Fraction (R.F.) Scale


Geographical map 1 : 16 000 000 1 cm = 160 km
Topographical map 1 : 250 000 1 cm = 2.5 km
Location map 1 : 500 to 1 : 2500 1 cm = 5–25 m
Forest map 1 : 25 000 1 cm = 0.25 km
Cadastral map 1 : 1000 to 1 : 5000 1 cm = 10–50 m
Town planning 1 : 5000 to 1 : 10000 1 cm = 50–100 m
Buildings 1 : 1000 1 cm = 10 m
Mines 1 : 1000 to 1 : 25000 1 cm = 10–25 m
Preliminary survey of rails and roads 1 : 1000 to 1 : 6000 1 cm = 10–60 m

Another most suitable method used to represent the scale of a map is the
graphical scale. It is a line drawn on the map so that its distance on the map
corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the ground. Figure 1.6 shows a
graphical scale corresponding to a scale of 1 cm = 5 m. A 12 cm long line,
divided into six equal parts of 2 cm each, is drawn on the map. Thus, each part
represents 10 m on the ground. The first part is divided into 10 equal divisions,
each representing 1 m. Figure 1.5 shows a distance of 36 m marked on the
scale.

36 m

10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Scale 1 cm = 5 m

It is necessary to draw a scale on a map because as the map shrinks or expands,


the scale line also shrinks or expands with it and thus the measurements made
from the map are not affected.
The ratio of the shrunk length to the actual length is known as the shrinkage
ratio (S.R.) or the shrinkage factor (S.F.).
shrunk length shrunk R.F.
shrunk scale = ___________
S.F. = ____________ = ____________
original length original scale original R.F.
Shrunk scale = S.F. original scale

Thus, measured distance


Correct distance = ________________
S.F.
and Correct area = measured area
____________
(S.F.)2
Fundamental Concepts 15

If a wrong measuring scale is used to measure the length of a line already


drawn on a plan or map, the measured length will be erroneous. Then
R.F. of the wrong scale
Correct length = _____________________ measured length
R.F. of the correct scale

and [
R.F. of the wrong scale
Correct area = _____________________
R.F. of the correct scale ]2
measured area.

The various types of graphical scales may be plain, diagonal or vernier scales.
For details of these scales, reference may be made to any book on engineering
graphics.

e xample 1.1 The distance AB on the ground as measured on a plan drawn


to a scale of 1 cm = 50 m was found to be 500 m. Later it was detected that the
surveyor wrongly used a scale of 1 cm = 40 m in the calculations. Find the true
length of the line AB.
s olution Let ab be the correct length on plan.
The length ab on plan with the scale 1 cm = 40 m used for calculating the
distance AB on the ground
500 = 12.5 cm.
= ____
40
The true scale is 1 cm = 50 m.
True distance on ground, AB = 50 × 12.5 = 625 m

e xample 1.2 The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 15 m
to 1 cm now measures as 80.2 cm2 as found by a planimeter. The plan is found
to have shrunk, so that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.8 cm only.
Find the shrunk scale and the true area of the survey.
s olution
shrunk length 9.8 = 0.98
S.F. = _____________ = ___
original length 10
Original scale is 1 cm = 15 m
Shrunk scale = S.F. × original scale
= 0.98 × 15 = 14.70 m
Hence, the shrunk scale is 1 cm = 14.70 m
80.2 = 83.51 m2
measured area = ______
Correct area = ____________
(S.F.)2 (0.98)2
e xample 1.3 A plan drawn to a scale of 1 : 3000 was measured by mistake
by a scale of 1 : 4000. Determine the percentage errors in the measured length
and the measured area.
s olution Let the length of line measured on plan be L.
Actual length, l = 3000 L
16 Surveying

Measured length l1 = 4000 L


measured length actual length
Percentage error = 100
actual length

4000 L 3000 L
= 33.33%
3000 L
Actual area, A = (3000 L)2
Measured area A = (4000 L)2
(4000 L )2 (3000 L )2
Percentage error in area = 100 = 77.77%
(3000 L )2

Legend is a key to map and gives a brief explanation of symbols,


colours and other things used to explain or represent various features on the map
and are printed at the bottom of the map.
A surveyor is required to have a good knowledge and practise of inking-in and
furnishing the drawings.
Either inks or water colours may be used. Following are
some of the standard colours usually recommended for topographic maps to
represent the features:
Black—Lettering and all construction works, e.g., houses, roads, rails, culverts,
bridges, etc.
Burnt sienna—All land forms, e.g., streams, lakes, ponds, marshes, etc.
Green—Plantations, e.g., trees, growing crops, grass, etc.
The drawings should be furnished with meridian arrows
(Fig. 1.6) of sufficient length, cross sections, lettering of sufficient size arranged
neatly to give a pleasant and artistic look, eye
catching titles and symbols. The symbols or N
conventional signs need a special elaboration as
these are used to represent the objects on map or
features on a small-scale map; on a large-scale map,
the true shape of the feature is represented to scale.
The size of the symbol should be in proportion with
the scale of the map. Some of the symbols are
shown in Fig. 1.7.
Although not in use now it is worth mentioning
here the instruments Pentagraph and Eidograph
earlier used to enlarge, reduce or reproduce the plans.
These are given in Appendix XII. The modern practise
tends to use more and more photographic methods for
both reductions and enlargements.
Fundamental Concepts 17
18 Surveying
Fundamental Concepts 19

1.8 errors
It is understood that every measurement contains errors of unknown magnitude due
to several reasons and hence no measurement in surveying is exact. A surveyor
should, therefore, understand thoroughly the nature of the sources and behaviour of
the errors which may affect the results. A knowledge of the errors and procedures
necessary to maintain a required precision aid the surveyor to develop a good
judgement and confidence in his work.
A true error may be defined as the difference between a measurement and its
true value. As the true value of a measurement is never known, the exact error
present is therefore never known and is thus always unknown. It is pertinent to
note that the term error should not be confused with discrepancy, the latter being
the deviation in the two measurements of a quantity.

1.8.1 sources of error


The sources of error in surveying may be classified as natural, instrumental, and
personal.
These result from the temperature, refraction, obstacles to
measurements, magnetic declination, etc. For example, the length of a steel tape
20 Surveying

varies with changes in temperature. Such sources of error are beyond the control of
the surveyor, but by taking precautionary measures and adopting suitable methods
to fit into the conditions, the errors can be contained within permissible limits.
These result from the imperfect construction and
adjustment of the instrument. The incorrect graduations of a steel tape and the
improper adjustment of the plate levels of a transit are a few examples. The effects
of most of the instrumental errors can be brought within the desired limits of
precision by applying proper corrections and selecting suitable field methods.
These arise from the limitations of the human senses such as
sight, touch and hearing. For example, improper bisecting of the object by fixing
the line of sight of a transit while measuring angles is a personal error.

1.8.2 types of errors


Reliability of survey depends very much upon the errors introduced while surveying.
Since errors are inevitable, a surveyor must be aware of all sources and types of
error. Errors in a measurement may be positive or negative. The former occurs if
the measurement is too large and the latter if too small. Errors are classified as
systematic errors and accidental errors.
These are the errors which occur from well-understood
causes and can be reduced by adopting suitable methods. For example, the error
due to sag of a tape supported at ends can be calculated and subtracted from each
measurement. However, the tape can be supported throughout its length at short
intervals and the sag error may be reduced to a negligible quantity. It always has
the same magnitude and sign so long as the conditions remain same and such an
error is called constant systematic error. Whereas, if the conditions change, the
magnitude of the error changes and this is known as variable systematic error.
A systematic error follows a definite mathematical or physical law and, therefore,
a correction can always be determined and applied. It is also known as cumulative
error.
These are the errors due to a combination of causes and
are beyond the control of surveyor. It can be plus or minus. Calibration of a chain
is an example of an accidental error.

1.9 distinCtion BetWeen mistake and error


Mistakes are caused by the misunderstanding of the problem, carelessness or poor
judgement. These can occur at any stage of survey, when observing, booking,
computing or plotting and may distort the survey work. Independent checks at each
stage must therefore be applied. Mistakes can be corrected only if discovered. The
best way is to compare several measurements of the same quantity and do away
with the odd measurement which does not follow any law. In surveying, attempts
are always made to detect and eliminate mistakes in field work and computations.
The degree to which a surveyor is able to do this is the measure of reliability. On
the other hand, error is defined as the difference of the measured and true value
of the quantity. The distinction arises from the fact that mistakes can be avoided
Fundamental Concepts 21

by being careful, whereas errors result from sources which can be minimised but
not avoided.

1.10 distinCtion BetWeen preCision and aCCuraCy


Both precision and accuracy are used to describe physical measurements. The
manufacturers, while quoting specifications for their equipments and surveyors
and engineers, to describe results obtained from field work, make use of these
terms frequently.
Precision is referred to as the degree of fineness and care with which any
physical measurement is made, whereas accuracy is the degree of perfection
obtained. It follows that a measurement may be accurate without being precise
and vice versa. Standard deviation is one of the most popular indicators of the
precision of a set of observations.
Accuracy is considered to be an overall estimate of the errors, including
systematic errors present in measurements. For a set of measurements to be
considered accurate, the most probable value or sample mean must have a value
close to the true value as shown in Fig. 1.8(a).
Precision represents the repeatability of a measurement and is concerned
with only random errors. A set of observations that are closely grouped together
and have small deviations from the sample mean will have a small standard
(probable) error and are said to be precise. It is quite possible for a set of results
to be precise but inaccurate as shown in Fig. 1.8(b), where the difference between
the true value and the mean value is caused by one or more systematic errors.
Since accuracy and precision are the same if all systematic errors are removed,
precision is sometimes referred to as internal accuracy.

The ratio of precision of a measurement to the measurement itself is termed as


relative precision and is expressed as 1 in d/sd , where d is the measurement and sd
is the standard error. For electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) instruments
and total stations, the relative precision is expressed in parts per million (ppm).
22 Surveying

The relative precision is normally specified before starting a survey so that proper
equipment and methods can be selected to achieve the desired relative precision.

1.11 prinCiples oF surveying


There are two basic principles of surveying. These find their inherent applications
in all the stages of a project, i.e., from initial planning till its completion.
1. To work from whole to part.
2. To locate a point by at least two measurements.

1.11.1 to Work from Whole to part


It is the main principle of surveying and a method violating the principle of
working from whole to part should not be adopted until and unless there is no
alternative.
The main idea of working from whole to part is to localise the errors and
prevent their accumulation. On the contrary, if we work from part to whole, the
errors accumulate and expand to a greater magnitude in the process of expansion of
survey, and consequently, the survey becomes uncontrollable at the end. This can be
explained by taking a simple example of measuring a horizontal distance AB, say
about 120 m with a 20 m chain (Fig. 1.9). The process consists in measuring the
distance in parts, as the length of chain is smaller than the distance to be measured
and is accomplished by the process of ranging. There can be two alternatives as
follows.

In one of the method also called the direct method, various points such as C,
D, and E are established independently at a distance of about 20 m each with
respect to the two end control points and the distance AB can be measured. As
C, D, E, etc., are established independently with respect to the main control
points, error, if any, introduced in establishing any intermediate point will not
be carried in establishing the other points. For example, suppose that point D
has been established out of the line AB, as D (Fig. 1.9(a)) and E, F, etc., have
been established correctly. The actual distances DC and DE will be in error (D C
and D E) but all other distances AC, EF, FG, etc., will be correct. Therefore, the
error in this procedure is localised at point D and is not magnified. This method
observes the principle of working from whole to part.
In the other method, a part, say AC, of the whole distance AB to be measured
is fixed by fixing a point C as C by judgment or by the process of ranging with
respect to A and B, the end points. Then the other points D, E, F, etc., are fixed
with respect to A and C (part AC). Now if point C is not in line with AB, all the
points D, E, F, etc., established will be out of line with an increasing magnitude
of error (Fig. 1.9(b)). The length measured will, therefore, be incorrect to a larger
Fundamental Concepts 23

extent as compared to the direct method. This method may introduce serious error
as the survey at the end becomes uncontrollable and hence working from part to
whole is never recommended. The plane table surveying, however, is an example
of working from part to whole.

1.11.2 to locate a point by at least two measurements


Two control points (any two important features) are selected in the area and the
distance between them is measured accurately. The line joining the control points
is plotted to the scale on drawing sheet. Now the desired point can be plotted by
making two suitable measurements from the given control points.
Let A and B be the two control points, whose positions are already known on
the plan. The position of C can be plotted by any of the following methods.
1. By measuring distance BC and angle , as shown in Fig. 1.10(a).
2. By dropping a perpendicular from C on the line AB and measuring either
AD and CD or BD and CD, as shown in Fig. 1.10(b).
3. By measuring the distances AC and BC, as shown in Fig. 1.10(c).
A B D A B
A B

C C
C
(a) (b) (c)

1.12 units oF measure


The system of units used in India in the recent years is M.K.S. and S.I. But all the
records available in surveying done in the past are in F.P.S. units. Therefore, for a
professional it becomes necessary to know the conversion of units from one system
to another, a few of which are listed below and many more can be computed.
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 mile = 5280 ft.
1 yard = 3 ft.
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 sq mile = 2.590 km2
1 sq mile = 640 acres
1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft.
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
24 Surveying

Summary
Surveying is an art of locating points on, above, or beneath the surface of the earth
by measurement of horizontal and vertical distances, horizontal and vertical angles, and
bearings. The shape of earth’s surface is discussed and for all practical purposes it is
assumed to be spheroid. A broad classification of survey has been presented based on
instruments available, purposes and accuracy desired. In ordinary survey when the area of
interest is small, the curvature of earth is neglected and the survey is called plane survey.
But for projects of importance, the curvature is given due importance and is called geodetic
survey. Whatever may be the type of survey the basic principle of working from whole to
part must be observed and any new point must be located by at least two measurements.
The object of surveying is to prepare a map or plan, establish boundaries of the
land, measure area and volume, and select a suitable site for an engineering project. The
responsibilities of surveyors are outlined. The field book for recording the field notes is
introduced and the importance of accuracy, legibility, integrity, arrangement and clarity of
field notes is highlighted. Symbols for representing ground features and standard colours to
be used on topographic maps are introduced. The guidelines for selection of scales for maps
and plans are presented. Errors, their sources and types, mistakes, precision and accuracy
are defined and explained.

Exercises
1.1 Define and differentiate the following:
(i) Plan and map (ii) Error and mistake
(iii) Accuracy and precision (iv) Plane and Geodetic surveys
1.2 Convert the following representative fractions into scales.
(i) 1/100,000 (ii) 1/1,000,000
(iii) 1/20,000
[Ans. 1 cm = 1 km, 1 cm = 10 km, 1 cm = 0.20 km]
1.3 A rectangular piece of property has sides measuring 300 m and 200 m. What is the
area of the property in square metres, square kilometres, acres, hectares?
[Ans. 6 104, 6 10–2, 4.820, 6.0]
1.4 What information should be included in a good set of field notes?
1.5 Briefly discuss the requirements of good field notes.
1.6 Briefly discuss the following:
(i) Earth’s surface (ii) Level surface
(iii) Great circle (iv) Plumb line
1.7 Define surveying. What are the principles of surveying? Explain them briefly.
1.8 Write short notes on the following:
(i) Geodetic survey (ii) Defence survey
(iii) Mine survey (iv) Cadastral survey
(v) Aerial survey
1.9 Draw symbols for the following:
(i) Cemetery (ii) Mosque
(iii) Barbed wire (iv) Triangulation station
(v) Culvert
1.10 Discuss briefly the different types and sources of errors in surveying.
1.11 On a plan drawn to a scale of 1 cm = 25 m, a borrow pit measures 3 cm × 5 cm.
If the plan has shrunk by 4%, find the shrinkage factor, shrunk scale and the actual
dimensions of the borrow pit in the field.
[Ans. S.F. 0.96, 1 cm = 26.04 m, 3.125 cm × 5.205 cm]
Fundamental Concepts 25

Objective-type Questions
1.1 The difference in the length of an arc and its subtended chord on earth’s surface
for a distance of 18.5 km is about
(a) 0.1 cm (b) 1.0 cm (c) 10 cm (d) 100 cm
1.2 The effect of the curvature of the earth’s surface is taken into account only if the
extent of survey is more than
(a) 100 km2 (b) 260 km2 (c) 195.5 km2 (d) 300 km2
1.3 The difference between the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle on the earth’s
surface to that of the angles of the corresponding plane triangle is only one second
for every
(a) 260 km2 (b) 160 km2 (c) 360 km2 (d) 195.5 km2
1.4 A hut can be shown by the symbol

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1.5 The symbol represents

(a) Temple (b) Mosque (c) Church (d) Hut


1.6 Which of the following scales is the largest one?
(a) 1 cm = 50 m (b) 1 : 42 000
(c) R.F. = 1/300 000 (d) 1 cm = 50 km
1.7 The smallest length that can be drawn on a map is
(a) 0.2 mm (b) 0.5 mm (c) 10 mm (d) 15 mm
1.8 The shrinkage factor of an old map is 24/25 and the R.F. is 1/2400, then the corrected
scale for the map is
(a) 1/2400 (b) 1/2500 (c) 1/600 (d) 1/60 000
1.9 The main principle of surveying is to work from
(a) higher level to the lower level (b) lower level to the higher level
(c) part to whole (d) whole to part
1.10 Surveys which are carried out to depict mountains, water bodies, woods and other
details are known as
(a) Cadastral surveys (b) City surveys
(c) Topographical surveys (d) Hydrographic surveys
1.11 Plan is a graphical representation of the features on large scale as projected on a
(a) horizontal plane (b) vertical plane
(c) in any plane (d) None of the above
1.12 Map is a graphical representation of the features on small scale as projected on a
(a) horizontal surface (b) vertical surface
(c) in any surface (d) None of the above
1.13 The error due to bad ranging is
(a) cumulative (+ve) (b) cumulative (–ve)
(c) compensating (d) cumulative (+ve or –ve)
1.14 Theory of probability is applied to
(a) accidental errors only (b) cumulative errors only
(c) both accidental and cumulative (d) None of the above
1.15 Systematic errors are those errors
(a) which cannot be recognised
(b) whose character in not understood
26 Surveying

(c) whose effect are cumulative and can be eliminated by adopting suitable
methods
(d) which change rapidly
1.16 The difference between the most probable value of a quantity and its observed value
is
(a) true error (b) weighted observation
(c) conditional error (d) residual error
1.17 It is convenient to record the field notes for a closed traverse in the field book on
the right page and read
(a) from left to right (b) from right to left
(c) from top to down (d) from bottom to top
1.18 The degree of precision required in survey work mainly depends upon the
(a) purpose of survey (b) area to be surveyed
(c) sources of error (d) nature of the field
1.19 The error which occurs while conducting the survey from whole to part and part to
whole is
(a) same
(b) in whole to part, it is localised and in part to whole it is expanded
(c) in whole to part it is expanded and in part to whole it is localised
(d) in both the methods error is localised
1.20 Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or
beneath the surface of the earth, with respect to each other, by the measurement of
(i) distances (ii) directions (iii) elevations
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) are required (b) only (i) is required
(c) only (ii) required (d) only (iii) is required
1.21 A point R can be located by the two control points P and Q by
(i) measuring PR and QR from P and Q, measure distance of R and plot
(ii) dropping a perpendicular from R on PQ, meeting the line in S, measure PS,
SQ and plot
(iii) distance QR and angle between QR and QP
(a) only (i) is correct (b) by (i) and (ii) both
(c) by (i), (ii) and (iii) (d) None of these
1.22 The objective of a survey is to
(i) prepare a plan or map
(ii) determine the relative position of points
(iii) determine position of points in a horizontal plane
(iv) determine position of points in a vertical plane
(a) Only (i) is correct
(b) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) all are correct
(d) (i), (ii), and (iii) are correct
1.23 The following are the subdivisions of engineering survey. Match them.
(i) Reconnaissance survey (A) To determine feasibility
and rough cost of the scheme.
(ii) Preliminary survey (B) To collect more precise data,
to choose the best location for
the work and to estimate the
exact quantities and costs.
(iii) Location survey (C) For setting out the work on
the ground.
(a) (i)–A, (ii)–B, (iii)–C (b) (i)–B, (ii)–A, (iii)–C
Fundamental Concepts 27

(c) (i)–C, (ii)–A, (iii)–B (d) (i)–B, (ii)–C, (iii)–A


1.24 Match the following:
(i) Topographical survey (A) To determine the natural
features of a country such as hills,
valleys, rivers, nuallas, lakes,
woods, etc.
(ii) Cadastral survey (B) To survey for the features
such as roads, railways, canals,
buildings, towns, villages, etc.
(iii) City survey (C) To locate the boundaries of
fields, houses, etc.
(iv) Engineering survey (D) To determine quantities
and for collection of data for road,
railways, reservoirs, sewerage,
water supply scheme, etc.
(E) For laying out plots and
construction streets, water supply
systems and sewers.
(a) (i)–A and B, (ii)–C, (iii)–E, (iv)–D
(b) (i)–C, (ii)–A and B, (iii)–C, (iv)–E
(c) (i)–D, (ii)–A and B, (iii)–C, (iv)–E
(d) (i)–B, (ii)–C, (iii)–A, (iv)–D and E
1.25 Consider the following statements:
(i) Precision is referred to as the degree of fineness and care with which surveying
measurements are made.
(ii) Precision represents the repeatability of a measurement and is concerned with
only random errors.
(iii) For a measurement to be accurate, its most probable value must be a value
close to the true value
Of the above statements
(a) (i) and (ii) are correct (b) (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct (d) only (i) is correct
1.26 The relative horizontal position of various points in surveying are determined by
(i) Traversing
(ii) Triangulation
(iii) Trigonometric levelling considering curvature of earth surface
(iv) Reconnaissance survey
Of the above
(a) (i) and (ii) are correct (b) only (iii) is correct
(c) (ii) and (iii) are correct (d) (i) and (iv) are correct
1.27 Match the following:
Type of map Scale
(i) Geographical map (A) 1 cm = 160 km
(i) Topographical map (B) 1 cm = 2.5 km
(iii) Location map (C) 1 : 2500 to 1 : 500
(iv) Forest map (D) 1 : 2500
(v) Cadastral map (E) 1 : 1000 to 1 : 5000
(a) (i)–A, (ii)–B, (iii)–C, (iv)–D, (v)–E
(b) (i)–B, (ii)–A, (iii)–C, (iv)–D, (v)–E
(c) (i)–C, (ii)–D, (iii)–E, (iv)–A, (v)–B
(d) (i)–E, (ii)–B, (iii)–D, (iv)–B, (v)–A
28 Surveying

1.28 Consider the following surveys:


(i) Traversing (ii) Triangulation
(iii) Plane table (iv) Tacheometry
Which of the above survey(s) does/do not follow(s) the principle of surveying—
working from whole to part.
(a) (iii) only (b) (ii) only
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (i) and (iii)
1.29 Mistakes are errors which arise from
(i) lack of attention (ii) carelessness
(iii) poor judgment (iv) confusion
(a) only (i) is correct
(b) (i), (ii) are correct
(c) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) all are correct
(d) (i), (ii), and (iii) are correct
1.30 Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List I List II
(Object) (Symbol)
(i) Hedge (A)
(ii) Wire fencing (B)
(iii) Pipe fencing (C)
(vi) Wood fencing (D)
Codes
(a) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A B C D
(b) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
D B C A
(c) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A B D C
(d) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Answers to Objective-type Questions


1.1 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.3 (d) 1.4 (d) 1.5 (b) 1.6 (a)
1.7 (a) 1.8 (a) 1.9 (d) 1.10 (c) 1.11 (a) 1.12 (a)
1.13 (a) 1.14 (a) 1.15 (c) 1.16 (d) 1.17 (c) 1.18 (b)
1.19 (b) 1.20 (a) 1.21 (c) 1.22 (c) 1.23 (a) 1.24 (a)
1.25 (c) 1.26 (a) 1.27 (a) 1.28 (a) 1.29 (c) 1.30 (a)
2 Horizontal
MeasureMents

Introduction
History reveals that the measurement of horizontal distance has taken a variety of
forms with marked variations in the accuracies achieved. Various methods such as
rope stretching, bamboo, pacing, chaining, optical (tacheometry) and electromagnetic
distance measurement exist, varying from crude to highly sophisticated ones. The
cost of making a measurement increases with the desired precision of the work.
Therefore, it is important to know the methods available and their accuracies so
as to obtain the required precision with economy.
Rope stretching and bamboo measurements are very crude methods and are
obsolete. Pacing can be recommended if an error of 5% is permissible and if the
ground is flat.
In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. The distances are not
actually measured in field but are computed indirectly by using the principles
of optics. The instrument used for making observations is called tacheometer.
Tacheometry may be employed when the ground is rough, undulating and not
suitable for chaining.
The electromagnetic distance measurements (EDM) can be made by using
light waves or radio waves. The instruments used in the former case are called
Geodimeter and Mekenometer, whereas distomat uses radio waves. In the near
future EDM may be rendered obsolete for distances over 5 km by the use of GPS
satellite methods. Electronic methods and aerial photogrammetry yield results with
high precision but are expensive.
The most common method of measuring the distances is by the use of chain and
tape. This operation is called chaining irrespective of whether a chain or a tape is
used. Chaining is recommended for moderately small areas and measurement of
ill-defined details, e.g., edge of a marsh or for filling in details between already
established control points. Chain is used to measure the lengths of the line and tape
is employed to measure the perpendicular distances to the chain line, called offsets.
In the process of chaining, the survey party consists of a leader (the surveyor at the
forward end of the chain), a follower (the surveyor at the rear end of the chain)
and an assistant to establish intermediate points.
30 Surveying

The accuracy to which measurements can be made with chain and tape varies
with the methods used and the precautions exercised. The precision of chaining
for ordinary work ranges from 1/1000 to 1/30 000 and precise measurements such
as baseline may be of the order of 1 000 000. Good chaining and standardised
and adjusted chain in good order may be expected to give an accuracy of 1/500
to 1/1 000 000. Accuracy in the base measurement seldom exceeds 1/500 000.
Measurement of horizontal distance is probably the most basic operation
performed in surveying and perhaps the most difficult as well. The horizontal
distance between two points is the distance between the plumb lines through the
points. It is important to emphasise that in plane surveying, the distances measured
should be horizontal. When distances are measured on slopes, sufficient data should
be collected so as to compute horizontal projections.

2.1 CHain surveying


It is the branch of surveying in which the distances are measured with a chain
and tape and the operation is called chaining. All the distances measured should
be horizontal. However, if measured on
slopes, the measurements are to be Road
subsequently reduced to horizontal A a
B
equivalents. Chain surveying is resorted
to when the area to be surveyed is small Pond
with fairly level ground and least b
obstacles. The ultimate aim of chain
surveying is to make a plan of the area Road
to be surveyed. This requires Well c
measurement of linear distances (chaining
accomplished with chain or tape) G
between the desired points. The operation d F
of measuring the distance is termed as C
E
chaining/taping. To have a better
D
understanding of chain surveying, a few
terms need explanation. Here reference
may be made to Fig. 2.1.
Main station is a point in chain survey where the two sides of
a traverse or triangle meet. These stations command the boundaries of the survey
and are designated by capital letters such as A, B, C, etc.
Tie station is a station on a survey line
joining two main stations. These are helpful in locating the interior details of the
area to be surveyed and are designated by small letters such as a, b, c, etc.
The chain line joining two main survey stations is called
main survey line. AB and BD are examples of main survey lines.
A chain line joining two tie stations is called tie
line such as ab or cd. It is also called auxiliary line. These are provided to locate
the interior details which are far away from the main lines.
Horizontal Measurements 31

It is the longest main survey line on a fairly level ground and


passing through the centre of the area. It is the most important line as the direction
of all other survey lines are fixed with respect to this line.
Check line or proof line is a line which is provided to check the
accuracy of the field work. The measured length of the check line and the computed
one (scaled off the plan) must be the same. AD is an example of check line.
It is the distance of the object from the survey line. It may be
perpendicular or oblique.
It is the distance of a well-defined point from the starting point. In
chain surveying it is normally referred to as the distance of the foot of the offset
from the starting point on the chain line.

2.1.1 Field Work in Chain survey


Suppose a plan is required for a small area as shown in Fig. 2.1. The surveyor
should first of all thoroughly examine the ground to ascertain as to how the work
can be arranged in the best possible manner. This is known as reconnaissance.
In this process, the surveyor selects suitable ground points to be used as stations
like A, B, C, D, etc.
Stations are selected so that the entire area may be controlled from these and
all the main survey lines, e.g., AB, BC, CD, etc., run near to the boundaries. The
survey lines should not be many and lie over flat level ground as far as possible.
The principle of chain surveying is that the area to be surveyed is divided into
triangles, the simplest closed geometrical figure. The triangles formed by survey
lines should be well conditioned. These are known as primary triangles and are
surveyed precisely. The primary triangles are divided into more triangles known
as secondary triangles. These are used to locate the details of the area to be
surveyed.
The main survey lines are measured with a chain and offsets are taken to the
crooked boundaries. Offsets are taken wherever there is a bend or any special
feature in the boundary. In the case where the boundary forms a smooth curve,
offsets are taken at the end of each chain. Offsets should be short particularly for
locating important details.
The lengths and positions of offsets being known, the boundaries can be plotted
to their shapes. The other details, which are deep inside the area such as a pond
or well as shown in Fig. 2.1, can be located by selecting tie stations, drawing tie
lines and taking offsets to the ground features. The equipments and accessories
required for chaining are described in the following sections.

2.2 CHain
Gunter, revenue, engineer and metric chain are the various types of chains which
are normally used for surveying. The chains are mostly divided into 100 links.
While Gunter’s chain is 66 ft. long (100 links), the revenue chain is 33 ft. long
(16 links) and the engineer’s chain is 100 ft. long (100 links). Metric chains are
either 30 m (150 links) or 20 m (100 links) in length. The constructional detail
32 Surveying

of metric chain are presented in details as it is generally used for the routine
measurement of distances.

2.2.1 Metric survey Chain (20 m or 30 m)


A metric chain (Fig. 2.2) divided into 100 links is made of galvanised mild steel
wire 4 mm in diameter. The ends of each link are bent into loops and connected
together by means of three oval rings, which afford flexibility, to the chain. The
length of the link is the distance between the centres of the two consecutive middle
rings. The ends of the chain are provided with brass handles with swivel joint, so
that the chain can be turned round without twisting. The outside of the handle is
the zero point or the end point of chain. A Vee groove is made in the handle to
fit into the vertical portion of the arrow driven at the station point. The length of
the chain is measured from outer end of the handles. Metallic tags are used at 5,
10, 15, 20, 25 m (Fig. 2.3) intervals for quick reading. The metallic tags used are
called tallies. Small brass rings (Fig. 2.3(a)) are provided at every metric length
except at 5, 10, 15, 20 m, etc. The handles of the chain are provided with grooves
so that the arrows can be held at the correct positions.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Brass ring at every Tally at 5 m Tally at 10 m Tally at 15 m


metre length length length length
Horizontal Measurements 33

1. It is suitable for rough use only.


2. It can be easily repaired in field.
3. It can be read easily.

1. Being heavier, it sags considerably when suspended in air.


2. Its length alters by shortening/lengthening of links. Therefore, it is suitable
for ordinary work only.
The leather strap is removed
and with both the handles of the chain in the left hand the chain is thrown well
forward with the right hand. The leader then takes one of the handles of the chain
and moves forward until the chain is extended to full length. The chain is checked
and kinks of bent links are removed.
The chain is pulled from the middle
and the two halves of the chain are so placed as to lie alongside each other.
Commencing from the middle, two pairs of links are taken at a time with the
right hand and are placed obliquely across the others in the left hand. The chain
is then folded into a bundle and fastened with a leather strap.
During its use, the links of a chain get bent and the length
is shortened. On the other hand, the length of a chain may increase by stretching
of links and usage, and rough handling through hedges, fences, etc. Therefore, it
becomes necessary to check the length of the chain before commencing the survey
work. Before checking, it should be ensured that its links are not bent, rings are
circular, openings are not too wide and mud is not clinging to them.
When a tension of 80 N is applied at the ends of the chain
and compared against a certified steel band (tape), standardised at 20°C, every
metre length should be accurate to within ±2 mm. The accuracy of an overall
length of 20 m chain should be within ±5 mm and that of a 30 m chain within
± 8 mm.
Two pegs at a required distance of 20 or 30 m are inserted on a flat
ground (Fig. 2.4). The overall
Marks
length of the chain is compared
with the marks and the difference
Peg
is noted.
If the chain is found to be
too long, it may be adjusted by
closing the opened joints of rings; 20 or 30 m
reshaping the elongated links;
removing one or more circular
rings; and replacing the worn out
rings. If chain is found too short, it may be adjusted by straightening the bent
links; flattening the circular rings; replacing circular rings by bigger rings; and
inserting additional rings.
34 Surveying

2.3 tape
Tapes are available in a variety of materials, lengths and weights. The different
types of tapes used in general are discussed as follows.
This is closely woven linen or synthetic material and
is varnished to resist the moisture. These are available in lengths of 10–30 m and
widths of 12–15 mm. The disadvantages of such a tape include: (i) it is affected
by moisture and gets shrunk; (ii) its length gets altered by stretching; and (iii) it
is likely to twist and does not remain straight in strong winds.
It is a linen tape with brass or copper wires woven into it
longitudinally to reduce stretching. As it is varnished, the wires are not visible.
These are available in lengths of 20–30 m. It is an accurate measurement device
and is commonly used for measuring offsets. As it is reinforced with wires, all
the defects of linen tapes are overcome.
These are 1–50 m in length and are 6–10 mm wide. At the end
of the tape a brass ring is attached, the outer end of which is zero point of the
tape. Steel tape cannot be used in ground with vegetation and weeds.
This is made of an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel, having very
low coefficient of thermal expansion (0.122 10 –6 /°C). These are available
in lengths of 30, 50 and 100 m and in a width of 6 mm. The advantages and
disadvantages of an invar tape are as follows:

1. Highly precise.
2. It is less affected by temperature changes when compared to the other
tapes.

1. It is soft and so deforms easily.


2. It requires much attention in handling.

2.4 aCCessories For CHaining


In addition to the equipments (chains and tapes), accessories, e.g., pegs, arrows,
ranging rods, offset rods and plumb bob are required for chaining operations.

2.4.1 pegs
These are used to mark definite points on the ground either temporarily or semi-
permanently. The exact point to and from which the measurements are to be taken,
or over which an instrument is to be set, is often necessary to indicate on a peg.
For this, a nail or a brass stud is driven into the flat top of the peg. The size of
a peg depends on the use to which the pegs are to be put and the nature of the
ground in which they are to be driven. Generally, hard creosoted wood 2.5–7.5 cm2
and 15–90 cm long, flat at one end and pointed at the other end are used. For
temporary use, pegs of nearly round section are cut from the standing trees and then
are pointed at one end and flattened at the other end. Iron or tubular pegs are made
Horizontal Measurements 35

of cut pieces of about 1–2 cm in diameter. Though expensive and troublesome to


carry, these pegs are preferred since they last longer.
For permanent marking of stations, a small concrete pillar is
used as a peg. The size varies from 15 to 30 cm2 and 7.5 to 60 cm
in height and is built in situ.

2.4.2 arrows
These are also known as chaining pins and are used to mark
the end of each chain during the chaining process. These are
made of hardened and tempered steel wire 4 mm in diameter.
The length of arrow is kept 400 mm. These are pointed at
one end whereas a circular ring is formed at its other end, as
shown in Fig. 2.5, to facilitate carrying from one station to
another. As the arrows are placed in the ground after every
chain length, the number of arrows held by the follower
indicates the number of chains that have been measured.
This provides a check over the length of line as entered in
the field notes.

2.4.3 ranging rods


These are also known as flag poles or lining rods. These are
made of well-seasoned straight grain timber of teak, deodar,
etc., or steel tubular rods. These are used for marking a point
in such a way that the position of the point can be clearly
and exactly seen from some distance away. These are 30
mm in diameter and 2 or 3 m long. These are painted with
alternate bands of either red and white or black and white of
200 mm length so that on occasions the rod can be used for
the rough measurement of short lengths. A cross-shoe of 15
mm length is provided at the lower end. A flag painted red
and white is provided at the top, as shown in Fig. 2.6.
These rods are used as signals to indicate the locations
of points or the direction of lines. Also, these are used
to locate the intermediate points between the two end
stations when the length of the line to be measured is
more than the chain length. For this purpose line ranger
(Section 2.5) may also be employed.

2.4.4 offset rods


These are similar to ranging rods except at the top where
a stout open ring recessed hook is provided, as shown in
Fig. 2.7. It is also provided with two short narrow vertical
slots at right angles to each other, passing through the
centre of the section, at about eye level.
It is mainly used to align the offset line and measuring
the short offsets. With the help of hook provided at the
36 Surveying

top of the rod, the chain can be pulled or pushed through the hedges or other
obstructions, if required.
ht
Offsets may also be made in
f sig
o
the field with the help of cross- e
Lin
staff (Section 2.6) or optical square B
(Section 2.7).

90
Horizontal line

70
2.4.5 Clinometer

50
It is an instrument used for

30
measuring the angle of a slope.

20
10
There is a variety of forms of A
0
which the simplest one consists of 90

a graduated semicircle resembling


a protector, as shown in Fig. 2.8.
A plumb bob is suspended from its Plumb bob
centre. Two sight pins A and B are
attached along the side of the upper
straight diametrical portion.
To use the clinometer, a mark is made on the ranging rod at the eye level. The
assistant is directed to go up or down the slope along with the ranging rod, as the
case may be. The surveyor holds the clinometer at the eye level and sees the mark
on the ranging rod through the sight pins. The surveyor
then clips the thread of the plumb bob with the thumb Thread
and notes the graduation below the thread. This value is
the required angle of slope.

2.4.6 plumb Bob


It is made of steel in a conical shape, as shown in Fig. 2.9.
It is used while measuring distances on slopes and in all
the instruments that require centering. Before starting the
work, it should be ensured that there are no undesirable
knots in the thread of the plumb bob.

2.5 line ranger


It is a small instrument used to establish intermediate points between two distant
points on a chain line without the necessity of sighting from one of them. It
consists of two right angled isosceles triangular prisms or two plane mirrors placed
one above the other, with their reflecting surfaces normal to each other, as shown
in Fig. 2.10(a). One of the prisms is made adjustable to secure the necessary
perpendicularity between the two reflecting surfaces.
Let there be two signals A and B on a chain line and C be the intermediate
point to be established in line with A and B. The surveyor stands approximately
in line with A and B and brings the instrument to his eye level. The instrument is
turned so that the surveyor sees the image of one of the signals say A, through the
upper prism. The surveyor then moves forward or backward, i.e., at right angles
to the chain line AB turning the instrument if necessary so as to keep signal A
Horizontal Measurements 37

in view, and until he observes the image of signal at B through the lower prism.
Thus the images of the two signals at A and B are seen directly through the upper
and lower prisms.

If point C is not in line with A and B, the two images viewed may be separated
as shown in Fig. 2.10(b). If so, the surveyor moves backward or forward till the two
images coincide as shown in Fig. 2.10(c). The required point C is then vertically
below the centre of the instrument.

2.6 Cross-staFF
It is essentially an instrument used for setting out right angles. In its simplest form
it is known as open cross-staff (Fig. 2.11(a)). It consists of two pairs of vertical
slits providing two lines of sight mutually at right angles. Another modified form
of the cross-staff is known as French cross-staff (Fig. 2.11(b)). This consists of
an octagonal brass tube with slits on all eight sides. This has a distinct advantage
over the open cross-staff as with it even lines at 45° can be set out from the chain
line. The latest modified cross-staff is the adjustable cross-staff (Fig. 2.11(c)).
It consists of two cylinders of equal diameter placed one above the other. The

90

(a) (b) (c)


Open cross-staff French cross-staff Adjustable cross-staff
38 Surveying

upper cylinder can be rotated over the lower one graduated in degrees and its
subdivisions. The upper cylinder carries the vernier and the slits to provide a line
of sight. Thus, it may be used to take offsets and to set out any desired angle
from the chain line.

2.6.1 taking offsets from a Cross-staff


To find the foot of a perpendicular from a given point to a chain line, the cross-
staff is held vertically on the chain line approximately near the point where the
offset is likely to fall. The cross-staff is turned until the signal at one end of the
chain line is viewed through one pair of slits. The surveyor then takes a round
and views through the other pair of slits. If the point to which the offset is to be
taken is seen, the point below the instrument is the required foot of the offset. On
the other hand, if the point is not seen, the surveyor moves along the chain line,
without twisting the cross-staff, till the point appears.

2.6.2 setting out a right angle from Chain line with a


Cross-staff
The surveyor stands at the point from where the right angle is to be set out on the
chain line. The surveyor then views through one set of the slits, twists the cross-
staff until a signal at one of the end of chain line appears. Then without twisting the
cross-staff, he takes a round and views through the other pair of slits. The surveyor
then directs the assistant to fix a signal in line with the line of sight provided. The
foot of the signal is marked and joined with the point on chain line.

2.7 optiCal square


This is a compact hand instrument to set out right angles and is superior to the
cross-staff. It is a cylindrical metal box about 50 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm
in depth. Figure 2.12 shows the plan of its essential features. It has two oblong
apertures C and D on its circumference at right angles to each other. E is a small
eye-hole provided diametrically opposite to C .
Horizontal Measurements 39

The instrument is equipped with two mirrors A and B inclined at an angle of


45° to one another. The mirror A is known as horizon mirror, the upper half of
which is silvered, whereas the lower half is a plane glass. This is placed opposite
to the eye-hole E and is inclined to the axis of the instrument EC at an angle
of 120°. The other mirror B is known as index mirror. It is completely silvered
and is placed diametrically opposite to the aperture D . It is kept inclined at an
angle of 105° to the index sight BD of the instrument. To an eye placed at E, the
signal C is visible directly through the transparent half of the horizon mirror. At
the same time, the signal D is seen in the silvered portion of the horizon mirror
after being reflected through the index mirror B.

2.7.1 principle
The instrument is based on the principle that a ray of light reflected successively
from two surfaces undergoes a deviation of twice the angle between the reflecting
surfaces.

2.7.2 taking offsets


Let EC be a survey line. It is required to find the foot of the perpendicular to the
chain line from a given point D (Fig. 2.13). The surveyor stands on the chain line
EC, near the expected point on the chain line, and observes the signal C through
the unsilvered portion of the horizon mirror and simultaneously observes the image
of the signal D through its silvered portion. He then moves along the chain line
until the signal C seen directly and the image of signal D coincide. The point
vertically below the instrument is the foot of the required perpendicular.

2.7.3 setting out a right angle from Chain line


Suppose the optical square is required to set out a perpendicular from a point H
on a chain line EC, to a curved boundary,
E H C as shown in Fig. 2.13. The surveyor stands
at H with the optical square at the eye level
and turns it until a signal at C is seen
directly through the transparent portion of
the horizon mirror. The curved boundary
will also be visible through the silvered
portion of the horizon mirror. The surveyor
then directs the assistant at the curved
boundary to move left or right until the
D signal D held by the assistant appears to
coincide exactly with the signal C seen
directly. The line HD will be the required
perpendicular to the chain line EC.
While using the optical square, it should be ensured that it is held horizontally.
Its use is restricted to fairly level ground.
40 Surveying

2.7.4 testing and adjusting an optical square


To place the mirrors at 45° to each other so that the angles set out are
the right angles.

1. Range out a straight line AC (Fig. 2.14) on a fairly level ground.


2. The surveyor stands at an intermediate point B, sights a signal at C and
sets out a right angle, say ABD.
3. The instrument is turned and the surveyor at B sights the signal at A.
4. If the instrument is in adjustment, the image of the signal at D will appear
to coincide with the signal at A.

1. If the image of the signal falls at D1 which does not coincide with the
signal at A, mark a point D2 so that its image coincides with the signal
at A.
2. Fix a signal at D exactly midway between D1 and D2.

A B C

D2 D D1

3. The index mirror which is adjustable is turned until the image of the signal
D is made coincident with the signal at A.
4. Signals at C and D are sighted again and now these should appear to
coincide.

2.8 prisM square


It is based on the same principle as the optical square and is used in the same
manner. It has an advantage over the optical square in that no adjustment is
required, since the angles between the reflecting surfaces of prisms is kept fixed
(45°) as shown in Fig. 2.15.

2.9 running survey lines


The process of running a survey line comprises the chaining of the line and location
from it of the adjacent details with offsets.
When the distance to be measured with the chain, between the two stations,
is less than chain length and the ends are visible, the chain can be laid in true
Horizontal Measurements 41

alignment. But when the distance is too long and ends are not intervisible due
to intervening ground, obstruction, etc., a number of intermediate points are
established with the help of ranging rods. The process of establishing intermediate
points on a survey line joining two stations in the field, so that the length between
the stations may be measured accurately is known as ranging.
Ranging is of two kinds:
1. Direct ranging
2. Indirect ranging

2.9.1 Direct ranging


When ranging rods are placed on intermediate points along the chain line by
direct observation from either end stations, the process is known as direct
ranging (Fig. 2.16).

e f B
A c
d

Let A and B be two end stations and c, d, e, etc., be the intermediate points to
be established. The procedure for marking the intermediate points is as follows.

1. Ranging rods are erected vertically behind each end of the line.
2. A surveyor stands behind the ranging rods at the end stations A and B of
the line.
3. One of the surveyors, say the surveyor at A, directs the assistant to hold a
ranging rod vertically at arms length from the point where the intermediate
point is to be established.
4. The assistant is directed to move the rod to the right or left until the three
ranging rods appear to be exactly in a straight line. The code of signals
used is stated in Table 2.1. The signals given by the surveyor are shown
in Fig. 2.17.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)


42 Surveying

S. Signal given by the surveyor Meaning of the signal for the


No. assistant
1. Rapid sweep with right hand (Fig. 2.17 Move considerably in that
(a)). direction (to your left).
2. Slow sweep with right hand. Move slowly to your left.
3. Right arm extended (Fig. 2.17 (b)). Continue to move to your left.
4. Right arm up and moved to the right. Plumb the rod to your left.
5. Rapid sweep with left hand (Fig. 2.17 (c)). Move considerably in that
direction (to your right).
6. Slow sweep with left hand. Move slowly to your right.
7. Left arm extended (Fig. 2.17 (d)). Continue to move your right.
8. Left arm up and moved to the left. Plumb the rod to your right.
Signals 5 to 8 are similar to signals
1 to 4.
9. Both hands above head and then brought Ranging is correct.
down (Fig. 2.17 (e)).
10. Both arms extended forward horizontally Fix the ranging rod.
and the hands brought down quickly.

5. The surveyor at A then sits


down and ensures that the
bottom of all the three ranging
C D
rods are in the same line.
6. The surveyor then signals the B
A
assistant to fix the rod.
The
instrument and the process have
already been described in Section 2.5.
This method of ranging is very useful Elevation
and accurate.

2.9.2 indirect ranging C1 D1


When the end stations are not
intervisible due to rising ground
C2
between them, or due to long distance
between the ends, indirect ranging is D2
C3 D3
done.
To lay out a line with inaccessible
C D
points or across a mountain
The given points are inaccessible or Plan
are separated by an elevation making
Horizontal Measurements 43

it impossible for one to be visible from the other, the following procedure is
adopted:
1. Let A and B be the two end stations of a line with a rising ground between
them and C and D the two intermediate points to be established on the
chain line (Fig. 2.18(a)).
2. The two chainmen stand at C1 and D1 such that the chainman at C1 can
see both the ranging rods at D1 and B, and the chainman at D1 can see
both the ranging rods at C1 and A.
3. Now the chainman at D1 directs the chainman at C1 to move to C2 so as
to be in line with A.
4. Then the chainman at C2 directs the chainman at D1 to move to D2 so as
to be in line with B.
5. By successively directing each other, the two chainmen proceed to the line
AB and finally come at C and D exactly in the line AB.
6. C and D are the required intermediate points between A and B.
To lay out a line across a ravine
When it is required to lay out a line between two points A and B across a deep
ravine (Fig. 2.18(b)), the following procedure may be adopted.
1. The two chainmen stand at A and B. A ranging rod at C is placed at the
ravine edge in line with A and B. Any of the chainmen at A or B can
direct the chainman at C to be in line with A and B.
2. Now the chainman at A directs the
chainman at D and E with ranging
rods to be in line with ranging rod
A C B at B.
D 3. Now the chainman at B directs the
E chainman at C to move to F so as
F to be in line with B, D and E.
4. The chainman at C, then directs
the chainman at G to be in line
G
with ranging rod at F.
5. In this manner, points C, F, G,
E and D are established between
points A and B.

2.10 linear MeasureMent WitH CHain


2.10.1 on smooth level ground
In measuring a distance that is longer than one chain length, it is necessary to
mark chain lengths at intermediate points, and if the total measured distance is
to be accurate, it is imperative that these intermediate points be on the line. The
procedure for ranging has been discussed in Section 2.9. To chain a line on level
ground, the following procedure is adopted.
To start with, suppose the distance to be measured is less than one chain length.
In the beginning, both the chainmen proceed to one of the points between which
the distance is to be measured. The leader then walks with the zero end of the
44 Surveying

chain to the other point whereas the follower remains at the initial point. The
chain is given a jerk so as to unfold any kinks and to make it straight. It is then
stretched straight between the two points in order to count the links to measure
the distances.
To chain a line longer than one chain length, the leader and the follower must
strictly follow the laid down procedures. The duties of the leader are: to drag
the chain forward; to insert arrows at the end of every chain; and to obey the
instructions of the follower. On the other hand, the duties of the follower are: to
place the leader in line with the ranging rods; to pick up the arrows inserted by
the leader; and to carry the rear handle of the chain in his hand. The following
steps are followed in chaining a line longer than one chain length:
1. The follower places one of the handles of the chain in contact with the
peg.
2. The leader takes the other handle of the chain, ten arrows, ranging rods and
moves forward along the line.
3. After the chain is stretched completely along the line, the follower stands
on one side of the line with the ranging rod touching the handle.
4. The follower directs the leader to come exactly in line. This can be achieved
ensuring that the lower ends of all the three ranging rods are in same
line.
5. The leader puts a scratch at the position of rod and inserts an arrow. He
then moves forward with the chain handle, the remaining nine arrows, and
the ranging rod, till the follower reaches the next peg point.
6. The follower places the handle of the chain in contact with the peg and the
entire procedure is repeated till the line is chained.
7. In the end, if some fractional length remains, it is measured by counting the
links.
8. During the process, the leader inserts the arrows and the follower picks them
up at every chain length. After every tenth chain length the follower erects
a ranging rod. He then counts the arrows and transfers them back to the
leader.

2.10.2 on sloping ground


As stated earlier, in plane surveying, the distances measured should be horizontal.
In certain cases, however, the change in elevation from one end of the chain to
the other end is so large that the chain cannot be kept horizontal. There are two
methods by which the actual horizontal distance can be obtained.
It is also known as stepping or breaking the chain (using a
portion of chain) method. The horizontal distance on the ground is measured
directly by the process of stepping which consists of measuring the distance in
short horizontal lengths.
Suppose it is required to measure the horizontal distance between P and Q.
Evidently, the distance PQ measured will be correct if the chain is held horizontal
for each broken chain length and if the position of the broken end of the chain
length is projected vertically to the ground by means of a plumb line.
Horizontal Measurements 45

This method is not recommended as mistakes in recording the individual


measurements and adding them may be made. However, this method can be used
to its advantage when the ground is rough with thick vegetation, weeds, etc.,
where it may be impractical to hold the chain on the ground. To get the exact
measurement, the process of chaining a line on sloping ground is as follows.
1. The follower holds the zero end of the chain at P on the ground while
the leader holds its broken end a1 at a suitable length (say 20 or 30 links)
horizontally, as shown in Fig. 2.19.
2. The follower then ranges the leader in line with Q.

P a1

a2

a1 a3

a2

3. The leader transfers the end a1 to the ground by means of a plumb bob
and marks the point a1 on the ground with an arrow.
4. The follower moves to a1 and holds the zero end of the chain at that
point.
5. Steps 1 to 4 are repeated until the end Q is reached.
6. The horizontal distance PQ is the sum of all such measured distance:
PQ = Pa1 + a 1 a 2 + a 2 a3 +
It is more practicable to chain downhill than to chain uphill. This is so because
in the latter case, the follower has to hold the chain horizontal with its zero mark
exactly above the point on the ground in order to range the leader in line and to resist the
pull exerted by the leader on the chain.

Wherever the chain can be conveniently held on ground, it


may be easier to measure a slope distance PQ as shown in Fig. 2.20 and then the
corresponding horizontal distance PQ can be computed.
P The angle PQp
(Fig. 2.20) can be measured by a
clinometer or on the vertical circle
of the transit. Then,
Q
p pQ = PQ cos
46 Surveying

The horizontal distance pQ may be found by applying


hypotenusal allowance (Fig. 2.21) derived as follows.
Let = angle of slope of the
ground. p1 P

pQ = p1Q = 1 chain length


PQ = chain length sec
Hypotenusal allowance, Q
p
Pp1 = chain length (sec – 1)
Therefore, for measuring a distance
on slope by this method, the chain is stretched in position p1Q with the arrow
placed in advance by an amount Pp1. The next chain length starts from P.
Another method of measuring horizontal distance consists in
measuring the slope distance l (PQ) and the difference in elevation h (Fig. 2.22)
between the two points by a level. Required horizontal distance is
______
pQ = l2 – h2
and, slope correction = h2/2l (Section 2.14.2)

l
h

Q
p
Q

e xample 2.1 While measuring the distance on a slope it was found that the
ground rises by 3.2 m for each 20 m chain length. Find the angle of slope and
the hypotenusal allowance per chain length.
s olution
Let = angle of slope
sin= 3.2/20
= 0.16
or = 9° 12
Hypotenusal allowance = l (sec – 1)
= 20 (sec 9°12 – 1)
= 0.261 m
= 26.1 cm
Hence, the hypotenusal allowance per chain length is 26.1 cm.
Horizontal Measurements 47

e xample 2.2 The distance measured between two points on a sloping ground
is 450 m. Find the correction to be applied and the horizontal distance if
(i) the angle of slope is 10°.
(ii) the slope is 1 in 5.
(iii) the difference in elevation between the two points is 45 m.
s olution
(i) If D is the horizontal distance and l the distance measured along a slope
of , then
Correction to be applied = l (1 – cos )
= 450 (1 – cos 10°) = 6.836 m
Hence, horizontal distance = 450 – 6.836 = 443.16 m.
(ii) Slope is 1 in 5
tan = 1/5
or = 11°19
Correction to be applied = l (1 – cos )
= 450 (1 – cos 11°19 ) = 8.74 m
Hence, horizontal distance = 450 – 8.74 = 441.26 m.
(iii) Difference in elevation between the points, h = 45 m
Correction to be applied = h2/2 l
= (452)/(2 450) = 2.25 m
Hence, horizontal distance = 450 – 2.25 = 447.75 m.

e xample 2.3 A 30 m chain is used to measure a line along a gradient of


1:10. Later it was detected that the chain was misaligned by 0.6 m while the
measurement was made. Determine the horizontal distance measured if the length
measured along the slope was 90 m.
s olution While measuring the distance, the chain was out of alignment as well
as the measured distance was on slope. Let us first correct the slope distance for
alignment and then correct it for horizontal equivalent.
If d is the length of misalignment and l the distance measured, the correction
for misalignment,
Cma =

= 0.002 m
The corrected slope length = 90 – 0.002
= 89.998 m
Gradient = 1 in 10
This implies 1 m vertical to 10 m horizontal.
Slope length =

Hence, horizontal distance = .


48 Surveying

2.11 errors in CHaining


Errors and mistakes in chaining may arise from any one or more of the following
sources such as erroneous length of chain, bad ranging, poor straightening, careless
holding and marking, variation of temperature, variation of pull, displacement
of arrows, miscounting chain lengths, misreading and erroneous booking. It is
therefore necessary to know the nature and effects of the various sources of error
so as to take care of them during chaining. Errors in chaining are classified as
follows: (i) compensating errors and (ii) cumulative errors.

2.11.1 Compensating errors


These are the errors which are liable to occur in both the directions and tend to
compensate. Compensating errors are proportional to the square root of the length
of the line. They do not affect the results much. The compensating errors are
caused by the following:
1. Incorrect holding and marking of the arrows.
2. Fractional parts of the chain may not be correct, i.e., the chain may not
be calibrated uniformly.
3. Plumbing may be incorrect while chaining by stepping on slopes.
4. In setting chain angles with a chain.
The compensating errors cannot be corrected as the nature of correction cannot
be ascertained.

2.11.2 Cumulative errors


These are the errors which are liable to occur in the same direction and tend
to accumulate. The errors thus considerably increase or decrease the actual
measurements. The cumulative errors are proportional to the length of the line and
may be positive or negative.
These are the errors which make the measured
lengths more than the actual. Therefore, the actual length can be found by
subtracting the error from the measured length. These errors may be caused due
to the following reasons:
1. The length of chain is shorter than the standard length.
2. Bending of links, knots in links, removal of rings during adjustment of
the chain, clogging of rings with mud, etc.
3. Not applying slope correction to the length measured along slopes.
4. Not applying sag correction.
5. Not applying temperature correction when temperature during measure-
ments is less than the standard temperature.
6. Bad ranging, bad straightening, and wrong alignment.
These are the errors which make the measured
length less than the actual. Therefore, the actual length can be found by adding
the error to the measured length. These errors may be caused due to the following
reasons:
Horizontal Measurements 49

1. Length of the chain is more than its standard length, which may be due
to flattening of rings, opening of joints, etc.
2. Not applying the temperature correction when temperature during
measurements is more than the standard temperature.

2.12 errors in MeasureMent WitH inCorreCt


CHain lengtH
Due to continuous usage of the chain over rough areas, the chain becomes too
long or too short over a period of time. If the chain is too long, the measured
distance will be less; on the other hand, if too short, the measured distance will
be more.
Let l be the true length of the chain and l be the faulty length of the chain.
Then:
True length of the line = (l /l) measured length of the line
True area = (l /l)2 measured area
True volume = (l /l)3 measured volume

e xample 2.4 The length of a line measured with a chain was found to be
250 m. Calculate the true length of the line if
(i) the length was measured with a 30 m chain and the chain was 10 cm too
long, and
(ii) the length of chain was 30 m in the beginning and 30.10 m at the end of
work.
s olution
Measured length, L = 250 m
True length of chain, l = 30 m
(i) Incorrect or actual length of the chain used, l = 30.10 m
True length of line, L1 = (l /l)L
= (30.10/30) 250 = 250.83 m
(ii) l = average length of the chain during measurement
= (30 + 30.10)/2 = 30.05 m
True length of line, L1 = (30.05/30) 250 = 250.416 m

e xample 2.5 A rectangular plot of size 400 200 m was measured with a
20 m chain. Later it was detected that the chain used for measuring the sides of
the plot was 8 cm too long. Determine the true area of the plot.
s olution Area measured, A1 = 400 200 = 80,000 m2
Actual length of the chain, l = 20 + 0.08 = 20.08 m

The area of the plot, A =

= 80,641.28 m2
50 Surveying

Alternatively:
Measured length, L = 400 m
Actual length of the chain used, l = 20 + 0.08 = 20.08 m

True length of the side measured, L1 =

Measured width, B = 200 m

True width of the side measured =

True area = 401.6 200.8 = 80,041.28 m2

e xample 2.6 The area of the plan of an old survey plotted to a scale of 10 m
to 1 cm now measures as 90.5 cm2 as found by a planimeter. The plan is found
to have shrunk so that a line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.5 cm only.
A note on the plan also states that the 20 m chain used was 9 cm too short. Find
the true area of the survey.
s olution
Original area on plan, A = (10/9.5)2 90.5
= 100.2770 cm2
The scale of the plan is 10 m = 1 cm
Hence, area on ground = 100.277 (10)2
= 10027.70 m2
Since, the chain was 0.9 cm too short and l = 20 m
l = 20 – 0.09 = 19.91 m
True area of the field = (19.91/20)2 10027.70
= 9937.6538 m2.

e xample 2.7 A distance of 2000 m was measured by a 30 m chain. Later,


it was detected that the chain was 0.1 m too long. Another 500 m was measured
and it was detected that the chain was 0.15 m too long. If the chain was correct
initially, determine the exact length that was measured.
s olution The chain was correct in the beginning, but after measuring 2000 m
it was found to be 0.1 m too long.
Hence, the mean elongation of chain for this distance
= (0.00 + 0.10)/2 = 0.05 m
The mean length of the chain while measuring first 2000 m, l = 30.05 m
True distance, L1 = (l /l) measured distance
= (30.05/30) 2000 = 2003.334 m
For the next 500 m measurement, it was found to be 0.15 m too long at the
end.
Horizontal Measurements 51

The mean elongation for the next 500 m distance


= (0.10 + 0.15)/2
= 0.125 m
Now, l = 30 + 0.125 = 30.125 m
Hence, true distance, L2 = (30.125/30) 500
= 502.083 m
Total measured length = L1 + L2
= 2003.334 + 502.083
= 2505.417 m

e xample 2.8 The length, width and height of an embankment were measured
with a 30 m chain and the volume of embankment was calculated to be 524.6 cu.m.
Later it was found that the chain used to measure the dimension of the embankment
was 12 cm too short. What is the true volume of the embankment?

s olution True volume =

Actual length of the chain used = 30 – 0.12 = 29.88 m

True volume =

2.13 linear MeasureMents WitH tape


Tapes can be used for making the measurement of linear distances with increased
accuracy in surveying which reduces the wastage of labour and time. Since the
tapes are longer than the chains, fewer applications of tape will be required to
measure a given distance. The tape may be laid flat on the ground like an ordinary
chain and used in a manner similar to that in which a chain is used. Measuring
distances with tape is most suitable, quicker and convenient for very flat and even
ground. However, if the ground is rough and a reasonable degree of accuracy is
desired, the tape may be suspended in air in such a manner that it hangs clear
of ground. This method is most suitable when survey is along lines through bush
or forest. However, if the tape is to be laid on ground in such situations, the
clearing of ground is required, as otherwise it would be difficult to stretch the
tape straight.

2.13.1 on smooth level or sloping ground


The tape can be used in exactly the same manner as the chain, without observing
temperatures or taking special precautions to maintain constancy of pull, and when
so used it would yield slightly better results than the chain. For a more precise
work, precautions may be taken, by means of a small spring balance attached to
the tape, to ensure that a constant stated tension is applied while the tape is being
used. The temperature may be read by a thermometer at each set up of the tape, and
a correction made for the mean temperature recorded for the whole of the one line
52 Surveying

or for the whole day. For this purpose a mean of prevailing temperatures may also
be assumed, either for the day or season, and the correction may be applied.
The following steps are followed in chaining a line on smooth level ground
with a tape:
1. The survey points to be measured are pegged on the ground and the
ranging rods are then set behind each peg in the line of measurement.
2. Using a tape, arrows are aligned between the two points at intervals less
than a tape length. Measuring plates are then set firmly in the ground at
these points, with their measuring edge normal to the direction of tape.
3. The steel tape is then carefully laid out in a straight line between the survey
point and the first plate. One end of the tape is firmly anchored, while
the tension is applied at the other end. At the exact instant of standard
tension, both ends of the tape are read simultaneously against the survey
station point and the first ranged intermediate point on command from the
surveyor applying the tension. The tension is eased and the whole process
repeated at least four times or until a good set of results is obtained.
4. Standard pull is applied on the tape with the help of spring balances.
5. When reading the tape, the metres, decimetres and centimetres should
be noted as the tension is being applied and noted. On the command ‘to
read’, only the millimetres are required.
6. The readings are noted and subtracted from each other to give the length
of the measured segment.
7. The process is repeated for each bay of the line being measured, care
being taken not to move the first measuring plate, which is the start of
the second bay, and so on.
8. After the measurement of one particular length and before the tape is
moved forward, the slope is observed. This may be done with a clinometer
which can be read by the rear chainman while the leader holds the ranging
rod vertically.
9. The temperatures during measurements are recorded.
10. Corrections for tape standardisation, pull (if different than the standard),
slope and temperature are applied to the measured length.
This method requires five surveyors; One to anchor the tape end, one to apply
and note the tension, two observes to read the tape and one booker.

2.13.2 on rough ground


When the distances are to be measured on rough ground having weeds and hedges,
the best way is to suspend the tape in air between the two measuring points, clear
of the ground surface; in the process the tape sags in the form of catenary. The
catenary is the curve assumed by a perfectly flexible string (i.e., one in which
there is no shear or bending moment) of uniform weight per unit length hanging
under its own weight and evenly supported at both ends.
This method of taping is more accurate as it has more control over errors arising
from uncertainties about slope, alignment, and temperature. Figure 2.23 shows
the basic set-up of measuring the distance with tapes suspended in the catenary.
The tension is applied to the tape and by levering back against the straining rod.
Horizontal Measurements 53

The corrections as discussed in the next section are applied to get the correct
distance.

Straining Anchor
rod rod
Spring Advance tripod
balance Measuring heads carrying measuring
head
Applied
tension Tape

A B C

2.14 tape CorreCtions


Depending upon the accuracy required in taping, certain corrections are made to
the original measured distance. It is a standard practise not to correct each tape
length as it is measured, but to record the measurements as made with the tape
used and then to apply corrections to the total distance. The major sources of error
in taping can be identified in terms of the following corrections.

2.14.1 Correction for standard length


Before using a tape, the actual length is ascertained by comparing it with a standard
tape of known length. If the actual tape length is not equal to the standard value,
a correction will have to be applied to the measured length of the line:
LC
Ca = ___
l
where Ca = correction for absolute length
C = correction to be applied to the tape
L = measured length of the line (in m)
l = nominal length of the tape (in m)
The sign of the correction Ca will be same as that of C.

2.14.2 Correction for slope


The distance measured along the slope is always greater than the horizontal
distance between the points. Therefore, if the
distance is measured on the slope, it must be
immediately reduced to its corresponding horizontal
distance (Fig. 2.24).
______
D = L2 – h2
Csl = L – D
The slope correction, Csl = L – (L2 – h 2)1/2
= L – L (1 – h2/L2)1/2
= L – L [1 – h2/(2L)2 – h4/(8L)4 – ]
54 Surveying

= L – L + h2/2L + h4/8L3 +
= h2/2L (neglecting the higher order terms)
Csl = h2/2L
where h = difference in elevations of A and B
L = measured length (in m)
The slope correction is always subtractive.

2.14.3 Correction for tension (pull)


If the pull applied to the tape during measurement is more than the standard pull at
which the tape was standardised, its length increases. Hence the distance measured
becomes less than the actual. The pull correction Cp is given by
P–P
Cp = ______0 L
AE
where P0 = standard pull
P = pull applied during measurement
A = area of cross section of the tape (in mm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of tape
= 2.1 105 N/mm2 for steel
= 1.54 105 N/mm2 for invar
L = measured length (in m)
Tension correction is positive, if the applied pull is more than the standard pull,
and negative, if the applied pull is less than the standard pull.

2.14.4 Correction for temperature


The tape length changes due to changes in the temperature while taking the
measurements. The temperature correction Ct which, therefore, needs to be made
is given by:
Ct = (Tm – T0)L
where Tm = mean temperature during measurement
T0 = temperature of standardisation
= coefficient of thermal expansion of material
= 0.0000035/°C for steel
= 0.000000122/°C for invar
L = measured length (in m)
The correction is positive, if the temperature during measurement is more than
the standard temperature, and negative, if the temperature during measurement is
less than the temperature at which the tape was standardised.

2.14.5 sag Correction


When the tape is stretched between two points, it takes the form of catenary
(assumed to be a parabola). Consequently, the measured length is more and the
correction is applied. The sag correction Csa is given by
Horizontal Measurements 55

(wl1)2l1 _____
W2l1
Csa = ______ =
24P2 24P2
If there are n equal spans per tape length, the correction per tape length is given
by
(wl1)2l1 ________
(wl/n)2nl1
Csa = n ______ =
24P2 24P2
(wl)2l W2l
= ______
2 2
= ______
24n P 24n2P2
where w = weight of the tape per metre length
W = total weight of the tape
P = pull applied (in N)
l1 = the length of tape suspended between two supports
l = length of the tape = nl1 (in m)
Sag correction is always negative.

2.14.6 reduction to Mean sea level


The length of a line measured at an altitude of h
metres above mean sea level (Fig. 2.25) is always
more as compared to the length measured on the
mean sea level (m.s.l.) surface. The necessity of
reducing distances to a common datum arises when
the surveys are to be connected to the national grid.
The correction denoted by CR is given by
h L
CR = __
R
where R is the radius of the earth.
The correction is always subtractive.

2.14.7 Combining Corrections


In actual practise, each of the above correction, based on the length recorded, are
combined by addition. But strictly speaking, correction should be combined by
successive multiplication. Let us assume that for a given length, the following unit
corrections have been computed and are to be applied:
Unit sag correction = a
Unit slope correction =b
Unit temperature correction =c
True length =L
Recorded length =L
Then L = L (1 + a) (1 + b) (1 + c)
= L (1 + a + b + c + ab + bc + ca + abc)
The values of a, b, and c are very small and hence their products can be neglected.
Eliminating such products,
56 Surveying

L = L (1 + a + b + c)
=L + La + Lb + Lc
Thus, each of the correction can be based on the length recorded and combined
by addition.

2.14.8 normal tension


The pull or tension which, when applied to a tape suspended in the air, equalises
the correction due to pull and sag is known as normal tension.
For one tape length,
P–P
Cp = ______0 l (since L = l)
AE

and W 2l
Csa = _____
24P2
Since, Cp = Csa
W 2l
(P – P0) l _____
________ =
AE 24P2
___
0.204W
P = __________
______AE
P – P0
The value of P may be calculated by trial and error.

e xample 2.9 A line was measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30 m
at a temperature of 20°C and a pull of 10 kg. The measured length was 1650 m.
The temperature during measurement was 30°C and the pull applied was 15 kg.
Find the true length of the line, if the cross-sectional area of the tape was 0.025
cm2. The coefficient of expansion of the material of the tape per °C is 3.5 10–6
and modulus of elasticity of the material of tape is 2.1 106 kg/cm2.
s olution Correction to be applied are: (i) correction for temperature and
(ii) correction for pull.
(i) Correction for temperature:
Ct = (Tm – T0)L
= 3.5 10–6 (30 – 20) × 1650
= 0.05775 m (+ve)
(ii) Correction for pull:
(P – P0)
Cp = ________ L
AE
(15 – 10)
= ______________6 × 1650
0.025 2.1 10
= 0.157101 m (+ve)
True length of the line = 1650 + 0.05775 + 0.157101
= 1650.214831 m.
Horizontal Measurements 57

e xample 2.10 The downhill end of a 30 m tape is held 90 cm too low. What
is the horizontal distance measured?
s olution
Correction for slope = h2/2L
= (0.9)2/(2 30)
= 0.0135 m
Hence, the horizontal distance = 30 – 0.0135
= 29.9865 m

e xample 2.11 A 100 m tape is suspended between the ends under a pull
of 200 N. The weight of the tape is 30 N. Find the correct distance between the
tape ends.
s olution
W 2l
Correction for sag = _____12
24P
= ((30)2 100)/(24 (200)2)
= 0.09375 m
Horizontal distance = 100 – 0.09375
= 99.90625 m.

e xample 2.12 A base line measured with a steel tape gives an approximate
length of 1000 m. Compute the correct length of the base line at mean sea level
when the pull at the standardisation equals 15 kg. The applied pull is 23 kg. The
cross sectional area of tape is 0.0645 cm2 and E = 2.11 106 kg/cm2. Temperature
Tm and To are 35°C and 15°C, respectively. The coefficient of thermal expansion
of the material of the tape per °C is 11.5 × 10–6. The difference in level of the
two ends of base line is 2 m. R = 6400 km. Elevation of base line above mean
sea level = 1000 m.
s olution
(i) Correction for pull:
CP =

(ii) Correction for temperature:


Ct = a(Tm – To)L
= 11.5 10–6 (35 – 15) 1000
= 0.24 m (+ve)
(iii) Correction for slope:

Csl =
58 Surveying

(iv) Correction for mean sea level:

CR =

Total correction = 0.05878 + 0.24 – 2 10–3 – 0.15625


= 0.1405 m
Corrected length of the base line = 1000 + 0.1405
= 1000.1405 m

2.15 oFFsets
The distance measured right or left of the chain line to locate the details like
boundaries, culverts buildings, etc., are called offsets. Figure 2.26 shows the offsets
required to locate the corners of a building and the terms used in the process.
The number of offsets required to locate a boundary will basically depend upon
the irregularities of the boundary being surveyed. The offsets should be at regular
and close intervals, but with such spacing that they are representable; scale of
the plan or map will govern. All the important details should be located with
additional check offsets. There are two types of offsets: (i) Perpendicular offsets
and (ii) Oblique offsets.

2.15.1 perpendicular offsets


When the lateral measurements for locating details are at right angles to the chain
line, the offsets are called perpendicular offsets, e.g., PR and QS of Fig. 2.26.

2.15.2 oblique offsets


When the lateral measurements for fixing details are not at right angles to the chain
line, the offsets are called oblique offsets. These are used to check the accuracy
of perpendicular offsets and to locate the corners of buildings more accurately,
e.g., PR1 of Fig. 2.26.
Horizontal Measurements 59

2.15.3 limiting length of offset


The offset should not be too long. Otherwise, the error produced by long offsets
will be appreciable on paper. The limiting length depends on many factors, such
as: accuracy desired, scale of plotting, maximum error in laying off the direction
of offset, and nature of the ground.
The minimum distance distinguishable in plan is taken to be 0.25 mm. This is
an important consideration while deciding the shortest length that can be plotted,
which of course depends upon the scale as well. As an example, for a scale of 1 cm = 20
m, the shortest length that can be plotted on plan equals 500 mm (20 × 100 × 0.25) length
on ground.
Let P be a point from where an offset PC has
been laid instead of PD on a chain line AB. The length of the offset PC is l and
is the error made in laying the offset on ground. This, when plotted on paper
will be CP1 instead of CP (Fig. 2.27). Thus, the point P is displaced by PP2 along
the chain line and by P2P1 perpendicular
to the chain line. If the scale of plotting P1
is 1 cm = S m P2 P

PP2 = l sin
______
S
If limit of accuracy in plotting =
0.025 cm l
l sin = 0.025
______
S
or l = 0.025 S cosec Chain line
Therefore, the limiting length of A C D B
offset is 0.025 S cosec for an error
of in laying the offset and the
displacement of point perpendicular to
chain line P1P2 on paper will be
l – l cos
P1P2 = CP1 – CP2 = __________
S

Let P be P
a point from where an offset PC is
laid on a chain line AB. The measured P2
P1
length of the offset CP1 is l and the
error in direction is (Fig. 2.28). Let 1
in r be the accuracy in measurement of
the offset and scale of plotting be 1 cm l
= S m. Then the total error is PP2.
Assuming angle PP1P2 = 90° Chain line
The displacement due to angular A C D B
error, P1P2 = l sin and it should be
equal to displacement due to the linear
error, P1P = l/r
60 Surveying
__ __
PP2 = 2 PP1 = 2 P1P2
__
= 2 (l/r)
__
also = 2 l sin
Corresponding displacement on paper
__
= 2 (l/r) (1/S)
__
also = 2 l sin /S
If limit of accuracy in plotting is 0.025 cm, then
__
( 2 l/r) (1/S) = 0.025
__
or l = (0.025/ 2 )r S
__
also 2 l sin /S = 0.025
__
or l = (0.025/ 2 ) S cosec

2.15.4 taking offsets


Let P be a point where the offset is to
be taken (Fig. 2.29). The leader holds the
zero end of the tape at the point P and
the follower swings off the tape in an arc
with P as the centre, as shown in Fig. 2.29.
The minimum reading of tape on the chain
line gives the position of the foot C of the
perpendicular from P. An offset taken in
such a way is also called swing offset.

2.15.5 establishing perpendicular to a Chain line


The most common method of erecting a perpendicular to a chain line is the
3-4-5 method. It uses the Pythagoras theorem. In Fig. 2.30, AB is a chain line and
C is the point from which a perpendicular is to be erected. Establish a point E on
the chain AB at 3 links from C. Count 5 chain links from E and with E as the
centre, mark an arc in the field. Similarly, with 4 chain links from C and with C
as the centre mark, another arc intersecting the previous one in P is constructed.
CP is the desired perpendicular at C.

Chain line
A
E C B
Horizontal Measurements 61

e xample 2.13 An offset is laid 4° out from its true direction in the field. Find
the resulting displacement of the plotted point on the plan for the following cases,
if the offset measured was 8.0 m and the scale of plotting was 6 m to 1 cm:
(i) In the direction parallel to the chain line.
(ii) In the direction perpendicular to the chain line.
s olution
(i) Displacement of the point on ground parallel to chain line
= l sin
= 8 sin 4°
= 0.558 cm
The scale of plan is 6 m to 1 cm
l sin
Displacement of the point on plan = ______
S
= 0.558
_____ = 0.093 cm
6
(ii) Displacement of the point on ground perpendicular to the chain line
= l (1 – cos )
= 8 (1 – cos 4°)
= 0.01948 cm
l(1 – cos )
Displacement of the point on plan = ___________
S
= 0.01948
_______
6
= 0.003 cm

e xample 2.14 Find the limiting length of an offset so that the displacement
of a point on the paper may not exceed 0.025 cm. The offset was laid 3° out from
its true direction and the scale was 10 m to 1 cm.
s olution
l sin /S = 0.025
or l = 0.025 S cosec 3°
= 0.025 10 cosec 3°
= 4.78 m

e xample 2.15 Find the maximum length of an offset so that the displacement
of the plotted position of the point on the paper from both sources of error does
not exceed 0.025 cm. The offset is measured with an accuracy of 1 in 30 and the
scale used is 1 cm = 25 m.
s olution The displacement of point on the ground from both sources of error
__
2l
= ___
r
__
2 l cm
= ___
30
62 Surveying

The scale of plotting is 25 m = 1 cm


__
2 l cm
The displacement of point on paper = _______
30 25
__
Then 2 l = 0.025
_______
30 25
or l = 13.258 m.
Hence, the maximum length of offset should be 13.258 m.

e xample 2.16 An offset is 15 m long and the scale of plotting is 1 cm = 30


m. If the accuracy in linear measurement is 1 in 20, determine permissible error
in the angular measurement.
s olution
Displacement due to angular error on ground = l sin = 15 sin

Displacement due to linear error on ground =

Combined error on ground =

Combined error in plotting on plan =

Hence,

= 0°
Since = 0°
No angular error can be permitted.

e xample 2.17 The angular error in laying off the perpendicular direction of
an offset was found to be 5°. What should be the accuracy with which the offset
should be measured so that the maximum displacement of point on paper from
both the sources of error be the same.
s olution
l sin = _rl
or l sin 5° = l/r
or r = cosec 5°
= 11.47
Hence, the offset must be measured with an accuracy of about 1 in 11.47 m.

2.16 FielD Book


The chain survey work is recorded in a note book known as field book which is of
200 mm 120 mm size. The pages of the field book can have either a red line or
two blue lines 12.5 – 15 mm apart ruled down the middle of each page. The field
work is commenced at the bottom of the page and worked upwards as shown in
Horizontal Measurements 63

Fig. 2.31. Following details are recorded in the field book on the commencement
of a chain line.

1. Name or number of the chain line.


2. Name or number of the station.
3. The symbol denoting the station mark.
4. The direction of other survey lines at the stations.
5. The initial chainage (generally zero) enclosed in the symbol.
To facilitate reference, no line is commenced on the same page that contains a
finish of another line.

2.16.1 Booking the Data


In recording measurements as they are being taken in the field, the notekeeper
should ensure that every measurement that should be recorded is taken and
that every measurement taken is recorded. Every linear measurement should be
recorded in such a way that the last digit will indicate the degree of precision
with which the measurement was made. The following points should be observed
while booking the data:
1. Chainage is written in the central column.
2. Chainage of the stations may be enclosed in a circle or ellipse.
3. Objects are sketched along the sides of the chain line.
4. Offsets are written close to the object.
5. Chainage of corners of the object are also entered.
64 Surveying

6. When features like road, fence, lake, etc., cross the chain line, the chainage
of intersection is entered and the direction of the feature is sketched.
7. Oblique offsets are written along with dimension line in the direction of
the offset.

2.17 oBstaCles to CHaining


The measurement of distances consists of chaining and making offsets. During
measurements, it is practically impossible to set out all the chain lines in a
straightforward method because of a variety of obstructions to chaining and
ranging in the field. The difficulties can be overcome by running perpendicular
and parallel lines or by running a few additional lines and measuring angles by
some instrument. The scope of the chapter limits the solution of the problems
involving only the essential equipments used in chain surveying. To find the best
and rapid solution, the surveyor should have a good knowledge of geometric and
trigonometric principles.
The obstacles may be divided into two classes. Those which do not obstruct
the ranging (view) like ponds, rivers and fall in the category of obstacles to
measurement. The others are those which we cannot see across, i.e., both the
chaining and ranging are obstructed, e.g., houses, stacks, etc., and are known
as obstacles to alignment. Only a few solutions have been discussed here and
many more can be developed by the surveyor himself, depending upon the field
conditions and method resorted to.

2.17.1 obstacles to Measurement D


Let ABCD be a chain line
C F
obstructed by a pond. The problem consists in finding
out the distance BC. Two offsets BE and CF of equal
length are made at B and C and chaining is done along
EF. The work is then continued from point C.
Let DAB be a chain line
obstructed by a river. Lay off AC, of any convenient
length, perpendicular to the required distance AB and lay B E
off DC perpendicular to BC. Then, AB = AC2/AD.
A
Let AB be a chain line
obstructed by a river. Assume a point I anywhere in line
with the required distance AB. Take a point H in such
a way that HJ = HI and HK = HB. Establish L in the line AH and at the same
time in the line JK produced. Then KL = AB.

2.17.2 obstacles to alignment


Let DE be a chain line obstructed by a house.
Assume a point C arbitrarily. Make EC = CB and
DC = CA. Then AB = DE.
Horizontal Measurements 65

River

90

D C

Establish
a point F at equal distances from D and
E at any convenient distance. Make FH
= FG. Then DE = (HG DF)/HF.

e xample 2.18 A chain line ABC


crosses a river at 90° as shown in Fig.
2.37. B and C are two points located at
the near and far banks, respectively. AB
= 57.73 m, BD = 100 m and ABD =
90°. The whole circle magnetic bearing
(W.C.B.) of C and A taken at D are 30°
and 120°, respectively. Find the width
of the river.
s olution
W.C.B. of C at D = 30°
66 Surveying

W.C.B. of A at D = 120°
ADC = 120° – 30° = 90°
Consider triangles BCD and BDA
CBD = ABD = 90°
BCD = BDA, and BDC = BAD
Hence, triangles BCD and BDA are similar triangles.
BC = ___
___ BD
BD AB
(BD)2 (100)2
or BC = _____ = ______ = 173.22 m
AB 57.73
Hence, width of river = 173.22 m.

e xample 2.19 A big pond obstructs the chain line ab as shown in Fig. 2.38.
A line al was measured on the left of the
line ab for circumventing the obstacle. The l 502 m b 548 m
m
length of al was 901 m. Similarly, the line
am was measured on the right of the line ab
whose length was 1100 m. Points m, b and

m
l are in the same straight line. Lengths of
90

00
1m

the links bl and bm are 502 m and 548 m,

11
respectively. Find the distance ab.
s olution Consider triangle alm
lm = 502 + 548 = 1050 m a
Let lma =
(am)2 + (lm)2 – (al)2
cos = __________________
2(am)(lm) C
2 2 2
(1100) + (1050) – (901)
= ______________________
2 1100 1050
150.07
= ______ = 0.6497
231.00
In triangle abm
(ab)2 = (bm)2 + (am)2 – 2 (am) (bm) cos
= (548)2 + (1100)2 – 2 1100 548
0.6497
or ab = 852.66 m.
60 m
B E
e xample 2.20 A survey line ABC
80 m
crossing a river at right angles cut its banks at F
B and C, as shown in Fig. 2.39. To determine H D
G 60 m
the width BC of the river, the following
operation was carried out. 40 m
A
A 60 m long line BE was set out roughly
parallel to the river. Line CE was extended to
Horizontal Measurements 67

D and mid-point F of DB was established. Then EF was extended to G such that


FG = EF. Line DG was extended to cut the survey line ABC at H. GH and HB
were measured and found to be 40 m and 80 m, respectively.
Find the width of the river.
s olution
Given: BE = 60 m, BH = 80 m and HG = 40 m
GD = BE = 60 m
HD = HG + GD
= 40 + 60 = 100 m
Consider similar triangles CHD and CBE
CB/CH = BE/HD
or CB/(CB + BH) = BE/(HG + GD)
i.e., CB/(CB + 80) = 60/(40 + 60) = 0.6
or CB = 0.6 (CB + 80)
CB (1 – 0.6) = 80 0.6
CB = 80 0.6/0.4
= 48/0.4 = 120 m

e xample 2.21 To continue a survey line AB past an obstacle, a 200 m long


line BC was set out perpendicular to AB, and from C angles BCD and BCE were
set out at 60° and 45°, respectively. Determine the lengths which must be chained
off along CD and CE in order that ED may be in line with AB produced. Also
determine the obstructed length.
s olution Refer to Fig. 2.40.
From BCD,
C
CD = BC sec 60°
= 200 sec 60° 45
60
= 400 m
From BCE, CE = BC sec 45°
= 200 sec 45°
A
= 282.84 m B E D
and BC = BC tan 45°
= 200 tan 45°
= 200 m.

e xample 2.22 A survey line is obstructed by a high building. To prolong the


line beyond the building, a 150 m long perpendicular BC, is set out at B. From C,
two lines CD and CE, are set out at angles of 30° and 40° with CB, respectively.
Determine the lengths CD and CE so that D and E may be on the prolongation
of AB. If the chainage of B is 100 m, find the chainage of D.
68 Surveying

s olution From BCD (Fig. 2.41)


B D E
_______ 150
CD = BC = _______ A
cos 30° cos 30°
= 173.205 m
From BCE
BC = _______
CE = _______ 150 = 195.81 m
cos 40° cos 40°
BD =
40
= 30

= 86.602 m
Chainage of D = chainage of B + BD C
= 100 + 86.602
= 186.602 m.

e xample 2.23 A river is flowing from west to east. For determining the width
of the river, two points A and B are selected on the southern bank such that distance
AB = 100 m. Point A is westwards. The bearings at a tree C on the northern bank
are observed to be 40° and 340°, respectively from A and B. Calculate the width
of the river.
s olution In ABC (Fig. 2.42)
CAB = 90° – 40° = 50°
CBA = 340° – 270° = 70°
ACB = 180° – ( CAB + CBA)
= 180° – (50° + 70°) = 60°
By sine rule
AC
_______ BC
= _______ AB
= _______
sin ABC sin CAB sin ACB
AC = AB sin 70° = 100
_________ 0.9396
___________
sin 60° 0.866
= 108.50 m
and BC = AB sin 50° =
_________ 76.60
_____
sin 60° 0.866
= 88.455
m
Width of the river = AC sin
50°
= 108.50
sin 50°
= 83.116
m
or Width of the river = BC sin
70°
= 88.455sin 70°
= 83.116
m.
Width of the river = 83.116 m.
Horizontal Measurements 69

2.18 eleCtroMagnetiC DistanCe MeasureMent (eDM)


The measurement of distance by electronic techniques is not new. Since long, the
radar has been used to measure distances for both civil and military purposes.
For geodetic triangulation and trilateration where high precision is required in the
measurement of distances, EDM techniques have proved to be very useful. The
advent of EDM equipment has completely revolutionised all surveying procedures,
resulting in a change of emphasis and techniques. Taping distance, with all its
associated problems, has been rendered obsolete for all base-line measurement.
Distance can now be measured easily, quickly and with great accuracy, regardless
of terrain conditions. Modern EDM equipment contains hard-wired algorithms
for reducing the slope distance to its horizontal and vertical equivalent. Some
of the latest equipments used are geodimeter, tellurometer, mekenometer and
distomat. The latest developments in EDM equipment provide plug-in recording
modules capable of recording many thousand blocks of data for direct transfer to
the computer. There is practically no surveying operation which does not utilise
the speed, economy, accuracy and reliability of modern EDM equipment. In the
electronic method of measuring distances, the instruments rely on propagation,
reflection, and subsequent reception of either light or radio waves.
An EDM instrument performs the following basic functions:
1. The generation of carrier wave and measuring wave frequencies.
2. The modulation and demodulation of the carrier wave.
3. The measurement of the phase difference between the transmitted and
received frequency waves.
4. The display, in some form, of the result of the measurement.

2.18.1 Classification
EDM instruments may be classified according to their operational range or
according to the type and wavelength of the electromagnetic energy generated.
The EDM equipment can be split into three categories depending upon the range:
It isless than 3 km. Examples are tellurometer and mekenometer.
The accuracy is ± (0.2 + 1 mm/km).
It is less than 25 km. An example is a geodimeter. These
have a range of 5 km in daylight, and about 25 km in the night by using a
mercury lamp. The accuracy is ± (5 + 1 mm/km).
It is less than 100 km. Examples are tellurometer and distomat.
The latest distomat can be used up to a range of 150 km. The accuracy is ±
(10 + 3 mm/km).
According to the electromagnetic wave that carries the measuring signal, the
EDM instruments may be classified into two groups.
These generally employ radio waves of 30
mm wavelength with an exception of tellurometer MRA-4 using a wavelength of
80 mm.
These utilise visible and near-infrared
radiation to carry the measuring signals. The instruments either have helium–neon
70 Surveying

lasers with a wavelength of 0.63 m or have gallium–arsenide diodes that produce


invisible radiation with a wavelength of 0.9 m. Mekenometer is an exception, as
it utilises another source of radiation, a xenon flash tube that produces a mixture
of wavelengths with an average wavelength of 0.43 m. The He–Ne laser has the
advantage of generating coherent radiation and may be utilised for long distances
at night and in the daylight owing to a high power density and the possibility of
filtering off the ambient light.
The electro-optical instruments are more accurate than the microwave
instruments, because the shorter the carrier wavelength, the better is the accuracy
of the EDM. But since the longer wavelengths penetrate better through fog and
haze, the microwave instruments may be utilised over long distances in bad
atmospheric conditions. The infrared instruments are characterised by very weak
radiation and their maximum range is of the order of 1–3 km.
All EDM instruments used in the measurement of distances utilise a modulated
radiation. The wavelength of the modulated signal is called a pattern wavelength;
it is used as a unit of measurement. The pattern wavelengths employed by
various instruments range from a few metres to 40 metres with an exception of
mekenometer using a wavelength of 600 mm.

2.18.2 principle
There are basically two methods of measurement employed, the pulse method and
the phase difference method.
All the equipments used work on the principle that the distance D is equal to
the product of velocity v and time t. This is the essence the pulse method. The
speed of light in vacuum is well known. However, the measurements surveyors
take are not in vacuum and thus corrections for atmospheric conditions must be
applied. Also, because of great speed of light it is not possible to directly and
precisely measure the time interval when the light beam travels from instrument
to the reflector and back. For example, to get an accuracy of 0.003 m, it would
be necessary to measure the time interval to an accuracy of 5 10–12 seconds. To
overcome this problem, EDM instruments measure the phase difference between
the transmitted and received signals. Light beams of different wavelengths are used
to determine the distances. This forms the basis of phase difference method.
Figure 2.43 shows a schematic diagram of pulse method. A short,
intensive pulse of radiation is transmitted to a reflector target, which immediately
transmits it back, along a parallel path, to the receiver. The measured distance is
computed from the velocity of the signal multiplied by the time it took to complete
its path, i.e.,
2D = c t
D=c t/2 (10)
If the time of departure of the pulse from gate A is tA and the time of its reception
at gate B is tB, then (tB – tA) = t
c = the velocity of light in the medium through which it traveled
D = the distance between instrument and target
Horizontal Measurements 71

It can be seen from the equation for distance D that the distance is dependent
on the velocity of light in the medium and the accuracy of its transit time. Taking
an approximate value of 3 108 m/s for the speed of light, 10–10 s would be
equivalent to 15 mm of distance.
The distance that can be measured is largely a function of the power of the
pulse. Powerful laser systems can obtain tremendous distances when used with
retrodirective prisms and even medium distances when the pulse is ‘bounced’ off
natural or man-made features.
The majority of EDM instruments, whether infra-
red, light or microwave, use this form of measurement.
The basic equation used in this method is
2D = M +
where, M = integer part of wavelength (for example, M = 3 for wave A
in Fig. 2.44),
= fraction part of wavelength =
2
= wavelength
= phase difference
The double path measurement (2D) using smaller wavelength beam A is 3.5
(Fig. 2.44). However, the instrument will record only the phase difference ( ) i.e.,
72 Surveying

0.5. To determine the integer part i.e., M, a larger wavelength B (say, 4 times A) is
used which produces a phase difference of 0.9. In terms of basic measuring unit,
this is equal to 3.6 (0.9 × 4) and hence the value of M is taken as 3. Therefore,
the coarser part is taken as the integer part of the larger wavelength measurement
while the finer part is determined more accurately from the smaller wavelength
measurement. Thus the double path 2D is 3 + 0.5 = 3.5 . The distance can now
be calculated knowing the value of .
The electromagnetic waves are transmitted to a retroreflector (single or multiple
prisms) which instantly returns them to the transmitting instrument. The instrument
measures the phase shift. By comparison of the phase shift between the transmitted
and the reflected signals, the time and thus the distance can be determined.

2.18.2 reduction of eDM lines


Let the distance D between two points A and B is to be obtained by an E.D.M.
instrument. If the reduced distance at m.s.l. be K, S be the spheroidal distance,
H1 and H2 be the respective elevations of A and B (Fig. 2.45) and R be the radius
of the earth, then
[ D ( H2 H1 )][ D ( H2 H1 )]
K =R (2.1)
( R H1 )( R H2 )

K3
and S =K+ (2.2)
24 R 2
A modified form of Eq. (2.2) is used to suit the various instruments:
K3
S=K+ (for tellurometers)
43 R 2
K3
S=K+ (for geodimeters)
38 R 2
Horizontal Measurements 73

2.18.3 Determination of eDM Corrections


Measurement of distance by EDM equipment is obtained by measuring the time of
propagation of electromagnetic waves through the atmosphere. Whilst the velocity
of these waves in a vacuum V0 is known, its value will be reduced according to the
atmospheric conditions through which the waves travel at the time of measurement.
The velocity of electromagnetic wave in a medium V can be calculated by using
the following equation if the refractive index n is known
V = V0/n
where n is always greater than unity. The value of n is affected by the temperature,
pressure and water-vapour content of the atmosphere as well as by the wavelength
of the transmitted electromagnetic waves. It follows from this, that measurements
of these atmospheric conditions are required at the time of measurement.
The group refractive index n0 for the visible and
near-infrared modulated radiation in dry air at 0 °C, 760 mm of mercury pressure
(1013.250 mbar) and with 0.03% of carbon dioxide, may be calculated from the
Barrel and Sears formula:
4.8864 0.068
n0 = 1 + 287.604 2 4
10–6
0 0
where 0 is the wavelength of the carrier radiation in m. If the temperature t,
barometric pressure P, and humidity of the air differ from the standard conditions,
then the group refractive index n is calculated from
0.269578 (n0 1) 11.27
n–1 = P– 10–6 e
273.15 t 273.15 t
where e is the partial pressure of water vapour in mbar, t is in °C and P is in
mbar.
The value of e is determined from measurements of the difference in temperature
between the dry and wet bulb thermometer readings of td and tw respectively, and
by using an approximate formula
e = E – 0.7 (td – tw) = E – 0.7 t
where E is the saturated water vapour pressure in mbar.
The refractive index for microwaves can be calculated from the Essen and
Froome formula, which may be written in the form
77.624 0.372 12.92
n–1 = 10–6 P + 10 6 e
T T2 T
where T = (273.15 + t), t is in °C, and P and e are in mbar.
The refractive index for microwaves can also be calculated using I.U.C.G.
formula
0.000077624 12.924 371900
n–1 = P e × 10–6
273.15 t T T2
where e = E – (0.00066 + 759 × 10–9 t w) (td – tw) P
Corrected slope distance for refractive index:
n
Dc = s × Dm
n
74 Surveying

where Dm is the measured slope distance, ns is the standard refractive index of the
air and n is the refractive index of air at the time of observation.
Calculation of n is needed only in high-precision distance measurements. In
routine surveys, nomograms for the refractive index corrections, usually supplied
by the manufacturers with EDM instruments, can be used. The nomograms are
prepared on the basis of the above equations and the accepted calibration value
of the refractive index. The nomograms give corrections of the measured distance
that are slightly less accurate (about 2 ppm) than the results of rigorous
calculations. Some EDM instruments have a built-in automatic correction
system which only requires that the observer feed into the instrument the
results of the meterological measurements. It must be remembered, however,
that the fully automatic correcting systems give accurate results only when
atmospheric conditions along the measured line are the same as those at the
instrument station. In other cases, manual calculations of additional corrections
are always necessary.
The electric centres of EDM instruments usually do not
coincide with the centering marks used for plumbing the instruments above the
survey station. The internal distance travelled by electromagnetic waves in the
instruments is usually longer than the direct distance between the point of arrival
of the signal and the centering mark. This difference may be quite large and in
some models of tellurometers or geodimeters, is about 30 cm.
Manufactures of EDM instruments always supply information about the value
of the zero corrections that should be added to the measured distance to compensate
for the difference. Most new instruments are calibrated in such a way that the zero
correction is equal to zero. It has been found, however, that the value of the zero
correction may change after prolonged use of instruments. The change is usually
small in electro-optical instruments (a maximum of a few millimetres), but in
microwave instruments it may be of the order of several millimetres
(140 mm). Therefore, the zero correction should be frequently checked by
measuring several distances on a calibration base line. Distances from 50 to 500
m are recommended for the calibration of electro-optical instruments and from
200 to 1000 m for microwave instruments. If known distances are not available,
the value of the zero correction may be found by using a method of subdivided
distances. The method requires a straight line in a flat area with a few marked
points, say points A, B, C and D as shown in Fig. 2.46. The total distance AD
and the subdistances AB, BC and CD are
measured with the instruments to be
calibrated. Assuming that the zero
correction Z0 is the same (constant) for
each measured distance, its value can be
calculated by comparing the total distance
and the sum of the subdivided distances,
which means that
AD – (AB + BC + CD) = 2Z0
If the distances in Fig. 2.46 were measured in all combinations, the value of Z0
could also be calculated from the comparisons
Horizontal Measurements 75

AC – (AB + BC) = Z0
BD – (BC + CD) = Z0
In practise, it is recommended that a line be used with a minimum of four
subdivisions measured in all combinations and that the value of Z0 be calculated
by using the least squares adjustment method. Of course, the measured distances
should be corrected for the refractive index, slope, etc., prior to the calculation
of Z0.
Some EDM instruments demonstrate a relationship between the value of Z0
and the value of the phase difference, showing a cyclic change when changing
the distance over the range of the modulated half-wavelength. The cyclic change
may be discovered by measuring a known distance and changing it in steps of,
for instance, 1/20 of the half-wavelength.
If repeated measurements of different distances show a pronounced relationship
between the values of Z0 and phase difference, different zero corrections should be
applied in field measurements for different values of phase difference by means of
a tabulated or a graphical plot of the changeable Z0. In most cases, however, the
changes of Z0 should be applied as a constant correction regardless of the value
of phase difference contained in the measured distance.

e xample 2.24 The majority of short-range EDM equipment measures the


difference in phase of the transmitted and reflected light waves on two different
frequencies 15 MHz and 150 kHz in order to obtain distance. Taking the velocity of
light as 3 × 108 m/s and a measured distance of 346.73 m, show the computational
processes necessary to obtain this distance, clearly illustrating the phase difference
technique.
s olution Travel distance = 2 × 324.63 = 649.26 m
Travel time of a single pulse = t = D/V = 649.26/3 × 108
= 2164 ns
Standard frequency = f = 15 MHz = 15 × 106 cycles/s
Time duration of a single pulse tp = 1/15 × 106 s = 66.6 ns
Number of pulses in the measured distance = t/tp = 2164/66.6 = 32.492
Now, 2D = M + .
A single pulse ( ) takes 66.6 ns, which at 15 MHz = 3 × 108/15 × 106
= 20 m
/2 = 10 m.
The single distance D from instrument to reflector is
D = M( /2) + 0.492( /2) = 32 × 10 + 0.492 × 10 = 324.92 m
Now using f = 150 kHz = 150 × 103 cycles/s,
Time duration of single pulse = 1/150 × 103 = 6.667 s
A single pulse takes 6.6674 s, which at
150 kHz = 2000 m ( = 3 × 108/150 × 103 = 2000 m)
/2 = 1000 m
Number of pulses = t/tp = 2164 × 10–3/6.667 = 0.32458
D = 0.32458 × 1000 m = 324.58 m
Fine measurement using 15 MHz = 0.92 m
76 Surveying

Coarse measurement using 15 kHz = 324 m


Measured distance = 324.92 m.

e xample 2.25 To obtain the zero error of a particular EDM instrument, a


base line AD is split into three sections AB, BC and CD and measured in the
following combinations:
AB = 18.234, AC = 63.200, AD = 153.016
BC = 44.968, BD = 134.794, CD = 89.842
Using all possible combinations, computer the zero error.
s olution The possible combinations are:
(AB) 18.234 + (BC) 44.968 – (AC) 63.200 = (Z0) + 0.002
(AC) 63.200 + (CD) 89.842 – (AD) 153.016 = (Z0) + 0.026
(AB) 18.234 + (BD) 134.794 – (AD) 153.016 = (Z0) + 0.012
(BC) 44.968 + (CD) 89.842 – (BD) 134.794 = (Z0) + 0.016
Average (Z0) = + 0.056/4 = 0.014 m
Correction, Z01 = – 0.014 m
Also,
(AB) 18.234 + (BC) 44.968 + (CD) 89.842 – (AD) 153.016 = 2 Z0 = + 0.028
Z0 = + 0.014
Correction, Z02 = – 0.014 m
( 0.014) ( 0.014)
Therefore, zero error correction = = –0.014 m
2
2.18.4 geodimeter
The method of measurement in case of geodimeter is based on the propagation
of modulated light waves. It was developed by E. Bergestrand of Sweden. The
limitation of the instrument is that it can be used only at night. Figure 2.47 shows
a schematic diagram of the geodimeter.
Horizontal Measurements 77

The instrument is stationed at one of the two stations between which the
distance is to be measured. A reflector is placed on the other station. The light
from an incandescent lamp is focussed by means of achromatic condenser and is
plane polarized by means of a Nicol prism. The focussed light through a Kerr
cell is split into two parts having a phase difference. The Kerr cell consists of
two closely spaced conducting plates, the space between which is filled with
nitrobenzene. When a ray of light is focussed on it and high voltage is applied
to the plates, the light ray is split into two parts. The outcoming light from the
Kerr cell and the split light rays recombine, but because of the phase difference,
it becomes elliptically polarised. It passes through another Nicol prism from where
the diverging light is made parallel by a transmitter objective and thereafter is
reflected from a mirror lens to a large spherical concave mirror.
A reflex prism system or a spherical concave mirror, mirror lens and
receiver objective is placed on the other station. It reflects the light back to the
geodimeter.
The light of variable intensity after reflection impinges on the cathode of
the phototube. The impinging light photons on the cathode cause a few primary
electrons to leave and travel, accelerated by a high-frequency voltage, to the
first dynode (an additional electrode in a photomultiplier tube, which undergoes
secondary emission and thus effects amplification), where the secondary emission
takes place. This is repeated through eight dynodes. The final current is a few
million times greater than that at the cathode. The low-frequency vibrations are
eliminated by a series of chokes and condensers. The passage of this modulated
voltage is delayed by means of an adjustable delay unit. The difference between
the phototube currents during the positive and negative bias periods is measured
on the null indicator, which is a sensitive dc moving coil micrometer. In order to
obtain a null point, the phase of the high-frequency voltage from the Kerr cell
must be adjusted ± 90° with respect to the voltage generated by the light at the
cathode.
Thus, the light beam from the geodimeter at a station is reflected back to the
photomultiplier. The variation in the intensity of this reflected light causes the
current from the photomultiplier to vary where current is already being varied
by the direct signal from the crystal controlled oscillator. The phase difference
between the two pulses received by the cell are a measure of the distance between
the geodimeter station and the reflector station. A geometer – 220 as manufactured
by Geotronics-AB is shown in Plate 1.

2.18.5 tellurometer
The instrument was developed under the auspices of the South African Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research by T.L. Wadley. There are two types of
tellurometers. One gives the delay line output reading in terms of transit time and
the other gives a direct reading in metres. It uses high-frequency radio waves. Two
identical instruments are set up at the two stations between which the distance is
required. The master instrument sets the signal and the remote instrument receives,
monitors, and returns it to the master. The distance so obtained is checked by
78 Surveying

reversing the roles of the master and remote tellurometers. It can be used both
during day as well as night.
A block diagram of the tellurometer system is shown in Fig. 2.48. The master
set emits the microwaves at a frequency of 3 Mcps and are modulated by the
pattern wave at a frequency of 10 Mcps. The combined wave is reflected by
the remote instrument. The master instrument then separates the pattern wave to
measure the phase delay. Four low frequencies A, B, C, D of values 10, 9.99,
9.90, 9.00 Mcps are employed at the master station. The values of phase delay
corresponding to each of these are measured on the oscilloscope cathode ray tube.
The phase delay of B, C and D are subtracted from A in turns. The A values are
called fine readings, whereas B, C and D values are called coarse readings. The
wavelength of 10 Mcps pattern wave is approximately 30 m. The oscilloscope
scale is divided into 100 parts, each division being 0.3 m, and 0.3 m will be a
representation of the two-way journey of radio waves or approximately 0.15 m
in the length of line.

The four final readings of the A, A – B, A – C and A – D are recorded in


millimicro seconds (10–9 seconds) and are converted into distance reading by
assuming the velocity of wave propagation as 299 792.5 km/s.

2.18.6 Mekenometer
It is an electro-optical distance measuring instrument having a range of 3 km. It
uses an intermittent signal of high frequency near 500 MHz. It was invented by
Dr. K.D. Froome of England.
The light is directed from a tungsten or helium-neon laser powered by a 12 V
battery to a retroreflector kept at a remote station. The reflected light is converted
Horizontal Measurements 79

to electrical pulses by photocells. This allows the comparison to be made between


the transmitted and received signals. The comparison is made by adjusting a
variable delay. The delay line readings displayed digitally on the instrument panel
are proportional to the length of the line.

2.18.7 Distomat
A distomat is the most precise and modern E.D.M. instrument. Two distomats are
used, one at each station. One is called ‘master distomat’ which sets the signal and
the other is called ‘remote distomat’ which receives, monitors, and reflects back
the signal. The distomat has an advantage over the other E.D.M. instruments in
that it searches the remote station within 2–3 s and because of the tilting axis, it
can be pointed like a theodolite telescope.
It uses 3 cm carrier waves of frequencies 10 324.3 MHz for the masters and
10 335 MHz for remote and measures frequencies of 14.98483 MHz for fine
measurements and 14.984836, 14.977337, 14.834932 and 13.486347 MHz for
coarse measurements. It can measure distances from 20 m to 150 km.
For communication loudspeaker and microphone are provided. At the touch
of the switch only the instrument automatically measures the phase shift to each
of the five different modulation frequencies. The frequencies used give scales of
1 m, 10 m, 100 m, 1000 m and 20 000 m. At the end of the measuring process,
the distance is displayed immediately as an eight-figure number with the millimetre
as the last figure. An example is Wild D15 distomat manufactured by M/s Wild
Heerbrug and is shown in Plate 2.

2.18.8 accuracy of eDM instruments


Accuracy of EDM instrument is typically represented as
± e mm ± p mm/km
e and p both are standard errors. e is largely dependent on the sensitivity of
the phase resolver and other electrical components. It therefore is a function of
instrument design. p is dependent on the accuracy of the modulation and on the
accuracy of the value of refractive index used.
The overall standard error of measurement is given by
2
= e2 + (D p 10–6)2
D
Where D is the measured distance in km.
For short distances, say up to 100 m, e is more important and p can be ignored,
whereas for long distances, say 100 km or so, p becomes predominant.

Summary
Chaining and taping are the two terms applied to the direct measurement of distance in
the field. Types of chains and tapes are described and the importance of finding horizontal
equivalent of the distance measured on ground is emphasised. The corrections required to
be applied due to usage of faulty chain and those due to measurements on natural ground
by a chain/tape are described.
80 Surveying

The concept of chainage and offsets to locate the objects/features are discussed. The
direct and indirect rangings in the process of measurement of distances longer than the
length of chain/tape are described. Also, the code of signals required in the process is
highlighted.
The obstacles related to chaining and ranging are discussed. The geometric and
trigonometric solutions to circumvent such problems are also suggested.
The use of electronics in the measurement of horizontal distance is introduced. The
principle of electromagnetic distance measurement technique and the EDM instruments are
described.

Exercises
2.1 Explain how a chain is tested and adjusted in the field.
2.2 Briefly describe the process of chaining.
2.3 Describe the various methods of chaining on a slope along with their advantages
and disadvantages.
2.4 Describe the following with sketches:
(i) Line ranger (ii) Optical square (iii) Prism square
(iv) Clinometer (v) Distomat (vi) Tellurometer
2.5 Differentiate between the following terms:
(i) Base line and check line
(ii) Main station and tie station
(iii) Chainage and offset
(iv) Cumulative and compensating errors
2.6 Explain the following terms: normal tension, hypotenusal allowance, cumulative
error, and ranging.
2.7 (a) Explain the various sources and nature of errors in chain survey.
(b) Describe the various tape corrections with sketches.
2.8 (a) Discuss briefly the principle of electromagnetic distance measurement.
(b) Explain how the EDM lines are reduced.
(c) Discuss the EDM corrections.
2.9 The area of a plan of an old map plotted to a scale of 10 m to 1 cm measures
100.2 cm2 as measured by a planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk so that
line originally 10 cm long now measures 9.7 cm. Further, the 20 m chain used was
8 cm too short. Find the true area of survey. [Ans. 105.6434 acres]
2.10 An area actually measures 0.8094 hectares. How much will it measure in m2 by a
30.48 m chain which was 20.32 cm too short at the start and 60.96 cm too long at
the end of the survey? [Ans. 7987.15 m2]
2.11 The area of a piece of a land which had been surveyed with a chain was calculated
to be 9562 m2. Of this, 8935 m2 was the total area of the triangles and 627 m2 was
the area included between chain lines and the boundary. The 30 m chain used was
found 0.05 m too long, and the 30 m tape used for measuring offsets was found 0.03
m too short from their nominal lengths. Calculate the correct area of the land.
[Ans. 9590.5 m2]
2.12 A line was measured with a 30 m long steel tape, standardised at 15°C, with a
pull of 100 N. Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time of
measurement was 20°C and the pull exerted was 160 N.
Weight of 1 cm3 of steel = 0.0786 N
Weight of tape = 8 N
Modulus of elasticity = 2.10 105 N/mm2
Coefficient of expansion of tape/°C = 7.1 10–7 [Ans. 0.49 mm]
Horizontal Measurements 81

2.13 The distance between two points P and Q measured along a slope is 250 m. Find
the horizontal distance between P and Q, if
(i) the angle of slope is 10°,
(ii) the slope is 1 in 4.5, and
(iii) the difference in elevation is 35 m.
[Ans. (i) 246.20 m. (ii) 244.04 m. (iii) 247.55 m]
2.14 Calculate up to five decimal places, the sag correction for a 100 m tape weighing
13.0 N. It is used under a pull of 90 N and in four equal spans of 25 m each.
[Ans. 0.005433 m]
2.15 To what precision would you measure the offsets, if the plan of the survey is to be
plotted to a scale of (i) 1 cm = 1 m and (ii) 1 cm = 10 m.
[Ans. (i) 2.5 cm, (ii) 25 cm]
2.16 A 2 km long line is measured with a tape of length 50 m which is standardised
under no pull at 15°C. The tape has cross-sectional area of 3.75 mm2. If one-half
of the line is measured at temperature of 20°C and the other half at 26°C and the
tape is stretched with a pull of 22 kg, find the corrected total length, given that the
coefficient of expansion is 12 10–6 per °C, weight of 1 cm3 of steel = 7.7504 g
and E = 2.11 106 kg/cm2. [Ans. 2000.384 m]
2.17 A steel tape is 30 m long between the end graduations at a temperature of 15°C
when it is laid horizontally on the ground. Its sectional area equals 0.065 cm2, total
weight is 15.8 N and the coefficient of expansion being 11.5 10–6 per °C. The
tape is stretched on two supports 30 m apart and is also supported in the middle,
the three supports being at the same level. Calculate the actual length between the
end graduations under the following conditions: temperature = 25°C, pull on the
tape = 100 N, and E = 2.11 105 N/mm2. [Ans. 29.991 m]
2.18 The three bays of a base line were measured by a steel tape in catenary as 30.084,
29.973 and 25.233 m, under respective pulls of 7, 7 and 5 kg, temperatures of 12°,
13° and 17°C and differences of level of supports of 0.3, 0.7 and 0.7 m. If the tape
was standardised on the flat at a temperature of 15°C under a pull of 4.5 kg, what
are the lengths of the bays? 30 m of tape is exactly 1 kg with steel at 8300 kg/m3.
The coefficient of expansion is 0.000011 per °C and the modulus of elasticity E =
2.1 105 N/mm2. [Ans. 30.055 m, 29.940 m and 25.174 m]
2.19 A steel tape was exactly 30 m long at 18°C when supported throughout it’s length
under a pull of 8 kg. A line was measured with a tape under a pull of 12 kg and
found to be 1602 m. The mean temperature during measurement was 26°C. Assuming
the tape was supported at every 30 m, calculate the true length of the line, given
cross-sectional area of the tape = 0.04 cm2. Weight of 1 cubic cm is 0.0077 kg,
coefficient of thermal expansion, = 0.000012 °C, E = 2.1 106 kg/cm2.
[Ans. 1602.22 m]
2.20 A line measured with a steel tape which was exactly 30 m at a temperature of
24°C and a pull of 10 kg. The measured length was 1650 m. The temperature
during measurement was 30°C and a pull applied was 15 kg. Find the true length
of the line, if the cross sectional area of the tape was 0.025 cm2. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of the material of the tape per °C is 3.5 10–6 and the modulus
of elasticity of the material of tape is 2.1 106 kg/cm2. [Ans. 27.7768 m]
2.21 A steel tape of 30 m nominal length was suspended between two supports to measure
the length of a line. The measured length on a slope of 4° 25 is 29.8605 m. The
mean temperature during the measurement was 15°C and the pull applied was 120
N. If the standard length of the tape is 30.008 m at 27°C at the standard pull of 50
N, calculate the correct horizontal length. Take the weight of tape = 0.16 N/m, it’s
82 Surveying

cross sectional area = 2.75 mm2, coefficient of thermal expansion = 1.2 10–5 per
°C and E = 2.05 106 N/mm2. [Ans. 29.77002 m]
2.22 The slope distance between two stations A and B of elevations 1572.25 m and
4260.46 m, corrected for meteorological conditions is 33449.215 m. Determine sea
level distance, R = 6370 km. [Ans. 33332.789 m]
2.23 Using EDM, top-mounted on a theodolite, a distance of 1500 m is measured on an
angle of inclination of 10°00 00 . Compute the horizontal distance.
Now, taking R = 6.4 106 m and the coefficient of refraction m = 0.07, correct the
vertical angle for refraction effects, and recompute the horizontal distance.
If the EDM equipment used above was accurate to ± (3 mm + 5 ppm), calculate
the required accuracy of the vertical angle, and thereby indicate whether or not it
is necessary to correct it for refraction.
Calculate the equivalent error allowable in leveling the two ends of the above
measured line.
[Ans: Corrected angle = 9°59 56.65 ; 1477.2158 m;
vertical angle correction = ±8.08 ; ±0.0465 m]

2.1 A well-conditioned triangle should not have angles more than


(a) 30° (b) 120° (c) 45° (d) 60°
2.2 Perpendicularity of an offset may be judged by eye if the length of the offset is less
than
(a) 5 m (b) 10 m (c) 15 m (d) 20 m
2.3 The angle of intersection of the two plain mirrors of the optical square is
(a) 30° (b) 45° (c) 60° (d) 90°
2.4 The permissible error in chaining for measurement with a chain on rough or hilly
ground is
(a) 1 in 100 (b) 1 in 250 (c) 1 in 500 (d) 1 in 1000
2.5 During chaining along a straight line with a 20 m chain, the leader of the party has
4 arrows in his hand while the follower has 6. Distance of the follower from the
starting point is
(a) 4 chains (b) 6 chains (c) 8 chains (d) 10 chains
2.6 A 30 m metric chain is found to be 10 cm too short throughout a measurement. If
the distance measured is recorded as 300 m, what is the actual distance?
(a) 300.1 m (b) 301.0 m (c) 299.0 m (d) 310.0 m
2.7 The correction to be applied to each 30 m chain length along slope is
(a) 30 (1 – sec ) m (b) 30 (sec – 1) m
(c) 30 (1 – cos ) m (d) 30 (cos – 1) m
2.8 If the length of a chain line along a slope of is l, the required slope correction
is
(a) 2l cot2 /2 (b) 2l sin2 /2 (c) l tan2 /2 (d) l cos2 /2
2.9 The accuracy of measurement in chain surveying, does not depend upon
(a) length of the offset (b) scale of the plotting
(c) importance of the features (d) general layout of the chain lines
2.10 Chain survey is well adopted for
(a) small surveys in open ground
(b) small surveys with ups and downs
(c) large area with simple details
(d) large area with crowded details
Horizontal Measurements 83

2.11 Cross-staff is used for


(a) setting out right angles (b) measuring horizontal angles
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) measuring the bearing of lines
2.12 In chain surveying, perpendiculars to the chain line are set out by
(a) a theodolite (b) a prismatic compass
(c) a clinometer (d) an optical square
2.13 Chainage in chain survey means
(a) the distance between end stations
(b) the perpendicular distance of the object from the chain line
(c) the distance of the object along the chain line from the zero end of the
chain
(d) any distance measured by chain in field
2.14 Main stations in chain survey are the points
(a) lying in the area enclosed by survey lines
(b) connected by main survey lines
(c) on main survey lines to cover the local details
(d) on main survey lines to check the accuracy of the survey work
2.15 Oblique offsets are used to
(a) locate broken boundaries
(b) locate boundary lines of property
(c) check the accuracy of the plotted work in chain survey
(d) plot the chainage
2.16 Which of the following methods results in higher accuracy for measuring horizontal
distance on rough grounds?
(a) chaining (b) taping
(c) tacheometry (d) contouring
2.17 While measuring horizontal distance with chain on hills, it is better to measure the
distance by
(a) stepping down slope (b) stepping up slope
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) suspending tape in air
2.18 Prolongation of a chain line across an obstruction in chain survey is done by
(a) making angular observations
(b) drawing perpendiculars with a chain
(c) solution of triangle
(d) All of the above
2.19 While measuring a line between two stations A and B intervened by a raised
ground,
(a) the vision gets obstructed
(b) the chaining gets obstructed
(c) vision and chaining both get obstructed
(d) None of the above
2.20 Offsets are
(a) short measurements from the chain line
(b) ties or check lines which are perpendicular to the chain line
(c) chain lines which go out of alignment
(d) Both (a) and (b)
2.21 Check lines (proof lines) in chain surveying are essentially required
(a) to plot the chain line
(b) to plot the offsets
(c) to indicate the correctness of the survey work
(d) to increase the efficiency of the surveyor
84 Surveying

2.22 Which of the following instruments is generally used for base line measurement?
(a) Chain (b) Metallic tape
(c) Steel tape (d) Invar tape
2.23 The length of a chain is measured from the
(a) centre of one handle to the centre of other handle
(b) outside of one handle to the outside of other handle
(c) outside of one handle to the inside of other handle
(d) inside of one handle to the inside of other handle
2.24 If the length of a chain is found to be short on testing, it can be adjusted by
(a) straightening the links
(b) removing one or more small circular rings and by placing bigger rings
(c) flattening of the rings, if opened
(d) All of the above
2.25 If the length of a chain is found to be too long on testing, it can be adjusted by
(a) closing the opened joints of rings
(b) reshaping elongated links
(c) removing one or more circular rings
(d) all of the above
2.26 Which of the following is an obstacle to chaining but not to ranging?
(a) River (b) Hillock
(c) Building (d) None of the above
2.27 A building is an obstacle to
(a) chaining but not to ranging (b) ranging but not to chaining
(c) both chaining and ranging (d) neither chaining nor ranging
2.28 Which of the following is not used in measuring perpendicular offsets?
(a) Line ranger (b) Tape
(c) Optical square (d) Cross-staff
2.29 The main difference between an optical square and a prism square is
(a) the difference in the principle of working
(b) that an optical square is more accurate than a prism square
(c) that no adjustment is required in a prism square since the angle between the
reflecting surfaces cannot be changed
(d) All of the above
2.30 The allowable length of an offset depends upon the
(a) degree of accuracy required
(b) method of setting out the perpendicular and nature of ground
(c) scale of plotting
(d) All of the above
2.31 Normal tension is that pull which
(a) is used at the time of standardising the tape
(b) neutralizes the effect due to sag
(c) makes the correction due to sag equal to zero
(d) makes the correction due to pull equal to zero
2.32 The correction for sag is
(a) always additive
(b) always subtractive
(c) always zero
(d) sometimes additive and sometimes subtractive
2.33 For setting out an offset at an angle of 45° with a chain line, the instrument used is
(a) an optical square (b) an open cross-staff
(c) a French cross-staff (d) a prism square
Horizontal Measurements 85

2.34 Which of the following is the most precise instrument for measuring horizontal
distances?
(a) Chain (b) Tape (c) Tacheometer (d) Tellurometer
2.35 Two mirrors are used for offsetting in
(a) cross-staff (b) optical square
(c) miner’s dial (d) prismatic compass
2.36 A 20 m chain was found to be 10 cm too long after chaining a distance of 2000 m.
It was found to be 18 cm too long at the end of the day’s work after chaining a
total distance of 4000 m. What is the true distance if the chain was correct before
the commencement of the day’s work?
(a) 3962 m (b) 4019 m (C) 3981 m (d) 4038 m
2.37 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The cost of making a horizontal measurement decreases with an increase in
the desired precision.
(b) A base line may be measured with a precision of 1 in 106.
(c) Tie stations are generally located on the intersection of two main survey
lines.
(d) Base line is a line lying at the base of the area to be surveyed by a chain.
2.38 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Offset is the distance from the foot of an object to the chain line
(ii) Perpendicular offsets may have infinite length
(a) only (i) is correct (b) only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None of the above
2.39 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A revenue chain is 66 ft long.
(b) Gunter devised the invar tape.
(c) A tally is used to facilitate observation in an optical square.
(d) A brass ring is provided at every metre length in a metric chain.
2.40 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Invar is an alloy of steel (36%) and nickel (64%).
(b) A steel tape is soft and easily deforms as compared to invar tape.
(c) Metallic tape is made by weaving linen with brass wires.
(d) Steel tapes can be used comfortably in grounds with weeds and vegetation.
2.41 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A ranging rod is provided with a stout open ring recessed hook.
(b) An offset cannot be laid with a French cross-staff.
(c) Optical square and cross-staff are used for the same purpose.
(d) Clinometer is used to measure the directions of survey lines in chain
survey.
2.42 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) In the process of chaining, the leader inserts the arrows and the follower picks
them up.
(ii) A leader follows the instructions of the follower.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None of the above
2.43 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) It is easy to measure distance down the slopes.
(b) Incorrect plumbing, while measuring distances on slopes, is a cumulative
error.
(c) Sag correction is a cumulative error.
(d) Incorrect holding of chain at arrow is a compensating error.
86 Surveying

2.44 Pick up the correct statement.


(a) Sag correction may be positive or negative.
(b) The limiting length of an offset is independent of the scale of plotting.
(c) Error due to laying of the direction of offset is negligible.
(d) The slope correction is always subtractive.
2.45 The principle used for measuring distances electronically is that the difference in
phase between the transmitted and received waves represents.
(a) Only a fraction of wavelength (b) Half wavelength
(c) 1/4 wavelength (d) 1/3 wavelength
2.46 The pattern wavelengths employed by various E.D.M. instruments is maximum
for
(a) Tellurometer (b) Geodimeter
(c) Distomat (d) Mekenometer
2.47 Tellurometer is an instrument used for
(a) GPS (b) EMR (c) GTS (d) EDM
2.48 Zero correction in EDM instrments corresponds to the
(a) difference of final and initial readings
(b) delay of E.D.M. signal
(c) difference of distance travelled by electromagnetic waves and the direct
distance between the point of arrival of signal and centrig mark
(d) calibration error
2.49 Geodimeter is based on
(a) propagation of modulated light waves
(b) propagation of infrared radiation
(c) the visible light as carrier waves with frequency of the order of 5 1014
Hz
(d) high frequency radio waves
2.50 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) The length of the offsets in a chain survey is always limited to reduce error
in plotted work.
(ii) Perpendicular offsets are used for filling in details.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None of the above is correct
2.51 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Optical square is better than a prism square.
(ii) In both the optical and prism squares, the principle of operation is same.
(a) Only (i) is correct. (b) Only (ii) is correct.
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct. (d) None of the above
2.52 Match the following:
(i) Correction for standard length (A) Ca = LC/l
P – P0
(ii) Correction for tension (B) Cp = ______ L
AE
(iii) Correction for temperature (C) Ct = (Tm – To)L
(iv) Sag correction (D) Csa = W2 L/24 P2
(v) Reduction to m.s.l. (E) CR = L h/R
___
0.204W AE
(vi) Normal tension (F) P = ___________
______
P – P0
Horizontal Measurements 87

where L = measured length,


C = correction applied, and
l = nominal length of tape
(a) (i)–A, (ii)–B, (iii)–C, (iv)–D, (v)–E, (vi)–F
(b) (i)–C, (ii)–D, (iii)–B, (iv)–A, (v)–F, (vi)–E
(c) (i)–B, (ii)–A, (iii)–F, (iv)–C, (v)–E, (vi)–D
(d) None of the above
2.53 Consider the following statements regarding indirect ranging. It is resorted to
(i) When the end stations of the line are far apart.
(ii) When a hillock is encountered while chaining.
(iii) in case of ravines
(a) (i) and (ii) are correct (b) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) (iii) and (i) are correct (d) (ii) and (iii) are correct
2.54 Which of the following instruments have both horizon glass and index glass?
(i) Optical square (ii) Line ranger
(iii) Box sextant (iv) Pedometer
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) (ii), (iii), and (iv) (b) (i), (iii), and (iv)
(c) (i) and (iii) only (d) (ii) and (iv) only
2.55 When it is impractical to hold the chain on sloping ground, the method need to
measure horizontal distance is called.
(i) Indirect method
(ii) Broken chain method
(iii) Stepping method
(iv) None of these
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (ii) and (iii) are correct (d) (iii) and ((i) are correct

Answers to Objective-type Questions


2.1 (b) 2.2 (c) 2.3 (b) 2.4 (b) 2.5 (b) 2.6 (c)
2.7 (c) 2.8 (b) 2.9 (d) 2.10 (a) 2.11 (a) 2.12 (d)
2.13 (c) 2.14 (b) 2.15 (b) 2.16 (c) 2.17 (a) 2.18 (d)
2.19 (a) 2.20 (d) 2.21 (c) 2.22 (d) 2.23 (b) 2.24 (d)
2.25 (d) 2.26 (a) 2.27 (c) 2.28 (a) 2.29 (c) 2.30 (d)
2.31 (b) 2.32 (b) 2.33 (c) 2.34 (d) 2.35 (b) 2.36 (a)
2.37 (b) 2.38 (a) 2.39 (d) 2.40 (c) 2.41 (c) 2.42 (c)
2.43 (b) 2.44 (d) 2.45 (a) 2.46 (d) 2.47 (d) 2.48 (c)
2.49 (a) 2.50 (c) 2.51 (b) 2.52 (a) 2.53 (d) 2.54 (c)
2.55 (c)
3 Compass
surveying

Introduction
Surveying is concerned with the relative location of points on, above or below the
surface of the earth. It therefore becomes necessary to start from known points
on a line. If the location of two points is known, a third point may be located by
measuring the distances from the already located points. The relative position of
the third point is at times also expressed in terms other than the distance alone.
In such cases, direction may be used for the location of a point by any of the
following methods:
1. By measuring its distance from one of the given points and its direction
from the other point.
2. By measuring its distance and direction from any of the two known points.
3. By measuring its direction from each of the two known points.
The direction of the survey lines is measured with the help of an instrument
known as compass. The action of terrestrial magnetism causes the needle of the
compass to be aligned along a magnetic meridian. The end of the needle pointing
to the North Pole is the north end. The diameter of the graduated ring of the
compass determines its size. A 10 cm compass means a compass, whose graduated
ring has a diameter of 10 cm. The direction of survey lines may be defined in
two ways: (i) relative to each other, (ii) relative to some reference direction. In the
first case, the directions are expressed in terms of angles between two consecutive
lines, measured with a theodolite. In the second case, these are expressed in terms
of bearings, measured with a compass.
Compass, being light and portable, is most suited for reconnaissance and
exploratory survey. It is particularly advantageous when the survey lines have to
be short due to obstructions or irregularities of details. Some of the applications
and uses of compass survey are:
1. To find out the magnetic bearing of a line
2. To fill in details
3. To find the direction during night marching
4. Tracing streams
5. Plotting irregular shore lines
6. Reconnaissance survey
7. Clearings in roads
Compass Surveying 89

In compass surveying, the magnetic bearings are observed at each and every
station during reconnaissance and exploratory surveys. This method of surveying
is used when lightness of equipment and speed are of great account rather than
refinement of observations.
Since the magnetic poles keep on changing with time the magnetic bearings
also change and are therefore not reliable. The observed magnetic bearings should
therefore be converted to true bearings; the true meridian is invariant. Hence, for
import projects the survey is plotted to true bearings. For this it is important to
know the difference of angle between true meridian and magnetic meridian, known
as magnetic declination, at the place of observation and at the particular instance
the observation is made. This information can be obtained from the nautical
alumnac for the particular year in which the observations are made. Another
important factor that may impair the observations is local attraction, the effect of
magnetic materials present in the vicinity of the magnetic compass.
The types of compass in use, their details and adjustments, method of use,
making observations of magnetic bearings, and calculation of included angles
thereof, the magnetic declination, dip and local attraction are discussed in the
sections to follow.
Some of the more frequently used terms in this chapter are defined in the
following section for making the reader familiar and comfortable with compass
surveying.

3.1 Definitions
It is the fixed direction in which the bearings of survey lines are
expressed.
It is the horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the
survey line measured in clockwise or anticlockwise direction. The bearing is
described either from north or south and the angle described is either east or west.
The bearing of a line is obtained with the aid of whole circle bearing, quadrantal
bearing (reduced bearing) and grid bearing (in geodetic survey).
The true meridian passing through a point on the earth’s
surface is the line in which a plane passing through the given point (say A) and
the geographic (true) north and south poles, N
intersects the surface of the earth. It represents
the true north-south direction at the place
(Fig. 3.1). A
The direction of true meridian at a station is
invariable, i.e., its direction is always the same.
O O
The invariance of the true meridian, therefore,
is of considerable importance for large surveys.
It may save much time in retracing of the
lines during final location and construction.
The true meridians through various stations
S
are not parallel, but converge at the poles. For
small surveys, they are however assumed to be
90 Surveying

parallel to each other. The determination of its direction through a station involves
astronomical observations.
The horizontal angle measured clockwise between the true
meridian and the line is called true bearing of the line.
Grid meridian is the reference meridian for a country on a
national survey map. The vertical grid lines on a national survey map indicate
the direction of grid north. For survey of a country, the true meridian of a central
place is regarded as the reference meridian. All the other meridians in the country
are assumed to be parallel to the grid meridian.
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the grid (central)
meridian is called grid bearing.
It is the direction indicated by a freely suspended and
balanced magnetic needle unaffected by local attractive forces. The location of the
magnetic poles is constantly changing, hence the direction of magnetic meridian
also changes. However, the magnetic meridian is employed as a line of reference
on rough surveys.
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the
magnetic meridian is called magnetic bearing. It varies with time.
It is any convenient direction, usually from a survey
station to some well-defined permanent object. The first line of survey at times is
also taken as arbitrary meridian.
The horizontal angle measured with respect to the
arbitrary meridian is called arbitrary bearing.
When survey is done for a large area, i.e., when curvature of earth
is accounted for (in geodesy), bearing of lines are sometimes reckoned as azimuth.
The azimuth is called geographic if it is reckoned from the geographic meridian,
and magnetic, if reckoned from the magnetic meridian in the same manner as that
for bearings. It is reckoned clockwise from the north of the reference meridian,
typically the true meridian, and is measured from 0° to 360°. Since the meridians
through different points on the earth’s surface are not parallel (converge at poles),
the azimuths of the same straight line are
different at different points (Fig. 3.2). The
angle between the geographic north, say
N2, and the grid north N is called the
meridian convergence. However, in plane
surveying, the points under consideration are
close enough to regard the meridians through
corresponding points as being parallel to
each other; = 0. Therefore, for small areas,
the meridians through various points are
assumed to be parallel.
Compass Surveying 91

Since the treatment of the text presented in the chapter is for plane surveying,
in the sections to follow the term bearing will be used for the direction of survey
lines.

3.2 types of Compass


Surveying compass may be classified as trough compass, tubular compass, prismatic
compass and surveyor compass. Of these, the most commonly used compasses
for making observations for directions are the surveyor compass and prismatic
compass, the latter one preferred being better in performance and accuracy. Also,
since the trough compass and its improved version the tubular compass are designed
only for fixing the N–S direction, these are briefly described before presenting the
details of the two main compasses.

3.2.1 trough Compass


It consists of a long magnetic needle in a narrow rectangular box. The needle of
trough compass consists of a long, narrow, magnetised bar of steel, pointed at
both ends with the usual agate bearing at the centre. At each end of the box is a
block of metal, on which is engraved a zero line and a very short graduated arc
extending about 5° on either side of the zero mark.
When it is used in conjunction with a plane table, the sides of the box are
used as a ruler to plot the north direction. When fitted on a theodolite (generally
attached by screws to the side of one of the standards), it is used to align the
telescope in the meridian.

3.2.2 tubular Compass


A tubular compass is an improved version of a trough compass. A trough compass
does not lend itself to very precise setting owing to parallax arising from the
difficulty of ensuring that the eye is in the vertical plane of the needle. This
difficulty is overcome by the use of a tubular compass.
In a tubular compass, the magnetic needle is contained in a tube, at one end of
which an eye piece and a diaphragm carrying a glass plate with vertical rulings
is fitted. This is nearly in the same plane as one end of the needle. The reticule
being suitably illuminated by a reflector, the observer on looking through the eye
piece, sees the end of the needle without any parallax.

3.2.3 prismatic Compass


1. It consists of a circular box about 100 mm in diameter.
2. There is a broad magnetic needle balanced on a hard steel pointed pivot
(Fig. 3.3).
3. An aluminium ring, graduated to degrees and half degrees is attached to the
needle. A prism is provided on the observer’s side to read the bearing. The
ring is graduated from the south end of the needle. The observations run
clockwise round to 360° with zero placed at south as shown in Fig. 3.6(b).
This is done to facilitate direct reading of the bearings. The figures on
the graduated ring are engraved inverted as they are viewed through the
prism.
92 Surveying

10 11
14
13
9
12 8
7

6 5
2

15
3 4

4. When the needle is balanced on the pivot, it orients itself in the


magnetic meridian and the north and south ends of the ring face the N–S
direction.
5. The object vane carries a vertical hair of fine silk thread attached to a
suitable frame.
6. The sight vane consists of a vertical slit cut into the upper assembly of
the prism. The two vanes are hinged at the box in diagonally opposite
directions.
7. The object vane is sometimes provided with a hinged mirror which can be
raised upwards or lowered downwards and can also be slided, if required,
to sight the objects too high or too low. Figure 3.4 explains the use of the
mirror.
8. Sunglasses are provided on the prism to sight luminous objects.
Compass Surveying 93

9. The inverted figures in the graduated ring below the prism can be read
erect after being reflected from the hypotenuse side of the prism, when
the observer looks horizontally into the prism.
10. The two perpendicular faces of the prism are made convex, so that it also
acts as a magnifier.
11. When not in use, the object vane may be folded on the glass lid. It presses
against a lever which lifts the needle off the pivot, thus preventing undue
wear of the pivot point.
12. Breaking pin, provided at the base of the object vane is used to dampen
the oscillations of the needle to facilitate the reading.
13. A prismatic compass reads the whole circle bearing of the lines of objects
directly.

3.2.4 surveyor Compass


Surveyor compass acquires its name from its extensive use by surveyors. But the
prismatic compass has now replaced it as it is light, compact, and handy. It is
similar in construction to the prismatic compass except for a few differences as
follows:
1. The graduated ring is attached to the circular box and not to the magnetic
needle (Fig. 3.5).
12
6

8
10 7 5

11 9

4
1 2

2. The edge bar type magnetic needle floats freely over the pivot and is not
attached to the ring. When the magnetic needle is lowered to its pivot, it
will come to rest pointing north.
3. The eye vane consists of metal vane with a fine sight hole.
4. As the compass box is turned, the letters N, E, S, and W turn with it, but
the needle continues to point towards the north and gives a reading which
is dependent on the position of the graduated circle.
5. The 0° is placed at both north and south directions and 90° is marked at
east and west directions.
94 Surveying

6. The east and west markings are interchanged from their normal position as
shown in Fig. 3.6(a) to read the bearings in the proper quadrant. Suppose
the compass is rotated to point N30°30 E. In reading the bearing, the north
end of the needle will be found between the letters N and E or 30°30 from
N towards E. If W had been on the left in place of E, as one naturally
expects it to be, the north end of the needle would fall between N and
W, which might lead to the mistake calling the bearing to be NW instead
of NE.
A comparison of the construction, principle and working of surveyor and
prismatic compasses is given in Table 3.1.

S.No. Item Surveyor compass Prismatic compass


1. Magnetic The needle is of edge bar type. The needle is a broad needle.
needle
2. Graduated (i) The graduated ring is attached (i) The graduated ring is
ring to the box and rotates along attached with the needle
with line of sight. and does not rotate with
(ii) The graduations have 0° at line of sight.
N and S and 90° at E and (ii) The graduations have 0°
W. The letters E and W are at S, 90° at W, 180° at N
interchanged from their true and 270° at E (Fig. 3.6(b)).
positions in order to read the When the needle points
bearing in its proper quadrant north, the reading under
(Fig. 3.6(a)). As the graduated the prism should be zero.
ring is attached to the box, it It is so because the prism
moves with the sight. If the is placed exactly opposite
bearing of a line in the first the object vane, i.e., on
quadrant is to be measured, observer’s side, and the
since the letters E and W are south end will be under
reversed (Fig. 3.6(a)) from the prism while the needle
their natural positions, the points north. Hence, the
proper quadrant NE will be zero is placed at the south
read. end and then ring is gradu-
ated clockwise from it.
N
N
0 180
E 90
270
90

W E
90
W
0
0
S S

(Table 3.1 Contd.)


Compass Surveying 95

(Table 3.1 Contd.)

(iii) The graduations are engraved (iii) Graduations are engraved


erect, since the graduated ring inverted since the gradu-
is read directly. ated ring is read through
the prism.
3. Reading (i) The readings are taken directly (i) The readings are taken with
system by seeing through top of the the help of a prism provided
box glass. at the eye vane.
(ii) Sighting and reading cannot (ii) Sighting and reading can
be done simultaneously. be done simultaneously.
4. Tripod The instrument cannot be used The instrument can be held in
without a tripod. hand also while making the
observations.
5. Vanes The eye vane consists of small The eye vane consists of a metal
vane with a small slit. vane with a large slit.

3.3 temporary aDjustments of Compass


The adjustments required to be made every time the compass is set up are called
its temporary adjustments and are as follows:

3.3.1 Centring
A tripod is placed over the station with its legs spread well apart so that it is at
a workable height. The compass is fixed on the tripod. It is then centred over the
station, where the bearing is to be taken (i.e., the centre of the compass, the pivot
is brought exactly above the ground station). A plumb bob is hung from the centre
of compass to ensure exact centring. In case the arrangement for a plumb bob is
not provided, a stone is dropped from below the compass and it should fall on
the peg marking the ground station.

3.3.2 Levelling
The compass is levelled by eye judgement. This is essential so that the graduated
ring swings freely. Sometimes, in surveyor’s compass, two plate levels at right
angles are also provided to level the instrument. The levelling is achieved by a
ball and socket arrangement which is adjusted till the bubbles become central in
both the plate levels.

3.3.3 focussing the prism


This adjustment is done only in a prismatic compass. The prism is moved up or
down till the figures and graduations are seen clearly.
96 Surveying

3.4 Designation of Bearings


There are two systems commonly used to express bearings and are as follows:

3.4.1 Whole Circle Bearing system (W.C.B. system)


In this system, the bearing of a line is always
measured clockwise from the north point of the
reference meridian towards the line right round
the circle, e.g., 1, 2, etc., as shown in Fig. 3.7.
The angle thus measured between the reference
meridian and the line is called the whole circle
bearing of the line. It will have values between
0° and 360°.
A prismatic compass and a theodolite observe
the W.C.B. from magnetic north, which is also
considered as an azimuth. The azimuth of a line
is basically the angle measured clockwise from
the starting point, usually north in plane survey.
In astronomical observations and in most of the governmental surveys, the true
south is taken as the starting point. However, measuring the azimuth from north
has a distinct advantage that the algebraic signs will accord with the directions to
which the surveyor is accustomed in trigonometric computations.

3.4.2 Quadrantal Bearing system


N
(Q.B. system)
D
A surveyor compass observes the quadrantal A
bearings. In the Q.B. system, the bearings of lines
are measured clockwise ( , ) or anticlockwise
( , ) from north or south, whichever is nearer W E
to the line as shown in Fig. 3.8. O
Quadrantal bearing of B
OA : N E
OB : S E C
OC : S W S
OD : N W

e xample 3.1
(i) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings.
(a) 56°20 (b) 170°05 (c) 218°30 (d) 272°50
(ii) Convert the following quadrantal bearings into whole circle bearings.
(a) N10°00 E (b) S30°14 E (c) S02°10 W (d) N18°20 W
s olution
(i) (a) W.C.B. = 56°20 Q.B. = N56°20 E
(b) W.C.B. = 170°05 Q.B. = 180° – 170°05 = S9°55 E
(c) W.C.B. = 218°30 Q.B. = 218°30 – 180° = S38°30 W
(d) W.C.B. = 272°50 Q.B. = 360° – 272°50 = N87°10 W
Compass Surveying 97

(ii) (a) Q.B. = N10°00 E W.C.B. = 10°00


(b) Q.B. = S30°14 E W.C.B. = 180° – 30°14 = 149°46
(c) Q.B. = S02°10 W W.C.B. = 180° + 02°10 = 182°10
(d) Q.B. = N18°20 W W.C.B. = 360° – 18°20 = 341°40

3.5 reDuCeD Bearing


When the whole circle bearing of a line exceeds 90°, it must be reduced to the
corresponding angle less than 90° and the value recorded along with the quadrant
in which its value (< 90°) will fall. This angle is known as reduced bearing.
The concept of reduced bearing facilitates computations in traverse surveying
(Chapter 5), where latitudes (l cos ) and departures (l sin ) of survey lines with
lengths (l) and reduced bearings ( ) are calculated for subsequent calculations.
Latitudes are the distances along north (+ve) or south (–ve) direction, and
departures along east (+ve) or west (–ve) direction. However with the advent
of scientific calculators, the concept of reduced bearing has lost its importance.
It is so because while performing calculations of reduced bearings, a calculator
automatically considers the sings (+ve or –ve) of the values of the sine and cosine
of the bearing (angle) from 0–360°.
For example, a W.C.B of 100° can be represented as S 80° E in the Q.B system
and the R.B will be represented as 80° SE. With calculator, the values of cos
100° (–0.1736) and cos 80° (0.1736) are numerically same. Since in R.B system
the value will be along S-direction and values along south are treated negative,
the value is same as –0.1736. Before the advent of scientific calculator, the R.B
system was very helpful as the possibilities of introduction of errors due to use of
wrong sign of the values of latitudes and departures were obviated, and therefore
all the observations recorded in field books for surveys made in the past are in this
system. Although obsolete, it becomes essential to have a know-how and practise
of the system so that a surveyor does not find it a strange if he has to refer the
old survey notes.
Case W.C.B. between R.B. Quadrant
1. 0° – 90° W.C.B. NE
2. 90° – 180° 180° – W.C.B. SE
3. 180° – 270° W.C.B. – 180° SW
4. 270° – 360° 360° – W.C.B. NW

3.6 fore Bearing anD BaCk Bearing


3.6.1 fore Bearing (f.B.)
The bearing of a line in the direction of progress of the survey is called the fore
or forward bearing.

3.6.2 Back Bearing (B.B.)


The bearing of a line in the opposite direction of progress of the survey is known
as back or reverse bearing.
The bearing of a line is indicated in the order in which the line is lettered.
Thus, the bearing from A to B is the fore bearing of the line AB, whereas the
bearing of line AB in the direction B to A is its back bearing (Fig. 3.9).
98 Surveying

N N
N

B
C

A S S
S

3.6.3 relationship between f.B. and B.B.


If the fore bearing of a line is known then,
Back bearing = Fore bearing ± 180°
Plus sign is used if the fore bearing is less than 180°, and minus sign if it is
more than 180°.
The fore and back bearings are numerically equal but
are in opposite directions, i.e., N is replaced by S or vice versa and E is
replaced by W or vice versa. For example, if the fore bearing of a line is
N30°E, its back bearing will be S30°W.

3.7 CaLCuLation of inCLuDeD angLes from Bearings


The included angle between two lines may either be an interior angle or an
exterior one. When traversing is done anticlockwise, the included angles are
interior, whereas in the case of clockwise
N
traversing, these are the exterior ones.
These are always measured clockwise
from the preceding line to the forward
A
line.
If the bearings of adjacent lines are
known, then the included angles may be W E
calculated as explained below: O
1. Given W.C.B. of lines (Fig. 3.10).
In a clockwise close traverse OABO,
OA is the forward line (next line) and BO
S
is the previous line at station O.
B
Let W.C.B. of the line OA =
and W.C.B. of the line OB =
The included angle AOB =
= F.B. of the forward line – B.B. of the previous line
= –
= a negative value
In the process of calculating the included angle, if the value is a negative one
(as above), add 360° to get the actual included angle which will be the exterior
included angle.
Compass Surveying 99

In case the traversing is done in anticlockwise direction, say OBAO, then OB


is the forward line and AO is the previous line.
The included angle AOB =
= F.B. of the forward line – B.B. of the previous line
= –
= a positive value (interior included angle)
2. Given Q.B. of lines (Fig. 3.11).
The lines may be plotted in the respective quadrant and then the included angles
are computed. Let the included angle be .
(a) When bearings are measured in the same side of the common meridian,
= –
(b) When bearings are measured in the opposite side of the common meridian,
= +
(c) When bearings are measured in the same side of the different meridians,
= 180° – ( + )
(d) When bearings are measured in the opposite side of the different meridians,
= 180° – ( – )
N N N N
A A
A B A
B

W E W E W E W E

B
S S S B S

e xample 3.2 Determine the value of included angles in


a closed compass traverse ABCDA (Fig. 3.12) conducted
C 210
in clockwise direction, given the following fore
bearings of the respective lines.
Line F.B.
70
AB 40° B
BC 70°
CD 210° 40
A
DA 280°
s olution As the traversing
280
is done in clockwise direction, D
the included angles will be the
exterior angles.
Included angle = F.B. of next line – B.B. of the previous line.
A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of DA
100 Surveying

= 40° – (280° – 180°) + 360° = 300°


B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB
= 70° – (40° + 180°) + 360° = 210°
C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC
= 210° – (180° + 70°) + 360° = 320°
D = F.B. of DA – B.B. of CD
= 280° – (210° – 180°) = 250°
Theoretical sum of included angles = (2n + 4) × 90° = 1080° (n = 4)
Also, sum of calculated included angles = A + B + C + D
= 300° + 210° + 320° + 250°
= 1080°
In the process of computation, if the included angle is negative, then 360° is
added to it, as has been done in the case of angle A, B and C.

e xample 3.3 Following are the bearings taken in a closed compass


traverse.
Line F.B. B.B.
AB S37°30 E N37°30 W
BC S43°15 W N44°15 E
CD N73°00 W S72°15 E
DE N12°45 E S13°15 W
EA N60°00 E S59°00 W
Compute the interior angles and correct them for observational errors.

s olution Refer to Fig. 3.13. Convert the quadrantal bearings to whole circle
bearings.
Lines F.B. B.B.
AB 142°30 322°30
BC 223°15 44°15
CD 287°00 107°45
DE 12°45 193°15
EA 60°00 239°00

A 142 30
60 00

E
B

223 15
12 45
D C

287 00
Compass Surveying 101

As the traversing is done in the clockwise direction, the included angles will
be exterior angles.
Included angle = F.B. of next line – B.B. of previous line
A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of EA = 142°30 – 239°00
= – 96°30 = – 96°30 + 360° = 263°30
B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB = 223°15 – 322°30 = – 99°15
= – 99°15 + 360° = 260°45
C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC = 287°00 – 44°15 = 242°45
D = F.B. of DE – B.B. of CD = 12°45 – 107°45
= – 95°00 = – 95° + 360° = 265°00
E = F.B. of EA – B.B. of DE = 60°00 – 193°15
= – 133°15 = – 133°15 + 360° = 226°45
Sum of angles = A + B + C + D
= 263°30 + 260°45 + 242°45 + 265°00 + 226°45
= 1258°45
Theoretical sum (2 5 + 4) × 90° = 1260°
Error = 1260° – 1258°45 = 1°15 = 75
Correction for each angle = + 75 /5 = + 15
Hence, corrected included angles are:
A = 263°30 + 15 = 263°45
B = 260°45 + 15 = 261°00
C = 242°45 + 15 = 243°00
D = 265°00 + 15 = 265°15
E = 226°45 + 15 = 227°00
Check: sum of corrected included angles = 1260°

3.8 CaLCuLation of Bearings from inCLuDeD angLes


Knowing the bearing of a line and the various included angles of a traverse, the
bearings of other lines may be calculated as below:
Let the observed fore bearing of a line AB be
and the included angle with the next adjacent N
line be (Fig. 3.14). The fore bearing of the
next line is equal to the F.B. of the previous
line plus included angle.
Hence, for the bearing of the next line, A
the following statement may be made: “Add
the included angle measured clockwise to the B
bearing of the previous line”.
If the sum is:
more than 180°, deduct 180°
102 Surveying

more than 540°, deduct 540°


less than 180°, add 180°.
(i) In a closed traverse running in anticlockwise direction, the observed included
angles are interior angles.
(ii) In a closed traverse running in clockwise direction, the observed included
angles are exterior angles.
(iii) Included angles are measured clockwise from the preceding line to the forward
line.

e xample 3.4 The following angles were observed in the clockwise direction
in an open traverse.
ABC = 124°15
BCD = 156°30
CDE = 102°00
DEF = 95°15
EFG = 215°45
The magnetic bearing of the line AB was 241°30 . What would the bearing of
the line FG?
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.15.

A
241 30

B
124 15

C 156 30
215 45 G

F
102 00
D 95 15

For a clockwise traverse,


F.B. of a line = F.B. of previous line + clockwise included angle
Given F.B. of AB = 241°30
F.B. of BC = F.B. of AB + ABC
= 241°30 + 124°15 = 365°45
= 365°45 – 180° = 185°45
Compass Surveying 103

F.B. of CD = F.B. of BC + BCD


= 185°45 + 156°30
= 342°15 – 180 = 162°15
F.B. of DE = F.B. of CE + CDE
= 162°15 + 102°00 = 264°15
= 264°15 – 180° = 84°15
F.B. of EF = F.B. of DE + DEF
= 84°15 + 95°15 = 179°30
= 179°30 + 180° = 359°30
F.B. of FG = F.B. of EF + EFG
= 359°30 + 215°45
= 575°15 – 540° = 35°15

e xample 3.5 Three ships A, B and C started sailing from Mumbai at the
same time. The speed of all the three ships was the same at 30 km/h. Their bearings
were measured and found to be
N
N70°E, S60°E and S10°E,
respectively (Fig. 3.16). After an A
hour the captain of ship B,
determined the bearings of other
70
two ships with respect to his own
ship and calculated the distances. W E
Calculate the bearings and distances O 5
60
which might have been determined
10
by the captain of ship B. B

s olution
Speed of the ships = 30 km/h S C

After one hour


OA = OB = OC = 30 km
BAO = OBA
and OCB = OBC
AOB = 180° – 70° – 60° = 50°
and COB = 60° – 10° = 50°
OAB = OBA = OBC = OCB
= (180° – 50°)/2 = 65°
Bearing of OB = S60°E = 120°
Bearing of BA = F.B. of OB + OBA
= 120° + 65° = 185°
= 185° – 180° = 5°
104 Surveying

Hence, bearing of BA = N5°E


Bearing of BC = F.B. of OB + OBC
= 120° + (360° – 65°) = 415°
= 415° – 180° = 235°
= S55°W
Bearing of BC = S55°W
In triangle OAB, from sine rule
OA = _______
AB = _______
_______ OB
sin 50° sin 65° sin 65°
sin 50°
AB = 30 _______
sin 65°
= 25.36 km
Since, BC = BA
BC = 25.36 km

3.9 magnetiC DeCLination


The true meridian has been defined in Section 3.1 and the importance of its
invariance has been discussed for large surveys. The exact determination of true
meridian requires astronomical observations (Section 3.12). Therefore, measurement
of true bearing in field will be tedious. On the contrary measurement of magnetic
bearings with a compass is very simple. But, the earth’s magnetic poles are
continually changing their positions relative to the geographical poles due to which
the magnetic meridian of the earth also changes and thus the magnetic bearings.
Therefore, the magnetic bearings are not very reliable measurements over a period
of time. If over a period of time the surveyor would want to retrace the survey
lines plotted by magnetic bearings, he might find to his utter surprise that he is
not able to.
The horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north at the time of
observation is defined as magnetic declination. If, at the time of observation,
the magnetic meridian is on the eastern side of the true meridian, the angle of
declination is said to be the eastern or positive declination. On the other hand, if
the magnetic meridian is on the western side of the true meridian, it is said to be
western or negative declination. When true and magnetic meridian coincide, the
declination is zero.
True bearing = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
Use plus sign, if declination is in the east and minus sign, if declination is in
the west.

Lines joining the places of equal magnetic declination are known as isogonic
lines and those joining the places of zero declination are termed as agonic lines.
On the agonic lines, the magnetic needle defines true as well as magnetic north.
The values of magnetic declination, place and datewise, are determined by
astronomical observations and are listed in nautical alamanacs, published every
Compass Surveying 105

year. For the maps prepared with magnetic bearings in the past, the magnetic bearings of
the lines at present can be determined. This helps to retrace the already plotted lines on
the old maps.

3.9.1 variation of magnetic Declination


The declination at any place keeps on changing from time to time. These variations
may be classified as follows:
The magnetic meridian swings like a pendulum. It
swings in one direction for about 100 – 150 years, gradually comes to
rest, and then swings in other direction. This is known as secular variation.
The causes of the secular variation are not well understood.
It is the change in the declination at a place over a
period of 1 year. It is caused because of the rotation of earth about sun.
It is found that the annual variation is about 1 – 2 min.
It is the change in the declination at a place in 24 hr.
It is due to the rotation of earth about its own axis. The amount of variation
is from a fraction of a minute to over 12 and is due to the following:
(a) geographical position of the place (lesser near equator and increases
towards the poles).
(b) the time of the day (more in day).
(c) season of the year (more in summers).
(d) the year of the cycle of secular variation.
The variation caused due to magnetic disturbances
or storms are listed under irregular variation. In general, the value may be
of the order of 1°.

3.9.2 purpose of magnetic Declination


Most of the original land survey has been in terms of magnetic bearings. During
re-running the survey lines, in a future time to check the accuracy of the work
or to locate the direction, the observed bearings may be corrected if the magnetic
declination at the time of original survey and at the time of re-survey are
known.

e xample 3.6 The magnetic bearing of line PQ is 124°35 . Find its true
bearing, if the magnetic declination is 10°10 W.
s olution True bearing of line = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination
E/W.
Since, magnetic meridian is to the west.
True bearing = 124°35 – 10°10 = 114°25

e xample 3.7 The magnetic bearing of line PQ is S40°E and the magnetic
declination is 8°5 E. What is the true bearing of the line?
s olution The W.C.B. of line PQ = 180° – 40° = 140°
True bearing of PQ = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
= 140° + 8°5 = 148°5
106 Surveying

e xample 3.8 The magnetic bearing of a line in MNNIT Allahabad was found
to be N60°30 W in 1992, when the declination was 5°10 E. Find its present
magnetic bearing, if declination is 3°W.
s olution Magnetic bearing of the line in 1992 = N60°30 W
W.C.B. = 360° – 60°30 = 299°30
True bearing = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
= 299°30 + 5°10 = 304°40
Present declination is 3°W.
True bearing = magnetic bearing ± magnetic declination E/W
304°40 = magnetic bearing – 3°
or, Magnetic bearing = 307°40
= N52°20 W

e xample 3.9 Find the value of magnetic declination if the magnetic bearing
of sun at noon is 356°.
s olution True bearing = magnetic bearing magnetic declination E/W
True bearing of sun at noon is 360°.
Declination = true bearing – magnetic bearing = 360° – 356° = 4°
As the declination is positive, it is eastwards. Hence, magnetic declination is
4° E.

e xample 3.10 The true bearing of a T.V. tower T at MNNIT Campus,


Allahabad, as observed from a station A near the survey laboratory was 358°00
and the magnetic bearing of same was 8°00 . The fore bearing of lines AB, AC and
AD, when measured with a prismatic compass were found to be 290°00 , 340°00 ,
and 30°00 , respectively. Find the true fore bearing of lines AB, AC and AD.
s olution
Declination at A = true bearing – magnetic bearing
= 358° – (360° + 8°)
= – 10°00 = 10°00 W
(i) Line AB, true being = magnetic bearing of AB – magnetic declination
= 290°00 – 10°00 = 280°00
(ii) Line AC, true bearing = magnetic bearing of AC – magnetic declination
= 340°00 – 10°00 330°00
(iii) Line AD, true bearing = magnetic bearing of AD – magnetic declination
= 30°00 – 10°00 = 20°00

e xample 3.11 In an anticlockwise traverse ABCA, all the three sides were
equal in length. The magnetic fore bearing of the line BC obtained by prismatic
Compass Surveying 107

compass was 15°30 . The bearing of sun observed was 184°30 at local noon with
the compass. Calculate the magnetic bearing and true bearings of all the sides of
the traverse.
s olution The given traverse ABCA is an equilateral triangle. Since the
traversing performed was anticlockwise, the included angles to be considered for
the determination of bearings would be the interior angles. For an equilateral
triangle the interior angles are 60° each.
F.B. of a line = F.B. of previous line + clockwise included angle
Given F.B of BC = 15°30
F.B of CA = F.B of BC + BCA
= 15°30 + 60°
= 75°30 + 180°
= 255°30
F.B of AB = F.B of CA + CAB
= 255°30 + 60°
= 315°30
= 315°30 – 180°
= 135°30
True bearing = magnetic bearing declination E/W
True bearing of sun at noon is 180°. Hence,
180° = 184°30 declination E/W
Declination = 180° – 184°30 = – 4°30
Hence, declination = 4°30 W
True fore bearings of
line BC = 15°30 – 4°30 = 11°
line CA = 255°30 – 4°30 = 251°
line AB = 135°30 – 4°30 = 131°

3.10 Dip
A magnetic needle is an essential feature of all the compasses. It consists of a
symmetrical and slender bar of magnetised cast steel supported at its centre of
gravity, on a sharp and hard steel pivot. When suspended freely, it takes up a
position parallel with the earth’s magnetic lines. In horizontal projection these
lines define the magnetic meridian and thus the longitudinal axis of the magnetic
needle lies in the plane of magnetic meridian and exhibits the direction magnetic
north and south.
It is observed that in elevation, a magnetic needle in equilibrium is not in
a horizontal plane, but in a plane inclined at a definite angle to the horizontal.
This is because in elevation the lines of magnetic earth are inclined downward
towards north in northern hemisphere and also downward towards south in southern
108 Surveying

hemisphere. At equilibrium the needle takes up a position parallel to these lines


of forces and becomes inclined with the horizontal. The vertical angle made by
magnetic needle with horizontal is known as dip or inclination of the needle.
The angle of dip varies from 0° at the equator to 90° at the magnetic poles, i.e.,
its value is not constant but varies from place to place. It is seldom necessary to
measure the angle of dip in surveying, but for the needle to float in the horizontal
plane, while observing the bearings, a small sliding sleeve weight or rider is
attached to one end of the magnetic needle, e.g., on the south end in the northern
hemisphere. By sliding this centre weight along the needle, the balance may be
achieved.
Lines joining the loci of the places having the same value of dip are known
as isoclinic lines, whereas those joining the loci of places with no dip are called
aclinic lines such as the magnetic equator.

3.11 LoCaL attraCtion


The compass contains magnetic needle, which aligns along the magnetic lines of
force due to earth’s magnetism and points N–S direction. However, the magnetic
needle will not point to the magnetic north, when it is under the influence of the
external attractive forces. In the presence of magnetic materials, such as iron pipes,
steel structures, iron lamps, posts, rails, cables, chain, arrows, minerals deposits
in the ground, etc., the needle is deflected from its normal position. Hence, local
attraction by the magnetic materials is the disturbing influence on the magnetic
needle of the compass. The amount of deviation of the magnetic needle is the
measure of local attraction. There are some places, called magnetic anomalies,
where the local attraction is considerable making it impossible to use compass.

3.11.1 Detection of Local attraction


The local attraction at any station is detected by observing the fore and back
bearings of the line. If the difference between them is 180°, both the end stations
are considered to be free from local attraction, provided the compass is devoid
of any instrumental errors. If the difference is not 180°, the discrepancy may be
due to:
1. an error in observation of either fore or back bearing, or both.
2. presence of local attraction at either or both of the stations.

3.11.2 elimination of Local attraction


There are two methods by which local attraction can be eliminated.
Local attraction at each
station is calculated and then the required corrections are applied to the observed
bearings. It is most suitable for an open traverse. For a closed traverse, the method
fails when sum of the calculated included angles of the traverse is not equal to
their theoretical sum. The steps involved are:
1. Observe a line whose fore and back bearings differ exactly by 180°.
2. The end stations of such a line are accepted free from local attraction
and the bearings observed at such stations are taken to be correct. All
Compass Surveying 109

the bearings observed on these stations are assumed to be free from local
attraction.
3. The back bearing of the preceding line and the fore bearing of the next
line will also be correct, since these are observed at the station free from
local attraction. The correct fore bearing of the preceding line or back
bearing of the next line may be calculated by adding or subtracting 180°
as the case may be and thus the correct bearing is obtained.
4. If the observed bearing is more than correct bearing determined in Step 3,
the error at the station will be positive and therefore the correction will
be negative, and vice versa.
5. The bearings of the lines are thus corrected one by one in succession.
This method is most suitable for a closed traverse. It may
be noted that the local attraction affects all the magnetic bearings observed at
that station by a fixed amount and in the same direction. Therefore, the included
angles deduced even from the bearings affected by local attraction will be the
true included angles at the affected stations. To correct the affected bearings, the
following process is carried out:
1. Calculate the interior angles of the traverse and check their sum against
(2n ± 4) right angles. If there is any error in the observed bearings other
than local attraction, the theoretical sum of included angles will not tally
with the sum of the calculated included angles.
2. Distribute the error, if any, equally to all the angles.
3. Locate the line, whose fore and back bearings differ by 180°. The fore
and back bearings of this line are taken to be correct.
4. Find out the correct bearing of the successive lines by using the correct
observed bearing and the corrected included angles as explained in
Section 3.8.
It may happen that in a closed traverse no line has a difference of 180° in its
fore and back bearings. In such a case, the line with the least discrepancy is
selected. Then the fore and back bearings of this line are adjusted so as to make the
difference exactly 180°. Now assuming the fore bearing of this line to be correct, the correct
fore bearings of all other lines are calculated as explained before.

e xample 3.12 The bearings observed in traversing with a compass at a place


where local attraction was suspected are given below:
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB S45°30 E N45°30 W
BC S60°00 E N60°40 W
CD N03°20 E S05°30 W
DA S85°00 W N83°30 E
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected bearings
of the lines.
s olution The numerical value of the fore and back bearings of the line AB
is the same. Hence stations A and B are free from local attraction and therefore
F.B. of BC observed at station B is accepted to be correct.
110 Surveying

Convert the quadrantal bearings to W.C.B.


AB 134°30 314°30
BC 120°00 299°20
CD 03°20 185°30
DA 265°00 83°30
F.B. of BC 120°00 (correct)
Add 180° + 180°00
Correct B.B. of BC = 300°00
Observed B.B. of BC = 299°20
Error at C = – 40
Correction at C = + 40
Observed F.B. of CD 3°20
Correction + 40
Correct F.B. of CD 4°00
Add 180° 180°00
Correct B.B. of CD = 184°00
Observed B.B. of CD 185°30
Error at D 1°30
Correction at D = – 1°30
Observed F.B. of DA 265°00
Correction at D – 1°30
Correct F.B. of DA = 263°30
Subtract 180° – 180°00
Correct B.B. of DA = 83°30
Observed B.B. of DA = 83°30 (checked)
Bearings corrected for local attraction are:
Line F.B. B.B. Line F.B. B.B.
AB 134°30 314°30 AB S45°30 E N45°30 W
BC 120°00 300°00 BC S60°00 E N60°00 W
CD 4°00 184°00 CD N4°00 E S4°00 W
DA 263°30 83°30 DA S83°30 W N83°30 E

e xample 3.13 The following bearings were taken in running a closed compass
traverse while surveying in Jhansi, Allahabad:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 48°25 230°00
BC 177°45 356°00
CD 104°15 284°55
DE 165°15 345°15
EA 259°30 79°00
(i) State the stations which are affected by local attraction and by how
much.
(ii) Determine the correct bearings.
(iii) Calculate the true bearings, if the declination was 1°30 W.
Compass Surveying 111

s olution On inspection we find that the fore and back bearings of line DE
differ exactly by 180°. Hence, stations D and E are free from local attraction. The
fore bearing of EA is accepted to be correct.
F.B. of EA 259°30 (correct)
Subtract 180° – 180°00
Correct B.B. of EA 79°30
Observed B.B. of EA 79°00
Error at A – 30
Correction at A = + 30
Observed F.B. of AB 48°25
Correction + 30
Corrected F.B. of AB 48°55
Add 180° 180°00
Correct B.B. of AB 228°55
Observed B.B. of AB 230°00
Error at B 1°05
Correction at B = – 1°05
Observed F.B. of BC 177°45
Correction – 1°05
Corrected F.B. of BC = 176°40
Add 180° 180°00
Correct B.B. of BC = 356°40
Observed B.B. of BC 356°00
Error at C – 40
Correction at C = + 40
Observed F.B. of CD 104°15
Correction + 40
Corrected F.B. of CD = 104°55
Add 180° + 180°00
Correct B.B. of CD = 284°55
Observed B.B. to CD = 284°55 (checked)
The stations affected by local attraction are A, B and C, and by – 30 , + 1°5
and – 40 , respectively.
Bearings corrected for local attraction are:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 48°55 228°55
BC 176°40 356°40
CD 104°55 284°55
DE 165°15 345°15
EA 259°30 79°30
As the magnetic declination is 1°30 W, subtract this from the fore and back
bearings to get the true bearings.
112 Surveying

Line F.B. – declination = corrected B.B. – declination = corrected


F.B. B.B.
AB 48°55 – 1°30 = 47°25 228°55 – 1°30 = 227°25
BC 176°40 – 1°30 = 175°10 356°40 – 1°30 = 355°10
CD 104°55 – 1°30 = 103°25 284°55 – 1°30 = 283°25
DE 165°15 – 1°30 = 163°45 345°15 – 1°30 = 343°45
EA 259°30 – 1°30 = 258°00 79°30 – 1°30 = 78°00

e xample 3.14 Given below are the bearings observed in a traverse survey
conducted with a prismatic compass at a
place where local attraction was
suspected:
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB 124°30 304°30
BC 68°15 246°00
CD 310°30 135°15
DA 200°15 17°45
At what stations do you suspect local
attraction? Find the correct bearings of the
lines and the included angles.
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.18.
1st Method: By applying correction to
the bearings
On inspection we find that the fore and
back bearings of line AB differ exactly
by 180°. Hence, A and B are free from
local attraction. The bearings observed
at stations A and B are accepted to be
correct.
Fore bearing of BC = 68°15 (correct)
Add + 180°00
Correct back bearing of BC 248°15
Observed back bearing of BC 246°00
Error at C – 2°15
Correction + 2°15
Fore bearing of CD = 310°30
Correction = + 2°15
Corrected F.B. of CD = 312°45
Subtract – 180°00
Correct back bearing of CD = 132°45
Observed back bearing of CD = 135°15
Error at D = + 2°30
Correction at D = – 2°30
Compass Surveying 113

Fore bearing of DA 200°15


Correction – 2°30
Corrected fore bearing of DA = 197°45
Subtract – 180°00
Correct back bearing of DA 17°45
Observed back bearing of DA 17°45 (checked)
Bearings corrected for local attraction are:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 124°30 304°30
BC 68°15 248°15
CD 312°45 132°45
DA 197°45 17°45
IInd Method: By included angles
As the traverse is running anticlockwise, the included angles will be the interior
angles.
Angle at A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of DA
= 124°30 – 17°45 = 106°45
Angle at B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB
= 68°15 – 304°30 = – 236°15
= 360° – 236°15 = 123°45
Angle at C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC
= 310°30 – 246°00 = 64°30
Angle at D = F.B. of DA – B.B. of CD
= 200°15 – 135°15 = 65°00
Check: Theoretical sum of interior angles = (2n – 4) 90° = 360°
Sum of observed angles = A + B + C + D
= 106°45 + 123°45 + 64°30 + 65°00
= 360°
Calculation of bearings
Bearing of the line AB = 124°30 (correct)
Add included angle at B + 123°45
Sum = 248°15
Sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Bearing of the line BC 68°15
Add included angle at C + 64°30
Sum = 132°45
Sum is less than 180°, add 180° + 180°00
Bearing of the line CD = 312°45
Add included angle at D + 65°00
Sum = 377°45
114 Surveying

Sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00


Add included angle at A + 106°45
Sum = 304°30
Sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Bearing of the line AB = 124°30
Line Corrected Included Angle
fore bearing angle value
AB 124°30 A 106°45
BC 68°15 B 123°45
CD 312°45 C 64°30
DA 197°45 D 65°00

e xample 3.15 The following bearings were taken while conducting a close
traverse with a compass in a place where local attraction was suspected:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 80°45 260°00
BC 130°30 311°35
CD 240°15 60°15
DA 290°30 110°10
At what stations do you suspect local attraction? Find the corrected bearings
for local attraction and for declination of 1°30 W.
s olution Refer to Fig. 3.19. On examining the fore and back bearings of the
lines, it is found that the fore and back bearings of the line CD differ exactly by
180°. Hence, stations C and D are free from local attraction. Stations affected
by local attraction are A and B. Since the traversing has been done in clockwise
direction, the included angles are the exterior angles.
Compass Surveying 115

1st Method: By included angles


Angle at A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of DA
= 80°45 – 110°10 + 360°
= 330°35
Angle at B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB
= 130°30 – 260°00 + 360°
= 230°30
Angle at C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC
= 240°15 – 311°35 + 360°
= 288°40
Angle at D = F.B. of DA – B.B. of CD
= 290°30 – 60°15
= 230°15
Check: Theoretical sum of exterior angles = (2n + 4) 90°
= (2 4 + 4) 90° = 1080°
Sum of observed angles = 330°35 + 230°30 + 288°40 + 230°15 = 1080°00
Calculation of bearings
Bearing of line CD = 240°15 (correct)
Add included angle D = 230°15
Sum = 470°30
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Bearing of line AD = 290°30
Add included angle A = 330°35
Sum = 621°05
As sum is more than 540°, subtract 540° – 540°00
Bearing of line AB = 81°05
Add angle at B + 230°30
Sum 311°35
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Bearing of line BC = 131°35
Add angle at C + 288°40
Sum 420°15
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Bearing of line CD = 240°15 (checked)
Bearings corrected for local attraction are:
Line F.B.
AB 81°05
BC 131°35
CD 240°15
DA 290°30
116 Surveying

Correction for declination


As the declination is 1°30 W
The corrected true bearings are:
Line F.B. Declination Corrected Bearings
AB 81°05 1°30 W 81°05 – 1°30 = 79°35
BC 131°35 1°30 W 131°35 – 1°30 = 130°05
CD 240°15 1°30 W 240°15 – 1°30 = 238°45
DA 290°30 1°30 W 290°30 – 1°30 = 289°00
IInd Method: By applying corrections to the bearings
Since fore and back bearings of line CD differ exactly by 180°, bearings of the
line CD are accepted to be correct. Hence, C and D are free from local attraction.
Therefore, the F.B. of DA observed at station D will also be correct.
Fore bearing of DA = 290°30 (correct)
Subtract 180° – 180°00
Back bearing of DA = 110°30
Observed bearing of DA = 110°10
Error at A – 20
Correction at A = + 20
Observed fore bearing of line AB = 80°45
Correction + 20
Corrected fore bearing of line AB 81°05
Add 180° 180°00
Correct back bearing of line AB = 261°05
Observed back bearing of line AB 260°00
Error at B – 1°05
Correction at B = + 1°05
Observed fore bearing of BC = 130°30
Correction + 1°05
Corrected fore bearing of BC = 131°35
Add 180° + 180
Correct back bearing of BC 311°35
Observed back bearing of BC 311°35 (checked)
The bearings corrected for local attraction are:
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB 81°05 261°05
BC 131°35 311°35
CD 240°15 60°15
DA 290°30 110°30
Now, the bearings can be corrected for declination in the same way as in the
first method.
Compass Surveying 117

e xample 3.16 Give the corrected bearings of the following traverse taken
from a compass survey.
Line Fore Bearing Back Bearing
AB 191°30 13°00
BC 69°30 246°30
CD 32°15 210°30
DE 262°45 80°45
EA 230°15 53°00

s olution Refer to Fig. 3.20. The included angles are first calculated.

As the traverse is running anticlockwise, the included angles will be the interior
angles.
A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of EA
= 191°30 – 53°00 = 130°30
B = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB
= 69°30 – 13°00 = 56°30
C = F.B. of CD – B.B. of BC
= 32°15 – 246°30
= – 214°15 (exterior angle)
= 360° – 214°15 = 145°45
D = F.B. of DE – B.B. of CD
= 262°45 – 210°30 = 52°15
E = F.B. of EA – B.B. of DE
= 230°15 – 80°45 = 149°30
Check: Theoretical sum of the angles = (2n – 4) 90° = 540° (n = 5)
Sum of the observed angles = 138°30 + 56°30 + 145°45 + 52°15 + 149°30
118 Surveying

= 542°30
The error in included angles = 542°30 – 540°
= + 2°30
Correction = – 2°30
This correction is distributed equally in all the angles
Corrected angles A = 138°38 – 30 = 138°00
B = 56°30 – 30 = 56°00
C = 145°45 – 30 = 145°15
D = 52°15 – 30 = 51°45
E = 149°30 – 30 = 149°00
On examining the values of the observed
bearings of the lines, it will be noticed that no line in the traverse has a difference
of 180° in its fore and back bearings. As all the stations are affected by local
attraction, the line having the least deviation from 180° in its fore and back
bearings is chosen, and to correct it, the error is distributed equally in its fore
bearing and back bearing.
Line F.B. B.B. Difference Deviation Correction Correct F.B.
AB 191°30 13°00 178°30 1°30 1°30 /2 192°15
BC 69°30 246°30 177°00 3°00 = 45
CD 32°15 210°30 178°15 1°45
DE 262°45 80°45 182°00 2°00
EA 230°15 53°00 177°15 2°45

Corrected F.B. of AB = 192°15 (correct)


Add B + 56°00
Sum = 248°15
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Corrected F.B. of BC = 68°15
Add C + 145°15
Sum = 213°30
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Corrected F.B. of CD = 33°30
Add D + 51°45
Sum = 85°15
As sum is less than 180° add 180° + 180°00
Corrected F.B. of DE = 265°15
Add E = 149°00
Sum = 414°15
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Compass Surveying 119

Corrected F.B. of EA = 234°15


Add A + 138°00
Sum = 372°15
As sum is more than 180°, subtract 180° – 180°00
Corrected F.B. of AB = 192°15 (checked)
Corrected fore bearings are:
Line F.B.
AB 192°15
BC 68°15
CD 33°30
DE 265°15
EA 234°15

3.12 Determining true meriDian


The true meridian is used as a reference in any extensive survey. This is because
a true meridian does not change with time and because the relationship of true
meridian established at different points is always known regardless of the distance
between the points.
Observation of any celestial body like the sun, north star, Polaris, etc., whose
astronomical position is known, makes possible the establishment of a true meridian
passing through the point occupied at the time of observation.
The procedure consists in measuring the vertical angles between the sun
and a horizontal plane and the horizontal angle between a line AB and the sun
(Fig. 3.21). The time of observation is noted. With the latitude of the instrument
position (point A) known, the angle between the true meridian (N – S) and the
sun can be computed for any given time. Since the horizontal angle B – A – sun
has been measured, the angle B – A – N can be computed. The best time to obtain
most accurate results is mid-morning or mid-afternoon.
120 Surveying

3.13 Chain surveying versus Compass surveying


Table 3.2 gives the comparison between chain surveying and compass surveying.

S.No. Chain surveying Compass surveying


1. Chain is mainly used for linear Compass is mainly used for angular
measurements. measurements.
2. The framework consists of triangles, The framework consists of a series of
the sides of which are measured by connected lines. The lengths of the lines
chain. No angular measurements are are measured by chain and the angles
done. by compass.
3. It is easy in performance and the It is difficult in performance and
calculations for plotting the area are the calculations for plotting are also
simple. difficult.
4. Only chain and tape corrections are Tape corrections as well as compass
required. corrections are required.
5. It is cheap. It is expensive.
6. It is done for a small and fairly level It is done for large areas with rough
area with simple details. ground having many details.

Summary
In this chapter the instrument, compass, used to measure the directions (bearings) of survey
lines has been discussed. A compass measures the directions with respect to magnetic
meridian, a line on the earth’s surface joining magnetic north and south poles. These poles
are different from true (geographical) north and south poles. A line joining true north
and south poles on the earth surface is called true meridian, which is invariant. Since the
magnetic poles keep on changing with time the magnetic bearings of survey lines also keep
on changing and if later sometimes the survey lines are to be retraced or relocated the
surveyor might not. Therefore, it is suggested to plot the compass survey with respect to
true bearings. The magnetic bearing of the survey lines measured with compass are therefore
converted to true bearings. This is accomplished with the help of the angle between true
meridian and magnetic meridian, known as declination (data available in nautical alumnac),
at particular place and time of observation.
The Surveyor compass or Prismatic compass may be used for measuring bearings. The
two types of compasses are described in detail. The prismatic compass has a least count
of 30 as compared to that of 1° of surveyor compass. Also, since the parallax of eye is
eliminated while making reading through a prism, the prismatic compass is preferred.
A major problem with the magnetic compass is of local attraction, the deflection of the
magnetic needle due to the influence of magnetic materials nearby the place of instrument
station. Since this influence in magnitude and direction will be same for all the survey lines
at a station, the included angles are unaffected although the magnetic bearings are impaired.
The method to circumvent this problem of local attraction is discussed in detail.
Compass Surveying 121

Exercises
3.1 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Fore bearing and back bearing
(b) Quadrantal bearing and whole circle bearing
(c) True bearing and magnetic bearing
3.2 Define the following: true meridian, local attraction, magnetic declination, dip of
needle.
3.3 What are the advantages and disadvantages of compass survey? State the limits of
precision of compass survey.
3.4 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Isogonic and agonic lines
(b) Isoclinic and aclinic lines
(c) Declination and dip
(d) Graduated circle of prismatic compass and surveyor compass
3.5 State the differences between the trough and tubular compass in a tabular form.
3.6 Write short notes on:
(a) Dip of needle (b) Declination (c) Local attraction.
3.7 Discuss the functions of the following in a compass:
(a) Prism (b) Looking mirror (c) Sleeve weight on the needle.
3.8 Why is it desirable to plot maps with true bearings than with magnetic bearings?
3.9 Sketch and describe the salient features of prismatic compass and surveyor
compass.
3.10 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Bearing and azimuth (b) Magnetic and true meridians
3.11 Explain in a tabular form the differences between a prismatic compass and a surveyor
compass.
3.12 What is meant by local attraction? How is it detected and how are the observed
bearings corrected for local attraction?
3.13 Explain the following statements with sketches:
(a) East and west are intercharged from their normal position in a surveyor
compass
(b) The 0° is placed at the south end in a prismatic compass.
3.14 Does local attraction at a point affect the size of an angle computed from magnetic
bearing read at that point? Explain.
3.15 The following are the observed fore bearings of the line. Calculate the respective
back bearings.
(a) AB 24°30 (b) CD 120°
(c) EF 268°30 (d) GH 353°
(e) AB N62°E (f) CD S12°30 E
(g) EF S59°30 W (h) GH N88°W
[Ans. (a) AB 204°30 (b) CD 300°
(c) EF 88°30 (d) GH 173°
(e) AB S62°W (f) CD N12°30 W
(g) EF N59°30 E (h) GH S88°E
3.16 Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings.
(a) 10°18 (b) 95°12 (c) 225°30 (d) 350°10
[Ans. N10°18 E, S84°48 E, S45°30 W, N9°50 W]
3.17 Convert the following quadrantal bearings to whole circle bearings.
(a) N6°20 E (b) S17°25 E (c) N17°25 W (d) N11°W
[Ans. 6°20 , 162°35 , 342°35 , 349°00 ]
122 Surveying

3.18 The magnetic bearing of sun at noon was 170°. Calculate the magnetic declination.
[Ans. 10°E]
3.19 A line was drawn to a magnetic bearing of S50°00 E on an old plan when the
magnetic declination was 2°40 W. To what bearing should it be set now if the present
declination is 3°20 E? [Ans. S56°E]
3.20 The bearings of the sides of a triangle ABC are as follows. Compute the interior
angles.
AB = 60°, BC = 130°, and CA = 270°
[Ans. A = 30°, B = 110°, C = 40°]
3.21 Find out the bearing of the lines of an equilateral triangle ABC running clockwise,
if the bearing of the line AB is 60°30 .
[Ans. BC = 180°30 , CA = 300°30 ]
3.22 The following bearings were observed in running a compass traverse:
Line F.B. B.B.
AB 66°15 244°00
BC 129°45 313°00
CD 218°30 37°30
DA 306°45 126°45
Find the correct fore and back bearings and the true bearings of the lines, given
that the magnetic declination is 1°40 E.
[Ans. True bearings AB = 67°55 , BC = 133°40 ,
CD = 219°10 , DA = 308°25 ]
3.23 The fore and back bearings of a closed traverse conducted at Naini, Allahabad are
given below. Indicate which stations are affected by local attraction. Also find out the
corrected bearings. If the value of declination is 4°W, find out the true bearings.
Line Fore bearing Back bearing
AB S55°30 E N55°30 W
BC N68°15 E S66°00 W
CD N49°30 W S44°45 W
DA S20°15 W N17°45 E
[Ans. AB = S59°30 E, BC = N64°15 E,
CD = N51°15 W, DA = S13°45 W]
3.24 To find out the included angles in a closed survey PQRSTP, the following
observations were made with the compass. Calculate the included angles after
correcting for local attractions.
Line Fore bearing Back bearing
PQ N62°45 E S62°15 W
QR N21°00 E S20°45 W
RS N71°30 W S71°30 E
ST S39°00 W N38°00 E
TP S54°30 E N53°15 W
[Ans. TPQ = 115°54 , PQR = 138°39 , QRS = 87°39 ,
RST = 110°24 , STP = 87°24 ]

Objective-type Questions
3.1 A declination of 3° east means
(a) magnetic north is 3° east of true north
(b) magnetic north is 3° west of true north
(c) true north in 3° east of magnetic north
(d) true south is 3° east of magnetic south
Compass Surveying 123

3.2 The whole circle bearing of a line is 300°. Its quadrantal bearings is
(a) S60°E (b) N60°W (c) N30°W (d) N60°E
3.3 The angle of dip at a point on equator is
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 180°
3.4 If the back bearing of a line is N30°W, its fore bearing is
(a) S30°W (b) S30°E (c) N30°E (d) N30°W
3.5 The whole circle bearing of a line, whose quadrantal bearing is S19°30 E is
(a) 19°30 (b) 199°30 (c) 160°30 (d) 340°30
3.6 Which will be included angle AOB if the bearings of the lines AO and OB are
respectively 40° and 130°?
(a) 90° (b) 170° (c) 270° (d) 130°
3.7 Which will be the included angle AOB if the bearings of the lines AO and OB are
130° and 40°, respectively?
(a) 90° (b) 170° (c) 270° (d) 130°
3.8 The fore bearing of line AB is 209°. The included angle ABC is 341°. The F.B. of
line BC is
(a) 550° (b) 330° (c) 10° (d) 190°
3.9 The magnetic bearing of the sun at noon is 178°. The magnetic declination at the
place is
(a) 2°W (b) 2°E (c) 2°N (d) 2°S
3.10 True bearing of a line is 10° and the magnetic declination is 2°W. Its magnetic
bearing is
(a) 2° (b) 8° (c) 12° (d) 20°
3.11 The value of dip at the magnetic pole is
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 30°
3.12 Which of the following compass can be used without a tripod for observing
bearings?
(a) Trough compass (b) Prismatic compass
(c) Surveyor compass (d) All of these
3.13 A looking mirror is generally provided on the object vane to
(a) sight on whole circle bearing system
(b) sight the objects too low
(c) sight the objects too high or too low
(d) observe the reading while sighting
3.14 The temporary adjustments of surveyor compass involves
(a) centring only
(b) levelling only
(c) centring and levelling
(d) centring, levelling and focussing the prism
3.15 Which of the following reference direction is used in a geodetic survey?
(a) True (b) Magnetic
(c) Arbitrary (d) Any of these
3.16 Dip is defined as
(a) the smaller horizontal angle, a survey line makes with the true meridian
(b) the vertical angle, which a freely suspended needle makes with the horizontal
plane
(c) the angle which a survey line makes with some reference direction
(d) the angle, which the needle makes with vertical plane
3.17 Which one of the following is the correct statement in a prismatic compass?
(a) Zero is placed at N end.
(b) The least count is 20 min.
124 Surveying

(c) The graduations are inverted.


(d) It indicates quadrantal bearing.
3.18 The annual variation of magnetic declination at a place is caused because of rotation
of
(a) moon about earth (b) earth about its own axis
(c) earth about sun (d) moon about sun
3.19 Survey is preferred with true meridians because these
(a) converge at poles (b) do not change with time
(c) facilitate plotting (d) are chosen arbitrarily
3.20 The lines joining points of equal dip are called
(a) aclinic lines (b) isogonic lines
(c) agonic lines (d) isoclinic lines
3.21 Which of the following statement is correct?
(a) Local attraction affects included angles.
(b) The position of E and W are interchanged in prismatic compass.
(c) Dip of magnetic needle is the angle between the magnetic north and true
north.
(d) None of the above.
3.22 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Prismatic compass is used to measure included angle between the survey
lines.
(b) Compass may be used to fill in details.
(c) Compass cannot be used to plot irregular boundaries.
(d) Compass is not suitable for reconnaissance and exploratory surveys.
3.23 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The graduations (figures) are inverted in a surveyor compass.
(b) A prism in a prismatic compass is provided to magnify the graduations in
addition to erecting the figures.
(c) East and west are interchanged in prismatic compass.
(d) The 0° graduation is placed at north in prismatic compass.
3.24 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) The direction of magnetic meridian is variable.
(b) The direction of true meridian is invariable.
(c) The magnetic bearing of line varies with time.
(d) Magnetic meridian through various stations are not parallel but converge at
poles.
3.25 Choose the correct statement.
(a) If during computation of bearings, the fore bearing of a line is found to be
200°, the actual fore bearing will be 380°.
(b) Lines joining places of equal dip are known as isogonic lines.
(c) Lines joining places of zero dip are known as isoclinic lines.
(d) Magnetic equator is an example of aclinic line.
3.26 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Lines joining places of equal magnetic declination are known as isogonic
lines.
(b) Lines joining places of zero magnetic declination are known as agonic
lines.
(c) On agonic line, the magnetic needle defines true as well as magnetic north.
(d) All of the above are correct.
Compass Surveying 125

3.27 Choose the incorrect statement.


(a) Diurnal variation of declination is more for the places near the equator.
(b) Irregular variation of declination may be of the order of 1°.
(c) Causes of secular variation of declination are not well understood.
(d) Both (a) and (c).
3.28 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) An arbitrary meridian can be of any convenient direction.
(b) All the three faces of prism in a prismatic compass are made convex.
(c) Sighting and reading can be done simultaneously with a surveyor compass.
(d) Both (b) and (c).
3.29 In surveyor compass,
(i) the graduations are in whole circle bearing system
(ii) the graduated card is attached to and rotates with the box
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) Both (i) and (ii) are wrong
3.30 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) With a prismatic compass, sighting and reading can be done simultaneously.
(ii) Levelling of the compass is achieved by eye judgement.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) Both (i) and (ii) are wrong

Answers to Objective-type Questions


3.1 (a) 3.2 (b) 3.3 (a) 3.4 (b) 3.5 (c) 3.6 (c)
3.7 (a) 3.8 (c) 3.9 (b) 3.10 (c) 3.11 (c) 3.12 (b)
3.13 (c) 3.14 (c) 3.15 (a) 3.16 (b) 3.17 (c) 3.18 (c)
3.19 (b) 3.20 (d) 3.21 (d) 3.22 (b) 3.23 (b) 3.24 (d)
3.25 (d) 3.26 (d) 3.27 (a) 3.28 (d) 3.29 (b) 3.30 (c)
4 TheodoliTe

Introduction
Transit or theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical
angles. It was invented by Roemer, a Danish astronomer in 1690. The instrument
was used to observe the passage (transit) of stars across any portion of the
celestial meridian. About a century later it was modified to suit the surveying
requirements and even horizontal angles could be measured with it. In 1830, further
additions were made to this basic instrument to make possible the measurement
of several things apart from the measurement of vertical and horizontal angles.
Because of its variety of uses, such as the measurement of horizontal and vertical
angles, prolonging a straight line, measurement of bearings, and measurement of
horizontal and vertical distances and determination of the direction of true north, it
is sometimes referred to as universal instrument. The origin of the term theodolite
is not very well known. It is essentially similar to a transit except that it is longer
in size and reads to smaller angular values even to 1 . Therefore, a theodolite is
more precise than the transit.
Depending upon the facilities provided for reading of observations the theodolites
may be classified as simple vernier theodolite, micrometer theodolite, optical (glass
arc) theodolite and electronic theodolite. Though the first two are obsolete and all
the modern theodolites are of the optical or electronic digital type, this chapter
mainly discusses the vernier theodolite. There are two reasons for this. Firstly,
field surveys in India are being done with it for small projects; total station is
now used for medium and large size projects. Secondly, the most important reason
is that a simplified diagram of the vernier type is best used to illustrate the basic
features.
A modern theodolite is compact, light in weight, simple in design and can be
used rough. All the movable parts and scales are fully enclosed and virtually dust
and moisture proof. The size of a theodolite is defined by its lower graduated
circle. For example, a 20 cm theodolite means the diameter of the graduated circle
of the lower plate is 20 cm. The size of the theodolites varies from 8 to 25 cm.
Theodolite 127

4.1 ClassifiCaTion
Theodolites may be classified into transit and non-transit theodolites.

4.1.1 Transit Theodolite


A theodolite is said to be a transit one when its telescope can be revolved through
180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus directing the telescope in
exactly opposite direction. The various parts of the transit theodolite are shown
in Fig. 4.1. The vertical circle is rigidly fixed to the telescope and rotates with
the telescope (Fig. 4.2).

1. Vertical circle 2. Altitude bubble


3. Horizontal axis 4. Vernier arm
5. Plate bubble 6. Graduated arc
7. Levelling head 8. Clamping nut
9. Vertical axis 10. Telescope
11. Vertical circle clamping screw 12. Arm of the vertical circle clamp
13. Standard 14. Line of sight
15. Upper plate clamping screw 16. Axis of plate bubble
17. Upper plate 18. Lower plate
19. Lower plate clamping screw 20. Tribrach
21. Foot screw 22. Trivet
23. Tripod top 24. Plumb bob
128 Surveying

4.1.2 non-transit Theodolite


A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one when its telescope cannot be revolved
through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis. Such theodolites are
obsolete nowadays. Examples are Y-theodolite and Everest theodolite.

Point at which observations Vertical axis


are reduced

Transverse axis

90 Vertical circle rigidly


fixed to the telescope
90
in face left

Line of sight

Alidade
assembly

Horizontal
circle assembly

Levelling head
assembly

4.2 ConsTruCTion deTails


A line diagram of a transit theodolite is shown in Fig. 4.2. It consists of alidade
assembly at the top, the horizontal circle assembly in the middle and the levelling
head assembly at the bottom.

4.2.1 alidade assembly


It is the top-most assembly which includes a telescope supported by two standards
of the shape of letter A forming an U-frame (which rests on the horizontal
Theodolite 129

circle upper plate), and the vertical circle. An altitude bubble is attached to the
standards.

4.2.2 horizontal Circle assembly


It consists of two plates, the lower and the upper. The lower plate carries the main
scale and the upper plate carries verniers. Normally two plate levels are attached
to this assembly.

4.2.3 levelling head assembly


It is the bottom-most assembly which is screwed on to the top of the tripod. At
its base is the tribrach which contains three or four screws and a circular bubble.
This bubble is used to put the horizontal circle into horizontal plane. A locking
device holds the levelling head and tribrach together. With the help of foot screws
the instrument can be levelled, i.e., the vertical axis can be made truly vertical.
The various parts of a transit theodolite are discussed below.

4.2.4 levelling screws


The levelling head is provided with three or four levelling screws. These should
be of fine pitch. The distance of screws from the vertical axis of the instrument
governs the delicacy of action. The greater the distance, the smaller will be the tilt
caused by turning a screw by one turn. A four-screw head is compact, but leads to
uneven pressures on screws which result in their excessive wear. The three-screw
arrangement is free from these objections. Moreover, it has an important advantage
of being more rapidly levelled.

4.2.5 Plumb Bob and shifting Centre


A plumb bob is suspended from the vertical axis of the theodolite, to be centred
over the station, from where the measurements are made. The operation of centring
is facilitated by providing an additional arrangement, a movable head or shifting
centre. The advantage of a movable head is that the theodolite and the attached
plumb line may be moved and clamped independent of the tripod when the plumb
bob is exactly over the station mark. This arrangement is very useful when, after
some observations from a station have been made, the transit man finds that the
centring is disturbed and if the instrument is re-centred in the usual way, the
measurements already done have to be repeated.
The centring device, also known as movable head, is placed immediately
below the trivet stage, but sometimes it is placed above the tribrach. The latter
arrangement has the advantage that centring may be done after the instrument is
levelled, and is therefore not likely to be disturbed by any subsequent levelling.
Centring should always be accurate within 2 mm, otherwise short lines introduce
unacceptable large angular errors into the measurements.

4.2.6 level Tubes


Two level tubes are provided on the horizontal circle upper plate for levelling the
theodolite quickly. Of the two, one is placed parallel and the other at right angles
to the line of sight. The level tube parallel to the line of sight should be more
130 Surveying

sensitive, since it controls the horizontal axis and therefore the verticality of the
plane of rotation of line of sight.
Usually, a small circular bubble is fitted to the foot plate of the tribrach to
facilitate the setting up of the theodolite.
A bubble tube is also attached either to the vertical vernier frame or to the
telescope. This should be very sensitive, as in addition to measuring vertical
angles, a theodolite may also be used for ordinary levelling. This bubble tube
is commonly known as altitude level. A better place for the altitude level is on
the vertical vernier frame, since in such a position it exhibits the stability of the
instrument, while the telescope is tilted for vertical measurements.

4.2.7 Circles
The size of a theodolite is defined by the diameter (between the reading edges
of the graduations) of the horizontal circle which varies from 8 to 25 cm. It is
graduated from 0° to 360° in clockwise direction. The vertical circle is usually
of the same diameter as the horizontal circle. The graduations on it are from 0°
to 90°. Two verniers are provided on each circle and low power magnifiers are
attached for reading the observed values. The verniers on horizontal circle are
reckoned as A and B and that on vertical circle as C and D.

4.2.8 Clamp and Tangent screws


As a preliminary understanding to the working of a theodolite, it is very important
to form a clear idea of the actions of the clamp and the tangent screws of the
upper and lower plates.
Two sets of clamp and tangent screws are provided on the horizontal circle
to control the motion of the telescope about the vertical axis. One set of clamp
and tangent screws is provided to control the movement of telescope about the
horizontal axis of the theodolite. The tangent screws make possible slow movement
for accurate settings after the clamps have been tightened.
When both clamp screws are tightened, the lower and upper plates along with
the telescope and the vertical circle, are fixed with reference to the vertical axis and
levelling base. Fine motions are possible with tangent screws. If the lower tangent
screw is turned, both the lower and upper plates rotate together as a single unit
about the vertical axis with reference to the levelling head. If the upper tangent
screw is turned, the upper plate rotates about the vertical axis relative to the lower
plate.
When the lower plate is clamped and the upper clamp screw is loosened, the
upper plate with the telescope and vertical circle can be rotated about the vertical
axis relative to the lower plate. If the lower tangent screw is operated, the lower
plate turns slowly relative to the levelling head, even though the upper and lower
plates are clamped together.
When the upper plate is clamped and the lower clamp screw is loosened, both
the lower and upper plates rotate as a single unit about the vertical axis with
reference to the levelling head. If the upper tangent screw is operated, the upper
plate can be made to run slowly even though the lower plate remains clamped to
the levelling head.
Theodolite 131

When both the clamps are loosened, both the plates become free and can be
rotated independently about the vertical axis. There is no point in operating either
tangent screw.
No tangent screw will function until the corresponding clamp screw has been
set.

4.2.9 Telescope
A telescope of either internal or external focussing type is provided. To facilitate
transiting it is convenient to provide an internal focussing rather than external
focussing telescope. The magnification ranges from 15 to 30 diameter.

4.3 Taking ouT TheodoliTe from The Box


First, open the box carefully. Then hold the upper body of the theodolite with the
left hand and put the middle finger of the right hand below the foot screw and
gently lift it out of the box. Ensure the correct position of the telescope when in
the box. This helps in placing the theodolite back in the box.

4.4 PlaCing TheodoliTe in The Box


Loosen all the clamps and fit the cover to the objective. Unscrew the theodolite
from the stand and place the theodolite gently inside the box so that it fits properly.
Generally, one foot screw is kept on the top and the other two rest on support
provided in the box. It should be ensured that the vertical circle is to the correct
side of the telescope.

4.5 reading a TheodoliTe


A theodolite has two verniers A and B placed on the opposite sides of the upper
plate (i.e., they are placed at a difference of 180°). For ordinary work usually the
vernier A is read, whereas for precise work both the verniers A and B are read
and the mean of the two readings is used. This practise minimises the error due
to eccentricity and imperfection in subdivisions which might exist in the circular
scale. The main scale and vernier of a typical theodolite as graduated are shown
in Fig. 4.3. The main scale is graduated from 0° to 360° in degrees and minutes.
Each degree part is tested and divided into three equal parts. Hence, the minimum
reading that can be read from the main scale is 20 . The vernier scale is graduated
into minutes and seconds. Each minute division is divided into three equal parts.
Hence, the least reading that can be read from the vernier scale is 20 .
To read an observation, first determine the value of the scale reading in degrees
and minutes up to the last scale division passed by the vernier zero (index). Add
to this the vernier reading. A vernier reading is obtained by locating the vernier
line, which coincides with the main scale line. The number of that vernier line is
then multiplied by the least count of the vernier to get the reading. For example,
the reading shown in Fig. 4.3 is 150°40 ± 1 40 = 150°41 40 . Since different
arrangements of verniers will be found on different theodolites, a transitman should
be careful while determining the characteristics of the vernier on the instrument.
132 Surveying

4.6 definiTions
A number of operations are required while making the measurements with a
theodolite. Also, from the construction details it is evident that the instrument has a
number of axes having some specific relation between them. It becomes important
for the user to understand the operations, their use and their benefits to achieve
accuracy in the measurements. The following are the definitions of the terms that
will frequently be used in the measurement processes:
It is also called plunging or reversing. This is the operation of
revolving the telescope through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis,
thus making it point exactly in the opposite direction.
Theodolite 133

When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right of the


observer, the position is called face right and the observation made is called face
right observation.
When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left of the
observer, the position is called face left and the observation made is called face
left observation.
By taking the mean of both face readings, the collimation error is eliminated.
Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane,
about its vertical axis is called swinging. A right swing means clockwise rotation
of the telescope, whereas a left swing means anticlockwise rotation of the
telescope.
By taking the mean of the right swing and the left swing observations, the
effects of error due to friction or backlash in the moving parts is eliminated.
The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its
vertical circle is to the left of the observer and the bubble is up.
The telescope is said to be inverted when its vertical
circle is to the right of the observer and the bubble is down.
It is also called the trunion axis or transverse axis (Fig. 4.2).
It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane.
It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a
horizontal plane (Fig. 4.2).
It is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass
to the centre of the eyepiece.
It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of cross-hairs
to the optical centre of the objective and its continuation.
It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
level tube at its centre.
It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite
on a given straight line whose ends are intervisible.
It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a
theodolite on a given straight line whose ends are not intervisible.

4.7 Changing faCe


It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle of the theodolite to the left of the
observer, if originally it was to the right, and vice versa.
In case of a transit theodolite the face is changed by revolving the telescope
through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, and then through 180°
in a horizontal plane about its vertical axis. Whereas for a non-transit theodolite
the telescope is lifted from its support, reversed and then replaced on the supports.
The telescope is then revolved in a horizontal plane to bring the eyepiece end in
the original position.
134 Surveying

The errors that are eliminated by changing face are as follows:


1. Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal
axis.
2. Error due to horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
3. Error due to line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the altitude
level.

4.8 TemPorary adjusTmenTs


These are the adjustments which are done before making the observations at every
setup of the instrument. They consist of setting up the theodolite, levelling it, and
focussing the eyepiece and objective. Before setting up the theodolite, it should
be ensured that
1. the levelling screws are at the centre of their run.
2. the shifting head of the theodolite is at its centre so that equal movement
is possible in all the directions.
3. the wing nuts on the tripod legs are tight enough so that when raised, the
tripod legs do not fall under their own weight.

4.8.1 setting up the Theodolite


It consists of centring the theodolite over the station and its approximate levelling
by tripod legs.
This involves setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark or
on the station peg. It is done by the following steps:
1. The plumb bob is suspended from a small hook attached to the vertical
axis of the theodolite.
2. The instrument is placed over the station mark with the telescope at a
convenient height and with the tripod legs set well apart.
3. Two legs of the tripod are set firmly into the ground and the third leg is
moved radially to bring the plumb bob exactly over the station mark. Then
the third leg is also pushed into the ground.
4. If the instrument has a shifting head, the instrument is roughly centred
over the station mark and then by means of the shifting head, the plumb
bob is brought exactly over the station mark.
This implies levelling the instrument with the legs
of the tripod, i.e., by bringing the small circular bubble provided on the tribrach
in the centre. To achieve this, two of the tripod legs are pushed firmly into the
ground and the third leg of the tripod is moved to the right or to the left, i.e., in
the circumferential direction until the bubble is centred. This leg is then pushed
into the ground.
1. When the leg is moved radially, the plumb bob is shifted in the direction of
the leg without affecting the plate levels appreciably.
2. When the leg is moved circumferentially, the instrument tilts and the plate
levels are affected but the plumb bob position is not affected appreciably.
Theodolite 135

4.8.2 levelling up
This means making the vertical axis truly vertical. This is done with the help of
the foot screws. The procedure is as follows:
1. The longer plate level is brought parallel to any two foot screws.
C
C

A B
A B
(a) (b)

In the case of a three screw levelling head, the other plate level will then
be parallel to the line joining the third foot screw and the mid-point of
the line joining the first two foot screws, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
2. Bring the bubble of the longer plate level to the centre of its run by moving
the two foot screws, say A and B, uniformly either inwards or outwards
(Fig. 4.4(a)). It may be noted that the bubble always moves in the direction
of the left thumb as the surveyor turns the screw.
3. Move the third foot screw C so that the bubble in the other plate level is
centred (Fig. 4.4(b)).
4. In case of four screw levelling head, each of the two plate levels will
be parallel to a pair of diagonally opposite levelling screws, as shown in
Fig. 4.5.
D C
D C

A B
B
A
136 Surveying

Use two foot screws, say B and D, to bring the bubble of the plate level
in the centre by moving the screws uniformly either inwards or outwards.
Use the other two screws A and C and move them uniformly either inwards
or outwards to centre the other plate bubble.
5. Repeat the procedure until both the bubbles are in the centre of their
run.
6. Swing the telescope through a complete revolution. The bubbles should
remain central in all the positions.
7. In case if only one plate level is provided with the instrument, the levelling
is done as explained in Chapter 6.
8. For greater accuracy, the instrument is levelled with reference to the
altitude level fixed either on the telescope or on the index arm.

4.8.3 focussing
It consists of focussing the eyepiece and the objective.
This operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear
clearly visible. The following steps are involved:
1. The telescope is directed towards the sky or a sheet of white paper held
in front of the objective.
2. The eyepiece is moved in or out until the cross-hairs appear clear and
distinct.
This operation is done to bring the image of the object
in the plane of the cross-hairs. The following steps are involved:
1. The telescope is directed towards the object.
2. The focussing screw is turned until the image appears clear and sharp.

4.9 PermanenT adjusTmenTs


There are a number of fundamental lines of theodolite, which have interrelationship
amongst each other. These are the vertical axis, the axis of plate levels, the line
of collimation, the horizontal axis, and the bubble line of altitude. Over a period
of time, due to mishandling during usage of the instrument, the relationship
among these lines may get altered and observations recorded will be erroneous.
This requires correcting the relationships between these fundamental lines. Such
adjustments are called permanent adjustments and are done from time to time.
The following adjustments are desirable:
1. The axis of the plate levels must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
2. The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
3. The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
4. The axis of the telescope level must be parallel to the line of
collimation.
The permanent adjustments of a theodolite consist of the following
adjustments:
The axis of the plate level is made perpendicular
to the vertical axis of the theodolite.
Theodolite 137

Horizontal axis is made perpendicular to the vertical axis.


Adjustment of horizontal and vertical hair.
Adjustment of level tube on the telescope.
Adjustment of altitude level and vertical index
frame.

4.9.1 order of Permanent adjustments


The permanent adjustments of a theodolite are so arranged in sequence that the next
adjustment does not disturb the results obtained from the previous adjustments.
Therefore, if carried out haphazardly, the new adjustment disturbs the effect of
the previous adjustments. The adjustment of the theodolite should be done in the
order given below.
1. Make the plate bubbles central to their run when the vertical axis of the
theodolite is truly vertical (Plate level test).
2. Make the vertical cross-hair lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal
axis (Cross-hair ring test).
3. Make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis (Collimation
in Azimuth test).
4. Make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis (Spire test).
5. Make the telescope bubble central when the line of sight is horizontal
(Bubble tube adjustment).
6. Make the vertical circle indicate zero when the line of sight is perpendicular
to the vertical axis (Vertical arc test).

4.10 PlaTe level TesT


4.10.1 desired relation
The vertical axis of the instrument should be perpendicular to the axis of each
plate bubble tube. Thus, to ensure that the vertical axis of the instrument is truly
vertical, it is necessary to align the bubble axis parallel to the horizontal plate
carrying the bubble.

4.10.2 Test
When in perfect adjustment, the plate bubbles once centred remain central for all
positions of the horizontal plate. If either or both the bubbles are not in the centre
of their run, then an adjustment is required.
The instrument is levelled as described in Section 4.8. The telescope is swing
through 180° about the vertical axis, i.e., swing the telescope. If the bubble runs
out of the centre, the adjustment is not in order. If it is so, count the number of
graduations on the bubble tube by which the bubble has run out of its centre.

4.10.3 adjustment
1. Bring the bubble halfway back to a central position by using the two foot
screws. This makes the vertical axis truly vertical.
138 Surveying

2. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of capstan screw
provided at one of the ends of the bubble tube. This makes the axis of
the bubble tube truly horizontal.

4.11 Cross-hair ring TesT


4.11.1 desired relation
The vertical cross-hair should lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis,
i.e., it is to be made truly vertical.

4.11.2 Test
The instrument is carefully levelled. The telescope is directed towards a plumb
bob string at rest. The string is thus bisected and its image will lie on the vertical
cross-hair. The telescope is then rotated slightly, in a vertical plane, about its
horizontal axis. If the correct relation exists, the image of the string will still be
in coincidence with the vertical hair. If not, the image will appear to move off
the vertical cross-hair.

4.11.3 adjustment
To adjust the vertical cross-hair, loosen all the four capstan screws on the cross-
hair ring. Rotate the ring carefully so that the image of the string and the vertical
hair coincide. The screws are then tightened snugly.

4.12 CollimaTion in azimuTh TesT


4.12.1 desired relation
The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

4.12.2 Test
The instrument is set up and levelled at a point O in an open field so as to
have an unobstructed view for about 90 m on either side of the instrument. The
telescope, in normal position, is directed so as to bisect a fine mark say A at about
60 m from the instrument. The telescope is then inverted and a point B is set. If
the instrument is in adjustment, the points A, O and B will be in the same line;
the line of sights OA and OB will be truely perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
However, assume that the line of sight makes an angle 90° – e instead of 90°
with the horizontal axis, e being the error in adjustment. In the face left position,
the observations for A and B are shown with firm lines and those with face right
position by broken lines (Fig. 4.6). In the face left position the instrument will
establish a mark B1, whereas in face right position, a mark B2 will be established.
The resultant error in the instrument is 4e.

4.12.3 adjustment
Loosen the horizontal capstan screws on the cross-hair ring. The cross-hairs are
moved azimuthally from a point B2 to a point mid-way between B2 and B, i.e.,
by 1/4 of B1B2.
Theodolite 139

4.13 sPire TesT


This test is also known as the test for the adjustment of the standards.

4.13.1 desired relation


The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis.

4.13.2 Test
The theodolite is set up and carefully levelled at about 50 m from a high building.
A point, say A, on the building is bisected, preferably with a vertical angle greater
than 30°. The telescope is then lowered and a point B is set near the ground. The
face is changed and point A is sighted again. The telescope is then depressed. If the
instrument is in adjustment, the line of sight will fall on the ground point vertically
below the point A set previously. If not, a second point B2 is set near the ground
(Fig. 4.7). If e is the error in adjustment, then B1B2 will be equal to 2e.
140 Surveying

4.13.3 adjustment
The adjustment is made by raising or lowering one end of the horizontal axis,
using the adjustment screws at the trunion support on one standard, until the line
of sight falls on the same ground point. It is a trial-and-error procedure. The
distance B1B2 is bisected and a fine mark B, is made. The theodolite is moved
azimuthally until B is bisected. The telescope is raised back to A. It will be in
error by a horizontal distance B1B2/2. One end of the horizontal axis is moved
with the adjusting screw till the line of sight bisects A. Repeat the test and check
the adjustment made.

4.14 verTiCal CirCle index TesT


This test is also known as the bubble tube adjustment test.

4.14.1 desired relation


The axis of the bubble tube attached to the telescope should be parallel to the line
of sight. This is done so that the vertical circle reads zero when the telescope is
horizontal.

4.14.2 Test
The altitude bubble is brought to its centre by using the clip screws.
Rotate the telescope and set the vertical circle to read zero. A staff is held
vertical at about 60 m from the instrument and the reading is taken. The face is
changed and the staff is read again. If there is an error, the face readings will be
different as shown in Fig. 4.8.

A1 Face left
Horizontal
A

Face right
A2

4.14.3 adjustment
The telescope is set to read the mean of the two staff readings. The vertical circle
will not read zero now. It should be brought back to read zero without disturbing
the horizontal level of the telescope. The verniers are moved to read zero using
the clip screws. In this process the altitude bubble will move off the centre. The
bubble is brought back to its centre by using the capstan screws.
Theodolite 141

4.15 verTiCal arC TesT


This test is also known as the vertical circle test.

4.15.1 desired relation


When the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the vertical circle
should read zero.

4.15.2 Test
Centre the altitude bubble on the telescope. The zero of the vernier of the vertical
circle should coincide with the zero on the main scale of the vertical circle. If it
fails to do so, then an adjustment is required.

4.15.3 adjustment
The capstan head screws are loosened and the vernier is moved till the zero
coincides with that of the main scale.

4.16 measuremenT of horizonTal angle


Horizontal angles are measured on the horizontal circle of a theodolite by operating
the upper clamp, the lower clamp, and the upper and lower tangent screws. Often
a beginner gets confused about the usage of the screws. It should be remembered
that with both the clamps set, the upper plate, the lower plate, and the telescope are
immobile with respect to the levelling head and tripod. With the upper clamp tight
and the lower clamp loose, the two plates cannot move in relation to each other,
but the telescope can sweep through 360° in the horizontal plane. With the lower
clamp set and the upper one loose, the same 360° sweep is allowed, but this time
the upper plate moves relative to the lower plate. This simplifies the measurement
of horizontal angle between any given pointings of the telescope.
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that the lower clamp and the tangent
screws are used to bring the line of sight along a reference line from which the
angle is to be measured. The upper clamp and tangent screws are used to set the
0-0 reading on the plates before sighting along the reference line and to obtain
a differential movement between the plates when fore sighting. However, in any
operation, only one screw is loosened and all the others are kept clamped.
To measure a horizontal angle, say ABC, the following procedure is followed:
1. Set up the instrument over B and level it.
2. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the
upper plate until the index (the arrow)
of the vernier A, nearly coincides with
the horizontal circle. Clamp both the
plates with the upper clamp.
3. Turn the upper slow motion (tangent)
screw so as to make the two zeros
exactly coincident.
4. Loosen the lower clamp and direct the
telescope to sight station A (Fig. 4.9).
The approximate bisection of the
142 Surveying

station is done by sighting from over the telescope through a pin-and-hole


arrangement provided over its top. Clamp the plates by the lower clamp.
5. Bisect station A exactly by using the lower slow motion (tangent) screw.
Exact bisection is done by bringing the station mark exactly at the
intersection of horizontal and vertical hairs. The vertical circle clamp and
slow motion screws are used to achieve this.
6. Check the vernier A. It should be 0-0. Note the reading of the vernier B.
It should be 180°.
7. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bring the
station C in the field of view. Tighten the upper clamp and bisect C
accurately using the upper slow motion (tangent) screw.
8. Read both the verniers. The reading on vernier A directly gives the value
of angle ABC. From the reading on vernier B, subtract 180° to get the
value of angle ABC. Take the mean of the two values to get the value of
angle ABC.
9. Change the face of the instrument and repeat the procedure. Thus, a second
value of the angle ABC is obtained. The average of the two values is the
required horizontal angle.
1. While taking the observations, both the verniers are read. It eliminates the
error due to the axis of the vernier plate not coinciding with the axis of the
main plate.
2. The vernier A is initially set to zero of the circle for convenience only. It may
be set to any other reading, e.g., 30°, 60°, 90°, etc. In each case the initial
reading on the starting station is called initial zero.
A horizontal angle is measured either by the method of repetition or by reiteration.

4.16.1 method of repetition


To measure an angle by repetition, between two stations, means to measure it
two or more times allowing the vernier to remain clamped each time at the end
of each measurement instead of setting it back to 0° every time when sighting
at the previous station. Thus, an angle reading is mechanically multiplied by the
number of repetitions. The value of the angle observed is obtained by dividing the
accumulated reading by the number of repetitions. Generally six repetitions are
done, three with the telescope normal and three with the telescope inverted.
1. To measure an angle, say ABC, by the method of repetition, set up the
instrument at B and level it. The telescope should be in normal position.
2. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the upper plate until the index (the arrow)
of the vernier A coincides with the zero (or 360°) of the horizontal circle.
Clamp both the plates with the upper clamp.
3. Turn the upper slow motion (tangent) screw so as to make the two zeros
exactly coincident.
4. Sight station A (Fig. 4.10). Tighten the lower clamp and bisect station A
exactly by the lower tangent screw. Read both the verniers.
5. Unclamp the upper plate and swing the telescope clockwise. Bisect station
C by the upper clamp and tangent screw.
6. Read both the verniers. Take the average to get angle ABC.
Theodolite 143

7. Unclamp the lower plate and swing the


telescope clockwise and bisect station A
accurately by using the lower clamp and
lower tangent screw.
8. Read both the verniers. Check the
vernier reading. It should be the same
(unchanged) as that obtained in step 6.
9. Release the upper plate by using the
upper clamp and tangent screw and
bisect station C accurately (the telescope is turned clockwise). The vernier
will read twice the angle ABC.
10. Repeat the process for required number of times, say three times, and find
out the value of angle ABC.
11. Repeat the above procedure with the face changed and calculate the
angle ABC.
12. The average of the two values of angle ABC thus obtained with face left
and face right gives a precise value of the horizontal angle.

1. The errors of graduations are minimised by reading the angle on different


parts of the graduated circle.
2. Personal errors of bisection are eliminated.
3. The errors due to eccentricity of the centres and that of the verniers are
eliminated, by reading both the verniers.
4. Error due to the line of collimation not being perpendicular to the transverse
axis of the telescope is eliminated as both the face left and face right
readings are taken.

4.16.2 method of reiteration


This method of measuring a horizontal angle is preferred when several angular
measurements are to be made at a station. All the angles are measured successively
and finally the horizon is closed. The final reading on vernier A should be same
as the initial zero. If not, the discrepancy is equally distributed among all the
angles.
1. To measure angles AOB, BOC, COD and
DOA (Fig. 4.11), set up the instrument at
O and level it.
2. Set the vernier A to read zero using the
upper clamp and tangent screw.
3. Direct the telescope towards A and bisect
it exactly using the lower clamp and lower
tangent screw. Read the two verniers A
and B.
4. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the
telescope clockwise and bisect B accurately,
using the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw. Read both the verniers.
144 Surveying

5. Similarly, bisect stations C, D and finally A, and read both the verniers
in all the cases. The last reading on vernier A should be 360°. If not, the
discrepancy is noted and distributed.
6. Transit the telescope, swing the instrument in anticlockwise direction with
face right and repeat the whole procedure.
1. This method is most commonly used in triangulation survey.
2. For face left, the observations should be made in clockwise direction, whereas
for face right, they should be made in the anticlockwise direction.

4.16.3 Comparison of method of repetition and


reiteration
The method of repetition is preferred for the measurement of a single angle and
when accuracy is desired beyond the least count of the instrument with a coarsely
graduated circle. On the other hand, the method of reiteration is preferred in
triangulation, where a number of angles may be required at one point by the
instrument with a finely graduated circle. By exercising appropriate precautions,
instrumental errors can be eliminated theoretically, for either of the methods.
Though the method of repetition appears to be better, it is more time consuming
and chances of personal errors are more and even many repetitions may yield
ordinary results.

4.17 measuremenT of verTiCal angle


A vertical angle may be defined as the angle subtended by the line of sight and
a horizontal line at a station in the vertical plane.
If the point to be sighted is above the horizontal plane, the angle is called the
angle of elevation (+) and if the point is below it, the angle is called the angle of
depression (–).
1. Suppose AOB ( ), the vertical angle, is to be measured (Fig. 4.12). Set
up the instrument at O and level it.
A
2. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw, set the zero of the vertical vernier
to the zero of the vertical circle. Check the
O
bubble of the altitude level which should be B
central. It not, bring it to the centre with the
help of the clip screw. This will ensure that
the instrument is in adjustment.
3. Loosen the vertical circle clamp and rotate C
the telescope in a vertical plane and bring
station A in the field of view. Bisect it
accurately with the vertical clamping and tangent screws. Read both the
verniers C and D on the vertical circle.
4. Change the face and repeat the procedure.
5. The average of the two observations gives the value of the required angle.
The maximum vertical angle that can be observed practically with theodolite
telescope is about 68°.
Theodolite 145

4.18 measuremenT of direCT angle


An angle measured clockwise from the preceding line to the following line is
called direct angle or angle to the right of azimuth. These vary from 0° to 360°.
This method of measuring angles is generally adopted for closed traverses in
theodolite traversing.
1. Suppose angle ABC is to be measured (Fig. 4.13). Set up the instrument
over B and level it.

C
D
A

2. With face left and telescope normal, set the vernier to read zero by turning
the upper plate.
3. Unclamp the lower clamp. Bisect station A accurately. Clamp the lower
plate with the lower clamp and tangent screws.
4. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bisect the
forward station C. Clamp the upper plate with the upper clamp screw. Bisect
station C exactly with upper tangent screw. Read both the verniers.
5. Transit the telescope, unclamp the lower clamp, and bisect station A again.
Clamp the lower plate using lower clamping screw. Bisect station A exactly
using lower tangent screw.
6. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bisect station
C. Clamp the upper plate with the upper clamp screw. Bisect station C
exactly with upper tangent screw. Read both the verniers.
7. The angle thus measured is doubled on the scale. Therefore, the average of
these two values is calculated to get the value of the required angle ABC.

4.19 measuremenT of defleCTion angle


A deflection angle is the angle, made by the prolongation of the preceding line
with the following line. When the angle is measured clockwise, it is called right
deflection angle, whereas when measured anticlockwise, it is the left deflection
angle. The angle may vary between 0° and 180°. This method of measuring angles
is very useful in open traversing, e.g., in the alignment of highways and railways.
1. Suppose it is required to measure the deflection angle A BC ( ). Set up
and level the instrument over station B (Fig. 4.14).
2. Set the vernier to read zero.
3. Take a back sight on station A and clamp both the plates.
4. Transit the telescope so that the line of sight is in the direction of AB
produced (BA ). Ensure that the verniers read zero.
146 Surveying

5. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise to sight station C.
Read both the verniers. The mean of the two readings gives the approximate
value of the deflection angle at B.
6. Loosen the lower clamp and again sight back on A. The readings on the
verniers will be unchanged.
7. Transit the telescope, Unclamp the upper plate and sight C. Read both the
verniers and find the mean value.
8. The deflection angle thus measured is doubled. One-half value of this
average value is the value of the deflection angle at B.

4.20 measuremenT of magneTiC Bearing


Suppose it is required to observe the magnetic bearing of a line OA (Fig. 4.15).
1. Set up the theodolite at O and level it. N
2. Fit the trough compass to the theodolite A
at the place on the arm provided for it
and release the needle.
3. Set the vernier A to read zero with the
O
help of the upper clamp and tangent
screws. Unclamp the lower clamp and
rotate the instrument till the magnetic
needle takes its normal position. Clamp
the lower plate. The telescope in such
a position points in the direction of
the magnetic north (N) and the instrument is said to be oriented in the
magnetic meridian.
4. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent screws, bisect station A exactly.
5. Read both the verniers. The mean of the two readings give the magnetic
bearing of line OA.

4.21 Prolonging a sTraighT line


Suppose a line AB (Fig. 4.16) is to be prolonged.
1. Set up the instrument over A and level it carefully.
2. Bisect station B accurately by means of the lower clamp and tangent screws.
3. Look from over the telescope through the pin and hole arrangement and
direct the surveyor with a ranging rod near C, to be in line with AB. See
through the telescope and exactly bisect the ranging rod at C.
Theodolite 147

A B
C D E

4. Move the instrument to B and repeat the above procedure.


5. Continue the procedure until the last point E is established.

4.22 TheodoliTe as a level


A theodolite can be used for determining the elevations of various points in the
field. The process is as follows:
1. Set up the theodolite anywhere and centre the plate bubble.
2. Make the reading on the vertical circle 0-0.
3. Clamp the telescope. With the help of the vertical tangent screw make the
reading on the vertical circle exactly 0-0.
4. Check that the altitude bubble is central.
5. Keep the staff on the point whose elevation is to be found. Direct the
telescope towards the staff by loosening the lower clamping screw.
6. Clamp the telescope and do the exact bisection with the lower tangent screw.
7. The reading on the staff corresponding to the cross-wire is recorded.
Theodolite can be recommended only for ordinary levelling, since the altitude
bubble is not that sensitive as, in the case, of a level. Also, the telescope of a
theodolite is not very powerful.

4.23 Care of TheodoliTe


A theodolite has many parts of precise and delicate workmanship which, because
of careless usage, may be seriously affected in their operation and damaged
permanently. It should therefore be carefully handled under all conditions.
Care should be exercised in taking out the theodolite from the box and in
screwing it to the tripod. A theodolite fitted on a tripod should never be set up
on the floor as it may lead to serious damage. While placing the theodolite into
the box, the levelling head should be shifted to a central position and the foot
screws should be evened all around. The clamp should be released during transit
so that the different parts can yield without being damaged, in case it strikes
some obstruction.
Clamps and screws should especially be carefully operated. Unnecessary
pressure should not be used in tightening them. If the screws do not turn easily,
they should be cleaned with a good solvent such as alcohol or gasoline.
The wing nuts on the tripod must be tight so as to prevent slippage and rotation
of the head. The tripod legs should be well spread out to furnish stability to the
instrument and to permit placement of the telescope at a convenient height for the
observer.
148 Surveying

The vertical circle should be cleaned if tarnished in use. However, excessive


rubbing should be avoided, otherwise the engraved graduations will get impaired.
The theodolite should be protected from moisture and dust as far as possible.
If it has been exposed to moisture it should be wiped dry before replacing it in
the box.

4.24 errors
The sources of error in angular measurement may arise from imperfections in the
adjustments and construction of the theodolite.
The errors arising from imperfect adjustment of a theodolite are as follows:
Axis not vertical in an observation, either from
imperfect plate level adjustment, or settlement of the instrument.
Line of collimation not perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.
Horizontal axis not perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
Line of altitude bubble not parallel to the
line of collimation when the verniers of vertical circle read zero.
The above errors are often co-existent, wholly or in part in any given case.
The defects in construction are usually those of eccentricity and graduations.
The former can be eliminated by taking the mean of the two vernier readings,
whereas the latter can be minimised by taking observations over different portions
by the horizontal scale.

4.24.1 vertical axis error (a)


Let O be the instrument position. Let A0 B0C0 be the plane of a truly horizontal
circle, while the plane of the actual circle is A0 B1C0 (Fig. 4.17). The greatest

A Q
P

P1 Q1
A1
P0 P2
A0 B1
Q0

O B0

C0
Theodolite 149

inclination of the vertical axis occurs along OB1, the transverse axis being horizontal.
The maximum inclination of the transverse axis will be when the telescope points
along OA0. This inclination is cos when the telescope points in any direction
(say OP) at a horizontal angle (read as ) from OA0 as reference.
After sighting a point P when the telescope is depressed, the line of sight
travels down a plane inclined at cos with the vertical. The errors in the plane
of the actual circle will be P P1 and on the truly horizontal circle as P0 P2. The
corresponding error being , which is practically the same for and .

P P1 = PP1 tan ( cos )


But PP1 = OP1 tan
OP1 = P P1
Hence, = tan ( cos ) tan
or = cos tan
where and are the actual horizontal and vertical circle readings and is the
error of sighting. Since in any measurement there will always be two such sights
say 1, 1 and 2, 2 with respective errors of 1 and 2, then
= 2 – 1 = (cos 2 tan 2 – cos 1 tan 1)
Here, 1 < 2 and both the angles are measured clockwise, from zero along
OA0.
The maximum error is when 1 = 0° and 2 = 180° and is equal to (tan 1 +
tan 2). Also, if 1 and 2 are measured from OB1 as zero, sin must be written
in place of cos .
The sign of cos does not change on reversing the face of theodolite, so this
error cannot be eliminated by taking both face observations. This necessitates a
truly vertical axis.

When P is sighted with true vertical angle observed as (POP2),


PP0
________________ sin
= ______
PP0 sec ( cos ) sin
or sin = sin cos ( cos )
Substituting sin= sin ( – ), sin cos = sin leads to
sin = tan (1 – cos ( cos ))
vers ( cos )
= _____________
cot
But sin = sin 1
vers ( cos )
or = _____________
cot sin 1
When the azimuth bubble is assumed to be
correct (presumably along OA0). The angle if measured from the plane A0 B1C0,
150 Surveying

PP0
____ OP sin
= ______________ = cos ( cos )
PP2 OP sin ( – )
sin ( + )
Hence, sin = ____________
sec ( cos )
where is observed, and =( sin ) sec ( cos ).
Since cos does not change sign, the error
will not be eliminated by taking observations B
with both the faces.

4.24.2 lateral Collimation error ( ) A

Refer to Fig. 4.18.


The effect of the error is that when a point B
is observed at an actual vertical angle , the circles
correspond with the sighting of B at an observed
vertical angle , the corresponding error in the
horizontal angle being .
For each clockwise angle, is to be added/ O
subtracted if the line of collimation bears to face
right/left.

tan BB = _________
= ____ AA OA tan
= _________ tan
= ______
OB OA sec OA sec sec
Since and are small
= sec
As the measurement of an angle involves two sights, the total error
= 2 – 1 = (sec 2 – sec 1)
where 1 < 2, and 1 and 2 are the observed vertical angles corresponding to 1
and 2, measured in clockwise direction.
The error is zero when both the sights are at the same altitude. It can be
eliminated by both face observations.

AB = A B
and OB sin = OB sin
or OB sin
sin = ____
OB
But OB = OB cos
Hence, sin = sin cos
Let sin = sin ( – ), where is the error in the observed vertical angle
and cos =1
1 – cos
Hence, sin = ________
cot
Theodolite 151

tan vers
or = ___________ seconds
sin 1
Since, the sign of cos is not changed, the error will not be eliminated by
taking both face observations.
B
4.24.3 horizontal axis error ( ) B

Refer to Fig. 4.19.


A
The effect of the error is that
A
when sighting a point B at an observed
vertical angle , the line of sight is
brought out of the horizontal OA into the
inclined plane AOB , the actual vertical
angle being corresponding to an error a
a
in the horizontal angle.
O b
For each clockwise reading is
b
added/subtracted if the axis is on the
left/right.

AA = BB = OA tan = AB sin
But AB = OA tan
or tan = sin tan
or = tan
Since two sights will be taken, in measurement, corresponding to clockwise
horizontal angles 1 < 2 at vertical angles 1 and 2, the total error will be
= 2 – 1 = (tan 2 – tan 1)
where 1 < 2 and measured in clockwise direction.
Also = (tan 2 + tan 1)
for the angles measured in the opposite directions.
The error is neutralized if the angles are measured at the same altitudes and
also by the both face observations.

AB = OB sin
and A B = OB sin
But A B = AB cos
or sin = sin cos
substituting sin = sin ( – ) leads to
vers
sin = ______
cot
tan vers
or = ___________ seconds
sin 1
Since does not change sign on reversing faces, the mean of such observations
does not eliminate the error.
152 Surveying

4.24.4 vertical Collimation error ( )


The axis of the altitude bubble is truly horizontal when the bubble is in the centre.
The line of collimation should be parallel to the axis of the altitude bubble when
the vernier or the index of the vertical circle is set at zero. If there are imperfect
adjustments of the vertical circle verniers, these do not read zero when the line
of sight is horizontal. The vertical angles will then be in error and the error is
termed as vertical index error.
The error can be eliminated by taking both face observations or by applying
an index correction.

4.25 miCromeTer miCrosCoPe


The limitation of the vernier theodolites to read not less than 20 has led to the
development of the micrometer microscope. The readings with it may be taken
on large geodetic theodolites to 1 and estimated to 0.2 or 0.1 and on smaller
theodolites readings may be taken up to 10 or 5 and estimated to 2 or 1 .

4.25.1 Construction
It consists of a small low power microscope (Fig. 4.20). A small metal box is
fitted to it at a point where the image of the graduations is formed. The box
usually has rectangular openings or windows at the top and bottom, where it meets
the tube of the microscope. The box is fitted with an index and with a movable
slide carrying a vertical hair or two parallel closely placed hairs (Fig. 4.21). The
slide is moved by means of a screw operated by a milled head and graduated
drum on the outside of the box. The pitch of the screw is such that a complete
revolution moves the slide through a space equal to that between the images of two
successive divisions of the graduated arc. Fractional parts of a revolution of the
drum, corresponding to the fractional parts of a division on the horizontal circle,
may be read on the graduated drum against an index mark fitted to the side of

Movable hairs
2
1 306 307 30

9
Vee index

Drum
index
Screw for
loosening
drum
Theodolite 153

the box. In some micrometer microscopes, the eyepiece is directly above the box
which is inconvenient. To facilitate reading, an improved model of the microscope
consists of a prism above the box. Thus the magnified image of the hairs and
divisions is reflected from the prism through the eyepiece placed at an angle to
the horizontal. A capstan headed screw is used to loosen or tighten the slotted ring
holding the microscope to its supports, thus allowing the up and down movement
of the microscope. The objective may also be moved up or down by means of
the knurled objective mounting and clamping rings. These two movements permit
the dimensions of the image of the graduations and of the spaces between them
to be altered slightly, and at the same time, the image to be brought into focus
on the plane containing the cross-hair.

4.25.2 reading micrometer microscope


Figure 4.21 shows the view in the eyepiece, together with the graduations on the
adjoining drum. The Vee-notch serves as an index for the horizontal circle reading.
When the drum reads zero, one of the graduations should be in the centre of the V
and should also be central between the two movable hairs. One complete revolution
of the drum moves the cross-hairs from one graduation to the next one.
Let the circle be graduated at 10 of arc, the graduated drum into 10 divisions
and each of this subdivided into six divisions. Consequently, each of the main
divisions on the drum will correspond to 1 of arc and each of the subdivision to
10 or arc.
To read the micrometer, the divisions on either side of the V are noted and the
lower one is taken. The drum is then turned so as to bring the nearest division
midway between the two vertical hairs. The minutes and seconds, indicated against
the index at the side of the graduated drum, are noted estimating single second
by eye.
Refer to Fig. 4.21, where the V comes between 306°50 and 307 and is near to
the graduation 306°50 . The drum is turned and the graduation 306°50 is brought
to lie midway between the two parallel hairs. The index besides the drum is now
between the graduations 5 20 and 5 30 and by estimating tenths, the reading on
the drum will be 5 26 . Hence, the complete reading is 306°55 26 .

4.26 oPTiCal TheodoliTe


These are also known as glass arc or micro-optic theodolites. In optical theodolites
the graduated brass or silver circles are replaced by graduated glass circles. The
graduations are photographically etched on a glass disc. A system of prisms and
lenses is used by means of which an image of graduations, near the point at which
they are being read, is reflected into the microscope (Fig. 4.22). The eyepiece
of the microscope lies near the eyepiece of the telescope. The observer can thus
simultaneously see the object as well as the reading without changing his position
from the end of the telescope to the side of the instrument.
Large size theodolites are so designed that the optical micrometer or the
reading device gives directly a reading, which is the mean of the readings on the
opposite ends of a diameter, thus eliminating any error which might otherwise
arise from non-coincidence of the centre of graduations and the axes of rotation
154 Surveying

of the instrument. In smaller instruments,


this arrangement is not possible and reading S1
is from one end of diameter only. Special
precautions in design and construction are
exercised by the manufacturers to ensure P
that the centre of graduations and the axis M
of rotation are in coincidence. A much
finer image of graduations, accomplished
by a much brighter field of view, is obtained
by this arrangement. As a result, a higher
magnification can be used in the micrometer
microscopes and the size of a circle to S S
L
attain a given degree of accuracy can be
considerably reduced. It has the disadvantage Z Z
of glass being subjected to fungus in some
parts of the tropics, thereby making the
graduations illegible.
When a theodolite is fitted with a glass
circle, rays of light generally pass through
the glass of the circle, and are then reflected
by prisms or mirrors to the micrometer.
Hence, means must be provided for
reflecting ordinary sunlight into the interior
and then through the circle and micrometers.
Sometimes, electric illuminates provided by
dry batteries is usually fitted to supplement natural illumination.
The light rays S, reflecting from mirrors Z and having passed through the prisms
will illuminate the two opposite parts of graduated circle L. The images of the
graduations of these parts of the circle are transmitted via lenses and prisms, on
to the glass plate P where they can be observed through the microscope M. The
graduations of the vertical circle illuminated by the light beam S1 are also visible
through the microscope.
A device called automatic vertical index, similar to the compensator in an
automatic level (Section 6.3.5) is built into the standard containing the vertical
circle. Once the theodolite has been levelled using the plate level and foot screws,
the compensator ensures that the theodolite vertical reading system is set properly
and the theodolite can be used to read vertical angles. Many optical theodolites do
not have lower plate clamp and tangent screws. These have the facility for altering
the position of the horizontal circle within the instrument and this can be achieved
using a horizontal circle setting screw or by use of a repetition clamp.
The horizontal and vertical circles are both graduated to 20 . The microscope
scales facilitate the reading of graduations. The microscope scales are graduated to
2 . Estimating the tenths of a scale division by eye, it is possible to take readings
with the aid of the scale microscope up to 0.2 .
The accuracy of an angular measurement with such a theodolite is 9 . A still
higher accuracy can be obtained with a more complicated reading arrangement.
Theodolite 155

Optical theodolites enable all the readings to be confined within a single


microscope’s field of view. This is an important advantage of the optical theodolite
over the transit one.
Sometimes a diagonal eyepiece (Fig. 4.23) is fitted to the telescope to read
vertical angles up to 80°. This diagonal eyepiece consists of a mirror or a right
angled prism attached to the eyepiece. The light rays are turned through 90° and
the surveyor can sight objects at quite high elevation, even up to 80°.

The optical theodolites are equipped with optical plummet (Fig. 4.24) for
accurate centring. It consists of a small eyepiece built into the tribrach or the
alidade of the theodolite. A prism, placed at 45°, deviates the ray from the ground
station just below the instrument’s vertical axis by 90° so as to view it through
the eyepiece.

Standards

Prism Reticule

L1

L2

Station peg

Wild T2 optical theodolite by Wild Heerbrugg Ltd. is shown in Plate 3.


156 Surveying

4.27 eleCTroniC TheodoliTe


Surveying instruments, if carefully handled, have a long life, and even the simple
vernier theodolite is still in use and still in production. Electronic theodolites differ
in detail from the older vernier models, although in general principle they are much
the same. However, these are becoming popular because of two reasons. Firstly,
the electronic theodolites are light and compact, and secondly, with a distomat
attachment, these become an automatic total survey system. At the touch of a single
key the angles and distances are measured and recorded directly in a solid state
memory device. The data once collected can be processed by a computer.
An electronic theodolite is similar to an optical theodolite in design. However,
it has arrangements to automatically resolve angular values and display them in a
digital form. Display is achieved with the help of light emitting diodes (LEDs) or
liquid crystal diodes (LCDs), the latter requiring less power. The surveyor does not
have to look into a circle reading telescope or set a micrometer screw to obtain
a reading. Since electronic theodolite provides a digital read-out of those angles
instead of a scale; it is both more accurate and less prone to errors arising from
interpolating between marks on the scale or from mis-recording. The read-out is
also continuous; so angles can be checked at any time.
The circle measuring systems fitted into electronic theodolites still use a glass
circle but this is marked or coded in a special way. Within the theodolite, light
is passed through the encoded circle and the light pattern emerging through the
circle is detected by photodiodes. Two measurement systems are used to scan this
light pattern and these are known as incremental and absolute. When the horizontal
or vertical circle of an electronic theodolite is rotated in an incremental reading
system, the amount of incident light passing through to the photodiodes varies in
proportion to the angle through which the theodolite has been rotated. This varying
light intensity is converted into electrical signals by the photodiodes and these in
turn are passed to the microprocessor which converts the signals into an angular
output. An example of this system is Wild T 2002. In an absolute reading system,
the light pattern emerging through the circle is unique at every point around the
circle. This is detected by an array of photodiodes and processed electronically to
give the required reading. Example of this reading system are T 1000 and T 1600
theodolites. These T-series electronic theodolites are shown in Plates 4–6.
Wild T 2002 electronic theodolite uses incremental reading system. It consists
of a glass circle having 1024 equally spaced intervals and two pairs of photodiodes
mounted diametrically opposite to each other. Figure 4.25 shows this system
but with only one pair of photodiodes. One of the photodiodes is fixed and
this corresponds to the zero mark on the circle. The other photodiode which is
movable corresponds to the direction in which the telescope points. The movable
photodiode rotates when the theodolite is rotated but this does not cause the circle
itself to rotate. While measuring angle the circle itself keeps on spinning, driven
by an electric motor, and a light source shining through the circle is continuously
interrupted by the graduations, generating a square wave at the photodiode.
Suppose it is required to measure an angle, say . As light passes through
the circle, the circle graduations cause a square wave to be generated by each
photodiode (Fig. 4.25). These waves are processed to give a coarse measurement
Theodolite 157

n 0 and fine measurement of the angle, where = n 0 + . The coarse


measurement is made by an electronic counter which determines the whole number
of graduations n between the fixed and the movable photodiodes. This is achieved
by the photodiodes recognising reference marks on the circle. As soon as one
of the photodiodes recognises a reference mark, the counter begins to count
graduations until the other photodiode recognises the same reference mark. The
fine measurement is made by determining the phase difference between the
signals generated by a fixed and movable pair of photodiodes. Each revolution
of the circle produces 512 separate angle measurements making use of all parts
of the rotating circle. This eliminates circle eccentricity and graduation errors.
T2002 enables measurement of angles with a precision of 0.5 , although it has a
resolution of 0.1 .

Rotation of circle

Movable
photodiode Fixed photodiode

Wild T 1000 and T 1600 electronic theodolites use the absolute reading system.
The glass circles in these theodolites have 1152 graduation marks encoded into 128
sectors. Each sector consists of one sector mark, seven identification marks from
0000000 to 1111111 in binary and a parity check mark. The circle is illuminated
by a light emitting diode (LED) and red light passing through the circle from
this is directed through optics such that about 1% of the circle is projected onto
a photodiode array. The array is made up of 128 separate photodiodes mounted
on a small 3.2 mm long chip.
For both the theodolites, the horizontal circle remains in a fixed position and
the photodiode array rotates with the alidade. The vertical circle is attached to
the telescope and the photodiode array is fixed. The coarse measurement is made
158 Surveying

by the identification of the sector in which the theodolite is pointing and the fine
measurement is proportional to that fraction of a sector in which the theodolite
is pointing. Both of these are obtained by processing the output from the 128
photodiodes. Since this is different for each position around the circle, these
theodolites use an absolute reading system. T 1000 has a precision of 3 , whereas
T 1600 has a precision of 1.5 . Both the theodolites display angles to 1 .

4.27.1 features of electronic Theodolites


In construction and operation, the electronic theodolite is very similar to the
optical theodolite but has a number of additional useful features. Many electronic
theodolites have some or all of the following features:
When pressed, this causes the horizontal display to be
locked. This is used when setting the horizontal circle to a particular value.
This enables a reading of 00°00 00 to be set on the
horizontal circle in the direction the theodolite is pointing.
Conventionally, the horizontal circle is graduated clockwise. This
means the readings increase when the telescope is rotated clockwise. By pressing
the R/L key, this direction can be reversed to make readings increase when the
telescope is rotated anticlockwise.
By pressing this key the vertical circle can be made to read
the percentage of slope instead of a vertical angle.
The most common battery used is nickel-cadmium rechargeable
battery. Usually it is clipped into one of the standards. The battery has an operating
time of up to 20 h.
All electronic theodolites have a built-in illumination
function for both the display and cross-hairs.
In an electronic theodolite, angle information is generated in
a digital format. This can be transmitted by the theodolite to a suitable storage
device for subsequent processing by a computer. A storage device is connected to
the data port on the side of the theodolite.
It is the most important feature of the electronic theodolite. Some
of the electronic theodolites are equipped with single-axis compensator whereas
the others with dual-axis compensators. All theodolites, whether electronic or
optical, have to be levelled using the foot screws and plate level, as described in
Section 4.8. Despite all the care with which a theodolite is levelled, the vertical
axis of the instrument seldom coincides exactly with the vertical through the
theodolite and results in a tilt. This tilt, though small, can give rise to errors in
displayed horizontal and vertical angles.
In the case of electronic theodolites, the tilt is corrected by using a liquid or
pendulum type compensator. It is not mounted in the optical path of the reading
system (optical theodolites). The compensation values in electronic theodolites are
calculated separately from circle readings using electrical signals generated by the
Theodolite 159

electronic tilt sensors. If required, the compensator can be switched off and the
amount of tilt can be displayed, enabling the theodolite to be digitally levelled.
However, this practise is not recommended under normal circumstances.
The effect of vertical axis tilt in the direction in which the telescope is pointing
is shown in Fig. 4.26. This causes an
True vertical angle
Vertical error in vertical angles and this is
Measured vertical angle compensated automatically because
Line of sight to target the electronic theodolites account for
the correction to the vertical angle.
orizon ta l This is known as single-axis
eodolite h
Inclined th compensation. In the dual-axis
Tilt compensation, the compensator
Horizontal plane measures the effect of an inclined
Incline r tical

vertical axis not only in the direction


ve

in which the telescope is pointing,


d
te

but also in the direction of the


d oli

trunnion axis. The effect of an


theo

inclined trunnion axis is to produce


errors in horizontal angles (Fig. 4.27).
Tilt
A dual-axis compensator will measure
the trunnion axis dislevelment and
correct horizontal circle readings
automatically for this error.

It may use either a liquid or a magnetic level vial


(Fig. 4.28). The magnetic tilt sensor consits of a level vial filled with a liquid in
which the magnetic particles are dispersed. The vial is surrounded by three coils:
160 Surveying

two detection coils and one excitation coil. Passing an alternating current through
the excitation coil causes the currents to flow in the detection coils. If the sensor
is level (Fig. 4.28(a)), each detection coil generates an equal voltage and the
differential output from both coils is zero. When the sensor is tilted (Fig. 4.28(b)),
the voltage generated by each coil is not the same because of the different magnetic
path between the coils. This differential output is proportional to the amount of
tilt. This voltage is converted into an angular output by a microprocessor which
also corrects the vertical angle. The working range of singe-axis compensator is
± 10 .
Detection coil
Excitation coil
Detection coil

Glass tube
(a) Horizontal (b) Tilted

Most dual-axis compensators are of the liquid type. As


shown in Fig. 4.29, light from a light
Photodetector
emitting diode (LED) is collimated and
passed through the vial which is highly
sensitive to movement, and mounted in
clear glass. This causes a shadow to be Circular level vial
projected onto a photodiode. The
photodiode is divided into four sections.
When the theodolite is levelled properly, Collimator lens
the bubble shadow is projected evenly
LED
across all four sections. In tilted position
of the instrument, the shadow position
changes and alters the amount of
incident light falling on each section of photodiode. This changes the electrical
output of the photodiode which is passed to a microprocessor and converted into
tilt angles. The working range of dual-axis compensator is ± 3 .

e xample 4.1 Show that if the line of collimation of a theodolite makes angles
of (90° + e) and (90° – e) with the trunnion axis and if all other adjustments are
correct, the error involved in one measurement of the horizontal angle between
two stations, at altitudes of ( ) and ( ) respectively, is given by
tan –1 (tan e sec ) – tan–1 (tan e sec ).
Theodolite 161

Describe how you would carry out the necessary adjustment to the line of
collimation.
s olution If the line of collimation is not perpendicular to the trunnion axis
of the telescope, elevation or depression of the telescope will cause the line of
collimation to traverse the surface of a cone having its vertex on the trunnion
axis of the telescope. A vertical plane would cut this cone in the two halves of
a hyperbola.
If A and B are the two points between which we wish to know the horizontal
angle subtended at the instrument, there would be no error due to the vertical hair
being out of adjustment if the points were at the same height. If, however, they
are at different heights, there will be an error introduced: the greater the difference
in height the greater will be the error.
To evaluate this error, first consider the point B (Fig. 4.30) as being at the same
level as the instrument, with A being at an altitude . Then the horizontal angle
required is that between A (vertically below A and
a A
at the same level as point B and the instrument)
and B. Let us suppose that the vertical hair is a
little to the right of the axis. Then if the hair is
focused on A and the telescope is rotated down,
the hyperbola so traced out will cut the line AB in
a point A to the left of A , and we will actually
a A A A be measuring the angle between A and B, i.e.,
obtaining a value which is too big. Let Oa be the
e e line of the telescope axis when the line of
To
B collimation OA is directed towards A; then
depression of the telescope about its trunnion axis
will cause the longitudinal axis of the telescope to
O
pass through a vertically below a. The error e in
collimation is the angle aOA measured in a
horizontal plane; or measured in the inclined plane,
the angle aOA.
The true horizontal angle between A and B is A OB, whereas recorded angle
is A OB, and the error is A OA .
Thus, error = A OA
= A Oa – A Oa
= –e
Now, from Fig. 4.30
A a = ____
tan = ____ Aa
Oa Oa
Aa
= ________ tan e
= _____
OA cos cos
= tan e sec
Hence, error = tan–1 (tan e sec )–e
Similarly, if B is above the horizontal and at an altitude , the error in measuring
B = tan –1 (tan e sec ) – e.
162 Surveying

Hence, error in horizontal angle between the two stations at altitudes and ,
respectively, is
tan–1 (tan e sec ) – tan–1 (tan e sec )

e xample 4.2 You have been asked to use a theodolite and it is suspected that
the vernier plate of the horizontal circle has been set eccentrically. Find out the
error generated in the individual observations and suggest how you would arrange
the readings to eliminate the error.
s olution The error is due to the centre of the central pivot carrying the alidade
not coinciding with the centre of the pivot carrying
the graduated circle. The effect of this error on b a
f
readings is periodic. Let A be the centre about which d
the alidade revolves and B be the centre of the
graduated circle (Fig. 4.31). The distances AB C
interpreted as an arc ab (in seconds) on the graduated D A D
B
circle is the error of eccentricity.
When a vernier is at D, on the line of the two f
centres, there will be no error. Whereas, when it is d
at b, the error e is maximum and is ba. At any other b
a
intermediate point, say d, between D and b the error
will be
df = BC = AB sin = e sin
where is the horizontal angle of rotation.
The error will be positive since the circle is graduated clockwise, and the vernier
supposed to be at b will be at a. Whereas, the opposite vernier supposed to be at
b will be at a , introducing a negative error of the same magnitude, i.e., – e sin .
Thus, for intermediate positions, say d and d , the errors will be e sin and
– e sin and the mean of the two verniers 180° apart, will be free of error.
The error of eccentricity of the vernier would be eliminated by taking the
readings on the graduated circle at two places 180° apart.
Since the modern optical instruments can be read on one side of the graduated
circle only, an error varying sinusoidally with the angle of rotation will be
introduced. Readings on both faces of the instrument would establish verniers 180° apart
and the mean of these two readings will be free from error.

e xample 4.3 What is the effect of miscentring a theodolite on the measured


angles? Show that special care must be exercised in centring when sighting over
short distances.
s olution Suppose a horizontal angle ABC ( ) is to be measured. But, due to
miscentring, the theodolite is set up over B instead of B (Fig. 4.32) resulting in
horizontal angle AB C. The maximum error in will occur when the miscentring
distance BB (e) bisects the observed angle AB C.
The total error in angle ABC = +
BB A = BB C = /2
Theodolite 163

Let BE (x) be perpendicular from B to AB .


Since is very small, it can be assumed that
x = D1 ( in radians)
From BEB , sin ( /2) = x/e
Hence, x = e sin ( /2)
Therefore, = (e/D1) sin ( /2) ( in radians)
= (e/D1) sin ( /2) cosec 1 ( in seconds)
= (e/D1) sin ( /2) 206265
Similarly,
= (e/D2) sin ( /2) 206265 ( in seconds)
For relatively small values of D1 and D2, and will be large. Therefore, care
must be taken in centring when sighting over short distances.

C
A D1 D2
B
x e

E
B

Summary
Theodolite, a universal surveying instrument, is primarily used for measuring horizontal
and vertical angles in addition to any other measurement possible one may think of.
Transit theodolite has been discussed in detail and the step by step procedures for making
measurements for angles, bearings and distances have been laid. Vernier theodolite with
least count of 20 is in general use. With the help of micrometer microscope attachment
readings up to 1 can be made possible. The advanced versions such as optical and electronic
theodolites have been described.
The permanent adjustments and the errors due to non-adjustments of the fundamental
lines of the instrument have been dealt in detail. It is pertinent to note that these lines
have a definite relation to each other and the adjustments are done in a particular order
so that the successive adjustment does not impair the previous adjustments. The order of
adjustments is the plate level test, the cross-hair ring test, the collimation in azimuth test,
the spire test, the bubble tube test and the vertical arc test. Various tests required to check
the correctness of the adjustments are described to ensure the reliability of the measurements
made. Theodolite is the most important surveying instrument and, therefore, it is supposed
to be handled with all possible care and used with perfect adjustments.

Exercises
4.1 What is meant by face left and face right of a theodolite? How would you
change face? What instrumental errors are eliminated by face left and face right
observations?
164 Surveying

4.2 Describe the temporary adjustments of a theodolite. Explain how would you measure
the following with a theodolite:
(a) Horizontal angle (b) Vertical angle
(c) Bearing of a line
4.3 Sketch the fundamental lines of a theodolite. State the direct relationship between
them.
4.4 Differentiate between the following pairs:
(a) Face left and face right
(b) Telescope normal and telescope inverted
(c) Transiting and swinging telescope
(d) Repetition and re-iteration methods of measuring horizontal angle.
4.5 State what errors are eliminated by the following:
(a) Face left and face right observations
(b) Reading both the verniers
(c) Spire test
(d) Repetition method of measuring horizontal angle.
4.6 Differentiate between the following pairs:
(a) Direct and deflection angles
(b) Angle and bearing
(c) Horizontal and vertical axes of a theodolite
(d) Spire test and collimation in azimuth test.
4.7 Describe how a theodolite is set up at a station and a round of angles is measured
at it? What errors are minimised in this procedure.
4.8 Explain the following:
(a) Can a theodolite be used as a level?
(b) What is the purpose of loosening wing nuts of a theodolite tripod during
transit?
(c) Why are two plate levels used on a theodolite instead of just one?
(d) When and why are angles measured by repetition?
4.9 Describe in detail a method of reading angles with a theodolite which will eliminate
most of the instrumental errors caused by improper construction and poor adjustments
of the theodolite.
4.10 Describe how and why the following tests are conducted?
(a) Vertical circle index test (b) Spire test
(c) Collimation in azimuth test (d) Plate level test
(e) Vertical arc test
4.11 Enlist the sources of errors in a theodolite survey.
4.12 Describe with neat sketches the following:
(a) Automatic vertical index
(b) Optical plummet
(c) Reading systems of electronic theodolites
(d) Compensator
4.13 Show that the effect of an eccentricity of the horizontal circle of a theodolite is to
produce an error in reading one side only, which varies sinusoidally with the angle
of rotation of the telescope. Also show that, where only one side of the circle may
be read, provided the azimuth of the circle remains unchanged, the mean of the face
left and face right readings gives the correct angle.
4.14 Two stations at elevations of and are sighted by a theodolite in which the line
of collimation is inclined to the trunnion axis at an angle (90° – e), where e is
small.
Theodolite 165

(a) Derive an expression for the error in the horizontal angle between the two
stations as given by the instrument.
(b) Show by a diagram the effect of the collimation error on the vertical circle
reading of one station.
(c) What is the effect of measuring the horizontal and vertical angles on both
faces?
4.15 What is meant by face left and face right of theodolite? How would you change face?
What instrumental errors are eliminated by face left and face right observations?
4.16 In an examination of a theodolite, it is found that when the instrument is wheeled
horizontally,
(a) the bubbles of the plate levels do not preserve a constant position in their
tubes, and
(b) the difference between the readings of the horizontal circle verniers is not
constant.
Discuss these errors, and explain how you would prevent their influencing
the angular measurements.
4.17 You have been asked to use a theodolite, and it is suspected that the horizontal
axis is not quite perpendicular to the vertical axis. In the absence of facilities for
making adjustments to the instrument, show how you would arrange readings and
field book entries so that this instrumental error could be eliminated. Draw suitable
figures to show the application of your method to the vertical circle readings and
to the horizontal circle readings.
4.18 Write notes on
(a) Micrometer microscope theodolite
(b) Optical theodolite
(c) Electronic theodolite.
4.19 The diaphragm of a theodolite in good adjustment is broken and replaced. What
tests and adjustments must be carried out in order to bring the instrument in good
working order again?
4.20 Describe clearly with neat sketches a micrometer microscope, as used for reading
the horizontal circle and the vertical circle of a theodolite.
4.21 Explain what recent developments have taken place in the construction of modern
theodolites.

Objective-type Questions
4.1 The difference between face left and face right observations of a theodolite is 3 .
The error is
(a) 45 (b) 1 30 (c) 3 (d) 0
4.2 Right deflection angle may be directly obtained by setting the instrument to read
(a) zero on back station (b) 180° on back station
(c) 90° on back station (d) 270° on back station
4.3 The size of a theodolite is defined by
(a) the diameter of the graduated circle of lower plate
(b) the diameter of the graduated circle of upper plate
(c) the height of the theodolite
(d) the length of the telescope.
4.4 If the lower clamp screw is tightened and the upper clamp screw is loosened, the
theodolite may be rotated
(a) with a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of the
lower plate
166 Surveying

(b) without a relative motion between the vernier and the graduated scale of the
lower plate
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) horizontal axis
4.5 Removal of parallax may be achieved by
(a) refocussing the objective
(b) refocussing the eyepiece
(c) refocussing the eyepiece and the objective
(d) moving the shifting centre
4.6 For which of the following permanent adjustment of a theodolite is the spire test
used?
(a) Adjustment of plate levels
(b) Adjustment of line of sight
(c) Adjustment of horizontal axis
(d) Adjustment of altitude bubble and vertical index frame.
4.7 If a tripod setting of a theodolite being used as a level, changes in the interval that
elapses between taking a F.S. and a B.S., then the elevation of the turning point
will be
(a) increased (b) decreased
(c) same (d) Either (a) or (b)
4.8 For locating a distance object visible from two transit stations, the method usually
preferred is
(a) angles and distances from transit stations
(b) angles from two transit stations
(c) distances from two transit stations
(d) angle from one transit station and distance from the other one
4.9 A transit is oriented by setting its vernier A to read the back bearing of the preceding
line and a back sight on the preceding station is taken. The transit is then rotated
about its vertical axis. The vernier A then reads
(a) fore bearing of the preceding line
(b) fore bearing of the forward line
(c) back bearing of the preceding line
(d) equal to 360° – bearing of the forward line
4.10 To observe an included angle with better accuracy then what is achieved by reading
the verniers of a theodolite, the method preferred is
(a) repetition (b) reiteration
(c) double observations (d) Any of these
4.11 Accurate measurement of deflection angles with a transit not properly adjusted are
made by
(a) setting the vernier A to read zero at the back station and then plunging the
telescope
(b) setting the vernier A to read zero at the back station and then turning the
instrument to the forward station
(c) taking two back sights, one with the telescope normal and the other with the
telescope inverted
(d) taking back sight with the face left
4.12 Which of the following error is not eliminated by the method of repetition for
horizontal angle measurement?
(a) Error due to eccentricity of verniers
(b) Error due to displacement of station signals
Theodolite 167

(c) Error due to wrong adjustment of line of collimation and trunnion axis
(d) Error due to inaccurate graduations.
4.13 The magnitude of the error due to imperfect levelling of the plate bubble for
horizontal angle measurements is
(a) large, when sights are approximately level
(b) large, for long sights
(c) less, for steeply inclined sights
(d) large, for steeply inclined sights
4.14 Centring error of a theodolite produces an error
(a) in all the angles equally
(b) which does not vary with direction of bisection
(c) which varies with the direction of bisection and inversely with the length of
sight
(d) None of the above
4.15 The error due to eccentricity of the inner and outer axes of a theodolite can be
eliminated by
(a) reading both verniers and taking the mean of the two
(b) taking both face observations and taking the mean of the two
(c) double sighting
(d) taking mean of the observations distributed over different portions of the
graduated circle
4.16 Which of the following errors can be eliminated by taking the mean of both face
observations?
(a) Error due to imperfect graduations
(b) Error due to eccentricity of verniers
(c) Error due to imperfect adjustment of plate levels
(d) Error due to line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal
axis
4.17 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) A theodolite is known as a universal instrument.
(b) The modern theodolites are glass arc type.
(c) The size of theodolite is defined by the vertical circle.
(d) Alidade assembly is a part of the theodolite.
4.18 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A four-screw levelling head is better than the three-screw one.
(b) Centring in a theodolite is facilitated by a movable head.
(c) Two plate levels on a horizontal circle assembly are provided so that if one
becomes sluggish, the other can be used.
(d) It is better to provide a bubble tube on the telescope rather than on the index
frame.
4.19 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Three sets of clamp and tangent screws are provided on a theodolite.
(b) Theodolites are equipped with an internal focussing telescope to facilitate
transiting.
(c) The least count of a vernier theodolite is 20 .
(d) The telescope normal position means that the vertical circle of the theodolite
is to the right of the observer.
4.20 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Lining in means establishing intermediate points on a line whose ends are
not intervisible.
168 Surveying

(b) The error due to the horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical
axis cannot be eliminated by changing face.
(c) The error due to line of collimation not being parallel to the axis of the
altitude level can be eliminated by changing face.
(d) Both (b) and (c).
4.21 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Theodolite can be used for ordinary levelling.
(b) Theodolite can be used for measuring directions.
(c) Theodolite can be used for measuring horizontal distances on rough
grounds.
(d) All the above
4.22 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Spire test is the name of collimation in azimuth test.
(b) During transit, the wing nuts of the theodolite are loosened.
(c) Poor focussing of a theodolite results in instrumental error.
(d) A direct angle is that which a survey line makes with the prolongation of the
preceding line.
4.23 Wing nuts are provided on
(a) bubble tubes (b) diaphragm (c) standards (d) tripod
4.24 The plate bubble in the plate level of a theodolite will move considerably from its
central position if the tripod leg is moved
(a) radially inwards
(b) radially outwards
(c) in the same direction of the bubble moved
(d) in the opposite direction of the bubble moved
4.25 Which one of the following statement is correct?
(a) The axis of plate level should be parallel to the vertical axis.
(b) The axis of striding level must be parallel to the horizontal axis.
(c) The axis of the altitude level must be perpendicular to the line of collimation.
(d) The line of collimation must be perpendicular to the plate level axis.
4.26 If the altitude bubble is provided both on the index frame as well as on the telescope
of a theodolite, then the instrument is levelled with reference to the
(a) altitude bubble on the telescope.
(b) altitude bubble on the index frame, if it is to be used as a level.
(c) altitude bubble on the telescope, if it is to be used as a level.
(d) Both (a) and (c)
(e) Both (b) and (c)
4.27 Match the following:
(i) Face right (A) It is the axis about which the telescope can be
rotated in a vertical plane
(ii) Face left lite (B) When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the
left of an observer
(iii) Horizontal axis (C) When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the
right of an observer
(iv) Vertical axis (D) It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve
of the level tube at the centre of the tube
(v) Axis of telescope (E) It is the axis about which the telescope can be
rotated in a horizontal plane
(vi) Axis of level tube (F) It is the line joining the optical centre of the
object glass to the centre of the eyepiece
Theodolite 169

(vii) Line of sight (G) It is an imaginary line joining the intersection


of the cross-hair to the optical centre of the
objective and its continuation
(a) (iv)–C, (iii)–B, (i)–A, (ii)–E, (vi)–F, (v)–D, (vii)–G
(b) (i)–A, (ii)–B, (iii)–C, (iv)–D, (v)–E, (vi)–F, (vii)–G
(c) (i)–C, (ii)–A, (iii)–B, (vi)–E, (iv)–F, (v)–D, (vi)–G
(d) (i)–C, (ii)–B, (iii)–A, (iv)–E, (v)–F, (vi)–D, (vii)–G
4.28 The error eliminated by changing face is the
(i) error due to the line of collimation not being perpendicular to the horizontal
axis.
(ii) error due to the horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the vertical axis.
(iii) error due to the line of collimation not being parallel to the altitude level.
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) are eliminated
(b) only (i) is eliminated
(c) (i) and (ii) are eliminated
(d) None of the above is eliminated
4.29 The temporary adjustments which are done before observation at every
set up of the theodolite consists of
(i) setting up the theodolite over a station
(ii) levelling up
(iii) elimination of parallax
(a) (i), (ii), (iii) (b) (i) only
(c) (i) and (ii) only (d) (ii) and (iii) only
4.30 The permanent adjustments of a theodolite consist of the following operations:
(i) adjustment of the horizontal plate level
(ii) adjustment of the horizontal axis
(iii) adjustment of the telescope
(iv) adjustment of the telescope level
(v) adjustment of the vertical circle index
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) (b) (i), (ii), and (iii) only
(c) (i), (iv), (v) only (d) (i), (iii), (v) only
4.31 The correct order of the permanent adjustments of theodolite for the following is
(i) make the vertical cross-hair lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis
(ii) make the plate bubble central to its run when the vertical axis of the theodolite
is truly vertical
(iii) make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis
(iv) make the horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis
(v) make the telescope level bubble central, when the line of sight is horizontal
(vi) make the vertical circle indicate zero, when the line of sight is perpendicular
to the vertical axis
(a) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) (b) (iii), (i), (iv), (v), (vi), (ii)
(c) (ii), (iv), (v), (vi), (i), (iii) (d) (i), (ii), (iii), (vi), (iv), (v)
4.32 The error which is eliminated/minimised by the method of repetition is
(i) the error of graduations
(ii) personal error of bisection
(iii) the error due to eccentricity of the centres and of the verniers
(vi) the error due to the line of collimation not being perpendicular to transverse
axis
(a) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (b) (i) only
(c) (i) and (ii) (d) (i), (ii) and (iii).
170 Surveying

4.33 Choose the correct statement(s).


(i) The horizontal circle of a vernier theodolite is graduated in the quadrantal
bearing system.
(ii) The vertical circle of a vernier theodolite is graduated from 0° to 90°.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) (ii) follows (i)
4.34 Arrange the order of permanent adjustments of a theodolite.
(i) Plate level test
(ii) Cross-hair ring test
(iii) Bubble tube adjustment test
(iv) Spire test
(v) Collimation in azimuth test.
(vi) Vertical arc test
(a) (i)–(iv)–(ii)–(v)–(iii)–(vi) (b) (ii)–(i)–(v)–(iv)–(vi)–(iii)
(c) (i)–(ii)–(v)–(iv)–(iii)–(vi) (d) (iii)–(ii)–(i)–(v)–(iv)–(vi).
4.35 In a theodolite
(i) the lower clamp and the tangent screws are used to bring the line of sight
along a reference line
(ii) the upper clamp and the tangent screws are used to set 0-0 reading on the
plates before sighting along the reference line
(iii) the upper clamp and the tangent screws are used to obtain a differential
movement between the upper and the lower plates
(a) (i) and (ii) are correct (b) (i) and (iii) are correct
(c) (ii) and (iii) are correct (d) All the correct

Answers to Objective-type Questions


4.1 (b) 4.2 (a) 4.3 (a) 4.4 (a) 4.5 (c) 4.6 (c)
4.7 (c) 4.8 (b) 4.9 (b) 4.10 (a) 4.11 (c) 4.12 (b)
4.13 (d) 4.14 (c) 4.15 (a) 4.16 (d) 4.17 (c) 4.18 (b)
4.19 (d) 4.20 (c) 4.21 (d) 4.22 (b) 4.23 (b) 4.24 (c)
4.25 (d) 4.26 (b) 4.27 (d) 4.28 (a) 4.29 (a) 4.30 (a)
4.31 (a) 4.32 (a) 4.33 (b) 4.34 (c) 4.35 (d)
5 Traversing

Introduction
The word traverse literally means ‘passing across’. In surveying it means ‘determining
the lengths and directions of consecutive lines’. The linear measurements are
made with a chain or tape and the relative directions of the lines are measured
with a chain, compass or theodolite. The integrated measurement of distance and
direction provides the essential two dimensional data for determining the land
area and for providing horizontal control, i.e., the relative location of points in
the horizontal plane. The results of a level network for the same location, when
added to this information, provides a three-dimensional representation of a section
of the earth’s surface. Angular and linear measurements are recorded in field book
and the surveyed contours in the sketches. These should be dated and signed by
the surveyor everyday after the work is over. Moreover, they must be kept in
conformity with certain rules. Traversing consists of reconnaissance (selecting,
marking and referencing stations), picking up details, and booking the field notes.
A traverse, in general, is run to locate the features already existing in the area
to be surveyed or to establish points or lines in accordance with predetermined
measurements. Traverses are classified as either closed or open.

Closed Traverse
A traverse is said to be a closed one if it returns to the starting point, thereby
forming a closed polygon (Fig. 5.1(a)). In addition, a traverse which begins and
ends at the points whose positions on the plan are known is also referred to as
a closed traverse (Fig. 5.1(b)). A closed traverse is employed for locating the
172 Surveying

boundaries of lakes and woods across which tie lines cannot be measured, for area
determination, control for mapping, and for surveying moderately large areas.

Open Traverse
An open traverse is one that does not return to the starting point. It consists of
a series of lines expanding in the same direction (Fig. 5.2). As a matter of fact,
an open traverse cannot be checked and adjusted accurately. It is employed for
surveying long narrow strips of country, e.g., the path of a highway, railway, canal,
pipeline, coastline, transmission line, etc.
B
D F

A
C E

5.1 MeThOds Of Traversing


The linear measurements can be performed by any of the methods listed in
Chapter 2. For ordinary surveying, chaining is perhaps the most common. The
direction of the lines can be measured by the methods discussed in Chapters 3 and 4.
The precision usually specified for traversing requires the use of a steel tape
and a theodolite. However, any other combination of linear and angular measuring
equipment may be used. The different methods of traversing are mentioned
below.

5.1.1 By Chain
The linear as well as angular measurements are done with the help of chain and
tape only. This is a very crude method and cannot be relied upon.

5.1.2 free or Loose needle Method


In this method the linear measurements are done with the help of either chain or
tape and the bearings are measured with the help of a compass. Both fore and back
bearings of lines are observed at each station. The results obtained by this method
are, in general, not that accurate as obtained by the following two methods.

5.1.3 fast needle Method


In this method, the linear measurements are made with the help of a chain or tape
and the bearings are measured with the help of a theodolite whose telescope is
inverted for alternate backward and forward readings. It may be noted that if the
line of collimation is not properly adjusted, the included angles will be in error.
The advantage of this method is that the bearings are obtained directly. The work
can thus be checked during its progress and the errors can be detected and rectified
immediately. Also, the field work is less cumbersome and the computations are
simple as compared to the method of measuring angles.
Traversing 173

5.1.4 By Measuring angles


In this method of traversing, the angular measurements, i.e., the measurement of
deflection angles, azimuth, and angles to the right or included angles are directly
done with a theodolite. This is the most accurate method of traversing. However,
the disadvantage of this method is that the traverse can be checked only if it is
closed. Deflection angle traversing is usually employed for open traversing, e.g., for
the location survey of a highway, railway, pipelines, transmission line, etc., where
only a few details are located while the traversing method of angles to the right
is especially used for open traverses when many details are to be located from the
traverse stations. This method of traversing is similar to the azimuth method, except
that at each station a back sight is taken to the preceding station with the A-vernier
set to zero. This is also known as the method of azimuth from the back line. The
azimuth method is usually employed for topographic surveys where a large number
of details are located from a theodolite station. Included angle traverse is mainly
used for land surveying. The method of included angles has the advantage that any
error in line of collimation does not seriously affect the results and the angles can
be observed to any required degree of accuracy within limits.

5.2 PLOTTing Traverse survey


Before plotting the traverse survey on a drawing sheet, a rough sketch is prepared to
ascertain its size and shape, which in turn decides the scale to be used. In addition,
observed bearings are corrected before plotting. The traverse can be plotted by any
of the following methods depending on the data collected or reduced.

5.2.1 By Parallel Meridians Through each station


1. The position of the starting station A is fixed on the drawing sheet. A line
representing the magnetic meridian is drawn through it.
2. The bearing of the line AB is plotted with a protractor (Fig. 5.3). The
length of the line AB is cut to a suitable scale thus fixing station B.

3. A line is drawn through B representing the magnetic meridian. The bearing


of the line BC is plotted and the measured length of BC is plotted to the
scale decided in the previous step, thus fixing station C.
4. The procedure is repeated at each of the succeeding stations.
174 Surveying

5.2.2 By included angles


1. The position of the starting point
A is fixed on the drawing sheet.
A line representing magnetic
meridian is drawn through it
(Fig. 5.4).
2. The bearing of the line AB is
plotted and the measured length
AB is cut off to a suitable scale,
thus fixing the position of B.
3. At B, the included angle is
plotted and the length BC is
cut off to the scale selected
previously. Thus C is fixed.
4. The operation is repeated at each
of the succeeding stations.

5.2.3 By Tangents
The position of the starting station A is fixed and a line is drawn through it
representing the magnetic meridian. To plot the bearings of the lines, the following
procedure is adopted:
1. Let AB be the line whose
N
bearing is to be plotted.
2. Take AB1 equal to 20 cm on the
magnetic meridian (Fig. 5.5). C1
3. Draw B1B2 perpendicular to 90
AB1 (the meridian) and equal B1 B2
C
to 20 times the length of the 90 C 2
tangent of the bearing of line B
AB.
4. Join A and B2, which is the A
direction of the line AB of the
traverse. Draw AB to scale
along this direction.
5. Repeat the procedure till all the lines are plotted.

5.2.4 By Chords N C
The position of the starting station A is fixed and
a line is drawn representing the magnetic meridian.
To plot the bearings of the lines, the following B1 C1
procedure is adopted:
1. Let AB be the line whose bearings is to be C2
A B B2
plotted (Fig. 5.6).
2. Take AB1 equal to 10 cm on the magnetic
meridian.
3. With A as centre and AB1 as radius draw an
arc.
Traversing 175

4. The chord length B1B2 equal to 2 10 sin ( /2) is cut on the arc.
5. Join A and B2, which is the direction of the line AB of the traverse. Draw
AB to scale along the direction AB2.
6. Repeat the procedure till all the lines are plotted.

5.2.5 By rectangular Coordinates


The plane rectangular coordinates of the stations surveyed are computed from the
linear and angular measurements made while traversing. These coordinates permit
the plotting, adjustment of traverse and mathematical computation for setting out
purposes. This method is usually
adopted to plot a traverse for a
theodolite survey.
1. The stations are plotted
by their coordinates with
respect to the X- and
Y-axes (E–W direction and
N–S direction), as shown
in Fig. 5.7.
2. The latitude of a line is
its projection onto the
reference meridian (north-
south line). The distance
measured towards the
north is called northing,
N
whereas that measured
towards the south is called
southing. The departure of a2 A
a line is its projection onto
a line at right angles of the D d2
reference meridian. Any
distance measured towards c1 b1
W E
the east is called easting, d1 O a1
whereas that measured
towards the west is called
westing. b2 B
3. The latitudes and departures c2
C
of the traverse lines can be
S
calculated if the reduced
bearings and lengths of the
lines are known. Northing
Oa2 and easting Oa1 are taken as positive, whereas southing Ob2 and
westing Od1 are taken as negative, as shown in the Fig. 5.8.
Latitude of OA = northing = l cos (+)
Departure of OA = easting = l sin (+)
Latitude of OB = southing = l cos (–)
Departure of OB = easting = l sin (+)
176 Surveying

Latitude of OC = southing = l cos (–)


Departure of OC = westing = l sin (–)
Latitude of OD = northing = l cos (+)
Departure of OD = westing = l sin (–)
Here, l, are the length and reduced bearing of the respective line.
The axes are so chosen that the entire plot falls in the first quadrant.
4. The coordinates of any point, i.e., the latitude and the departure, when
measured with respect to the origin are called independent coordinates,
whereas if measured with respect to the previous point are called
consecutive coordinates. The coordinates of any point with respect to the
preceding point can be worked out if the latitude and departure of the
lines are known, e.g., coordinate of point D for line AD (Fig. 5.7) will
be coordinate of point A plus the latitude/departure of the line AD.
There are two methods prevalent for plotting a traverse by coordinates.
One of the methods consists in working the independent coordinates of
each station relative to two assumed coordinate axes respectively parallel to
and perpendicular to the reference meridian and then plotting the stations.
In the other method, each station is plotted from the preceding one by
setting out the latitude and departure of the line between them in directions
respectively parallel to and perpendicular to the reference meridian.
The method of plotting by independent coordinates is better than by
consecutive coordinates since all the points are measured independent
with respect to the origin, and the error, if any, is localised. In the
latter case the accuracy of the plotted point depends upon the accuracy
with which the previous points are plotted and thus the error
accumulates.
5. In plotting a traverse, north and east coordinates are treated as positive, and
south and west ones as negative. The axes are usually so chosen that the
entire traverse falls in the first quadrant such that the coordinates of each
point have north and east values. A traverse may, however, be plotted so
as to have north and south, as well as, east and west coordinate values. In
such a case, the coordinates are referred to as negative coordinates. If the
coordinate of one point has a north (N) value and that of the other has a
south (S) value, then for the difference in the latitude of two points the
numerical value {N – (– S) = N + S} of the coordinates must be added.

5.2.6 advantages and disadvantages of Methods of


Plotting Traverses
The various methods of plotting a traverse have their own advantages and
disadvantages. Plotting a traverse by the method of included angles or directions
with a protractor is the least accurate but the fastest method. The most accurate and
the best method to lay out a single angle precisely is by tangents. If a traverse fails
to close and if the error is due to drafting, the error may be adjusted simply by
rotating each line, except the first, slightly and progressively. In the chord method
of plotting a traverse, the erection of a perpendicular (in the tangent method) is
Traversing 177

eliminated but determination of the chord length is more laborious than finding
perpendicular offsets. The main disadvantage of the chord method is that an error
in any of the traverse line is passed along to the succeeding line. Plotting by
independent coordinates is supposed to be a better method since the independent
coordinates of the stations do not affect the succeeding coordinates and thus the
error, if any, is localised to a particular point and therefore, correction usually
involves the replotting of the erroneous point only.
In plotting with consecutive coordinates, small errors of plotting are carried
forward, and in a closed traverse the closing error due to inexact plotting can
be located, since the coordinates used have already been balanced. This may be
considered to be an advantage, as the cause of discrepancy can be searched for
and eliminated. Since errors are not accumulated when plotting with independent
coordinates, they are preferred for plotting an open traverse.

e xample 5.1 In a traverse the latitudes and departures of the sides were
calculated and it was observed that
latitude = 1.39 and
departure = – 2.17
Calculate the length and bearing of the closing error.
s olution If L = latitude and D = departure, then
__________
Closing error, e = L2 + D2
_______________
= (1.39)2 + (–2.17)2 = 2.577 m
Reduced bearing of closing error = tan–1 2.17/1.39
= 57°21 29.83
Since, latitude and departure of the closing line are positive and negative,
respectively, the line is in the fourth quadrant.
Hence, the bearing of the closing error is N57°21 29.83 W.

e xample 5.2 A man travels from a point N


A due west and reaches a point B. The distance
between the points A and B is 139.6 m. Calculate
the latitude and departure of the line AB.
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.9.
The man travels due west.
The reduced bearing of the line = 90°
B A
Latitude of the line AB = l cos
139.6 m
= 139.6 cos 90°
= 139.6 0 = 0
Departure of the line AB = – l sin
= – 139.6 sin 90°
= – 139.6 1 = – 139.6 m = 139.6 m due west.
178 Surveying

e xample 5.3 While making


a reconnaissance survey through
the woods, a surveyor with a hand
compass, started from a point A
and walked a thousand steps in the
direction S67°W and reached a point
B. Then he changed his direction and
walked 512 steps in the direction
N10°E and reached a point C. Then
again he changed his direction and
walked 1504 steps in the direction
S65°E and reached a point D as
shown in Fig. 5.10. Now, the surveyor wants to return to the starting point A. In
which direction should he move and how many steps should he take.
s olution
Line Length R.B. Quadrant
AB 1000 steps 67° SW
BC 512 steps 10° NE
CD 1504 steps 65° SE
DA ? ? ?
Line AB
Latitude = – 1000 cos 67° = – 390.73
Departure = – 1000 sin 67° = – 920.50
Line BC
Latitude = 512 cos 10° = + 504.22
Departure = 512 sin 10° = + 88.90
Line CD
Latitude = – 1504 cos 65° = – 635.61
Departure = + 1504 sin 65° = + 1363.08
Let the latitude and departure of the line DA be l cos and l sin .
Then,
L = 0 = – 390.73 + 504.22 – 635.61 + l cos
or l cos = 522.12
and D = 0 = – 920.50 + 88.90 + 1363.08 + l sin
or l sin = – 531.48
__________
Length of DA, l = L2 + D2
___________________
= (522.12)2 + (–531.48)2
= 745.03 745 steps
531.48 = 45°30 32
Reduced bearing, = tan–1 ______
522.12
Hence, the required direction is N45°30 32 W (NW quadrant, since latitude is
+ ve and departure is –ve).
Traversing 179

e xample 5.4 A and B are two of the


stations used in setting out construction lines
of harbour works. The total latitude and
departure of A, referred to the origin of the
system, are respectively, + 542.7 and – 331.2
and those of B are + 713.0 and + 587.8 (north
latitude and east departure being reckoned
as positive). A point C is fixed from A at a
distance of 432 m on a bearing of 346°14
and from it a line CD, 1152 m in length, is
set out parallel to AB (Fig. 5.11). It is required to check the position of D by a
sight from B. Calculate the bearing of D from B.
s olution Let L be the length of line AB and be the reduced bearing.
Total latitude of line AB = 713.0 – 542.7 = 170.3
Total departure of line AB = 587.8 – (– 331.2) = 919.0
total departure 919.0
tan = _____________ = _____
total latitude 170.3
or = 79°30 5.7
Bearing of CD = Bearing of AB = N79°30 5.7 E
________________
Length of AB = (170.3)2 + (919.0)2
= 934.6 m
Bearing of line AC = 346°14 or N13°46 W
Bearing of line CA = S13°46 E
Length of line CA = 432 m
Latitude of CA = 432 cos 13°46 = – 419.59 m
Departure of CA = 432 sin 13°46 = + 102.80 m
Length of line DC = 1152 m
Bearing of CD = N79°30 5.7 E
Bearing of DC = S79°30 5.7 W
Latitude of line DC = 1152 cos 79°30 5.7 = – 209.9 m
Departure of line DC = 1152 sin 79°30 5.7 = – 1132.7 m
Since, for a close traverse
latitude = 0
lat. of AB + lat. of BD + lat. of DC + lat. of CA = 0
or lat. of BD = – 170.3 – (– 209.9) – (– 419.59)
or lat. of BD = + 459.19 m
also, departure = 0
dep. of AB + dep. of BD + dep. of DC + dep. of CA = 0
or dep. of BD = – 919.0 – (– 1132.7) – (102.8)
or dep. of BD = + 110.9 m
180 Surveying

Since, both the latitude and departure of the line BD are positive, therefore, the
line lies in the NE quadrant and its bearing is
departure
tan = ________
latitude
= 110.9
______
459.19
or = 13°34 39.47
Therefore, bearing of the line BD is N13°34 39.47 E.

e xample 5.5 For the following traverse, compute the length of line CD so
that A, D and E may be in one straight line.
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 110 83°12
BC 165 30°42
CD ? 346°06
DE 212 16°18

s olution In traverse ABCDE (Fig. 5.12), the points A, D and E are on same
line.
Let CA be an imaginary line so as to form a close traverse ABC.
Line AB:
Length of the line AB = 110 m
Latitude of the line AB = + 110 cos 83°12 = + 13.03 m
Departure of the line AB = + 110 sin 83°12 = + 109.23 m
Line BC:
Length of the line BC = 165 m
Latitude of the line BC = 165 cos 30°42 = + 141.88 m
Departure of the line BC = 165 sin 30°42 = + 84.24 m
Traversing 181

Now, for the traverse ABC:


latitude = 0
latitude of CA = 0 – 13.03 – 141.88 = – 154.91 m
and departure = 0
departure of CA = 0 – 109.23 – 84.24 = – 193.47 m
Since the latitude and departure are both negative, the line CA lies in the SW
quadrant. Its bearing is given by
departure 193.47
tan = ________ = ______
latitude 154.91
or = S51°18 W
_____________
Length of CA = lat.2CA + dep.2CA
__________________
= (154.91)2 + (193.47)2 = 247.78 m
Since A, D and E are on the same line so,
bearing of AD = bearing of DE = 16°18
From triangle ACD
= (360° – 346°6 ) + 16°18
= 13°54 + 16°18 = 30°12
= 346°6 – (51°18 + 180°) = 114°48
= 51°18 – 16°18 = 35°
CD = _____
From the sine rule, _____ CA
sin sin
sin
or CD = CA _____
sin
sin 35°
= 247.78 _________
sin 30°12
= 282.53 m

e xample 5.6 Coordinates of two points A and B are given below. A third
point C has been chosen in such a way that bearings of AC and CB are 29°30
and 45°45 respectively. Calculate the lengths of the lines AC and CB.
Point Northing Easting
A 150 200
B 1500 1300
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.13.
Line AB:
Let L be the length of line AB, and be its reduced bearing.
Total latitude of the line AB = 1500 – 150 = 1350
Total departure of the line AB = 1300 – 200 = 1100
tan = 1100/1350 = 0.8148
or = 39°10
or = N39°10 E
182 Surveying

_______________
Length of AB = (1100)2 + (1350)2 = 1741.40 m
The length of the line can also be calculated from the latitude and the departure,
whichever is more.

In the closed traverse ACB


latitude = 0
or lAC cos 29°30 + lCB cos 45°45 – 1741.40 cos 39°10 = 0
or 0.87 lAC + 0.6978 lCB = 1350.1284 (i)
and departure = 0
or lAC sin 29°30 + lCB sin 45°45 – 1741.40 sin 39°10 = 0
or 0.492 lAC + 0.716 lCB = 1099.8 (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
lAC = 712.4 m and lCB = 1046.7 m

e xample 5.7 A traverse is run to set out a line MQ = 1900 m at right angles
to a given line MN. The lengths and bearings observed are as follows.
Line Length (m) Bearing N
MN – 360°00
MO 850 120°00
OP 1000 86°30
PQ ? ? 90
Calculate the length and bearing of
120
the line PQ. 1900 m
M Q
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.14. 85
0m 86 30
Bearing of the line MN = 360°
Line MQ is to be set at right angles O 1000 m P
to MN.
Let l be the length of line PQ and
its bearing.
Since MOPQ is a closed traverse,
L = 0 and D=0
where L = latitude and D = departure.
Traversing 183

L = 1900 cos 90° – 850 cos 60° + 1000 cos 86°30 + l cos = 0
or 0 – 425 + 61 + l cos = 0
or l cos = 425 – 61
or l cos = 364 m (i)
Also, D = – 1900 sin 90° + 850 sin 60° + 1000 sin 86°30 + l sin = 0
or 736.12 + 998.14 – 1900 + l sin = 0
or l sin = – 736.12 – 998.14 + 1900
or l sin = 165.74 m (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
tan = 165.74/363.95 = 0.4553
or = 24°29 03
W.C.B. of line PQ = 24°29 03
363.95
Length of line PQ = ____________
cos 24°29 03
= 400.04 m
__________________
Alternatively, length of PQ = (165.74)2 + (363.95)2
= 399.91 m
As the latitude and departure are both positive, the line PQ lies in the first
quadrant. Therefore, the bearing of line PQ is N24°29 03 E.

e xample 5.8 A level railway is to be constructed from A to D in a straight


line, passing through a large hill situated between A and D. In order to speed up
the work, a tunnel is to be driven from both sides of the hill. The centre line has
been established from A to the foot of the hill at B where the tunnel will commence,
and it is now required to establish the centre line on the other side of the hill at
C, from where the tunnel will be driven back. The following traverse was carried
out around the hill to provide the data.

Side Bearing Horizontal distance Remarks


AB 88°00 Centre line of railway
BE 46°30 495.80 m
EF Due east 350.00 m
FG 174°12 Long sight past hill

Calculate the following:


(a) The horizontal distance from F along FG to establish the point C.
(b) Clockwise angle turned off from CF to give the line of the reverse tunnel
drivage.
(c) The horizontal length of the tunnel to be driven.
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.15.
Line BE
Latitude = l cos = 495.80 cos 46°30 = 341.28 m
Departure = l sin = 495.80 sin 46°30 = 359.64 m
184 Surveying

Line EF:
Latitude = l cos = 350 cos 90° = 0
Departure = l sin = 350 sin 90° = 350 m
Latitude of point F = 341.28 + 0 = 341.28 m
Departure of the point F = 359.64 + 350.00 = 709.64 m
Reduced bearing of BF = tan–1 (709.64/341.28) = 64°18 48
Length of BF = 709.64 cosec 64°18 48 = 787.438 m

Consider triangle BFC.


FBC = 88° – 64°18 48
= 23°41 12
BCF = 174°12 – 88°00
= 86°12 00
CFB = (180° + 64°18 48 ) – 174°12
= 70°06 48
The sum of the included angles = 23°41 12 + 86°12 00 + 70°06 48
= 180°
By the sine rule,

FC = BF sin FBC = 787.38


_________ sin 23°41 12 = 316.93 m
____________
sin BCF sin 86°12
BC = BF sin CFB = 787.38
_________ sin 70°06 48 = 742.28 m
____________
sin BCF sin 86°12
Exterior angle FCB = 360° – 86°12 00 = 273°48 00
For calculation of lengths of lines, the greatest of latitude and departure is
considered.

e xample 5.9 In running a traverse, the lengths and bearings of the lines
observed are tabulated. Point F is situated at the centre of the line joining A and
E (Fig. 5.16). Find the length and bearing of the line CF.
Traversing 185

Line Length (m) Bearing


AB 150.00 N75°42 E
BC 100.00 N32°48 E
CD 300.00 S28°54 E
DE 800.00 S5°36 E
s olution
Line AB:
Latitude = 150 cos 75°42 = 150 0.2470 = + 37.04 m
Departure = 150 sin 75°42 = 150 0.9690 = + 145.35 m
Line BC:
Latitude = 100 cos 32°48 = 100 0.8406 = + 84.06 m
Departure = 100 sin 32°48 = 100 0.5417 = + 54.17 m
Line CD:
Latitude = – 300 cos 28°54 = – 300 0.8755 = – 262.63 m
Departure = 300 sin 28°54 = 300 0.4833 = + 144.98 m
Line DE:
Latitude = – 800 cos 5°36 = – 800 0.9952 = – 796.18 m
Departure = 800 sin 5°36 = 800 0.0976 = + 78.06 m
Total latitude of E = – 796.18 – 262.63 + 84.06 + 37.04
= – 937.71 m
Total departure of E = 78.06 + 144.98 + 54.17 + 145.35
= + 422.53 m
Hence, latitude of point F = – 937.71/2 = – 468.85 m
and departure of point F = 422.53/2 = + 211.28 m
Total departure of C = 145.35 + 54.17 = 199.52 m
186 Surveying

Total latitude of C = 37.04 + 84.96 = 121.10 m


Hence, departure of CF = 211.28 – 199.52 = 11.76 m
and latitude of CF = – 468.85 – 121.10 = – 589.95 m
_____________
Hence, length of CF = (lat.)2 + (dep.)2
_________________
= (589.95)2 + (11.76)2
= 590.06 m
Bearing of CF, tan = 11.76/589.95 = 0.0199
Hence, = 1°8 31
As the latitude of CF is negative and the departure is positive, the line CF
lies in the second quadrant. Hence, the bearing of line CF is 180° – 1°8 31 =
178°51 29 = S1°08 31 E.

e xample 5.10 In order to fix a point F, exactly midway between A and E,


a traverse was run as follows:
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 400 30°
BC 500 0°
CD 600 300°
DE 400 30°
Assuming point A as origin calculate:
(a) The independent coordinates of points C, E
and F.
(b) The length and bearing of CF.
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.17.
R.B. of AB = 30°NE
BC = 0°
CD = 60°NW
DE = 30°NE
Consecutive Coordinates
Point B:
Latitude = 400 cos 30°
= 400 0.8660 = 346.41 m
Departure = 400 sin 30°
= 400 0.5 = 200.00 m
Point C:
Latitude = 500 cos 0° = 500 m
Departure = 500 sin 0° = 0 m
Point D:
Latitude = 600 cos 60°
= 600 0.5 = 300.0 m
Traversing 187

Departure = – 600 sin 60° = – 600 0.8660 = – 519.6 m


Point E:
Latitude = 400 cos 30° = 400 0.8660 = 346.4 m
Departure = 400 sin 30° = 400 0.5 = 200.0 m
Independent Coordinates
Points A (A has been taken as origin):
Latitude = 0m
Departure = 0m
Point B:
Latitude = 346.4 m
Departure = 200.0 m
Point C:
Latitude = 346.4 + 500 = 846.4 m
Departure = 200 + 0 = 200.0 m
Point D:
Latitude = 846.4 + 300 = 1146.4 m
Departure = 200 – 519.6 = – 319.6 m
Point E:
Latitude = 1146.4 + 346.4 = 1492.8 m
Departure = – 319.6 + 200.0 = – 119.6 m
Point F:
Since it is the mid-point of AE, hence
Latitude = 1492.8/2 = 746.4 m
Departure = – 119.6/2 = – 59.8 m
Line CF:
Latitude of line CF = 746.4 – 846.4 = – 100 m
Departure of CF = – 59.8 – 200 = – 259.8 m
If the reduced bearing of line CF is then,
= tan–1 259.8/100 = 68°54
_______________
Length of the line CF = (100)2 + (259.8)2
= 278.38 m
As the latitude and departure both are negative, line CF lies in the third
quadrant, hence the bearing of CF = 180° + 68°54 = 248°54 = S68°54 W.

e xample 5.11 A closed traverse has the following lengths and bearings:
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 200.0 Roughly east
BC 98.0 178°
CD Not obtained 270°
DA 86.4 1°
188 Surveying

The length CD could not be measured due to some obstruction to chaining. The
bearing of AB could not be taken, as station A is badly affected by local attraction.
Find the exact bearing of the side AB and calculate the length CD.
s olution Let the length of line CD be L and bearing of line AB be .
Line Length (m) R.B. Quadrant
AB 200.0 ?
BC 98.0 2° SE
CD L 90° SW
DA 86.4 1° NE
Since ABCD is a closed traverse, L and D both are zero.
L = 0 = 200 cos – 98 cos 2° – L cos 90° + 86.4 cos 1°
or 200 cos = 11.54
or cos = 0.0577
or = 86°41
and D = 0 = 200 sin 86°41 + 98 sin 2° – L sin 90° + 86.4 sin 1°
or L = 204.60 m

e xample 5.12 In a four-sided closed traverse ABCDA, the following


information is given:
Side Length (m) Deflection angle Bearing Coordinates
AB 160 ? S40°W ?
26500 S
BC 340 116° (L) ?
22400 W
Point B }
CD 210 60° (L) ? ?
DA ? ? ? ?
Fill in the missing data.
s olution Refer to Fig. 5.18.
W.C.B. of AB = 180° + 40° = 220°
Interior ABC = 180° – 116° = 64°
Interior BCD = 180° – 60° = 120°
F.B. of AB = 220°; R.B. = 40° SW
F.B. of BC = 220° + 64° = 284° – 180° = 104°; R.B. = 76° SE
F.B. of CD = 104° + 120° = 224° – 180° = 44°; R.B. = 44° NE
Since ABCDA is a closed traverse, L = 0 and D = 0
Let the length and bearing of line DA be l and .
L = 0 = – 160 cos 40° – 340 cos 76° + 210 cos 44° + l cos
or l cos = 122.56 + 82.25 – 151.06
or l cos = 53.76 m
D = 0 = – 160 sin 40° + 340 sin 76° + 210 sin 44° + l sin
or l sin = 102.85 – 329.90 – 145.88
Traversing 189

or l sin = – 372.93 m
_________________
l = (53.76)2 + (372.93)2 = 376.78 m
Since latitude is positive and departure is negative, the line DA lies in the fourth
quadrant.

tan = ___ 372.93


D = ______
L 53.76
= 81°47 49
The Q.B. of line DA = N81°47 49 W
W.C.B. of line DA = 360° – 81°47 49 = 278°12 11
Included angle A = F.B. of AB – B.B. of DA
= 220° – (278°12 11 – 180°)
= 121°47 49
Deflection angle A = 180° – 121°47 49 = 58°12 11 (L)
Included angle D = F.B. of DA – B.B. of CD
= 278°12 11 – (44° + 180°)
= 54°12 11
Deflection angle D = 180° – 54°12 11 = 125°47 49 (L)
Consecutive Coordinates
Point C:
Departure = 340 sin 76° = 329.90 m
Latitude = 340 cos 76° = – 82.25 m
Point D:
Departure = 210 sin 44° = 145.88 m
Latitude = 210 cos 44° = 151.06 m
Point A:
Departure = 376.78 sin 81°47 49 = 372.93 m
Latitude = 376.78 cos 81°47 49 = 53.76 m
190 Surveying

Independent coordinates
Point C:
Departure = – 22400 + 329.90 = 22070.10 W
Latitude = – 26500 – 82.25 = – 26582.25 S
Point D:
Departure = – 22070.10 + 145.88 = 21924.22 W
Latitude = – 26582.25 + 151.06 = 26431.19S
Point A:
Departure = – 21924.22 – 372.93 = 22297.15 W
Latitude = – 26431.19 + 53.76 = 26377.43 S
Check:
Independent coordinates of B
Departure = – 22297.15 – 102.85 = 22400.0 W
Latitude = – 26377.43 – 122.57 = 26500.0 S

5.3 CheCks
The following checks are made in traversing:

5.3.1 Closed Traverse

1. Every line of the traverse is measured twice. The two measurements


are done with the same precision, on different days and in opposite
direction.
2. Sum of northings should be equal to sum of southings. Sum of eastings
should be equal to sum of westings.

The sum of interior included angles


should be = (2n – 4) right angles, and the sum of exterior included angles
should be = (2n + 4) right angles, where n is the number of sides of the
traverse.
The algebraic sum of the deflection
angles should be = 360° (the right-hand deflection angles are taken as
positive and the left-hand deflection angles are taken as negative).
The fore bearing of the last
line is compared with the back bearing of the line at the initial station.
The two values should have a difference of 180°.

5.3.2 Open Traverse


In an open traverse, methods to check the measurements as a whole are not
available. Though the linear errors cannot be determined, the angular errors may
be found by some of the methods discussed as follows.
Traversing 191

By the cut-off lines, the different parts of the traverse can be


checked as it progresses.
1. Let abcdefgh be the traverse which is to be checked (Fig. 5.19).
2. Cut-off lines ae and eh are drawn between certain stations a, e, and h of
the traverse.
3. To check the angular measurements of the traverse from a to e, the
difference in the fore and back bearings of the cut-off line ae is noted
which should be 180°.
4. Similarly, the difference in fore and back bearings of line eh is noted to
check the other part of the traverse from e to h and this difference should
be 180°.
5. If the distances ae and eh can be measured, the linear errors of closure
of the traverses abcdea and efghe can be computed.

1. A well-defined point such as O is chosen and the bearing of object O is


measured from different stations say, a, f, h, etc. (Fig. 5.19).
2. Knowing the coordinates of O and h, the bearings of line hO can be
calculated. The traverse from a to h can be checked by comparing the
observed and computed bearing of hO.
The limitation of the method is that if any discrepancy is found, it is not possible
to say exactly where the error lies.

The angles of any traverse may be checked by


determining the azimuth of the first and last line by astronomical observations.
The two most useful methods are: (i) direct solar observations, which interrupt
the regular work for only a few minutes, and (ii) observations by polaris, which
are simple and accurate, but necessitate working in the night. Since the readers
are not familiar with the principles of astronomy, the scope of this book limits
the discussion about this method.

5.4 CLOsing errOr


It is the distance by which the end of a traverse falls short in coinciding with the
starting point of the traverse. The ratio of linear error of closure to the perimeter
of the traverse is the expression for precision of the survey.
In a closed traverse if the work is correct, the algebraic sum of the latitudes
(L) should be equal to zero, i.e., L = 0, and the algebraic sum of the departures
(D) should also be equal to zero, i.e., D = 0.
192 Surveying

The two components OO1 and O1O2 (Fig. 5.20) of the O


closing error OO2 may be obtained by calculating L
and D and then the closing error can be computed:
_______________
L
Closing error, e = (OO1)2 + (O1O2)2
_________
= L2 + D2
O2 D O1
The direction of the closing error is determined
from tan = D/ L.

5.5 BaLanCing a Traverse


It is clear that the closing error should be so distributed throughout the traverse
that its effect is as little apparent on the plan as possible.
A traverse is balanced by applying correction to latitudes and departures. This
is called balancing a traverse. However, it may be noted that balancing a traverse
does not in any way improve it; it simply makes the figure geometrically correct.
The survey station set in the ground represent the true traverse, which in practise
is unknown. Observation of the angles and distance is an attempt to obtain the
values of the true traverse. However, it is never achieved, due to observational error,
and hence we have an ‘observed’ traverse, which may approximate very closely
to the ‘true’, but is not geometrically correct, i.e., there is coordinate misclosure.
Finally, the traverse is balanced. The balancing of traverse can be accomplished
mathematically, i.e., by applying some rules, or graphically. This traverse is now
geometrically correct, but in the majority of cases will be significantly different
from both the ‘true’ and ‘observed’ networks. Following are the rules/methods of
balancing a traverse.

5.5.1 Bowditch rule


It is also called compass rule. It is used to balance a traverse when the linear and
angular measurements are equally precise.
_ It is assumed that the errors in the linear
measurements are proportional to l , where l is the length_ of the line, and those in
the angular measurements are inversely proportional to l , which is questionable.
If equal weights are assigned to linear and angular measurements, the errors and
hence the corrections are proportional to the lengths of the lines.
Correction to latitude (or departure of any side)
length of that side
= total error in latitude (or departure) × __________________
perimeter of traverse

5.5.2 Transit rule


This method of adjusting the consecutive coordinates of traverse is purely empirical
and there is no sound theoretical foundation for it. It is employed when the
angular measurements are more precise as compared to the linear measurements
(theodolite traversing).
Traversing 193

Correction to latitude (or departure of any side)


= total error in latitude (or departure)
latitude (or departure) of that side
× _____________________________________
arithmetical sum of latitudes (or departures)
If the corrections are to be applied separately, then the following rules may be
used:
(i) Correction to northing of any side
1 northing of that side
= __ total error in latitude × _________________________
2 arithmetical sum of northings
(ii) Correction to southing of any side
1 southing of that side
= __ total error in latitude × _________________________
2 arithmetical sum of southings
(iii) Correction to easting of any side
1 easting of that side
= __ total error in departure × ________________________
2 arithmetical sum of eastings
(iv) Correction to westing of any side
1 westing of that side
= __ total error in departure × ________________________
2 arithmetical sum of westings
When the adjustment is made by the Bowditch rule, the length of the sides become
less and the angles become more than that when the adjustment is made by the
transit rule.

5.5.3 Comparison of Bowditch and Transit rules


Consider a traverse, the lines of which are along or at right angles to the axes of
the reference coordinate frame. The correction of an error in latitude by Bowditch’s
rule affects all the lines and angles in the traverse. Whereas, the correction of
the same error by the transit rule only affects lines in the direction of the error
because the lines at right angles to these have no latitudes; thus the angles are not
affected. Similarly, the correction of an error in departure by Bowditch rule affects
the angles, whereas the angles are unaltered if the transit rule is applied.
Since the closing error is the resultant of two coordinate errors, it follows that
balancing by Bowditch rule is apt to distort the angles from the observed values,
while in the balancing by transit rule the angles are unaltered.
Now consider a traverse, the lines of which are at 45° to the axes of the reference
coordinate frame. The corrections for an error in latitude or departure are identical
irrespective of the rule used for the adjustment. Therefore, both methods produce
the same angular distortion.
For a general case, the angular error will lie somewhere between these two
limits and the transit rule will usually produce less angular distortion than Bowditch
rule.
The Bowditch rule is particularly useful for a compass traverse where the angles
are susceptible to considerable error, whereas the transit rule is more suited for a
194 Surveying

theodolite traverse where the possibility of error is more in the linear rather than
in the angular measurements. Since it is logical to presume more error in the
linear measurements, the transit rule is better acceptable than the Bowditch rule.
In general, it can be concluded that the Bowditch rule alters the adjusted bearings
more, whereas transit rule alters the distances more.

5.5.4 graphical adjustment of Closing error


In case where the closing error needs to be adjusted, a graphical adjustment is
made. There are two methods, the proportionate method and the axis correction
method.
This method of adjustment, known to be proportionate
method, is based on Bowditch rule and is used when traversing with compass.
1. Let ABCDEA be a closed traverse which was, however, plotted as
AB1C1D1E1A1 with A as the starting point and A1 as the closing point
(Fig. 5.21 (a)). Thus the closing error is AA1.
2. Draw a straight line AA1 (Fig. 5.21 (b)) equal to the perimeter of the plotted
traverse, and set off along it AB1, B1C1, C1D1, D1E1 and E1A1 equal to the
length of the sides of the plotted traverse—to any convenient scale.

3. Draw a line A1a parallel and equal to the closing error AA1. Join A and a
and from B1, C1, D1 and E1 draw lines B1b, C1c, D1d and E1e parallel to
A1a, intersecting the line Aa at b, c, d and e, respectively.
4. The intercepts B1b, C1c, etc., represent the corrections both in magnitude
and direction at B, C, etc.
5. These corrections give the directions and distances through which the
stations B, C, etc., are to be shifted.
6. At the station B, C, etc., the lines parallel to the corrections and distances
equal to B1b, C1c, etc., are plotted as shown in Fig. 5.21(a).
7. Join the points A, B, C, D and E to get the adjusted traverse.
In a particular case the closing error AA1 may be in the direction of the line
BA. To adjust the traverse graphically, the closing error AA1 is plotted as A1 a
(Fig. 5.21 (c)) and perpendicular to AA1. The intercepts B1b, C1c, etc., represent the
corrections in magnitude only. The directions of these corrections will be the direction of
BA.
Traversing 195

This method of graphical adjustment of closing error


is preferred when angles are measured very precisely, e.g., in theodolite traversing.
In this method, the lines are kept parallel to originally plotted traverse lines, and
in the process there lengths get altered.
Let ABCDEA, a closed traverse, was plotted as ABCDEA1 with A as the starting
point and A1 as the closing point. Thus the closing error is AA1. On extending this
closing error, it may cut the traverse (Fig. 5.22) and divide it in almost two equal
parts or in very unequal parts (Fig. 5.23) or even may not cut it all.

The traverse is cut by extended closing error line in almost two equal
parts (Fig. 5.22).
1. The extended closing error line A1AA0 is known as axis of correction.
2. Divide the closing error A1A in two equal parts such that A1A2 = A2A.
3. Assume A2 to be the correct plotted position of A.
4. Now join the axis point A0 with points B, C, D A and E and extend lines
A0B, A0C, A0D and A0E if required as will be obvious from the next
step.
5. Draw a line parallel to AB, through A2, and cutting the extended line A0B
in B2.
6. Adopt the same procedure and plot C2, D2 and E2.
7. A2B2C2D2E2 is the required traverse.
The extended closing error line divides the traverse in very unequal parts
or does not cut it at all (Fig. 5.23).
The closing error line AA1 of traverse ABCDEA1 of (Fig. 5.23) if extended will
not intersect the traverse at all. Therefore, the closing error line will have to be
shifted to some other station so that the extended closing error line divides the
traverse in almost two equal parts.
1. AA1 the closing error, if extended will not intersect the traverse.
2. Draw a line AE1 parallel and equal in length to A1E. Now, EE1 when
extended will divide the traverse in almost two equal parts.
3. Once E0 is established the procedure as explained for solving case 1 may
be followed to adjust the transverse.
196 Surveying

5.5.5 gale’s Traverse Table


Traverse computations are usually done in a tabular form. One such form is
Gale’s traverse table (Table 5.1) and is widely used because of its simplicity. The
following steps are involved in theodolite traversing and these are illustrated in
Table 5.1.
1. In the case of theodolite traversing, the included angles are adjusted to
satisfy the geometrical conditions, i.e., the sum of the included angles
should be (2n ± 4) 90°, where n is the number of sides of the closed
traverse. The plus sign is used when the angles are exterior angles, and
the minus sign when they are interior angles.
In the case of compass traversing, the observed bearings are adjusted for
local attraction.
2. From the observed bearing of a line, e.g., line AB in Table 5.1, the whole
circle bearings of all other lines are calculated and then these bearings are
reduced to those in the quadrantal system.
3. From the lengths and computed reduced bearings of the lines, the
consecutive coordinates, i.e., latitudes and departures are worked out.
4. A check is done to find out whether the algebraic sum of latitudes and
the algebraic sum of departures are zero. If not, a correction is applied
using the transit rule.
In the case of a compass traverse, the correction is applied by Bowditch
rule.
5. The independent coordinates are then worked out from the consecutive
coordinates. The origin is so selected that the entire traverse lies in the
north-east quadrant. This is done to facilitate plotting of the traverse on a
sheet with the left-hand bottom corner of the sheet as the origin.

e xample 5.13 The lengths, bearings and included angles of a closed traverse
ABCDA, as observed with a transit theodolite, are given below. Prepare a Gale’s
traverse table and plot the traverse.
Line Length Included angle W.C.B.
AB 255 m A = 93°18 16 140°42
BC 656 m B = 74°16 25
CD 120 m C = 123°42 00
DA 668 m D = 68°41 16
s olution Corrected Included Angles
Sum of the observed included angles of the traverse
= 93°18 16 + 74°16 24 + 123°42 00 + 68°41 16
= 359°57 56
Theoretical sum of included angles = (2n – 4) 90° = (2 4 – 4) 90° = 360°
Correction = 360° – 359°57 56 = 2 4
A correction of (2 4 /4) = 31 should be applied to each included angle.
Hence, corrected angles are:
Traversing 197

A = 93°18 16 + 31 = 93°18 47
B = 74°16 24 + 31 = 74°16 55
C = 123°42 00 + 31 = 123°42 31
D = 68°41 16 + 31 = 68°41 47
Calculation of Bearings
Bearing of line AB 140°42
Add B 74°16 55
Sum = 214°58 55
Subtract 180° – 180°
Bearing of line BC 34°58 55
Add C 123°42 31
Sum = 158°41 26
Add 180° 180°
Bearing of line CD 338°41 26
Add D 68°41 47
Sum = 407°23 13
Subtract 180° – 180°
Bearing of line DA 227°23 13
Add A 93°18 47
Sum = 320°42 00
Subtract 180° – 180°
Bearing of line AB 140°42 00
Line W.C.B. R.B. Quadrant
AB 140°42 39°18 SE
BC 34°58 55 34°58 55 NE
CD 338°41 26 21°18 34 NW
DA 227°23 13 47°23 13 SW
Station B:
Latitude = 225 cos 39°18 = 197.329 m
Departure = 255 sin 39°18 = 161.512 m
Station C:
Latitude = 656 cos 34°58 55 = 537.482 m
Departure = 656 sin 34°58 55 = 376.097 m
Station D:
Latitude = 120 cos 21°18 34 = 111.796 m
Departure = 120 sin 21°18 34 = 43.608 m
Station A:
Latitude = 668 cos 47°23 13 = 452.265 m
Departure = 668 sin 47°23 13 = 491.610 m
198 Surveying

Closing Error
L = + 537.482 + 111.796 – 197.329 – 452.265 = – 0.316 m
D = + 161.512 + 376.097 – 43.608 – 491.610 = + 2.391 m
Hence, there is a closing error.
____________ _________________
Closing error, e = ( L)2 + ( D)2 = (–0.316)2 + (2.391)2
= 2.411 m
The reduced bearing of closing error,
= tan–1 2.390/0.316 = 82°27 39
Since L is negative and D is positive, the quadrant of closing error is SE.
Corrections
Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side
= total error in latitude (or departure)
latitude (or departure) of the side
× ____________________________________
arithmetic sum of latitudes (or departures)
Line AB:
197.329
Correction to southing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.048 m (–ve)
161.512
Correction to easting = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 0.360 m (–ve)
Line BC:
537.482
Correction to northing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.131 m (+ve)
376.097
Correction to easting = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 0.838 m (–ve)
Line CD:
111.796
Correction to northing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.027 m (+ve)
43.608
Correction to westing = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 0.097 m (+ve)
Line DA:
452.265
Correction to southing = 0.316 ________________
649.278 + 649.594
= 0.110 m (–ve)
491.610
Correction to westing = 2.391 ________________
537.609 + 535.218
= 1.096 m (+ve)
Traversing 199

Instrument Angle Corr- Corrected W.C.B. R.B. Quadrant Length of


station ection angle the line
A 93°18 16 + 31 93°18 47 140°42 39°18 SE AB = 255 m
B 74°16 24 + 31 74°16 55 34°58 55 34°58 55 NE BC = 656 m
C 123°42 00 + 31 123°42 31 338°41 26 21°18 34 NW CD = 120 m
D 68°41 16 + 31 68°41 47 227°23 13 47°23 13 SW DA = 668 m

Consecutive coordinates (m) Corrections (m)


Northing Southing Easting Westing Northing Southing Easting Westing
197.329 161.512 – 0.048 – 0.360
537.482 376.097 0.131 – 0.838
111.796 43.609 0.027 0.097
452.265 491.610 – 0.110 1.095
N 649.278 S 649.594 E 537.609 W535.219 N + 0.158 S – 0.158 E – 1.198 W + 1.192
– 0.316 + 2.390 + 0.316 – 2.390

Corrected consecutive coordinates (m) Independent coordinates (m)


Northing Southing Easting Westing Northing Easting
197.281 161.152 302.719 661.152
537.613 375.259 840.332 1036.411
111.823 43.706 952.155 992.705
452.155 492.705 500 500
N 649.436 S 649.436 E 536.411 W 536.411

In Table 5.1, under the head corrected consecutive coordinates, the maximum
southing is 452.155 m and maximum westing is 492.705 m. For plotting the
traverse in NE quadrant these two values have been assumed to be 500 m each and the
independent coordinates worked out.

e xample 5.14 Calculate latitudes, departures and closing error for the following
traverse conducted at Allahabad. Adjust also the traverse using Bowditch’s rule.
Line Length (m) W.C.B.
AB 89.31 45°10
BC 219.76 72°05
CD 151.18 161°52
DE 159.10 228°43
EA 232.26 300°42
s olution
Line Length (m) W.C.B. R.B. Quadrant
AB 89.31 45°10 45°10 NE
BC 219.76 72°05 72°05 NE
CD 151.18 161°52 18°08 SE
DE 159.10 228°43 48°43 SW
EA 232.26 300°42 59°18 NW
200 Surveying

Line AB:
Latitude = 89.31 cos 45°10 = 62.967 m
Departure = 89.31 sin 45°10 = 63.335 m
Line BC:
Latitude = 219.76 cos 72°05 = 67.605 m
Departure = 219.76 sin 72°05 = 209.102 m
Line CD:
Latitude = – 151.18 cos 18°08 = – 143.671 m
Departure = 151.18 sin 18°08 = 47.051 m
Line DE:
Latitude = – 159.10 cos 48°43 = – 104.971 m
Departure = – 159.10 sin 48°43 = – 119.556 m
Line EA:
Latitude = 232.26 cos 59°18 = 118.578 m
Departure = – 232.26 sin 59°18 = – 199.709 m
Summation of latitudes and departures should be equal to zero.
L = 62.967 + 67.605 – 143.671 – 104.971 + 118.578
or L = + 0.508 m
D = 63.335 + 209.102 + 47.051 – 119.556 – 199.709
or D = + 0.223 m
____________
Closing error, e = ( L)2 + ( D)2
________________
= (0.508)2 + (0.223)2
= 0.5547 m
tan = D/ L
or tan 0.223
= _____
0.508
or = 23°42
The direction (bearing) of the closing error is N23°42 E. Since, the error
in latitude as well as in departure are both positive the corrections will be
negative.
Corrections
Perimeter of the traverse = 89.31 + 219.76 + 151.18 + 159.10 + 232.26
= 851.61 m
Line AB:

Correction in latitude = – 0.508 89.31 = – 0.0532 m


______
851.61
Correction in departure = – 0.223 89.31 = – 0.0233 m
______
851.61
Traversing 201

Line BC:

Correction in latitude = – 0.508 219.76 = – 0.131 m


______
851.61
Correction in departure = – 0.223 219.76 = – 0.0575 m
______
851.61
Line CD:

Correction in latitude = – 0.508 151.18 = – 0.090 m


______
851.61
Correction in departure = – 0.223 151.18 = – 0.0395 m
______
851.61
Line DE:
Correction in latitude = – 0.508 159.10 = – 0.0949 m
______
851.61
Correction in departure = – 0.223 159.10 = – 0.0416 m
______
851.61
Line EA:
Correction in latitude = – 0.508 232.26 = – 0.1385 m
______
851.61
Correction in departure = – 0.223 232.26 = – 0.0608 m
______
851.61
Corrected Latitudes and Departures
Line AB:
Latitude = 62.967 – 0.0532 = 62.9138 m
Departure = 63.335 – 0.0233 = 63.3117 m
Line BC:
Latitude = 67.605 – 0.131 = 67.474 m
Departure = 209.102 – 0.0575 = 209.0445 m
Line CD:
Latitude = – 143.671 – 0.090 = – 143.761 m
Departure = 47.051 – 0.0395 = 47.0115 m
Line DE:
Latitude = – 104.971 – 0.0949 = – 105.0659 m
Departure = – 119.556 – 0.0416 = – 119.5976 m
Line EA:
Latitude = 118.578 – 0.1385 = 118.4395 m
Departure = – 199.709 – 0.0608 = – 199.7698 m
L = 62.9138 + 67.474 – 143.761 – 105.0659 + 118.4395
= 0.0004 0
D = 63.3117 + 209.0445 + 47.0115 – 119.5976 – 199.7698
= 0.0003 0
202 Surveying

5.6 disTriBuTiOn Of anguLar errOr


Angular error of closure is defined as the difference between the sum of the measured
angles and the theoretical sum of the angles of a closed traverse. The theoretical
sum of the interior included angles of a closed traverse is (2n – 4) 90°, where n
is the number of sides of closed traverse.
1. The angular error of closure is distributed equally among all the angles,
if measured with equal precision.
2. The angular error of closure should not exceed the least count multiplied
__
by n .

5.7 adjusTMenT Of Bearings


Closing error in a bearing is the difference between the bearings of the last line
as observed at the first and the last station of the traverse.
Correction to the first bearing = e/n
Correction to the second bearing = 2 (e/n)
Correction to the last bearing = n (e/n) = e
where n is the number of sides of traverse, and e is the closing error in the bearing.

5.8 COMPuTaTiOn Of area Of a CLOsed Traverse By


COOrdinaTes
The area of a traverse may be Y
computed by the following method if
the coordinates of the traverse stations X4 4
are known. Refer to Fig. 5.24. 3
X3
1. Let (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2), ...,
(X n, Yn ) be the coordinates of X1 1
the N given traverse stations;
here N = 4.
2. The stations are numbered in
serial order. X1
2
Y1 Y4 Y2 3 Y
3. The area of the traverse may X
O
be computed by the general
formula:
1 [Y (X – X ) + Y (X – X ) + ... + Y (X – X
A = __
2 1 2 n 2 3 1 n 1 n – 1)]

This formula can be expressed alternatively in the following manner. Arrange


the coordinates in the form shown below for the case N = 4:
X1 X2 X3 Xn X1
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn Y1
Calculate the difference between the sum of the products of the coordinates
joined by full lines and the coordinates joined by dotted lines. The required area
is half of this difference.
Traversing 203

e xample 5.15 In a quadrilateral ABCD, the coordinates of the points


(in metres) are as follows:
Point East North
A 0 0
B 0 – 893.8
C 634.8 728.8
D 1068.4 699.3
Find the area of the figure.
s olution Arrange the coordinates in the following manner:
0 0 634.8 1068.4 0
0 – 893.8 – 728.8 699.3 0
Area = 1
__ [0 × (– 893.8) – 0 0 + 0 (– 728.8) – 634.8 (– 893.8)
2
+ 634.8 699.3 – 1068.4 (– 728.8) + 1068.4 0 – 699.3 0]
= 1 [634.8 893.8 + 634.8 699.3 + 1068.4 728.8]
__
2
= 894974.9 m2
= 89.4974 hectares

5.9 OMiTTed MeasureMenTs


Often it becomes impossible to measure all the lengths and bearings of a closed
traverse. The values of the missing quantities can be determined, provided they
do not exceed two in number. Since the observed and omitted measurements are
part of a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the all the latitudes and that of all
the departures are each zero, i.e., L = 0 and D = 0. Thus,
L = l1 cos 1 + l2 cos 2 + l3 cos 3 + ... = 0
and D = l1 sin 1 + l2 sin 2 + l3 sin 3 + ... = 0
where l1, l2, l3, ..., and 1, 2, 3, ..., are, respectively, the lengths and bearings
of the lines.
From the above two equations, the two unknowns can be obtained.
If the missing data be the bearings of any two lines of a closed traverse, then
it is preferable to solve the problem in the following manner rather than by opting
for a solution by the trigonometric method.
Let ABCDEFA be a closed traverse and let the bearings of two adjacent lines
CD and DE (Fig. 5.25) be missing. Join C and E. Now ABCEFA is a closed
traverse and the length and bearing of the line CE can be calculated by using the
equations L = 0 and D = 0.
In triangle CDE the lengths of all the three sides are known and therefore
the included angles can be obtained by applying the cosine formula. Now, since
the bearing of the line CE and the included angles of the triangle CDE are known,
the bearings of lines CD and DE can be obtained (see Chapter 3).
204 Surveying

Sometimes the bearings of two lines, which are not adjacent, are missing. In
such a case, the two lines are brought into the same triangle by imagining the
intervening lines as having shifted parallel to themselves in the direction parallel
to one of the unknowns. For example, in Fig. 5.26 let the bearings of lines CD and
FA are missing. CD is moved to F in such a way that FF1 is equal to and parallel
to CD. Join A and F1. Draw CE1 and E1F1 parallel to DE and EF, respectively. In
the closed traverse ABCE1F1A the lengths and bearings of CE1 and E1F1 are the
same as that of DE and EF, respectively. Thus, the length and bearing of line F1A
can be calculated by applying the usual equations L = 0 and D = 0. Thereafter,
the triangle AF1F can be solved for the bearings of F1F (CD) and FA as before.
Traversing 205

e xample 5.16 The following observations were made for a closed traverse
round an obstacle. Due to obstructions, lengths of lines DE and EA could not be
measured. Find out the missing lengths.
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 500 98°30
BC 620 30°20
CD 468 298°30
DE ? 230°00
EA ? 150°10
s olution The two lines DE and EA are adjacent lines of the closed traverse
ABCDE (Fig. 5.27). Join D and A by dotted lines so as to obtain a closed traverse
ABCD. Now, L and D should be zero for this traverse. Let the length and the
bearing of line DA be l and .
L = 0 = 500 cos 98°30 + 620 cos 30°20 + 468 cos 298°30 + l cos
or l cos = 73.90 – 535.12 – 223.3
or l cos = – 684.53 m (i)
D = 0 = 500 sin 98°30 + 620 sin 30°20 + 468 sin 298°30 + l sin
or l sin = – 494.50 – 313.12 + 411.28
or l sin = – 396.34 m (ii)
Since latitude and departure both are negative, the line DA lies in the third
quadrant (SW). From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
____________________
l = (–684.53)2 + (–396.34)2
= 790.99 m

tan = ___ 396.34


D = ______
L 684.53
= 30°04 SW
Bearing of DA = S 30°04 W = 210°04
Now, in the triangle DAE, the length and the bearing of line DA is known.
Also, the bearings of DE and EA are known.
Bearing of DA = 210°04
Bearing of AD = 210°04 – 180° = 30°04
Bearing of DE = 230°00
Bearing of EA = 150°10
Since traverse ADE is anticlockwise, the included angles will be the interior
angles.
ADE = 230°00 – (30°04 + 180°) = 19°56
DEA = 150°10 – (230° – 180°) = 100°10
EAD = 30°04 – (150°10 + 180°) = 300°56 – 360° = 59°54
The bearings of lines DE and EA can be obtained by applying the sine rule.
206 Surveying

From ADE:

DE = DA sin sin 59°54 = 695.24 m


EAD = 790.99 × __________
_______
sin AED sin 100°10
EA = DA sin sin 19°56 = 273.97 m
ADE = 790.99 × __________
_______
sin AED sin 100°10

e xample 5.17 While traversing Naini, Allahabad, a closed traverse ABCD


was made. Due to the obstructions it was not possible to observe the bearings of
lines BC and CD. Calculate the missing bearings.
Line Length (m) W.C.B.
AB 550 60°
BC 1200 ?
CD 880 ?
DA 1050 310°
s olution Since, the bearings of two consecutive lines BC and CD are missing,
join B and D by dotted lines as shown in Fig. 5.28 so as to obtain a closed traverse
ABD. Now L and D should be zero for this traverse. Let the length and bearing
of line BD be l and , respectively.
L = 0 = 550 cos 60° + l cos + 1050 cos 310°
or l cos = – 949.927 m (i)
D = 0 = 550 sin 60° + l sin + 1050 sin 310°
or l sin = 328.033 m (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
_____________________
l = (–949.927)2 + (328.033)2 = 1004.971 m

and tan 328.033


= _______
949.927
or = 19°3 3.7
Traversing 207

Since, the latitude of the line is negative and the departure is positive, the
line lies in the SE quadrant. The bearing of line BD is 180° – 19°3 3.7 =
160°56 3 .
Now, in the triangle BCD, the lengths of all the three sides are known. Hence,
the interior included angles , , can be found by applying the cosine rule.
2
cos = 1200 + 8802 – 1004.9712 = 0.5703
______________________
2 1200 880
or = 55°13 48
2
cos = 1200 + 1004.9712 – 8802 = 0.6947
______________________
2 1004.971 1200
or = 45°59 48
2
cos = 1004.971 – 8802 – 12002 = 0.1947
______________________
2 1004.971 880
or = 78°46 24
Check: + + = 45°49 58 + 55°13 48 + 78°46 24
= 180° (O.K.)
Since the closed traverse BCDB has been traversed clockwise, the included
angles will be the exterior angles.
F.B. of BC = F.B. of DB + DBC
= (180° + 160°56 56.3 ) + (360° – 45°59 48 )
= 656°57 8.3 – 540° = 114°57 8.3
F.B. of CD = F.B. of BC + BCD
= 114°57 8.3 + (360° – 55°13 48 )
= 419°43 20.3 – 180° = 239°43 20.3
208 Surveying

Summary
Surveying is performed either by traversing or triangulation, the former being for relatively
smaller areas. This is a very useful method to provide horizontal control over the surveys.
The horizontal distances are usually measured with a chain, or a tape, or an EDM instrument,
and the relative directions of survey lines with a compass or theodolite. Depending upon
the suitability either a closed traverse or an open traverse may be used to locate details of
the area being surveyed.
The various methods of plotting traverse are described. Checks to be performed to
ascertain the accuracy of the work are introduced. While plotting the traverse with the
observed data it may be found that the traverse is not closing; the error is termed as closing
error. The analytical and graphical solutions to balance the traverse are described.

Exercises
5.1 Define: traversing, close traverse, open traverse, closing error, negative coordinate.
5.2 Differentiate between the following:
(a) Close and open traverses
(b) Bowditch and transit rules
(c) Consecutive and independent coordinates
5.3 Discuss in details the method of plotting a traverse by coordinates. For a close
traverse, would you prefer consecutive coordinates? If so, explain why?
5.4 How is the closing error of a traverse adjusted graphically?
5.5 What is meant by balancing a traverse? State the various rules used to do this.
5.6 State the checks to be applied in the following cases:
(a) Open traverse (b) Close traverse
5.7 List in tabular form the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of
plotting traverses.
5.8 The bearings to two inaccessible stations A and B taken from a station C were
250°00 and 153°26 , respectively. The coordinates of A and B were as follows:
Station Easting Northing
A 300 200
B 400 150
Calculate the independent coordinates of C.
[Ans. 363.45, 223.10]
5.9 A closed traverse ABCD, in which the bearing of AD has not been observed and
the length of BC has been missed out in recording, was conducted at Allahabad.
The rest of the field record is as follows:
Line Bearing Length (m)
AB 181°18 335
BC 90°00 –
CD 357°36 408
DA – 828
Calculate the missing bearing and the length.
[Ans. Bearing = 264°57 40 , Length = 849.5 m]
5.10 A straight line AC of length 2000 m is required to be set out at right angles to
a given line AB. This is done by traversing from A towards C. The observations
recorded are as follows:
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB – 360°00
AD 731 113°48
Traversing 209

DE 467 81°18
EF 583 105°54
Calculate the necessary length and bearing of FC.
[Ans. Length = 492.85 m, Bearing = 38°48 13 ]
5.11 A straight tunnel is to be run between two points A and B, whose independent
coordinates are:
Point Independent coordinates
N E
A 0 0
B 3014 256
C 1764 1398
It is desired to sink a shaft at D, the mid-point of AB, but it is impossible to measure
along AB directly. So D is to be fixed from C, another point whose coordinates are
known. Calculate the
(a) independent coordinates of D
(b) length and bearing of CD
(c) angle ACD, given the W.C.B. of AC is 38°24 .
[Ans. (1507, 128), 1295.74 m, 258°34 , 40°10 ]
5.12 A helicopter flies in sky from Manauri (M) in Allahabad to Teliarganj (T) as per
following conditions:
(a) 5.0 km along a 5°00 up gradient eastwards up to B
(b) 3.0 km along a 3°00 up gradient northwards up to C
(c) 4.0 km along a 4°00 up gradient in the N-W direction up to D
(d) 4.0 km along a 4°00 down gradient southwards up to M
Calculate the bearing, distance and gradient to reach the point T. The starting point
M has coordinates N-1000 m and E-200 m and its height above datum is 100 m.
[Ans. Bearing of TM = S49°45 52 W, Horizontal distance
MT = 2828.7 m, gradient = 1 in 4.77 downwards]
5.13 In a traverse ABCDEFG, the line BA is taken as the reference meridian, the
coordinates of the sides AB, BC, CD, DE, EF are:
Line AB BC CD DE EF
Northing – 1190.9 – 565.3 590.5 606.9 1017.2
Easting 0 736.4 796.8 – 468.0 370.4
If the bearing of FG is 284°13 and its length is 896.00 m, find the length and
bearing of GA. [Ans. 884.21 m, 39°53 19 ]
5.14 For a railway project, a tunnel is to be run between two points P and Q whose
coordinates are given below:
Points Coordinates
N E
P 0 0
Q 4020 800
R 2120 1900
It is desired to sink a shaft at S, the mid-point of PQ. S is to be fixed from R, the
third known point. Calculate
(a) the coordinates of S (b) the length RS
(c) the bearing of RS
[Ans. N – 2010, E – 400; 1504.028 m; 265°48 ]
5.15 For a closed traverse ABCDE, the length and bearings of the lines are given as
follows.
210 Surveying

Line Length (m) Bearing


AB 362.55 N33°10 W
BC 218.00 N39°08 E
CD 163.22 S10°20 E
DE 195.95 S66°50 E
EA 278.53 S32°20 W
Compute the latitudes, departures, closing error, and precision of closure. Adjust the
latitudes and departures by the compass rule and then compute the adjusted length
and bearing of each line.
[Ans. 362.605 m, 218.093 m, 163.172 m, 195.967 m, 278.412 m;
N33°06 39 W, N39°07 0.54 E, S10°21 02 E,
S66°51 25 E, S32°19 55 W]
5.16 A surveyor is running a line in the direction AB having a bearing N10°30°W. It
was impossible to continue the line because of an obstruction. The obstruction was
being traversed random as ABCDE and it was continued. What should be the distance
DE so that points A, B and E lie on a straight line? What deflection angle must be
turned at E in order to continue the line AB? Also, calculate the distance EB. The
data observed was,
Point Deflection angle Line Length (m)
B 62°08 (R) BC 120.00
C 78°16 (L) CD 280.00
D 80°40 (L)
[Ans. 28.48 m, 83°12 R, 321.69 m]
5.17 For a closed traverse ABCDA, compute the missing data.
Line Length (m) Bearing
AB 100.00 N45°30 W
BC 605.00 N5°30 E
CD 95.00 N88°20 E
DA ? ?
[Ans. 679.97 m; 186°53 35.5 ]
5.18 In a quadrilateral ABCD, the coordinates of the points (in metres) are as follows:
Point E N
A 100 100
B 208 104
C 223 353
D 100 357
Calculate the area. [Ans. 29221.5 m2]
5.19 The following observations were made for a closed traverse ABCDEA.
Line Length (m) Included angle
AB 1512.1 EAB 112°36
BC 863.7 ABC 131°42
CD ? BCD 95°43
DE ? CDE ?
EA 793.7 DEA 93°14
It was not possible to occupy D, but it could be observed from C and E. Calculate
the observations that could not be made taking DE as datum assuming all the
observations to be correct.
[Ans. = 106°45 , DE = 1776.89 m, CD = 1170.96 m]
5.20 A straight road AB is proposed to be extended in the direction AB produced. The
c/l of the road is obstructed by a farm. A point C is to be fixed beyond the farm
Traversing 211

so that A, B and C lie in a straight line and a traverse is run from B to C. The
following observations were made:
ABD = 87°42 BD = 29.02 m
BDE = 282°36 DE = 77.14 m
DEC = 291°06
Calculate
(a) the length of line EC.
(b) the angle to be measured at C, so that the c/l of the road can be extended
beyond C.
(c) the chainage of C assuming the chainage of A to be 100 m and AB to be
130.64 m.
[Ans. 17.82 m, 58°36 , 296.07 m]

Objective-type Questions
5.1 If N is the number of stations and the least count of the instrument is 20 , then the
limit on the angular error of closure in traversing should
__ not be __
(a) <20 N (b) >20 N (c) <20 N (d) >20 N
5.2 If n is the number of sides of a traverse, while traversing clockwise the sum of the
included angles should be
(a) (2n – 4) 90° (b) (2n + 4) 90°
(c) (2n ± 4) 90° (d) 360°
5.3 Latitude of a line is defined as
(a) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the E–W line
(b) Orthographic projection of a survey line on the reference meridian
(c) Length of a survey line corrected for various chain/tape corrections
(d) None of the above
5.4 The coordinates of A are 100 (northing) and 200 (easting), whereas that of B are
100 (southing) and 200 (easting). The length AB is,
(a) 200 (b) 282.84 (c) 244.94 (d) 400
5.5 In open traversing, which of the following methods is preferred?
(a) Method of direct angles (b) Method of exterior angles
(c) Method of deflection angles (d) Method of interior angles
5.6 The departure of a line of traverse is its length multiplied by
(a) cosine of reduced bearing (b) sine of reduced bearing
(c) secant of reduced bearing (d) tangent of reduced bearing
5.7 The Gale method of traversing consists of plotting the points by
(a) independent coordinates (b) consecutive coordinates
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) chords
5.8 In a traverse survey, closing error means
(a) the error in the closing of the traversing operation
(b) the actual distance by which the traverse fails to close
(c) the distance between the starting and end point of an open traverse
(d) the bearings observed are unaffected by local attraction
5.9 In case of angular measurements being more precise than the linear
measurements, the traverse can be balanced by
(a) graphical method (b) theodolite correction
(c) Bowditch rule (d) transit rule
212 Surveying

5.10 To observe the included angle accurately, method preferred is


(a) repetition (b) reiteration
(c) by deflection angles (d) double precision
5.11 In traverse surveying, deflection angle is always
(a) equal to the difference of 180° and the interior included angle
(b) < 90°
(c) > 90°
(d) equal to 90°
5.12 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A closed traverse is employed for locating boundaries of areas across which
tie lines cannot be measured.
(b) A closed traverse is employed for determining area.
(c) Both (a) and (b) are correct.
(d) None of the above.
5.13 Choose the correct statement.
(a) A closed traverse is most suited for a narrow strip of land.
(b) Free needle method is better than fast needle method of traversing.
(c) The coordinate method of plotting a traverse is usually employed.
(d) The departure of a line is its projection on the reference meridian.
5.14 Choose the correct statement.
(a) If l is the length and is the angle which the line makes with east direction,
its latitude is l cos
(b) The sum of the exterior angles of a traverse of n sides is (2n – 4) 90°.
(c) The algebraic sum of deflection angles should be zero.
(d) Cut-off lines are used to check the accuracy of an open traverse.
5.15 An open traverse can be checked by
(a) included angles (b) deflection angles
(c) astronomical observations (d) linear measurements
5.16 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Transit rule is also known as compass rule.
(b) Graphical adjustment of closing error is based on transit rule.
(c) If e is the error of closure and the number of lines in the traverse is 5, then
the correction to the second observed bearing is (2)2 e/5.
(d) If n is the number of sides of a traverse,
__
then the angular error of closure
should not exceed by least count n .
5.17 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) An example of a negative coordinate is the south coordinate.
(ii) The method of plotting by independent coordinates is better than by
consecutive coordinates.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None is correct
5.18 Consider the following steps:
(i) Calculation of L and D.
(ii) Correction of latitudes and departures.
(iii) Calculation of bearings.
(iv) Calculation of interior angles.
(v) Calculation of independent angles.
The correct sequence of these steps in Gale’s traverse table calculations is
(a) (iii), (iv), (v), (ii), (i) (b) (iv), (iii), (i), (ii), (v)
(c) (ii), (i), (iii), (iv), (v) (d) (iv), (iii), (v), (ii), (i)
Traversing 213

5.19 Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below
the lists:
List-I
(i) Adjustment of surveying instruments
(ii) Bowditch’s rule
(iii) Triangulation
(iv) Bessel’s method
List-II
(A) Bringing the various fixed parts of the instruments into proper relations with
one another
(B) Solution of three point problem
(C) Measuring all the angles and base line
(D) Balancing the latitudes and departures
Codes:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (A) (B) (C) (D)
(b) (C) (D) (A) (B)
(c) (A) (D) (C) (B)
(d) (C) (B) (A) (D)
5.20 Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?
(a) Declination : Horizontal angle between magnetic meridian
and true meridian.
(b) Bowditch’s rule : Employed to adjust closing error of a closed
traverse.
(c) Deflection angle : Measured in case of open traverse instead of
measuring included angle.
(d) Reconnaissance survey : Employed for detailed and precise survey.

Answers to Objective-type Questions


5.1 (d) 5.2 (b) 5.3 (b) 5.4 (a) 5.5 (c) 5.6 (b)
5.7 (a) 5.8 (b) 5.9 (d) 5.10 (a) 5.11 (a) 5.12 (c)
5.13 (c) 5.14 (d) 5.15 (c) 5.16 (d) 5.17 (c) 5.18 (a)
5.19 (c) 5.20 (d)
MeasureMent
6 of Vertical
Distances

Introduction
The relative position of a point in terms of the vertical distance, above or below
another point is designated by its elevation. The elevation of a point may thus
be defined as its vertical distance above or below a reference surface (datum)
having zero elevation. Therefore, elevation of a point may be considered as its
vertical coordinate. It is treated as positive if the point is above and as negative
if the point is below the datum. Grade and altitude are the two terms frequently
used as an alternate to the term elevation. Grade is an expression of elevation
in construction activities, whereas altitude is the vertical distance of a point in
space. Usually sea level is considered to be the standard datum, but sometimes
an arbitrary assumed surface is taken as the reference. The value for mean sea
level (m.s.l.) as datum is obtained by averaging the elevations of high and low
tides, at several points, for a long period of time, say about 19 years. However,
any surface may be assumed as datum when relative elevation over a limited area
is to be established. This is done by assigning an elevation to some permanent
control point and determining the elevation of the desired points in the area with
respect to the assigned value of the control point. The assigned value can be of
any magnitude. For convenience, a sufficiently large value should be used so that
no point in the system has a negative value. The vertical heights of points above or
below a datum are referred to as simply levels or reduced levels and the operation
of determining the difference of elevation of points with respect to each other on
the surface of the earth is called levelling.
Most of the civil engineering projects are built on calculated slopes. Determination
of differences of elevations is therefore very important for many purposes such as
topographic mapping, setting up grade stakes for sewer lines, ensuring a proper
drainage system so that the flow takes place in the proper direction, carrying
out excavations up to a prescribed depth (elevation) for footing of a structure,
construction of bridge piers to a design elevation, measuring the settlement of
existing buildings, laying out highways and railways, delineating shore lines for a
proposed reservoir, and so on.
In some cases, the points for which the difference in elevation is required are
located next to other one below/above the other, as may be the case, of a boundary
wall, multistorey building, etc. In such cases, a tape may be suspended from the
Measurement of Vertical Distances 215

top and the vertical distance can be measured. However, in general, this may not
be feasible for all situations. For example, it may be required to find the difference
in elevation between two points of different levels about 1 km apart. In such a
case, it is not feasible to stretch a tape vertically between the two points. The
difference in elevations in such cases is determined by levelling.
The method of levelling may either be direct, e.g., simple levelling, differential
levelling, profile levelling, cross sectioning, reciprocal levelling, precise levelling,
check levelling, and fly levelling, or may be indirect, e.g., trigonometric levelling,
barometric levelling, hypsometry and aerial survey.
In direct levelling, the difference in elevation between two points is obtained by
measuring the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line. An instrument
level is used to observe it on a graduated staff placed on the points. This is the most
precise method of levelling and is also known as spirit levelling. In trigonometric
levelling, the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles observed
with a transit and the distances measured with either chain or tape. The stadia
method described in Chapter 7 is also a form of trigonometric levelling. Barometric
levelling is based on the fact that atmospheric pressure is inversely proportional
to the elevation, whereas hypsometry, in addition to this, uses the fact that the
boiling point of water is lowered as the pressure decreases (a barometer is used to
measure atmospheric pressures at the points). These methods are not very accurate
as compared to the trigonometric method because the atmospheric pressure at a
point is influenced by weather conditions.
Since spirit levelling, and specially differential levelling, is the most common
method of determining the elevations, most of this chapter has been devoted to
the same.

6.1 Definitions
Some of the basic terms defined below are illustrated in Figs. 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3.
216 Surveying

A surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth


is called level surface, e.g., a still lake. A level surface is a curved surface, every
point on which is equidistant from the centre of the earth. It is normal to the
plumb line at all the points.
It is a line from any point on the earth’s surface to the centre
of the earth. It is commonly considered to be the line defined by a plumb line.
It is a line lying on a level surface. It is normal to the plumb line
at all the points.
It is a plane tangential to the level surface at the point
under consideration. It is perpendicular to the plumb line.
It is line lying in the horizontal plane. It is a straight line
tangential to the level line.
Elevation of a point is the vertical distance above or below the
datum. It is also known as reduced level (R.L.).
It is a line joining the optical centre of the objective to
the centre of the eyepiece.
It is a line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs to the
optical centre of the objective and its continuation. Since in levelling the line of
sight should remain horizontal while making the sights, the line of sight when
horizontal is called the line of collimation.
It is an imaginary line tangential to the
longitudinal curve of the tube at its mid-point.
It is the elevation of the plane of collimation
when the instrument is levelled, e.g., the height of the instrument is 102 m in Fig.
6.2. It should be noted that the height of an instrument does not mean the height
of the centre of the telescope above the ground, where the level is set up.

102 102
102 102

B.M.

It is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation,


e.g., a sight on a bench mark (station A) or on a change point, i.e., station C. In
Fig. 6.3 a and c1, are back sights. It is the first staff reading taken after the level
is set up. It is also called plus sight.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 217

H.I. H.I. I.S. F.S.


B.S.
a b B.S. H.I.
c F.S.
B c1
d
A C.P. C
D

It is a staff reading taken on a point whose elevation is to


be determined, e.g., a sight on a change point, i.e., station C and D. In Fig. 6.3
c and d are fore sights. It is also called a minus sight. It is the last staff reading
and denotes the shifting of the level.
The terms backsight and foresight are misnomers. The sights may be taken in
any direction irrespective of the points of known or unknown elevations on any
side of the instrument.
It is a staff reading taken on a point of unknown
elevation between backsight and foresight, e.g., a sight on station B. In Fig. 6.3
b is the intermediate sight.
It is a point, denoting the
shifting of the level. Both F.S. and B.S. are taken on this point e.g., station C
(Fig. 6.3).
A point, whose elevation is to be determined is called station. The
staff is kept at this point, e.g., A, B and C (Fig. 6.3).
It is the apparent movement of the image relative to the cross-
hairs when the image formed by the objective does not fall in the plane of the
diaphragm.
It is a fixed reference point of known elevation.
Depending upon the permanency and precision, bench marks may be of the
following types:
These are established by
the Survey of India at an interval of about of 100 km all over the country with
respect to the mean sea level at Bombay Port as datum. Their elevations are shown
on a G.T.S. map.
These are established between the G.T.S. bench
marks by the government agencies like P.W.D. on clearly defined and permanent
points such as the top of a parapet wall of a bridge or culvert, kilometre stone,
railway platform, etc.
These are reference points whose elevations are
arbitrarily assumed for small levelling operations. Their elevations do not refer
to any fixed datum.
These are the reference points on which a day’s
work is closed and from where levelling is continued the next day. Such a B.M.
is carefully established on permanent objects like kilometre stones, parapets, etc.
218 Surveying

6.2 leVel
The levelling operation involves the measurement of vertical distance of a point
relative to a horizontal line of sight. To accomplish this, it requires an instrument
that will provide a horizontal line of sight and a graduated staff. The instrument
that provides the horizontal line of sight is known as level and the graduated staff
is called levelling staff. A level essentially consists of a telescope to provide the
line of sight, a level tube to make the line of sight horizontal, a levelling head to
bring the bubble of the level tube at the centre of its run, and a tripod to support
the level. However, since the level need not be set up over any particular point,
a plumb bob is not required.

6.2.1 telescope
The principle of a telescope is based on the optical phenomenon
that all parallel rays of light incident on a convex lens get bent due to refraction
and they leave the lens in such a manner that they intersect at a common point,
generally known as the focus, and all other rays passing through the optical centre
of the lens, leave the lens without bending.
A line diagram of typical external and internal focussing telescopes
are shown in Fig. 6.4. A telescope essentially consists of a diaphragm ring and
two convex lenses. The lens near the eye is called eyepiece and that towards the
object is called objective. The objective provides a real inverted image in front
of the eyepiece, at a distance lesser than its focal length, and hence the eyepiece
in turn produces a magnified and vertical image of the object on the same side
of eyepiece.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 219

The objective consists of


two lenses in contact with each other so as to reduce the chromatic and spherical
aberrations. It consists of a front double convex lens of crown glass and a back
convex lens of flint glass. The two lenses are cemented together by Canada
balsam.
Two planoconvex lenses of equal focal
length f are placed in a tube, such that their spherical surfaces face each other and
are separated by a distance equal to (2/3) f.
It is made of gunmetal and has a circular cross section. It
carries two hair made of silk or spider thread or of platinum wires. One hair is
vertical and the other is horizontal. These are placed in the plane at which the
vertical image of the object is formed by the objective.
Diaphragm screws are provided in some cases which give vertical or lateral
movement to the diaphragm ring (Fig. 6.5).

A telescope, in which focussing


is achieved by the external
movement of the objective
tube is known as an external
focussing telescope. The
movement is done with the help
of a focussing screw.

A telescope in which focussing


is achieved internally with
a negative lens is called an
internal focussing telescope.
The objective and the eyepiece
are kept at a fixed distance and
focussing is achieved by a double
concave lens mounted in a short
tube capable of sliding axially
to-and-fro between the eyepiece
and the objective. Focussing is
done by moving the negative
lens with a focussing screw.

1. Short in length and compact.


2. Difficult for dust or moisture to enter the telescope barrel.
3. The error introduced by constant usage, tending to cause the movement of
the internal lens to become non-axial, will be much less serious than that
resulting from a change in the position of the line of sight of an external
focussing telescope when the objective or eye piece slide becomes loose
after wear.
220 Surveying

1. Reduction in brilliancy of the image resulting from the passage of light


rays through the additional internal lens.
2. Tends to be more expensive.

6.2.2 levelling Head


It is generally a conical socket attached with a triangular base called tribrach
having three or four levelling screws. Two level tubes are provided over it. The
screws are adjusted by turning them until the bubble remains in the centre of the
tube for a complete revolution of the telescope. The process of performing this
will be explained later in Section 6.5.
The three-screw arrangement is advantageous as it is efficient and is not
subjected to the rocking which takes place in the four-screw type when the two
diagonally opposite screws are turned up or down slightly more than the other
two. Manipulation of the four-screw head does not change the elevation of the
telescope, whereas in the case of the three-screw head, if all the three screws are
turned up or turned down, a slight difference in elevation of line of sight results.
The advantages of providing a three-screw levelling head has been discussed in
Section 4.2.

6.2.3 level tube


In nearly all the surveying instruments the direction of gravity is determined by
means of either a plumb line or a level tube. A level tube is also known as a
bubble tube or spirit level or level vial (Fig. 6.6.). It is a glass tube, sealed at
both the ends, the inside of which is ground to a circular curve longitudinally, and
nearly filled with a sensitive liquid such as alcohol or ether, leaving enough space
to form a bubble. The liquid must be quick acting, non-freezing and stable under
normal temperature variations. Purified synthetic alcohol is the best.
Adjusting screw
Glass tube
Bubble
Cement

Fluid with
Spring low viscosity

Hinge

Adjusting screws

The radius of the circular longitudinal curve of the tube varies according to
use. A very short radius makes a slow moving bubble, while a long radius makes
Measurement of Vertical Distances 221

a very sensitive bubble. It is important that the curve should be exactly circular so
that equal distances on the tube subtend equal angles at the centre of curvature.
The level is provided with a scale having uniform graduations (generally of 2
mm length) etched on the exterior surface of the tube to show the exact position
of the bubble. A point mid-way on the tube is selected as the zero point and the
graduations are considered as numbered both ways from that point. The position
of the bubble in the bubble tube is determined by noting the positions of both the
ends. This is necessary because the bubble will change its length with changes in
temperature, and consequently, the reading of one end is not sufficient to determine
the position of the bubble. On account of the action of gravity on the liquid, the
bubble will always move towards the higher end of the tube; hence, when the axis
of the tube is horizontal, the bubble is central.
Sensitivity of a level tube depends upon the
following:
1. Radius of curvature of the internal surface: Larger the radius, greater is
the sensitiveness.
2. Diameter of the level tube: Larger the diameter, greater is the
sensitiveness.
3. Length of the vapour bubble: Larger the length, greater is the
sensitiveness.
4. Viscosity and surface tension of the liquid: Lesser the viscosity, more is
the sensitiveness.
5. Smoothness of the finish of the
internal surface of the tube:
Greater the smoothness, more
is the sensitivity.

1. Fix two points at a known


distance apart, say 100 m.
2. Set up and level the instrument
at O (Fig. 6.7).
3. Take the reading on staff held
vertical at C.
4. By turning the foot screw
beneath the telescope, move the
bubble to n divisions.
5. Read the staff again.
6. Find the difference in the two
staff readings.
= S/D = n (l/R) (6.1)
where
= angle between the line of sights in radians,
D = distance of the instrument from the staff,
n = number of divisions through which the bubble is moved,
R = radius of curvature of tube,
222 Surveying

S = staff intercept and


l = length of one division of bubble tube (usually 2 mm).
From Eq. (6.1)
R = n l D/S (6.2)
and l/R = S / nD
or = l/R = (S /nD) 206 265 (in seconds) (6.3)
where = sensitivity of bubble tube.

e xample 6.1 Find the radius of the longitudinal curvature of the bubble tube
on which the divisions are 2 mm long, if the angular value of one division is 30
seconds.
s olution
R = l/
l = 2 mm = 0.002 m
= 30/206 265 radians

Therefore, 0.002 206 265 = 13.75 m


R = _______________
30
R = 13.75 m

e xample 6.2 If the bubble tube of a level has a sensitiveness of 30 per 2 mm


division, find the error in staff reading, on a vertically held staff at a distance of
150 m, caused by a bubble 2 divisions out of the centre.
s olution
= (S/nD) 206 265
or S = nD /206 265
= 30 2 150/206 265
= 0.0436 m

e xample 6.3 A level with a three-screw levelling head is set up with the
telescope parallel to two of the foot screws and is sighted on a staff 100 m away.
The line of sight is depressed by manipulating these two foot screws until the
bubble on the telescope tube reads 4 divisions at the object glass end and 10
divisions at the eyepiece end. These readings represent divisions from a zero at
the centre of the bubble tube. The reading on the staff was 1.350 m. By similarly
elevating the sight, the bubble readings were 9 and 5 divisions at the object
glass end and the eyepiece end, respectively, and the staff reading was 2.235 m.
Determine the sensitivity of the bubble tube and the radius of curvature of the
bubble tube if the length of one division is 2 mm.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.8.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 223

2.235 D

2 div. C
100 m 3 div.
A B
1.350
E

First case
Difference in bubble readings = 10 – 4 = 6 divisions
Bubble is off the centre by 6/2 = 3 divisions
Second case
Difference in bubble readings = 9 – 5 = 4 divisions
Bubble is off the centre by 4/2 = 2 divisions
Total number of divisions the bubble has moved from the first to the second
case = 3 + 2 = 5
5 divisions represent a staff intercept of
2.235 – 1.350 = 0.885 m
The angle DCE caused by the movement of the bubble by 5 divisions
0.885 = 0.00885 radians
= _____
100
Hence, one division = 0.00885
_______ radians
5
0.00885 ____
= _______ 180 60 60
5
= 365.08
Thus, sensitivity of bubble tube is 365.08 per division.
Now, DCE = 0.00885 radians
Arc, AB = nl = 5 2 = 10 mm
10 = 0.00885
___
R
or 10
R = _______ = 1129.94 mm
0.00885
or R = 1.129 m
224 Surveying

6.3 types of leVel


The various types of levels used in surveying are described below.

6.3.1 Dumpy level


This is the most widely used direct levelling instrument. The essential features of
the dumpy level are shown in Fig. 6.9. It consists of a telescope which is rigidly
fixed to its support. It can neither be rotated about its longitudinal axis nor can it
be removed from its support. It is very advantageous when several observations
are to be made with one set up of the instrument.

Capstan
adjusting screw Spirit bubble Capstan adjusting
screw

Line of sight

Ramsden eyepiece
Crown and flint
glass objective lens Diaphragm with
cross-hairs and
Tribrach stadia wires
Internal focussing
lens
Foot screw

6.3.2 Wye-level
This is similar to the dumpy level except that the telescope in this is supported
by two Y-shaped uprights (Fig. 6.10) fixed to a horizontal bar and attached to the
vertical spindle about which the instrument rotates. The telescope can be lifted
clear of the Y-supports by releasing the two clamping collars which fit across the
tops of the Y-supports. Wye-level has an advantage over dumpy level in that its
adjustments can be tested rapidly. The disadvantage is that is carries many loose
and open parts, which are liable to frictional wear.

6.3.3 cooke’s reversible level


It combines the good features of both the dumpy and wye-levels. It may be rotated
about its line of sight giving a bubble left and bubble right reading. Thus, the
collimation error is eliminated. It also permits an easy permanent adjustment. The
features of Cooke’s reversible level are shown in Fig. 6.11.

6.3.4 cushing’s level


In Cushing’s level, the telescope can neither be revolved about its longitudinal axis
nor can it be removed from its socket. However, the object glass and the eyepiece
along with the diaphragm ring are reversible and can be interchanged.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 225

Objective Telescope collar

Eye piece

Wyes
Level tube
adjusting screw Hinge

Clamp screw
Tangent screw

Foot screw
Tribrach

Level tube Transverse


Telescope collar
adjusting screw level tube

Fixing screw

Tribrach

Foot screw

6.3.5 automatic or adjusting level


It is similar to the dumpy level with its telescope fixed to the tribrach. For
approximate levelling, a circular spirit bubble is attached to the side of the telescope.
For accurate levelling, a stabiliser or compensator (Fig. 6.12 (a)) is fitted inside
the telescope, which automatically levels the instrument. Whatever may be the type
of automatic level used, it must be levelled within approximately 15–30 of the
vertical, to allow the compensator to work. This is usually achieved by using a
three footscrew arrangement in conjunction with a small circular level (sometimes
called a pond bubble) which is mounted somewhere on the level.
226 Surveying

The automatic levelling utilises the action of gravity in its operation. A prismatic
device called compensator is suspended on fine non-magnetic wires. A compensator
is an optical system consisting of two fixed prisms (Fig. 6.12 (b)) placed in the
optical path between the eyepiece and the objective. An inverted pendulum supported
by four non-magnetic wires, operates the compensating prism that keeps the image
of the sighted point at the intersection of the cross-hairs at D. When the instrument
becomes approximately level, the action of gravity on the compensator causes the
optical system to swing into the position that provides a horizontal line of sight.
The pendulum moves until its centre of gravity is over the intersection of the lines
of the wire supports. This moves the compensating prism so that the horizontal line
of sight is brought to the horizontal cross-hair at D (Fig. 6.12 (c)).
In addition to the levelling procedure, a test should be made to see if the
compensator is functioning before readings commence. One of the levelling foot-
screws should be moved slightly off level and, if the reading to a levelling staff
remains constant, the compensator is working. If the reading changes, it may be
necessary to gently tap the telescope to free the compensator. On some automatic
levels, this procedure is not necessary since a button is attached to the level
which is pressed when staff has been sighted. If the compensator is working, the
horizontal hair is seen to move and then return immediately to the horizontal line
of sight.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 227

It is much simpler to use as it gives an erect image. It is very rapid in operation.


There is no chance of errors due to bubble setting. The main disadvantage is
that it cannot be used in strong winds and at places susceptible to vibrations. An
automatic level AC-2s manufactured by Nikon Corporation is shown in Plate 7.

6.3.6 tilting level


In this type of level the telescope can be rotated about a horizontal axis. It enables
the surveyor to quickly centre the bubble and thus bring the line of sight into the
horizontal plane.
The essential features of the tilting level are shown in the Fig. 6.13.
Hinged mirror Telescope as
Bubble for dumpy

Capstan adjusting screws

Pivot

Tilting screw

Circular bubble
Central pivot

The main feature of the tilting level is the telescope which can be tilted by 4°
in a vertical plane with the help of a tilting screw. Further, it is not necessary that
the line of collimation and the vertical axis of the tilting level be at right angles
during observations. Before taking the observations, the level is approximately
levelled with the help of footscrews with reference to the circular bubble provided
on the tribrach. While reading the staff, the bubble of the main level tube is centred
exactly by means of tilting screw. This saves time and increases the speed of work.
It is advantageous to use a tilting level when only a few observations are to be
taken with one set up of the level, e.g., in fly levelling.
It is an attachment, sometimes fitted to the tilting
levels and precise levels to enable fine readings to be taken.
It is made up of a disc of fine glass with ground flat parallel surfaces. It is
mounted in front of the objective (Fig. 6.14) in such a way that it can be tilted
slightly away from the vertical. The amount of tilt can be measured on a graduated
drum or arc. A horizontal ray from the staff is deviated slightly in its passage by
tilting the plate so that is emerges from the plate parallel to the original ray but
displaced slightly in a vertical direction with reference to the original ray. Thus, in
Fig. 6.14, the ray ab from the staff is refracted at the surface of the parallel plate
and follows bc in the glass to emerge as the ray cf parallel to ab. Hence, point
a instead of c is actually sighted. Consequently, in passing through the plate, the
ray fc has been displaced vertically by the amount ae.
228 Surveying

Telescope objective

Staff

Unrefracted ray
Hinge
f c e
d
b a
Refracted ray
Glass plate

The glass and the tilting device are so designed that a complete revolution of
the graduated drum, or the movement through a whole number of divisions of the
graduated arc, causes the line of sight to be raised or lowered through one or two
of the smallest divisions on the staff. The vertical displacement d, for small angles
of rotation, of the ray is directly proportional to the angle of rotation of the plate.

(
1 i
ae = d = t 1 – __ )
where i = angle of incidence,
r = angle of refraction,
= refractive index = sin i/sin r and
t = thickness of the plate.
To use the attachment, the instrument is levelled and the staff is bisected.
The line of sight generally strikes the staff at a point somewhere between two
graduations. The disc is then tilted until the cross-hairs appear to coincide with
one of the lower staff divisions. The image of the bubble is reflected from the
silvered portion of the mirror and recording the observation consists of noting the
readings of the staff against the cross-hairs when the centre of the bubble appears
to be against the cross-hairs.
The amount of tilt required to do this is measured in terms of subdivisions
on the drum or arc. The desired reading is then the reading on the staff plus the
reading on the micrometer drum or vernier.

6.3.7 Digital level


The digital level can be used for any type of levelling in the same way as an optical
level but has the advantage of being able to measure and record the observations
electronically.
A digital level uses electronic image-processing techniques and interrogates
a specially made bar-coded staff in order to obtain readings. The detector diode
array derives a signal pattern from a bar-code type of leveling staff. A correlation
procedure within the instrument translates the pattern into the vertical staff reading
and the horizontal distance of the staff from the instrument. The field data are
Measurement of Vertical Distances 229

automatically stored by the instrument on its recording module. The staff-reading


errors, the data-booking errors and calculation errors are thus eliminated. In
operation, it is set up in the same way as an optical level by attaching it to a tripod
and centralising a circular bubble using footscrews: this enables the compensator
to set the line of sight horizontal. When levelling, the bar-coded staff is sighted,
the focus is adjusted and the measuring key is pressed. There is no need to read
the bar-coded staff as the display will show the staff reading 4 seconds after the
measuring button has been pressed. In addition to staff readings, it is also possible
to display the horizontal distance to the staff with a precision of 10 mm. The staff
is made with a synthetic material strengthened with glass fibers. It is 4.05 m in
length made up of three pieces of 1.35 m each which slot together. The staff has
a binary bar code on one side of it for electronic measurements and conventional
graduations on the other side. The black and white binary code comprises of 2000
elements over the staff with the basic element of 2 mm width. The digital levels
and the staff are designed in such a way that they can be used digitally as well
as in conventional manner.
In good conditions, the Wild digital level has a range of 100 m, but this can
deteriorate if the staff is not brightly and evenly illuminated throughout its scanned
area. The power supply for the level is a small internal battery which is capable
of providing enough power for a complete day’s levelling before it has to be
recharged.
Because it generates electronic information, the digital level has a great
advantage over conventional levels since observations can be automatically stored
in a plug-in recording module supplied as an integral part of the instrument.
This removes two of the worst sources of error from levelling: reading the staff
incorrectly and writing the wrong value for a reading in a fieldbook. The digital
level also has a number of resident programs built into it, including one for the
calculation of heights, and data generated by this program can also be stored in
the recording module together with staff readings. This removes another source
of error from levelling: the possibility of making mistakes in calculations. The
factors that affect the measuring procedure are pointing and focusing; vibration
of the compensator caused by wind, traffic, etc; heat shimmer, and the insufficient
light. Despite these drawbacks, some of the other advantages of digital level are
as follow.
1. Fatigue-free observation, as visual staff reading by the observer is
excluded.
2. Easy-to-read, digital display of results, with the last digit selectable of
1 mm or 0.1 mm.
3. Measurement of consistent precision and reliability.
4. User-friendly menus.
5. Results in economical survey, the time saved may be even 50%.
6. Increase in range up to 100 m.
7. Online link to computer enables the computation and plotting of longitudinal
sections and cross sections in a very short time.
8. Can be used in all situations in which a conventional level is used.
9. Can be used as conventional level if necessary.
230 Surveying

In order to be able to run programs and code readings, a control panel, which
is essentially a special keypad, is fitted to the front of the digital level. All data
stored on the recording module can be transferred to a computer using a reader.
The module is removed from the level and is inserted into the reader which is a
device: the contents are then sent by the reader to whatever computer is interfaced
with it. The user can then process the data using any software.

6.3.8 Hand level


The hand level, as its name implies, is a small level. It is held in the hand while in
use and is adjusted by hand alone. A hand level is recommended for short sights
and when high accuracy is not required, e.g., for preliminary surveys. It is very
useful in contouring hilly areas.
It consists of a tube, about 15 cm long, which can be drawn in and out, through
which an observer can sight from a pin hole E. Points H, M and E lie on a horizonal
line (Fig. 6.15 (a)). On top of this box a rectangular opening W is provided, and
immediately above this is a small level tube. Below this opening W is a mirror
M which is nickel-silvered extending halfway across the tube and inclined at 45°.
The other half of the mirror is kept plain. The image of the bubble B reflected
through the silvered portion, and that of the staff and horizontal wire H viewed
through the plain mirror can be seen simultaneously. When the cross-hair bisect
the bubble, the staff reading is taken (Fig. 6.15 (b)). The main disadvantage of
the instrument is that the bubble and distant staff cannot be focussed together.

6.3.9 abney Hand level


This is also known as clinometer (Fig. 6.16). This is similar to a hand level with
the difference that the bubble tube is movable with respect to the sighting tube.
A pointer is attached to the bubble tube and moves along an arc graduated in
degrees and in percent of slope. When the pointer is set at zero, the clinometer is
used as a hand level. This has an advantage that the vertical angles or percentage
slope can also be measured if desired. For measuring a vertical angle, the Abney
level is directed towards the object. The bubble will not remain in centre, since
the telescope will have to be inclined. It is brought to the centre by a milled-head
screw and consequently the bubble tube rotates. The index arm with the vernier
moves, since the bubble tube is fixed to the former. When the object is seen through
the plain portion of the mirror along with the reflected and bisected image of the
bubble, the reading on the graduated arc gives the slope.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 231

25

6.4 leVelling staff


A levelling staff is a straight, rectangular, wooden rod graduated into metres and
smaller divisions. The reading given by the line of sight on a levelling staff is the
height of the line of collimation from the point on which the staff is held vertically.
The various types of the levelling staff are as follows:

6.4.1 self-reading levelling staff


These may be 3–5 m in length. A solid staff is usually 3 m long, whereas a
folding staff is generally 4 m in length. The folding staff (Fig. 6.17) is made of
two pieces each of 2 m length. The width and thickness of the staff is 75 mm and
18 mm, respectively. A folding joint is provided to connect the two pieces. The
object of providing a joint is that the staff may be folded to a smaller length and
the two pieces may be detached when required. A circular bubble tube is fitted at
the back of the staff to check whether it is vertical or not. Sometimes a telescope
is fitted to the side of the staff to check the perpendicularity of the staff to the
line of sight provided by the level. Each metre length of the staff is divided into
200 divisions of 5 mm each. The spaces indicating the decimeter reading are
marked in red while all other spaces are marked alternately in black and white.
The graduations are marked inverted (Fig. 6.18) so that they may appear erect
when seen through the telescope.
Cap
75 mm

6 3 32 mm
26 mm
23 mm

2
6
Locking 1 0
device 1 Folding handle 5 mm
6 5 mm

0 0 0
0
232 Surveying

1. Set up the instrument and level it carefully.


2. Direct the telescope towards the staff and focus it. The telescope is moved
till the staff bisects the vertical hair of the diaphragm.
3. Observe if the bubble on the telescope is at the centre before taking the
reading. If not, centre it by using one of the footscrews most nearly in
line with the telescope.
4. Note the reading at which the horizonal hair appears to cut the staff. The
staff should be read upwards.
It is imperative that the levelling staff be held vertically while
a reading is being taken. If the staff is inclined in any direction, the reading will
be erroneous; always more than the actual. The staff reading will be correct only
when the staff is truly vertical (Fig. 6.19).

To find the true vertical position of the staff when a circular bubble is not
provided on its back, it is waved slowly towards and away from the level. The
lowest reading on the staff will be when the staff is truly vertical.

e xample 6.4 The staff reading at a point A was observed as 2.920 m. If the
staff was 10 cm off the vertical through its bottom, find the correct reading.
s olution _______________
Correct staff reading at A = (2.920)2 – (0.10)2
= 2.918 m

e xample 6.5 The staff reading, with a 4 m staff, at a point A was 3.50 m.
The top of the staff was found to be 10 cm off the vertical through the bottom of
the staff. If the staff was held vertically, determine the correct reading.
s olution
The deviation of staff in 3.500 m height = 10 3.5/4
= 8.75 cm
________________
Correct staff reading at A = (3.500)2 – (0.875)2
= 3.388 m
Measurement of Vertical Distances 233

6.4.2 invar precision levelling staff


It is used for precise levelling work. It is generally 3 m long. To mount the staff
accurately, detachable stays are provided. An invar band graduated at 5 or 10 mm
intervals is fitted to a wooden staff. The band is fastened at the lower end of the
staff, and to the upper end, it is attached by a spring arrangement. The staff reading
is obtained with the parallel plate micrometer fitted to the telescope of the level.

6.4.3 sopwith telescopic staff


This is used in the U.K. and
other European countries. It Target
is usually 14 f t long. It is
made into three pieces, the Clamping
top and middle ones being 4 screw
ft 5 and the bottom one 5 9 7
long. Each length slides into
the lower length when folded 9
(Fig. 6.20). When pulled out 1
to its full length, each length Vernier
is held in position by a brass 9 7
spring catch.
It is made of well- 7 6
seasoned timber and is 7
graduated in feet, tenths
and hundredths of a foot. 5 6
The figures indicating feet Clamping 5
are painted in red on the left 3 screw
4
hand side. The odd tenths of
a foot are marked by black
figures on the right-hand
1 1
side. The hundredths are
indicated by alternate white 9
and black spaces. The top of a white space indicates
an odd number of hundredths, while that of a black
8
space indicates an even number of hundredths. 7 Brass
The staff appears upside down when viewed through 6 sleeve
a telescope. Therefore, the reading are taken from
above downwards. 5
6.4.4 target staff 4
It is 13 ft long and consists of two lengths held together 3
by means of a brass clamping screw (Fig. 6.21). One
of the lengths can be slided over the other. Both the 2
faces are graduated in feet, tenths, and hundredths of 1
a foot but in opposite directions. It is provided with
a movable target having a vernier facilitating reading
up to 0.001 f t.
234 Surveying

6.5 teMporary aDjustMents


These consist of setting up, levelling, and elimination of parallax.

6.5.1 setting up
Level is not to be set at any fixed point for making the observations as it is with
other surveying instruments which are to be set up on station, the point of interest.
Therefore, setting up of a level is much simple; centring is not required. While
locating the level, the ground point should be so chosen that (a) the instrument is
not too low or too high to facilitate reading on a bench mark, (b) the length of
the backsight should preferably be not more than 98.0 m, and (c) the backsight
distance and the foresight distance should be equal, and the foresight should be so
located that it advances the line of levels. Setting up includes fixing the instrument
and approximate levelling by leg adjustment.
The clamp screw of the instrument is
released. The level is held in the right hand. It is fixed on the tripod by turning
round the lower part with the left hand and is firmly screwed over the tripod.
The instrument is placed at a convenient height with the tripod
legs spread well apart and so adjusted that the tripod head is as nearly horizonal
as can be judged by the eye. Any two legs of the tripod are fixed firmly into the
ground and the third leg is moved right or left in a circumferential direction until
the main bubble is approximately in the centre. The third leg is then pushed into
the ground.

6.5.2 levelling up

1. The clamp is loosened and the upper plate is turned until the longitudinal
axis of the plate level is parallel to a line joining any two levelling screws,
say A and B.
2. The two foot screws are turned uniformly towards each other or away
from each other until the plate bubble is central (Fig. 6.22 (a)).
3. The telescope is swing through 90° so that it lies over the third foot screw
(Fig. 6.22 (b)).
4. The third screw is turned until the plate bubble is central.
5. The telescope is swing again through 90° to its original position and the
above procedure is repeated till the bubble remains central in both the
positions.
6. The telescope is now swing through 180°. The bubble should remain
central if the instrument is in proper adjustment.

1. The clamp is loosened. The upper plate is turned until the longitudinal
axis of the plate level is approximately parallel to the line joining any two
diagonally opposite foot screws, such as B and D (Fig. 6.23).
2. The bubble is centred by moving the two foot screws towards or away
from each other (Fig. 6.23 (a)).
Measurement of Vertical Distances 235

C
C

A B
A B
(a) (b)

D C
D C

A B
B
A
(a) (b)

3. The upper plate is turned through 90° until the plate level axis is parallel to
the other two diagonally opposite screws, such as A and C (Fig. 6.23 (b)).
4. The bubble is centred by turning both the screws towards or away from
each other.
5. The above steps are repeated until the bubble remains central in both the
positions.
6. The telescope is swing through 180°. The bubble should remain central
if the instrument is in proper adjustment. If the bubble is not central, the
instrument requires to be corrected in its permanent adjustment.
Since the bubble is very sensitive and easily disturbed, walking around the
instrument or touching the tripod legs should be avoided.

6.5.3 elimination of parallax


It consists of focussing the eyepiece and objective of the level.
236 Surveying

This operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear


distinct and clearly visible. The following steps are involved:
1. The telescope is directed skywards or a sheet of white paper is held in
front of the objective.
2. The eyepiece is moved in or out till the cross-hair appear distinct.
This operation is done to bring the image of the object
in the plane of the cross-hairs. The following steps are involved:
1. The telescope is directed towards the staff.
2. The focussing screw is turned until the image appears clear and sharp.

6.6 perManent aDjustMents


These are the adjustments that are done to set the essential parts of the instrument
in their true positions relative to each other. It is, therefore, desirable that the
permanent adjustment should be as perfect as possible.
For a level, if care is taken to equalise backsight and foresight distances,
any error that may exist due to imperfect permanent adjustment is eliminated.
Therefore, it is not necessary to obtain perfect permanent adjustment for a level
if proper care is exercised. But at the same time, it is desirable that a surveyor
should be able to test and correct the permanent adjustment of his level.
The testing of the level is based on the principle of reversal which states that if
there exists any error in a certain part, it gets doubled by reversing, i.e., revolving
the position of that part through 180°.
The fundamental lines of a level are the axis of the bubble tube, the vertical
axis, the axis of the telescope, and the line of collimation. There exist fixed
relationships between these fundamental lines. These relationships generally get
disturbed because of mishandling of the level during its usage in the field and
need frequent adjustment. The desired relationship of the fundamental lines are as
below.
1. The vertical axis of the level should be perpendicular to the axis of the
plate bubble tube.
2. The line of collimation should be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
3. The axis of the telescope and the line of collimation should coincide.

6.6.1 Dumpy level


The following two adjustments are required:
To make the vertical axis of the level perpendicular to the
axis of the plate bubble tube.

1. The instrument is levelled as described under temporary adjustments.


2. Swing the telescope through 180°. If the bubble runs out of the bubble
tube centre, the adjustment is not in order.
3. If it is so, count the number of graduations on the bubble tube by which
the bubble has run out of its central position.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 237

1. Bring the bubble halfway back to a central position by using the two
footscrews. This makes the vertical axis truly vertical.
2. Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of the capstan screw
provided at one of the ends of the bubble tube. This makes the axis of
the bubble tube truly horizonal.
To make the line of sight perpendicular to the vertical axis
(or parallel to the axis of the bubble) when the instruments is truly levelled.
60 m
1. This test is known as the
two-peg test. A C B D
2. Choose two suitable points A
and B about 60 m apart and
place the level mid-way at C as shown in Fig. 6.24.
3. Level the instrument and read the staff at A and B. Calculate the difference
in elevation between A and B. The difference will be correct even if the
line of sight is not parallel to the axis of the bubble tube as the error
resulting from the line of sight being inclined is directly proportional to
the length of sight.
4. Choose another point D in line with A and B about 15 m ahead of B.
5. Level the instrument at D and again take the observations at A and B.
6. Calculate the difference in elevations. If it is same as calculated before
(step 3), the adjustment is correct.
7. If not, the reading at A will have a bigger error than that at B, since the
error is proportional to sight distance.

1. The error is removed with the capstan screws securing the diaphragm to
the telescope tube.
2. Move the diaphragm screws in steps and keep on reading at A and B,
till the correct difference is obtained. This is, therefore, a trial-and-error
procedure.
Alternatively, the adjustment can be made as follows.
1. Workout the reading that should be obtained at A from D, to make the
line of sight horizontal.
Let, reading at A from C – reading at B from C = h1
and, reading at A from D – reading at B from D = h2
Required increase in the reading at A = (h1 – h2) (DA/BA)
2. Correct the staff reading at A.
3. Keep the staff at A and take the observation from D.
4. Diaphragm capstan screws are turned to get the same staff reading as
calculated above (step 1).

e xample 6.6 A dumpy level was set up mid-way between two peg points
80 m apart. The readings on the staff at the two pegs were 3.200 m and 3.015
m, respectively. The instrument was then moved, by 20 m ahead of the second
238 Surveying

peg, in line with the two pegs. The respective staff readings were 2.825 m and
2.690 m. Calculate the staff readings on the two pegs to provide a horizontal line
of sight.
s olution Let the two pegs be A A C B D
and B and the instrument position be 20 m
C when mid-way and D when 20 m
from B (Fig. 6.25).
Instrument at C
True difference in elevation of A and B
d1 = 3.200 – 3.015
= 0.185 m (B being higher)
Instrument at D
Apparent difference in elevation between A and B,
d2 = 2.825 – 2.690
= 0.135 m (B being higher)
Since d1 and d2 are not the same, the line of collimation is not in adjustment.
Now the observed reading on A = 2.825 m
True difference of elevation, d1 = 0.185 m
The corresponding reading on B = 2.825 – 0.185 = 2.64 m
Since the observed reading on B (2.69 m) is more than the correct one (2.64
m), the line of collimation is inclined upwards.
The collimation error = 2.69 – 2.64 = 0.05 m
Increase in staff reading at A = 80 + 20 0.05
_______
80
= 0.0625 m
Therefore, the correct staff reading at A,
= 2.825 + 0.0625
= 2.8875 m
20 × 0.05 = 0.0125 m
Increase in staff reading at B = ___
80
Therefore, the correct staff reading at B
= 2.690 + 0.0125 = 2.7025 m
Check: The true difference in elevation of A and B
= 2.8875 – 2.7025 = 0.185 m

e xample 6.7 The following observations were taken during the testing of a
dumpy level:
Instrument at Staff readings at
A B
A 1.275 2.005
B 1.040 1.660
Measurement of Vertical Distances 239

Is the instrument in adjustment? To what reading should the line of collimation


be adjusted when the instrument is at B. If A and B were 100 m apart, what is
the angle of inclination of the line of collimation?
s olution
Instrument at A
Apparent difference of level = 2.005 – 1.275 = 0.73 m
Instrument at B
Apparent difference of level = 1.660 – 1.040 = 0.62 m
Since, the two differences are not equal, the line of collimation is not in
adjustment.
True difference of level (true fall from A to B)

= 0.73 + 0.62 = 0.675 m


__________
2
Collimation error when instrument is at B:
Correct reading on B = 1.660 m
Correct reading on A will be = 1.660 – 0.675 = 0.985 m
The observed reading on A (1.040 m) being more than the correct one (0.985 m),
the line of collimation is inclined upwards.
The amount of inclination = 1.040 – 0.985 = 0.055 m
Inclination of line of collimation, tan = 0.055/100 = 0.00055
= 1 53.45

6.6.2 tilting level


In a tilting level since the tilting screw is used to make the bubble central, it is
not necessary that the vertical axis be truly vertical. Therefore, only one permanent
adjustment remains, i.e., the line of sight should be parallel to the axis of the bubble
tube. This adjustment is achieved in a similar way as that for a dumpy level.

6.7 principle of leVelling


The principle of levelling is to obtain the difference of levels of two points with
the instrument known as level. This can be achieved either by simple or differential
levelling as described below.

6.7.1 simple levelling


It is the simplest operation in levelling, when it is required to find the difference
in elevation between two points, both of which are visible from a single position
of the level. The readings can be obtained on a staff held successively upon
these points. The precise situation of the level is immaterial, but to eliminate the
instrumental error, the sight distances to the two staff positions should be kept as
nearly equal as possible. The level is set on a firm ground anywhere, not necessarily
in the same vertical plane as that of the two staff positions.
240 Surveying

C 0.125
2.355

A
B
B.M.

1. Let A and C be the two points and let the level be set up at B any where
in the ground (Fig. 6.26). A is a point of known elevation, say benchmark
of R.L. 100 m.
2. The instrument is set up and levelled at B.
3. The telescope is directed towards A and the reading is taken on a vertically
held staff at point A. Let, the backsight observed at A be 2.355 m as shown
in the figure.
4. The staff is then held vertically at point C whose elevation is to be found.
The telescope is directed on the staff and focussed. Before sighting the
staff at C, the surveyor should examine to see that the bubble preserves
its central position. The staff reading is then obtained. Let, the foresight
be 0.125 m as shown in the figure.
5. The difference in the two readings is calculated and added/subtracted to
the R.L. of A depending upon whether C is higher/lower than A. The
difference in the two readings is 2.230 m. Since C is higher than A, the
R.L. of C = 100 + 2.230 = 102.230 m.

6.7.2 Differential levelling


Determining the difference in elevation between two or more points without any
regard to the alignment of the points is called differential levelling. It is used when:
(a) two points are a large distance apart (Fig. 6.27), (b) the difference in elevation
between the two points is large (Fig. 6.28), and (c) some obstacle intervenes
between the points (Fig. 6.29).

F.S.
F.S. I.S.
B.S. B.S. 2.450
1.565 2.000
3.200 1.400
B.S. I.S. I.S. H
0.665 0.825 2.540 F G I
E
A
C 0.385 J
B
B.M. D
Measurement of Vertical Distances 241

B.S. F.S.

B.S. F.S.
E
D
C
B
B.M.
A

B.S. F.S.

B.S. F.S.
B.S. F.S.
O2
C D

O3
O1
B.M.
A B

In such cases, it becomes essential to set up a level in several positions and


the simple levelling operation is employed in each of the successive stages. It is
also called compound or continuous levelling.

6.8 Balancing BacksigHt anD foresigHt Distances


The essential condition in levelling is that the line of collimation should be
horizontal when the staff readings are being taken. The line of collimation is
horizontal only when the bubble is at the centre of its run. But this can seldom
be ensured with absolute exactness and usually, when the bubble appears to be
central, the line of collimation will make a small angle with the horizontal. Since
the error is proportional to the length of sight, the error due to non-parallelism
can be eliminated by keeping the lengths of the backsight and foresight nearly
equal. Therefore, to find the true difference of levels between two points, the
level must be kept exactly mid-way between them, but not necessarily on the line
joining them.
Let A and B be the two points, each being at a distance D from the level, as
shown in Fig. 6.30. Let the line of collimation be inclined at an angle with the
true line of collimation aO b.
Observed reading on staff A is Aa1, whereas true reading is Aa. The observed
reading on staff B is Bb1, whereas true reading is Bb. Then, the errors introduced
are aa1 and bb1.
242 Surveying

a1 b1

a b
O

O B
A

D D

True reading at A is Aa = Aa1 – aa1 = Aa1 – D tan


True reading at B is Bb = Bb1 – bb1 = Bb1 – D tan
True difference of level between B and A is
Bb – Aa = (Bb1 – D tan ) – (Aa1 – D tan )
= Bb1 – Aa1
From the foregoing, it is evident that the error is completely eliminated by
equalizing the backsight and foresight distances.

6.9 optiMuM Distance froM leVel to staff


Let the magnifying power of the level telescope be = 20, and the value of one
level tube division, i.e., central angle corresponding to one division be = 20 .
Under these conditions, the deviation of the line of sight from the horizontal
direction due to inaccuracy of positioning the bubble at the centre of the tube
may be accepted at ± 0.15 = ± 0.15 20 = ± 3 , where ± 0.15 is the error
in positioning the bubble at the centre of the tube.
Two distant points, discernible with the unaided eye, must be seen at a visual
angle of one minute; at a smaller angle of view the points will cease to be
discernible and merge into one. Therefore, the error in sighting by the unaided
eye may be assumed as being equal to ± 60 . In the case of objects viewed through
the telescope, the error diminishes in proportion to the telescope’s magnifying
power .
The sighting error of the telescope with magnifying power may be determined
by ± 60 / , which with = 20 will also result in ± 3 . Consequently, an inclination
of the line of sight from the
horizontal direction owing to
both
__ the reasons will be ± 3
2 = ± 4.2426 . If at the same 2 mm
time, the permissible error in a 4.2426
staff reading is 2 mm, then the
distance d (Fig. 6.31) from the d
level to the staff can be found
by
Measurement of Vertical Distances 243

2_____ 4.2426
mm = ________
d 206 265
d = 97235 mm 98 m
The distance from the level to the staff can be increased up to 150 m by
employing levels with a magnifying power of about 30 and with a value of level
tube division not exceeding 20 .

6.10 fielD proceDure in leVelling


The field work consists of reconnaissance, taking observations, and booking them
in the field book.

6.10.1 reconnaissance
Before undertaking the levelling operation, a reconnaissance should be made. The
positions of fundamental benchmarks are determined to control the location of
level lines. The route to be followed is then studied in detail so as to decide the
positions of temporary benchmarks. Thereafter, the position of the staff stations
is decided.

6.10.2 observations
Before starting the work, a surveyor should check the adjustments of the instrument
and should ensure that it is in good order. The observations are taken on the
levelling staff corresponding to the horizontal hair. If the diaphragm is also
provided with stadia wires, the readings corresponding to the stadia wires may
also be taken. The mean of the two stadia hair readings should be the same as
that of the cross-hairs reading—this is a check.
When levelling is done in busy and noisy area, it becomes impossible for the
instrument man to give oral instructions to the surveyor holding the staff. Hand
signals as listed in Table 6.1 and correspondingly shown in Fig. 6.32 are very
useful in such a case.

Refer to Fig. 6.32 Signal Message


(a) Movement of left arm over 90°. Move to my left.
(b) Movement of right arm over 90°. Move to my right.
(c) Movement of left arm over 30°. Move top of staff to my left.
(d) Movement of right arm over 30°. Move top of staff to my right.
(e) Extension of arm horizontally and Raise height of peg or staff.
moving hand upwards.
(f) Extension of arm horizontally and Lower height of peg or staff.
moving hand downwards.
(g) Extension of both arms slightly and Establish the position.
thrusting downwards.
(h) Extension of arms and placement of Return to me.
hand on top of head.
244 Surveying

6.10.3 Booking and reducing the level


The observations are recorded in a level book. There are two methods of booking
and reducing the levels of the points from the observed staff readings and
are described as follows. The stations in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 indicate the staff
positions.
(i) The data listed in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 correspond to staff readings.
(ii) For convenience and better understanding of the working procedure for a
beginner, the recorded observations with each set up of the level instrument
are encircled. This will help to understand the working of reduced levels of
various station points and obviate possibility of committing error.

The elevation of
the plane of collimation for the first set up of the level is determined by adding
backsight to the reduced level of a B.M. The reduced level of plane of collimation
is also known as height of instrument (H.I.). The reduced levels of the intermediate
points and the first change point are obtained by subtracting the staff readings taken
on these points, i.e., by subtracting successively (one by one) I.S. and F.S. from
the H.I. The instrument is then shifted to the second position and a new plane of
collimation is set up by taking a B.S. on the change point. By means of backsight
and foresight taken on the change point, the levels of the two planes of collimation
are correlated. The elevations of the new plane of collimation is obtained by adding
the backsight, taken on the change point from the second position of the level, to
the reduced level of the first change point. Then the reduced level of successive
points and the second change point is obtained by subtracting their staff readings
from the elevation of the new plane of collimation.
Check: B.S. – .F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.
The above check is not complete for the following reason. For instance, in
the following page 1 entries of a level book (Table 6.2), if on subtracting 0.825
from 100.665 to get the R.L. of 99.84, one wrote it as 97.84 instead, the error of
Measurement of Vertical Distances 245

2.0 (99.84 – 97.84 = 2.0) would remain undetected. Thus, the intermediate sights
remain unchecked in working out reduced levels by the collimation method. Here,
the entries of the page 1 of the level book correspond to Fig. 6.27.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks


A 0.665 100.665 100.00 B.M.
B 0.825 99.84
D 2.54 98.125
E 3.200 0.385 103.48 100.28 C.P.
G 1.565 1.400 103.645 102.08 C.P.
I 2.00 101.645
J 2.450 101.195
Check B.S. = 5.43 F.S. = 4.235 Last R.L. – first R.L.
B.S. – F.S. = 1.195 101.195 – 100 = 1.195

It consists of determining the difference of levels


between the consecutive points by comparing their staff readings. The rise or fall
is obtained by calculating the difference between the consecutive staff readings.
A rise is indicated if the backsight is more than the foresight, and a fall if the
backsight is less than the foresight. Then the reduced level of each point is
obtained by adding the rise to, or by subtracting the fall from the reduced level
of the preceding point.
Check: B.S. – F.S. = rise – fall = last R.L. – first R.L.
The above check is complete, since the intermediate sights are also checked.
Refer to Fig. 6.27 and the entries on page 2 of a level book (Table 6.3).

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks


A 0.665 100.00 B.M.
B 0.825 0.160 99.84
D 2.54 1.715 98.125
E 3.200 0.385 2.155 100.28 C.P.
G 1.565 1.400 1.800 102.08 C.P.
I 2.00 0.435 101.645
J 2.450 0.450 101.195
Check B.S. F.S. Rise Fall Last R.L. – first R.L.
= 5.43 = 4.235 = 3.955 = 2.76 = 1.195
B.S. – F.S. = 1.195 Rise – Fall = 1.195
246 Surveying

It can be observed that the reduced level of any subsequent station depends
upon the reduced level of the preceding station. For example, reduced level of
(98.125) is obtained by subtracting the fall (1.715), from B to D, from the reduced
level (99.84) of the preceding station B. Similarly, reduced level of E (100.28) is
obtained by adding the rise (2.155), from D to E, to the reduced level (98.125) of
the preceding station D. In case if by mistake the reduced level of D is booked
wrongly as some value other than 98.125, the reduced level of E will also be in
error. Consequently, the reduced levels of the subsequent points, e.g., J, etc., and
the value of the last R.L. – first R.L. will be in error. Thus, this value of the last
R.L. – first R.L. will not match with the others in the final check indicating the
error somewhere in the calculation of the values of R.L. Thus, if the final check
is not satisfied, the error can be detected and rectified.

Collimation method Rise and fall method


1. It is more rapid. It is simple but slow, as the staff reading of
successive stations are compared to get rise
or fall. This method gives a visual indication
of the topography.
2. There are two arithmetical checks. There are three arithmetical checks.
B.S. – F.S. = R.L. of last station B.S. – F.S. = Rise – Fall = R.L. of
– R.L. of first station. last station – R.L. of first station.
3. Since there is no check on R.L. of Since there is complete check on the R.Ls.
intermediate stations, errors, if any, of intermediate stations; errors, if any, in the
in the intermediate sights are not intermediate sights are also detected.
detected.
4. Most suited for longitudinal It is well suited for determining the difference
levelling, cross sectional levelling, of levels of two points where precision is
and contouring. required, e.g., establishing new benchmarks.

e xample 6.8 The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and
a 4.0 m staff on a continuously sloping ground at a common interval of 30 m:
0.780, 1.535, 1.955, 2.430, 2.985, 3.480, 1.155, 1.960, 2.365, 3.640, 0.935,
1.045, 1.630, and 2.545.
The reduced level of the first point A was 180.750 m. Rule out a page of a
level field book and enter the above readings. Calculate the reduced levels of the
points by the collimation system, and the rise and fall system. Also calculate the
gradient of the line joining the first and the last points.
s olution The first reading of 0.780 at station A must be a backsight reading.
Since the readings were taken on a continuously sloping ground with a 4.0 m
staff, the largest reading that can be taken is 4.0 m. Therefore, the position of
the level must have been changed after the largest reading of each series. Such as
after 3.480 (of the 1st series) and 3.640 (of the 2nd series). The last observation
of 2.545 must be a foresight reading. Hence, the observations 3.480, 3.640, and
2.545 are booked in the foresight column. Each of the foresight readings 3.480 and
Measurement of Vertical Distances 247

3.640, at the change point, are preceded by backsight readings 1.155 and 0.935,
respectively. All the remaining readings are intermediate sight readings.

Station Distance Readings Height of Reduced Remarks


B.S. I.S. F.S instrument level level

A 0 0.780 181.530 180.750 B.M.


30 1.535 179.995
60 1.955 179.575
90 2.430 179.100
120 2.985 178.545
150 1.155 3.480 179.205 178.050 C.P.
180 1.960 177.245
210 2.365 176.840
240 0.935 3.640 176.500 175.565 C.P.
270 1.045 175.455
300 1.630 174.870
B 330 2.545 173.955
Arithmetical checks B.S. – F.S. R. L. of last point – R. L. of first point
= 2.780 – 9.665 = – 6.795 = 173.955 – 180.750 = – 6.795

Station Distance Readings Remarks


B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L.
A 0 0.780 180.750 B.M.
30 1.535 0.755 179.995
60 1.955 0.420 179.575
90 2.430 0.475 179.100
120 2.985 0.555 178.545
150 1.155 3.480 0.495 178.050 C.P.
180 1.960 0.805 177.245
210 2.365 0.405 176.840
240 0.935 3.640 1.275 175.565 C.P.
270 1.045 0.110 175.455
300 1.630 0.585 174.870
B 330 2.545 0.915 173.955
Arithmetical B.S. – F.S. Rise – Fall Last R.L. – First R.L.
checks = 2.870 – 9.665 = 0 – 6.795 173.955 – 180.750
= – 6.795 = – 6.795 = – 6.795
There is a fall of 6.795 m in a distance of 330 m.
6.795 = 1 in 48.56
Gradient = _____
330
248 Surveying

e xample 6.9 Following is the page of a level field book. The readings in
the level book were written with pencil and some of these got erased. The erased
readings are marked with question marks. Calculate the missing readings.
Station B.S. I.S. F.S Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
1 ? 150.00 B.M.
2 2.457 0.827 ?
3 2.400 0.057 ?
4 2.697 ? ? 148.070 C.P.
5 ? 2.051 0.646 148.716 C.P.
6 2.500 1.068 149.784
7 2.896 ? 149.388
8 ? 0.124 ?
9 2.672 0348 149.612
s olution The backlight reading at station 1 is missing. The intermediate sight
of station 2 is 2.457 m and there is a fall of 0.827 m from station 1 to station 2.
Therefore, the back sight at station 1 must be less than the intermediate sight at
station 2.
Backsight at station 1 = 2.457 – 0.827 = 1.63 m
The R.L of station 2 is missing. R.L of station 1 is 150 m and there is a fall
of 0.827 m from station 1 to station 2. Therefore, R.L of station 2 must be less
than that of station 1.
R.L. of station 2 = 150 – 0.827 = 149.173 m
The R.L. of station 3 is missing. R.L. of station 2 is 149.173 m and there is a
rise of 0.057 m from station 2 to station 3. Therefore, R.L. of station 3 must be
more than that of station 2.
R.L. of station 3 = 149.173 + 0.057 = 149.230 m
Fall from station 3 to station 4 is missing. R.L. of station 3 is 149.230 m, which
is more than R.L of station 4 (148.070 m). Therefore,
Fall from station 3 to station 4 = 149.230 – 148.070 = 1.160 m
Foresight at station 4 is missing. The intermediate sight at station 3 is 2.400 m.
There is a fall of 1.160 m from station 3 to station 4. Therefore, the foresight at
station 4 must be more than the intermediate sight at station 3.
Foresight at station 4 = 2.400 + 1.160 = 3.560 m
Backsight at station 5 is missing. There is a rise of 1.068 m from station 5 to
station 6. Therefore, the backsight at station 5 must be more than the intermediate
sight at station 6.
Backsight at station 5 = 2.500 + 1.068 = 3.568 m.
Fall between station 6 to station 7 is missing. Since R.L of station 6 is more, it
is at higher level than station 7. Therefore, the fall can be determined by subtracting
R.L. of station 7 from R.L. of station 6.
Fall between station 6 and station 7 = 149.784 – 149.388 = 0.396 m
Intermediate sight of station 8 is missing. There is a fall of 0.124 m from station 7
to station 8. Therefore the intermediate sight at station 8 must be more than that
of station 7.
Intermediate sight station 8 = 2.896 + 0.124 = 3.020 m
Measurement of Vertical Distances 249

R.L. of station 8 is missing. The R.L of station 7 is 149.380 m and there is a


fall of 0.124 m from station 7 to station 8. Therefore, R.L. of station 8 must be
less than that of station 7.
R.L. of station 8 = 149.388 – 0.124 = 149.264 m
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
1 1.63 150.00 B.M.
2 2.457 0.827 149.173
3 2.400 0.057 149.230
4 2.697 3.560 1.160 148.070 C.P.
5 3.568 2.051 0.646 148.716 C.P.
6 2.500 1.068 149.784
7 2.896 0.396 149.388
8 3.020 0.124 149.264
9 2.672 0348 149.612

e xample 6.10 The following readings have been taken from a page of an old
level book. It is required to reconstruct the page. Fill up the missing quantities
and apply the usual checks.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks


1 3.125 ? B.M.
2 ? ? 1.325 125.505 T.P.
3 2.320 0.055 ?
4 ? ? 125.850
5 ? 2.655 ? ? T.P.
6 1.620 3.205 2.165 ? T.P.
7 3.625 ? ?
8 ? 123.090 T.B.M.

s olution
Rise between points 1 and 2 = 1.325
Hence, F.S. on point 2 = 3.125 – 1.325 = 1.8
R.L. of point 2= 125.505
Rise from point 1 to 2= 1.325
Hence, R.L. of point 1= 125.505 – 1.325 = 124.180
Fall from point 2 to 3= 0.055
I.S. on point 3= 2.320
Hence, B.S. of point 2= 2.320 – 0.055 = 2.265
R.L. of point 3 = 125.505 – 0.055 = 125.450
R.L. of point 4 = 125.850
Hence, rise from point 3 to 4 = 125.850 – 125.450 = 0.40
250 Surveying

Now, I.S. on point 3 = 2.320


Rise from point 3 to 4 = 0.40
I.S. on point 4 = 2.320 – 0.40 = 1.920
Fall from point 4 to 5 = 2.655 – 1.920 = 0.735
Hence, R.L. of point 5 = 125.85 – 0.735 = 125.115
F.S. on point 6 = 3.205
Fall from point 5 to 6 = 2.165
Hence, B.S. on point 5 = 3.205 – 2.165 = 1.040
R.L. of point 6 = 125.115 – 2.165 = 122.950
B.S. on point 6 = 1.620
I.S. on point 7 = 3.625
Fall from point 6 to 7 = 3.625 – 1.620 = 2.005
R.L. of point 7 = 122.950 – 2.005 = 120.945
R.L. of point 8 = 123.090
Hence, rise from point 7 to 8 = 123.090 – 120.945 = 2.145
I.S. on point 7 = 3.625
Rise from point 7 to 8 = 2.145
Hence, F.S. on point 8 = 3.625 – 2.145 = 1.480

Point B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks


1 3.125 124.18 B.M.
2 2.265 1.800 1.325 125.505 C.P.
3 2.320 0.055 125.450
4 1.920 0.400 125.850
5 1.040 2.655 0.735 125.115 C.P.
6 1.620 3.205 2.165 122.950 C.P.
7 3.625 2.005 120.945
8 1.480 2.145 123.090 T.B.M
Check B.S. – F.S. Rise – fall Last R.L. – first R.L.
= 8.05 – 9.14 = 3.87 – 4.96 = 123.090 – 124.18
= – 1.09 = – 1.09 = – 1.09

e xample 6.11 A, B and C are three successive points of change of gradient


on a portion of an existing railway line as shown in Fig. 6.33. The positions and
rail levels of these points being:

Point Distance in chains (30 m) Rail level (in m)


A 2040 118
B 2100 134
C 2180 140
Measurement of Vertical Distances 251

140.00
C
134.00
(2180 Chains)
B
(2100 Chains)
118.00

A
(2040 Chains)

It is proposed to raise the rail level at A by 1.50 m and to improve the existing
gradient from A to B to 1 in 140. Calculate the greatest change of rail level which
will be involved and the chainage of the point where the new gradient meets the
existing gradient between B and C.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.33.
Distance AB = 2100 – 2040 = 60 chains = 60 30 = 1800 m
Distance BC = 2180 – 2100 = 80 chains = 80 30 = 2400 m
Level difference between A and B = 134.0 – 118.0 = 16.0 m
Level difference between B and C = 140.0 – 134.0 = 6.0 m
______________
Horizontal distance from A to B = (1800)2 – (16.0)2 = 1799.93 m
_____________
Horizontal distance from B to C = (2400)2 – (6.0)2 = 2399.99 m
16.0 = 1 in 112.5
Existing gradient of AB = _______
1799.93
6.0 = 1 in 400
Existing gradient of BC = _______
2399.99
It is proposed to raise the rail level at A by 1.5 m. The new position of A will
be A . The new gradient to which A B is to be laid is 1 in 140. In laying this
gradient let us assume that the point B has to be shifted downwards: Let BB = y
(Fig. 6.34). Then
R.L of B = R.L. of A + 1.5 + gradient of AB + BB
134.0 = 118.0 + 1.5 + 1799.93/140 + y
or y = 1.64 m
1 in 140

1 in 400 C
1 in 112.5 D
B
1 in 140 D
D
B
A
B
1.5 m L
A
252 Surveying

The greatest change of rail level will be at B, because of increase in level of


A by 1.5 m; at B the level decreases by 1.64 m.
Let D be the point where the extension of A B of gradient 1 in 140 cuts BC.
Let D be at a horizontal distance L from B.
Also let DD = z1 and DD = z2
L
z1 = ____ (i)
400
L
z2 = ____ (ii)
140
But z2 = z1 + 1.64
L
z1 + 1.64 = ____ (iii)
140
From Eqs (i) and (iii)
L = 353.23 m

Hence, 353.23
z1 = ______
400
= 0.883 m
_________________
Distance BD = (353.23)2 + (0.883)2
= 353.23 m
Hence, the chainage of the point where the new gradient meets the existing
353.231 = 2111.77 chains.
gradient between B and C is 2100 + _______
30

6.11 use of inVerteD staff


When the point, whose elevation is to be found, is much above the line of sight
(e.g., projection from the face of a building, underside of beams, girders and
arches, etc.), the staff is placed inverted with its zero end touching the point. The
reading on the staff is taken in the usual manner. Such an observation is entered
in the level page book with a minus sign, for convenience. For instance, in a
levelling operation, the inverted sights were taken at B, C, D and E (Fig. 6.35).
The levels of these points can be obtained by simply adding the staff readings to
the height of the instrument. The method of booking and reducing the levels is
illustrated below:

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks


A 2.2 102.2 100.00
B – 2.1 104.10 Staff inverted
C – 0.55 102.75 Staff inverted
D – 0.55 102.75 Staff inverted
E – 2.1 104.10 Staff inverted

The results have been worked out by the H.I. system. However, the booking and
reduction can also be done by the rise and fall system.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 253

e xample 6.12 Find the height of a Tee-beam above the floor level. The R.L of
the floor is 100.855 m and the staff reading on the floor is 2.055 m. The reading
on a staff held upside down against the underside of the beam is 3.565 m.
s olution R.L. of plane of collimation,
H.I. = 100.855 + 2.055 = 102.910 m
R.L. of the underside of Tee-beam = 102.910 + 3.565 = 106.475 m
Hence, the height of the Tee-beam above the floor level
= 106.475 – 100.855 = 5.62 m

e xample 6.13 The reduced level of a factory floor is 30.00 m and the staff
reading on the floor is 1.40 m. The staff reading when held inverted with the
bottom touching the Tee-beam of the roof is 3.67 m. Find the height of the beam
above the floor.
s olution R.L. of factory floor = 30.00 m
Staff reading on floor = 1.40 m
Inverted staff reading = 3.67 m
Height of the Tee-beam above the floor = 1.40 + 3.67 = 5.07 m

6.12 spot leVels


These are elevations of the points depicted at different spots on a map. These
are designated with a dot or a plus sign with their elevations on the side. These
spot levels are determined by fly levelling or by profile and cross sectioning.
Spot levels are very useful since these give an idea of the relative levels of the
ground surface.

6.13 curVature anD refraction


Curvature and refraction effects should be accounted for in precise levelling work
and also if the sights are too long. The effect of curvature is to cause the objects
sighted, to appear lower then they really are. The effect of refraction is to make
the objects appear higher than they really are.
254 Surveying

6.13.1 curvature
In case of a long sight the horizontal line is not a level line due to curvature of the
earth. The vertical distance between a horizontal line and the level line represents
the effect of curvature of the earth.
In Fig. 6.36, let ABD be a level line through A, and O be the centre of the
earth. A is the instrument position. AC, the line of collimation, will be a horizontal
line. R is the radius of the earth.
The curvature correction, Cc = BC
Now OC2 = OA2 + AC2
or (R + Cc )2 = R2 + D2
or R + 2R Cc + C c2 =
2
R 2 + D2
or Cc (2R + Cc) = D2
or D2
Cc = _______
2R + Cc
Since Cc is very small as compared to the radius of the earth R,
D2
Cc = ___
2R
Taking the radius of the earth as 6370 km,
Cc = 0.0785 D 2
where D = distance in km
Since the curvature increases the staff reading, the correction is therefore
subtractive.
True staff reading = observed staff reading – 0.0785 D 2
Horizontal line

A
Instrument C
position E Line of sight
R B
R
Level line
O

6.13.2 refraction
Refraction of the ray passing through the atmosphere from the signal to the
observer is the main source of external error. The rays of light while passing
through layers of air of different densities refract or bend down. These densities
depend upon the temperature and pressure at all points along the track of the rays.
Consequently, ray from a staff follows a curved path, let us say AE (Fig. 6.36).
CE is the amount of refraction correction and varies considerably with climatic
conditions. The average refraction correction can, however, be taken as 1/7th of
the curvature correction.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 255

Refraction correction = 0.0785 D2 = 0.0112 D2


_________
7
The correction due to refraction is additive.

6.13.3 combined correction


Since, the effect of curvature and refraction, when combined, is to make the objects
sighted appear low, the overall correction is subtractive.
Combined correction = 0.0785 D 2 – 0.0112 D2 = 0.0673 D2
True staff reading = observed staff reading – 0.0673 D2
Error due to curvature and refraction can be eliminated by equalising F.S. and
B.S. distances or by reciprocal levelling.
For a length of sight of about 400 m, combined correction will be 1 cm and may
be neglected when running indirect levelling.

6.13.4 Distance to Visible Horizon


Let AB be a level surface passing through
the observer position A (Fig. 6.37). The
eye level of the observer is at C, thus AC
is the height of observer h. The distance
D(AB) is known as the distance to visible
horizon and can be determined from
h = 0.0673D2

6.13.5 Dip of the Horizon


Let AB be a level surface passing through
observer’s position A (Fig. 6.38). Let CE
be the tangent to the level surface at the
eye level of the observer. The angle ECB
is known as the angle of dip.
AO = BO
= mean radius of earth’s
surface.
Arc AB = R
or = D/R

e xample 6.14 Calculate the combined


correction for curvature and refraction for a
distance of: (i) 5 km (ii) 500 m.
s olution (i) 5 km:
Cc = 0.0673 × (5)2 = 1.6825 m
(ii) 500 m:
2
500
( )
Cc = 0.0673 × _____
1000
= 0.016825 m
256 Surveying

e xample 6.15 In order to find the difference in elevation between two points
A and B, a level was set up on the line AB, 50 m from A and 1300 m from B. A
and B being on the same side of the instrument. The readings obtained on staff
held at A and B were 0.435 m and 3.950 m, respectively. Find the true difference
in elevation between A and B.
s olution The curvature and refraction corrections are applied only if the
observations are taken for a length greater than 200 m. Therefore, corrections are
not applied to the staff reading at A.
The combined correction for curvature and refraction at B
= 0.0673 D2 = 0.0673 (1.3)2 = 0.1137 m
Hence, corrected staff reading at B = 3.950 – 0.1137 = 3.8363 m
True difference in elevation between B and A is = 3.8363 – 0.435
= 3.40126 m

e xample 6.16 Five bombers were flying at different levels as indicated below:
Bomber No. 1 1366.20 m
Bomber No. 2 1300.00 m
Bomber No. 3 1262.25 m
Bomber No. 4 1207.30 m
Bomber No. 5 1152.25 m
The bombers want to bomb a city K. Another bomber No. 6 starts flying after
repairs from an aerodrome B. The distance of city K from aerodrome B is 80 km.
Bomber No. 6 goes up in vertical direction up to 1100.00 m level. After that it
flies horizontally and its pilot wants to go below bomber No. 5 whose level is
1152.25 m. To his utter surprise, the pilot finds himself even above bomber No.
1. Find out the cause and justify your answer.

s olution This is due to the effect of curvature and refraction.


The combined correction = 0.0673 D2
= 0.0673 (80)2 = 430.7 m
Hence, level of bomber No. 6 = 1100 + 430.7 = 1530.7 m
This is more than the level of bomber No. 1. Hence, bomber No. 6 finds himself
above bomber No. 1.

e xample 6.17 An observer stands on the top of a tower with his eye level
at 85 m. Determine the distance to visible horizon and the dip of horizon. The
radius of the earth may be taken as 6400 km.
s olution
h = 0.0673 D2
85 = 0.0673 D2
D = 35.54 km
35.54
Dip of horizon = 20
6400
Measurement of Vertical Distances 257

e xample 6.18 The captain of a ship just sees the top of a light house 75 m
in height. If the eye level of captain was 7 m above the sea level, determine the
distance of the ship from the light house.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.39
h 7
Distance, AB = D1 =
0.0673 0.0673
75
Distance, BC = D2 =
0.0673
D = D1 + D2
7 75
= = 43.58 km
0.0673 0.0673

6.14 cHecks in leVelling


In surveying it is always desirable to verify the work done in every possible
way. One of the ways already discussed is to make arithmetical checks, i.e., the
difference between the sum of backsights and the sum of foresights should be
equal to the difference between the sum of rise and the sum of fall and also to
the difference of the reduced level of the last station and that of the beginning
station. This check is however to verify the arithmetic done to reduce levels but
it does not verify that the calculated reduced level of any point is actually correct.
This is because there may be an error in reading the level staff or in entering an
observation in the appropriate column. Therefore, as a standard practice, a level
loop should be made. This means that the levels should be continued to end on
the starting point. If the last foresight is taken on the starting point and if it is
subtracted from the current height of the instrument, the result should be the
elevation of the starting point. If this is achieved, it provides a complete verification
of both the field observations and the arithmetic ones.
In the closed loop check, however, the computed elevation of the starting point
and its initial elevation may differ. But it does not mean that the work is not verified.
The amount of error of closure is proportional to the length of line of levels or to
the number of times the level is set up. It can be computed by the formula:
__
E=±C K
where
E = permissible closing error (in mm)
258 Surveying

K = distance (in km)


C = constant.
The value of C for different types of levelling are:
1. 100 for rough levelling,
2. 24 for ordinary levelling,
3. 12 for accurate levelling and
4. 4 for precise levelling.

e xample 6.19 A line of level was run in the form of a loop 600.00 m long.
The initial elevation of the starting point was 29.0 m. When the last foresight
reading of 3.005 m was made on the starting point, the height of instrument was
32.0 m. Compute the closing error. Is it tolerable?
s olution
Final elevation = 32.0 – 3.005 = 28.995 m
Closing error = 29.0 – 28.995 = 0.005 m = 5 mm
Permissible closure error for precise levelling
_____
C=4 600 = 3.09 mm
_____
1000
Permissible closure error for accurate levelling is
_____
C = 12 600 = 9.29 mm
_____
1000
Since the actual error of closure (5 mm) is less than the permissible error of
closure (9.29 mm) and more than that (3.09) for precise levelling, the levels are
acceptable for accurate levelling.

6.15 leVelling for graDing a plot of lanD


Often, it is required to grade a plot of land to estimate the cut and fill. In such
a case, levelling is done to obtain surface spot levels which may be used in
determining where the graded surface will lie. From these levels the character of
the surface, e.g., one plane surface, or a
combination of two or more plane surfaces,
a curved surface, or a combination of plane
and curved surfaces can be ascertained.
Thereafter, by applying an appropriate
formula, see Chapter 13, volume of the
cut or fill can be estimated.
In case the plot is rectangular, it is
divided into squares or rectangles and the
elevations of the corners so formed are
determined. But usually the plots have
irregular boundaries. In such cases, the
major portion of the land is divided into
squares or rectangles as shown in Fig. 6.40
and the lines forming a square or rectangle
Measurement of Vertical Distances 259

are extended to intersect the boundaries, forming the hatched portion shown in the
figure. The elevation of these points of intersection and of the corners of squares
or rectangles are obtained.
For a large plot of land, the method discussed above is slightly modified. The
entire area is divided into squares or rectangles with sides of several hundred metres.
The elevations of these corner points of squares or rectangles are determined by
a level. The elevations so obtained serve as a point of vertical control for further
work. The bigger square or rectangular units are subdivided into smaller squares
or rectangles. From the established points of vertical control, the levels of the
corners of all small units so formed are determined.

6.16 leVelling a BorroW pit


It is often required to take out soil from a place and use it for some construction
work. To determine the volume of the material removed from a borrow pit, it is
necessary to know the surface levels before and after the excavation. To do this,
a reference line, quite away from the borrow pit, is laid on one side of the pit.
Stakes are set at regular intervals. At each of these stakes a line perpendicular to
the reference line is set across the borrow pit and a stake is fixed on this line.
On each of these cross-lines, profile levelling is done to measure the surface
irregularities. The elevations are measured inside the borrow pit area only. After
the material has been excavated, profile levelling is done again over the same
cross-lines taking elevations within the borrow pit area. From the cross sections
determined by preliminary levels and final levels, the volume of material excavated
can be calculated. The procedures and formulae used in the calculation of volume
are explained in Chapter 13.

6.17 longituDinal or profile leVelling


It is the operation to determine the elevations of points spaced apart at known
distances along a given line in order to obtain the accurate outline of the surface
of the ground profile. It is also called sectioning. The purpose of profile levelling
is to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface along a
surveyed line can be plotted. This line is called profile.
It is very useful for projects like construction and design of sewers, pipelines,
highways, railways, canals, etc., and to determine the cut and fill. It is frequently
essential to run a longitudinal section along various proposed centre lines and to
compare their costs to select a suitable one.
Profile levelling uses the principle of differential levelling. A number of change
points along with intermediate sights may be required as is shown in Fig. 6.41.
The intermediate sights are taken on stations, at breaks in the ground surface,
at points of change of slope and at other critical points. After each staff reading
is taken, the chainage is also noted, transcribed, and then entered in the distance
column of the level book page. When the limit of sight distance is reached, a
change point is established and the surveyor proceeds to give the intermediate
sights after a backsight on the change point. This routine is followed till the end
260 Surveying

of the section. The information regarding the various features like bed level of
stream, road, railway, culvert, etc., lying on the section line must also be noted.

The profiles are plotted as a graph with the elevations of the various points
represented by the ordinates and the horizontal distances between the stations
shown on the abscissa. The vertical scale is kept much larger than the horizontal
one (5 to 15 times) to accentuate the difference in elevations. The plotted points
are connected by a free hand line. The plan view of the profiled line is usually
shown on the top portion of the sheet and the profile on the lower portion.

6.18 cross sectioning


It is the operation of levelling to determine the elevation of the points at right
angles on either side of the centre line of the proposed route (Fig. 6.42) and
radially on the curves. This is done to find out the vertical sections of the surface
of the earth on the ground. The detailed information regarding the levels of the
ground on either side of the longitudinal section helps in computing the quantity
of earth work. The cross sections are plotted in the same manner as longitudinal
sections except that both the horizontal and vertical measurements are plotted to
the same scale.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 261

6.19 reciprocal leVelling


It is the operation of levelling in which the difference in elevation between two
points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations. This method
is very useful when the instrument cannot be set up between the two points due
to an obstruction such as a valley, river, etc., and if the sights are much longer
than are ordinarily permissible. For such long sights the errors of reading the staff,
the curvature of earth, and the imperfect adjustments of the instrument become
262 Surveying

prominent. Special methods like reciprocal levelling should be used to minimize


these errors.
In this method the instrument is set up near one point say A, on one side
on the valley, and a reading is taken on the staff held at A (Fig. 6.43 (a)) near
the instrument and on the staff at B on the other side of the valley. Let these
readings be a and b, respectively. The near reading a is without error, whereas
the reading b would have an error e due to curvature, refraction and collimation.
The instrument is then shifted near to B on the other side of the valley and the
reading is taken on the staff held at B and that on A. Let these readings be c and d
(Fig. 6.43 (b)). The near reading c is without error, whereas reading d would
contain an error e due to the reasons discussed above. Let h be the true difference
of elevation between A and B.

a e b

A B

d e
c

A B

In the 1st case (Fig. 6.43 (a)), h = (b – e) – a


In the 2nd case (Fig. 6.43 (b)), h = c – (d – e)
2h = (b – a) + (c – d)
or 1 [(b – a) + (c – d)]
h = __
2
and e = 1 [(b – a) – (c – d)]
__
2
In the above derivations it is assumed that the effect of refraction is the same
while making observations from both the stations. However, if only one level is
used, there will be a time lag in transferring the instrument to the opposite bank,
Measurement of Vertical Distances 263

during which time the value of refraction may change. Therefore, to ensure better
results, some surveyors recommend the use of two levels, one at each bank, so
that sights are taken simultaneously. Although this will give better results but each
level may have a different collimation error. The instruments should therefore be
interchanged and the entire procedure repeated. The mean of the four values will
be the most probable difference in the level between the two points.

e xample 6.20 The following notes refer to the reciprocal levels taken with
one level:

Instrument Staff readings on Remarks


station A B
A 1.03 1.630 Distance AB = 800 m
B 0.95 1.540 R.L. of A = 450 m

Find:
(i) True R.L. of B
(ii) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
(iii) The error in collimation adjustment of the instrument.
s olution
(i) True R.L. of B
Instrument at A
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 1.630 – 1.03 = 0.600 m
Instrument at B
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 1.540 – 0.95 = 0.59 m
True difference of level between A and B = mean of the two incorrect
differences
0.6 + 0.59
= _________
2
= 0.595 m (fall from A to B)
The results can also be obtained by using the expression
(b – a) + (c – d) (1.630 – 1.03) + (1.540 – 0.95)
h = _______________ = ___________________________ = 0.595 m
2 2
(ii) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
= 0.0673 D 2

(
800
= 0.0673 _____
1000 )2
= 0.043 m
(iii) Error in collimation adjustment
Reading of A = 1.03 m
Fall from A to B = 0.595 m
Required reading of level lime = 1.03 + 0.595 = 1.625 m
The actual staff reading at B (touching horizontal line)
= 1.625 + 0.043 = 1.668 m
264 Surveying

But the observed reading at B = 1.630 m


Error in collimation adjustment = 1.668 – 1.630 = 0.038 m
Error of collimation is negative since the observed reading is less than the
actual.

e xample 6.21 The following notes refer to the reciprocal levels taken with
one level:

Instrument Staff readings on Remarks


station A B
A 1.425 2.724 Distance AB = 1150 m
B 1.429 2.504 RL of A = 100 m
Collimation error = 0.003/150 m

Find:
(i) True R.L. of B
(ii) Correction for collimation
(iii) Correction for refraction
(iv) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
s olution
(i) True R.L. of B
Instrument at A
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 2.724 – 1.425 = 1.299 m
Instrument at B
Incorrect level difference between A and B = 2.504 – 1.429 = 1.075 m
True difference of level between A and B = mean of two incorrect differences
1.299 1.075
= 1.187 m
2
(ii) Correction for collimation
0.003
Collimation error = 1150 = 0.023 m
150
Correction for collimation = –0.023 m
(iii) Correction for refraction
Error due to curvature = 0.0785 D2 = 0.0785 × 1.152 = 0.104 m
Correction for curvature = – 0.104 m
Let, the correction for refraction be CR.
Combined correction for curvature and refraction = – 0.104 + CR
Total correction for collimation, curvature and refraction
= – 0.023 – 0.104 + CR
Correct staff reading at B with instrument at A
= 2.724 – 0.023 – 0.104 + CR = 1.172 + CR
Measurement of Vertical Distances 265

This must be equal to the calculated true difference of elevation between A and B
1.172 + CR = 1.187
or CR = 0.015 m
(iv) Combined correction for curvature and refraction
Cco = –0.104 + CR = –0.104 + 0.015 = –0.089 m

6.20 precise leVelling


This is the operation of levelling in which precise instruments are used. In principle,
there is no difference between ordinary and precise levelling. In the former, the
distances between check points are relatively short and the elevations obtained
are satisfactory for routine purposes. However, for precise levelling, the level loop
may be of substantial length and efforts are made to control all the sources of
errors. The most important error control in precise levelling is the balancing of
foresight and backsight distances. The lengths of sights are kept equal to within
0.5 m. This has the effect of eliminating the residual collimation error and errors
due to curvature, and minimising errors due to refraction. These distances can be
readily computed if the instrument is fitted with stadia wires.
Temperatures are read at intervals to correct the graduations along the length of
the staff. some of the other effects of change of temperature are: the coefficient of
refraction is altered, shimmering is caused, and unequal expansion and contraction
of the instrument is there. The effect of change of coefficient of refraction is
probably cancelled by equalising backsight and foresight distances. Shimmering
can be minimised by avoiding observations near the foot of the staff. The unequal
expansion or contraction of the instrument can be guarded against by keeping
the instrument under shade. To minimise errors of reading, sights should be kept
short at about 50 m, and 98 m should be regarded as the maximum distance.
Precise levelling is used for establishing benchmarks with high precision by some
government agencies such as Great Trigonometrical Survey of India Department.
In principle, the instruments used are the same as those used for ordinary
levelling but special attention is paid by the manufacturers to some of the
construction details adding to the precision. Levels manufactured by Carl Zeiss,
Wild Heerburg and Nikon Corporation are commonly used for precise levelling.
These levels differ from the ordinary levels in the following respects;
1. The levelling base is made broad and the part of the instrument above the
base is reduced in height. This increases stability.
2. The radius of the bubble tube curvature is made large to increase its
sensitivity. The value of 2 mm division is usually 1.2 – 3 seconds.
3. The clear objective aperture of the telescope should be at least 4 cm and
the shortest focussing distance of 0.5 to 1.5 m. Magnification of telescope
ranges from about 30 to over 50 diameters.
4. The bubble is capable of being read at the eye end and in some models
in the main telescope itself.
5. An automatic or a tilting level is employed. When a tilting level is used,
the final adjustment for the level in the direction of the line of sight is
made with the tilting screw. A parallel plate micrometer is fitted, making
it possible to read a staff directly to 0.001 m.
266 Surveying

6. The level is provided with a coincidence bubble tube. It facilitates two


ends of the bubble to be seen side by side through an auxillary eyepiece
(Fig. 6.44 (a)), fitted below the eyepiece end of the telescope. This is
achieved with the help of an optical arrangement which splits the bubble
image into two parts and makes them to appear adjacent to each other as
shown in Fig. 6.44 (b). When the bubble is centred the two ends appear
to coincide and form a U-shaped curve as shown in Fig. 6.44 (c).

(a) Side view (b) Not level (c) Level

The level page for precise levelling is somewhat different than that of ordinary
levelling and is as shown in level book page 3 (Table 6.4). There is no need to
compute each H.I. and elevation of the turning points, since this is resorted to only
for establishing a B.M. The desired difference in elevation between benchmarks
is merely the difference between sum of the backsight and foresight readings. To
equalise backsight and foresight distances, stadia wires are also read in addition
to the horizontal cross-wire as shown in the level page book 3. Though costly
and time consuming, the accuracy of the staff reading is considerably improved
by reading all the three wires and taking the mean of the three readings.

Station B.S. H.I. F.S. R.L. Temperature Remarks


(°C)
1.530
1 2.100 B.M.
2.670
Mean 2.100 128.425 126.325
1.260 1.200
2 1.900 1.831 T.P.
2.541 2.463
Mean 1.900 1.831 126.594
1.382
3 128.494 1.964
2.645
Mean 1.964 126.530
B.S. – F.S. Last R.L. – First R.L.
= 4.000 – 3.795 = 0.205 = 126.530 – 126.325 = 0.205
Measurement of Vertical Distances 267

Thus, precise levelling involves the use of suitable instruments, protection of the
level from disturbing elements, careful manipulation of the level, and a program
of procedures designed to reduce the errors.

__
First order ± 4 __
k mm
Second order ± 8 k__mm
Third order ± 12 __
k mm
For a closed loop ± 24 k mm
Here k is distance in km

6.21 fly leVelling


It is an operation of levelling in which a line of levels is run to determine the
approximate elevations along a route. It is carried out for reconnaissance of the
linear structures such as roads, railways, tunnels, canals, etc.

e xample 6.22 In running fly levels from a B.M. of R.L. 250.00 m, the
following readings (in m) were obtained:
Backsight: 1.315, 2.035, 1.980, 2.625
Foresight: 1.150, 3.450, 2.255
From the last position of the instrument, five pegs at 20 m interval are to be set
out on a uniform rising gradient of 1 in 40. The first peg is to have a R.L. of
247.245 m. Work out the staff readings required for setting the tops of the pegs
on the given gradient.
s olution Enter the B.S. and F.S. readings in the level book page and work
out the reduced levels of stations.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks


1 1.315 251.315 250.000 B.M.
2 2.035 1.150 252.200 250.165 C.P.
3 1.980 3.450 250.730 248.750 C.P.
4 2.625 2.255 251.100 248.475 C.P.
5 3.855 247.245 Peg 1
6 3.355 247.745 Peg 2
7 2.855 248.245 Peg 3
8 2.355 248.745 Peg 4
9 1.855 249.245 Peg 5
Check B.S. – F.S. Last R.L. – First R.L.
= 7.955 – 8.710 = – 0.755 = 249.245 – 250 = – 0.755

The first peg is fixed with the R.L. of its top at 247.245 m and the height of
instrument is 251.150 m. The R.L. of the subsequent pegs at 20 m interval will
depend upon the rising gradient, which is 1 in 40. Difference in level, between
268 Surveying

two consecutive readings = distance/gradient = 20/40 = 0.5 m. The ground is rising


by 0.5 m between the consecutive pegs.
Reduced level of pegs:
Peg 1 = 247.245 m
Peg 2 = 247.245 + 0.5 = 247.745 m
Peg 3 = 247.745 + 0.5 = 248.245 m
Peg 4 = 248.245 + 0.5 = 248.745 m
Peg 5 = 248.745 + 0.5 = 249.245 m
Subsequent staff reading at pegs will be:
Peg 1 = 251.100 – 247.245 = 3.855 m
Peg 2 = 251.100 – 247.745 = 3.355 m
Peg 3 = 251.100 – 248.245 = 2.855 m
Peg 4 = 251.100 – 248.745 = 2.355 m
Peg 5 = 251.100 – 249.245 = 1.855 m

6.22 cHeck leVelling


It is the operation of running levels to check the accuracy of the benchmarks
previously fixed. At the end of each day’s work, a line of levels is run, returning
to the B.M. with a view to check the work done on that day.

e xample 6.23 Starting from a point A of elevation 92.5 m, levels were taken
from a section extending to a point B the reduced level of which was found to be
98.15 m. Check levels were carried back along the shortest route from B to A, the
reading being given below. Find the error of closure on the starting point.
B.S. F.S. Remarks
1.120 B
0.740 3.050
1.800 2.795
2.490 0.375
0.730 1.235
1.820 3.390
0.720 1.915
2.290 A

s olution
B.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks
1.120 99.270 98.150 B
0.740 3.050 96.960 96.220
1.800 2.795 95.965 94.165
2.490 0.375 98.080 95.590
(Contd.)
Measurement of Vertical Distances 269

0.730 1.235 97.575 96.845


1.820 3.390 96.005 94.185
0.720 1.915 94.810 94.090
2.290 92.520 A
The reduced level of point A is found to be 92.52 m by the check levels.
Therefore, the error of closure = 92.520 – 92.500 = 0.020 m.

6.23 trigonoMetric leVelling


This is an indirect method of levelling in which the difference in elevation of the
points is determined from the observed vertical angles and measured distances. The
vertical angles are measured with a transit and the distances are measured directly
or computed trigonometrically. Trigonometrical levelling is commonly used in
topographical work to find out the elevation of the top of buildings, chimneys,
church spires, and so on. Also, it can be used to its advantage in difficult terrains
such as mountaneous areas.
Depending upon the field conditions and the measurements that can be made
with the instruments available, there can be innumerable cases. An attempt has been
made to solve a few cases and many more can be solved by the reader himself.

6.23.1 Base of the object accessible—the object may be


Vertical or inclined
In Fig. 6.45, AF is the vertical object, D is the horizontal distance between the
object and instrument, S is the reading on the levelling staff held vertical on the
B.M., h1 is the height of the instrument, h is the height FE, and is the angle of
elevation of the top of the object.
270 Surveying

From triangle CFE,


FE = CE tan
or h= D tan
R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S + h
= R.L. of B.M. + S + D tan
In Fig. 6.46, AF is the inclined object, x is the distance between the foot of the
object and the projection F of the top, O1 and O2 are the instrument stations such
that O1, O2 and A are in the same vertical plane, D1 and D2 are the distances of the
foot of the object from the instrument stations O1 and O2, respectively. S1 and S2
are the staff readings on B.M. from instrument positions at O1 and O2, respectively,
and 1 and 2 are the angles of elevation from O1 and O2, respectively.

R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + h1


= R.L. of B.M. + S1 + (D1 + x) tan 1 (6.4)
also R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S2 + h2
= R.L. of B.M. + S2 + (D2 – x) tan 2 (6.5)
From Eqs. (6.4) and (6.5)
S1 + (D1 + x) tan 1 = S2 + (D2 – x) tan 2
or (S2 – S1) + (D2 tan 2 – D1 tan 1) = x (tan 1 + tan 2)
(S2 – S1) + D2 tan 2 – D1 tan 1
or x = _____________________________
tan 1 + tan 2
R.L. of F can be calculated after computing the value of x.
R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + (D1 + x) tan 1
also R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S2 + (D2 – x) tan 2

The above methods are used when the distance between the instrument and the
object is small. However, if the distance is large, the corrections for curvature
and refraction should also be applied.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 271

6.23.2 Base of the object inaccessible—the instrument


stations and the elevated object are in the same
Vertical plane
If the horizontal distance between the instrument and the elevated object is
inaccessible, the observations are made from two instrument stations. Assuming
the two instrument stations and the object to be in the same vertical plane, the
following two cases arise.
In Fig. 6.47, h is the vertical distance FA ,
S is the staff reading on the B.M., 1 and 2 are the angles of elevation from the
instrument stations O1 and O2 respectively, D is the horizontal distance between
O1 and the object, and d is the horizontal distance between the two stations.

From triangle O1 A F, h = D tan 1 (6.6)


From triangle O2 A F, h = (D + d) tan 2 (6.7)
From Eqs. (6.6) and (6.7)
D tan 1 = (D + d) tan 2
or D (tan 1 – tan 2) = d tan 2
or D = d tan 2/(tan 1 – tan 2)
d tan 2 tan 1
Hence, h = D tan 1 = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S + h

Depending upon the terrain, three cases arise:

h1 – h2 = A A = S2 – S1 = S
From triangle O1 A F, h1 = D tan 1 (6.8)
From triangle O2 A F, h2 = (D + d) tan 2 (6.9)
272 Surveying

Subtract Eq. (6.9) from Eq. (6.8) to get


h1 – h2 = D tan 1 – (D + d) tan 2
or S = D tan 1 – D tan 2 – d tan 2
= D (tan 1 – tan 2) – d tan 2

or D (tan 1 – tan 2) = S + d tan 2


(S + d tan 2)
or D = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
But h1 = D tan 1
(S + d tan 2) tan 1
or h1 = __________________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
and R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + h1
Measurement of Vertical Distances 273

h2 – h1 = S1 – S2 = S (say)
From triangle O1 A F, h1 = D tan 1 (6.10)
From triangle O2 A F, h2 = (D + d) tan 2 (6.11)
Subtracting Eq. (6.10) from Eq. (6.11) to get
h2 – h1 = (D + d) tan 2 – D tan 1
or S = D tan 2 – D tan 1 + d tan 2
= D (tan 2 – tan 1) + d tan 2
(d tan 2 – S)
or D = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
But h1 = D tan 1
(d tan 2 – S) tan 1
or h1 = __________________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
Hence, R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + h1
If the difference
in elevation (S2 – S1) between the two instrument stations is too large and cannot
be measured on a staff at the B.M., then the following procedure is adopted:
1. Set up the instrument at O1 and measure the vertical angle at the point F
(Fig. 6.50).

2. Transit the telescope and establish a point O2, at a distance d from O1.
3. Shift the instrument to O2
and measure the vertical
angle at the point F.
4. Observe the staff reading r
with respect to horizontal
cross-wire on the staff at O1
(Fig. 6.51).
Let S be the difference in
level between the two axes
at O1 and O2.
274 Surveying

S = h2 – h1
We know that
(d tan 2 – S)
D = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
(d tan 2 – S)
and h1 = ______________
(tan 1 – tan 2)
Height of station O1 above the axis at O2= h – r
= d tan –r
S = d tan – r + h
Hence, R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + S + h1
= R.L. of B.M. + S1 + d tan – r + h + h1

6.23.3 Base of the object inaccessible—the instrument


stations and the elevated object not in the same
Vertical plane
In this case the following procedure is adopted:
1. Set up the instrument at O1 (Fig. 6.52) and measure the horizontal angle
O2O1A ( ). Measure the vertical angle 1.

2. Take the staff reading S1 at the B.M.


3. Shift the instrument to O2. Set it up and measure the horizontal angle
O1O2A ( ). Measure the vertical angle 2.
4. Take the staff reading S2 on the B.M.
5. Measure the horizontal distance d between the instrument stations.
In triangle O1O2A ,
O1A O2 = 180° – ( + )=
Measurement of Vertical Distances 275

By the sine rule


O2 A
_____ O1 A O1 O2
= _____ = _____
sin sin sin
O1 O2 sin d sin
or O2A = ___________ = _______
sin sin
O1 O2 sin d sin
and O1A = __________ = _______
sin sin
Now, h1 = A F = A O1 tan 1
= A O1 tan 1 [since A O1 = A O1]
and h2 = A F = A O2 tan 2 = A O2 tan 2
[since A O2 = A O2]
R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S1 + d (sin tan 1/sin )
Also, R.L. of F = R.L. of B.M. + S2 + d (sin tan 2/sin )

e xample 6.24 A vane 3.0 m above the foot of a staff was sighted at a point
3000 m away from the instrument. The observed angle of elevation was 2°30 .
The reduced level of the trunnion axis being 200 m. Find the reduced level of
the staff station.
s olution Let O be the instrument station and A be the staff station.
V = 3000 tan 2°30 = 130.98 m
Since, the distance of 3000 m is quite large, the correction for curvature and
refraction must be applied.
Correction, Cco = 0.0673 D2, where D is in km
= 0.0673 ( _____
1000 )
3000 2
= 0.6057 m

Hence, R.L. of staff station A = R.L. of O + H.I. + V – 3 + Cco


= R.L. of instrument axis + V – 3 + Cco
= 200 + 130.98 – 3 + 0.6057 = 328.5857 m

e xample 6.25 A theodolite was set up at O, and the angle of elevation to


the top of a building at A was
8°26 . The horizontal distance
between the vertical axis of the
theodolite and the projected
position of the top of the building
is 200 m. Determine the reduced
level of the top of the building,
if the R.L. of the instrument axis
was 1525.00 m.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.53.
= 8°26
276 Surveying

h = AO tan = 200 tan 8°26 = 29.65 m


R.L. of F = 1525.00 + 29.65 = 1554.65 m

e xample 6.26 An instrument was set up at a point 200 m away from a


transmission tower. The angle of elevation to the top of the tower was 30°42 ,
whereas the angle of depression to the bottom was 2°30 . Calculate the total height
of the transmission tower.

h1

30 42 Transmission
tower
2 30
h2
O

200 m

s olution Refer to Fig. 6.54.


Let the height of the tower be h.
h = h1 + h2
h1 = 200 tan 30°42 = 118.75 m
h 2 = 200 tan 2°30 = 8.732 m
h = 118.75 + 8.732 = 127.482 m

e xample 6.27 In order to determine the elevation of top F of a signal on a


hill, observations were made from two stations O1 and O2. The stations O1, O2,
and signal F were in the same plane. If the angles of elevation of the top F of
the signal measured at O1 and O2 were 25° 35 and 15° 5 respectively, determine
the elevation of the foot of the signal if the height of the signal above it’s base
was 4 m.
The staff readings upon the bench mark (R.L. 105.42) were respectively 2.755
and 3.855 m when the instrument was at O1 and at O2. The distance between O1
and O2 was 120 m.
s olution Refer to Fig. 6.48.
R.L. of instrument axis at P = 105.42 + 2.755 = 108.175 m
R.L. of instrument axis at R = 105.42 + 3.855 = 109.275 m
Difference in elevation between the instrument axes = S
= 109.275 – 108.175 = 1.1 m
d tan 2 S
D=
tan 1 tan 2
Measurement of Vertical Distances 277

120 tan 15 5 1.1


=
tan 25 35 tan 15 5
= 159.811 m
h1 = D tan 1
= 159.811 × tan 25°35 = 76.511 m
R.L. of the foot of the signal
= R.L. of instrument axis at P + h1 – height of signal
= 108.175 + 76.511 – 4
= 180.686 m

e xample 6.28 To find the elevation of the top of a chimney, the following
observations were made from two stations P and Q, 50 m apart.
Horizontal angle at station P, between chimney and Q = 60°
Horizontal angle at station Q, between chimney and P = 50°
Angle of elevation from P to the top of chimney = 30°
Angle of elevation from Q to the top of chimney = 29°
R.L. of the line of collimation at P = 22.5 m
R.L. of the line of collimation at Q = 20.5 m
Determine the elevation of the top of the chimney.
Solution Refer to Fig. 6.55.
F

h2
29
h1
Q Chimney

50
30 A
60

Let P and Q be the instrument stations and F be the top of the chimney.
In triangle APQ: APQ = 60° and AQP = 50°
PAQ = 180° – (50° + 60°) = 70°
Applying the sine rule,
QA
PA = ______
______ PQ
= ______
sin 50° sin 60° sin 70°

or (
PA = 50 × sin )
50° = 40.76 m
______
sin 70°
278 Surveying

and QA = 50 × sin ( )
60° = 46.08 m
______
sin 70°
Also, h1 = PA tan = 40.76 tan 30° = 23.533 m
and h2 = QA tan = 46.08 tan 29° = 25.543 m
Hence, R.L. of chimney top = R.L. of line of collimation + h1 (or h2)
R.L. of F from observations at P = 22.5 + 23.533 = 46.033 m
R.L. of F from observations at Q = 20.5 + 25.543 = 46.043 m
(46.033 + 46.043)
Hence, elevation of F = _______________ = 46.038 m
2

6.24 BaroMetric leVelling


The principle used in barometric levelling is that the elevation of a point is inversely
proportional to the weight of the air column above the observer. However, the
relationship between pressure and elevation is not constant as air is compressible.
Sudden changes in temperature, humidity, and weather conditions due to storms
also affect pressure. The barometric methods are particularly suited for work in
rough country, where a high precision is not desirable. These are also used to
reduce the slope distances to horizontal when measured electronically.
The instrument used for measuring pressure is called a barometer. The modified
form of a barometer used to find relative elevations of points on the surface of the
earth is called altimeter. It is simple in operation but very sensitive to changes in
atmospheric pressures.
The method used to measure elevations with an altimeter is known as single
base method. Two altimeters are required. One altimeter along with a thermometer
is placed at a point of known elevation called control point, where the readings
are taken at regular intervals. The other altimeter called roving altimeter is taken
to the points whose elevations are desired. Readings of the roving altimeter taken
at the desired points are adjusted later in accordance with changes in temperature
and the like observed at the control point. The difference in elevation between the
two points may be obtained by the following formula:

( T1 + T2
H = 18336.6 (log10 h1 – log10 h2) 1 + _______
500 )
where
H = the difference in elevation between the two points,
h1, h2 = the barometric readings (in cm) at the lower and higher points,
respectively, and
T1, T2 = temperatures of air (in °C) at the lower and higher points,
respectively.

6.24.1 Barometer
Barometers are used in levelling for rough determination of elevations, difference
of elevations and the flying height of aeroplanes in aerial photogrammetry.
They are also used for calculating the refraction correction in certain kinds of
astronomical observations. Since, levelling with the barometer is not very accurate,
Measurement of Vertical Distances 279

it is normally used only for topographical and reconnaissance surveys on a small


scale, where great accuracy in the determination of elevations is not essential. Two
kinds of barometers, the mercurial and the aneroid are available (Fig. 6.56). The
former is more accurate but is inconvenient to carry and breaks easily.
10

4 7 6 11
2
8
1
5
1

3 9

1. Air-tight box 2. Spring 3. Central vertical post


4. Knife edge 5. Series of links 6. Light chains
7. Vertical spindle 8. Hairspring 9. Circular base plate
10. Pointer 11. Scale

The mercurial barometer depends on the principle of


balancing a column of mercury against the atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric
pressure at the point of observation being a function of the elevation of the point
above mean sea level.
There are two main types of mercurial barometers—cistern and syphon.
Mercurial barometers need to be supported vertically, and are therefore often
suspended by some form of gimbal mounting attached to a special tripod.
In the cistern type of barometer, the mercury is contained in a glass tube about
85 cm long, the upper end of which is closed, whereas the lower open end is
immersed in a cistern containing mercury open to the atmosphere. The tube is
exhausted of air, so that the space above the level of the mercury in the tube is
a vacuum. Since the pressure on the mercury in the cistern is atmospheric and
there is no pressure on the upper end of the column of mercury in the tube, a
column of mercury is maintained in the tube; the height of which depends upon
the pressure on the surface of mercury in the cistern.
In the syphon type of mercury barometer, the tube containing mercury is bent
into a U-shape at the lower end. One of the branches of the U-tube is kept shorter
than the other. A small opening is provided in the upper end of the short branch
to admit air, while the long branch is closed at the top with vacuum at its top.
This type of barometer is inferior to the cistern type and is not much in use.

6.24.2 accuracy in Barometric levelling


The following measures should be taken to ensure the appropriate quality of
barometric levelling:
1. It should be carried out only with well-tested instruments.
280 Surveying

2. It should be done in summer during the first four hours after sunrise and
during the last four hours before sunset.
3. Observations should be avoided during high wind, before a thunderstorm,
and in foggy weather.
4. When arriving at the point, it is necessary to wait for 5 – 10 min. for the
aneroid to assume the temperature and pressure of the ambient air.
5. During observations the aneroid should be kept horizontal in a thick leather
casing to avoid jolts and for protecting from direct action of sunlight.
6. The top of the aneroid should be slightly tapped to overcome the pointer
inertia before reading.
7. Eye should be properly positioned with the pointer to overcome
parallax.
8. Instrument readings should be taken repeatedly, at a number of points, in
intervals of 10 min.
If any one of the above conditions is not observed, it will result in serious errors.
An error in the aneroid of 0.1 mm causes an error in elevation equal to 1 m, and
an error in determining the barometer temperature of 1°C causes an error in height
equal to 2 m. Under favourable conditions and by careful work, the aneroid can
be used to determine the elevation of points with a maximum error of 3 m.

e xample 6.29 Find the elevation of a station B from the following data:

Station A Station B
Time 9 – 11 a.m. 10 a.m.
Barometer reading 75 – 75.2 cm 72 cm
Temperature of air 16 – 18°C 8°C
Elevation 50.0 m ?

s olution Variation of pressure in 2 hours (from 9 to 11 a.m.)


= 75.2 – 75 = 0.2 cm
Variation of pressure in one hour
0.2 = 0.1 cm
= ___
2
Hence, probable barometer reading at A at 10 a.m.
= h1 = 75 + 0.1 = 75.1 cm
Observed barometer reading at B at 10 a.m.
= h2 = 72 cm
(18 + 16)
Mean temperature at A = T1 = ________ = 17°C
2
Temperature at B = T2 = 8°C.
Difference in elevation of A and B is given by,

(
T1 + T2
H = 18336.6 (log10 h1 – log10 h2) 1 + _______
500 )
(
17 + 8
= 18336.6 (log10 75.1 – log10 72) 1 + ______
500 )
= 352.48 m
Measurement of Vertical Distances 281

Elevation of station B = elevation of station A + H


= 50 + 352.48 = 402.48 m

6.25 HypsoMetry
The altitudes of various points may be obtained by
using an instrument known as hypsometer. It works
on the principle that a liquid boils when its vapour
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. It
may be noted that the boiling point of water is
lowered as the pressure decreases, i.e., as a higher
altitude is attained. The method, therefore, consists
in determining the boiling point temperatures at
various stations. The corresponding atmospheric
pressures may be obtained from the tables. In
the absence of tables, the following approximate
formula may be used:
h = 76.00 ± 2.679 t
where t is the difference of boiling point from
100°C, and h is the pressure in cm. The difference
in elevations may be obtained by using the formula
given in Section 6.24.
The hypsometer (Fig. 6.57) consists of a
thermometer graduated to 0.1°C. It is fitted inside
a telescopic tube and is suspended over a small
boiler filled with distilled water. The thermometer
is kept in steam and is adjusted so as not to touch
the water. The temperature of air in the shade
is also observed simultaneously with a detached
thermometer.

e xample 6.30 Determine the altitude difference between two points A and
B from the following data:

Station Location Boiling point of Temperature of


liquid (°C) air (°C)
A Lower 98.6 16
B Higher 94 12

s olution
t1 = 100 – 98.6 = 1.4°C t2 = 100 – 94 = 6°C
Pressure at A, h1 = 76.00 – 2.679 t1
= 76.00 – 2.679 × 1.4 = 72.249 cm
Pressure at B, h2 = 76 – 2.679 t2
= 76 – 2.679 × 6 = 59.926 cm
282 Surveying

Difference in altitudes of A and B

[
T1 + T2
H = 18336.6 (log10 h1 – log10 h2) 1 + _______
500 ]
[
16 + 12
= 18336.6 (log10 72.249 – log10 59.926) 1 + _______
500 ]
= 1572.63 m

6.26 leVelling Difficulties


Some of the difficulties encountered during the levelling operation are as
follows:
It is difficult to ascertain the verticality of a
level staff on slopes. Therefore, a plumb bob must be used to check the verticality
of the staff. While ascending a hill, the backsight and foresight will be near the
top and bottom of the staff, respectively (Fig. 6.58 (a)) and conversely in the case
while descending the hill (Fig. 6.58 (b)). In such a case it becomes difficult to
read a staff observation near the foot of the staff. To overcome this difficulty, the
staff is placed near the instrument during a foresight while ascending the hill, and
during a backsight while descending the hill. This results in unequal backsight
and foresight distances and the error due to imperfect adjustment will creep in. To
check this the instrument should be in perfect order. Another way can be to place
the instrument away from the line of levels and take zig-zag sights. This method
of observing staff readings is very useful when short sights are to be avoided.

(a) Ascending (b) Descending

Care should be exercised in


selecting a suitable position for the level when a summit or a hollow is encountered.
If the instrument is set on one side of the summit or hollow as shown in Fig.
6.59, a lot of time and effort is saved. Also, near the summit the level should be
set sufficiently high, and near hollow it should be sufficiently low to facilitate all
the required observations.
The level staff
can be held inverted and the observation can be made. The process has already
been discussed in Section 6.11.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 283

(a) Levelling across a summit

(b) Levelling across a hollow

When a pond or a lake is too wide, it cannot be sighted


across. The difficulty can be overcome by driving two pegs say A and B on opposite
sides of the pond or lake and flush with the water surface (Fig. 6.60). The level
is set on one side of the pond or lake and the observation is taken on the staff at
A. The R.L. of the peg at A and thus of the water surface is known. The level is
then shifted and set on the other side of the pond or lake and the observation is
made on the staff held at B. Since, in a pond or lake, the water is still and the
still water surface is a level surface, the reduced level of peg B will be the same
as that of A. Thus, by adding the staff reading at B to the R.L. of the peg A the
H.I. is known and levelling can be continued.
B.S.

F.S.

A B

To level across a river, the method of reciprocal


levelling (Section 6.19) is used.
During levelling, if a wall falls on the course, the
R.L. of the top of the wall is found by some means and then work is continued
from the other side. When the height of the wall above the line of sight is less
284 Surveying

than the staff length, the staff can be held inverted with its zero end touching the
top of the wall and the reading is observed. This reading when added to the H.I.,
gives the R.L. of the top of the wall. The instrument is then shifted to the other
side of the wall. The staff is kept inverted with its zero end touching the top of the
wall and reading is observed. This reading when subtracted from R.L. of the top
of the wall, gives the new H.I. and the levelling operation may be continued.
On the other hand, if the wall is too high and an inverted staff cannot be used,
a tape is used. With the instrument to one side of the wall, a mark is made on the
wall where the line of sight strikes it, say at point A (Fig. 6.61). The height from
A to the top of the wall is measured with a tape suspended from the top of the
wall. When this height is added
to the H.I., the R.L. of the top Wall top
of the wall is determined.
The instrument is then shifted
to the other side of the wall and
a new line of collimation is set
up. A mark, say B, is made on
the other side of the wall, where
the line of sight strikes it. The
height of the top of the wall
above this mark is measured
with a tape. This height when B
subtracted from the R.L. of the A
top of the wall gives the new
H.I. The levelling operation is
then continued.

In case the staff


is held too near the level, the
graduations on the staff will not be clearly visible. To overcome this the surveyor
holding the staff should move a piece of paper along the staff graduations, till he
finds that the edge of the paper is bisected by the line of collimation. The reading
corresponding to the edge of the paper will be the required observation.

6.27 errors in leVelling


These may be classified as instrumental, natural and personal. Errors can be
reduced by careful adjustment, by establishing standard field procedures and
adhering to these, but they cannot be eliminated. Because of the variety of field
conditions, it is difficult to say which of the above sources is of greatest importance
for all conditions. However, for ordinary conditions, the instrumental errors lead
to serious problems.

6.27.1 instrumental errors


It was stated previously that the levelling operation consists of holding the levelling
staff on a point while the level makes a staff reading. Therefore, the source of
instrumental error is associated with the level or the staff.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 285

The main adjustment of the level makes the line of sight parallel to the
axis of the bubble tube, so that a horizontal plane is traced out as the telescope
is revolved (Fig. 6.2). The error introduced can be eliminated by equalising the
backsight and foresight distances, which is often impractical due to the field
conditions. The bubble of the level tube, if sluggish, may rest in a wrong position,
i.e., even if the instrument is not perfectly level, it may rest in the centre of its
run. Thus, it may give a false impression that levelling of the instrument has been
achieved. The error may be avoided by checking the bubble after bisecting the
target. An experienced surveyor looks at the bubble both before and after reading
the staff.
The levelling staff should be held vertically on a point. Because
of careless holding the staff may lean forward or backward, increasing the staff
reading in both the cases. To obtain an accurate reading it should be ensured
that the staff is truly vertical by waving the staff and observing the minimum
reading.
The levelling staff and its graduations may not be of correct length. The error
is minimised by testing the length of the staff and its graduations with a standard
tape from time to time.
In the case of an extendible staff, the joints may be improperly joined or they
may be worn out. Such a staff should be discarded.

6.27.2 natural errors


The effect of the curvature of the earth and atmospheric refraction has been
discussed in Section 6.13. For sights up to 272.5 m, this error is 0.005 m which is
the usual least count of the staff being used. Therefore, sights longer than 272.5 m
should be avoided. However, for precise work, sights longer than 98 m are not
permitted. The error can be eliminated by equalising B.S. and F.S. distances or
by reciprocal levelling.
It is very difficult to hold the staff vertical in strong winds. The instrument may
also vibrate, disturbing the bubble. Therefore, during high winds, precise levelling
work is not carried out.
Temperature variations do not affect much the staff, being made of timber.
Under high temperatures, though the liquid in the level tube expands and the
bubble is shortened but it does not produce any error.
In loose, muddy or swampy ground the instrument may settle into the ground
in the interval of time elapsed between a backsight and a foresight observation. To
minimise this error, readings must be taken quickly and without walking around
the instrument. This error is cumulative. However, it can be rendered compensative
if, on alternative set ups, precaution is taken to make the foresight before the
backsight.

6.27.3 personal errors


Mistakes in setting up the level, focussing the eyepiece and objective, setting the
collimation, and in holding the staff may lead to wrong observations. Surveyors
should, therefore, be careful in making and observing the adjustments. Some of
the most common mistakes are reading the staff incorrectly, failing to extend the
286 Surveying

staff properly, allowing the turning point to change before its purpose is satisfied,
and incorrectly recording the field notes.

Summary
Measurement of vertical distance consists in determining the relative position of different
points with respect to each other. In general, the height of different points is determined with
respect to a reference point called datum. For large scale work datum is the mean sea level
(m.s.l) which for India is considered to be the m.s.l at mumbai. The height of point relative
to the datum is termed as reduced level. For small scale works the datum may be assumed
a convenient value, say 100 m, and the reduced level of various points determined.
The instruments required are a level and a graduated levelling rod. The level may be a
dumpy level, tilting level, automatic level or digital level (listed in order of advancement).
The essential condition in levelling operation is the line of sight provided by the telescope
of level should be horizontal and is called line of collimation. It should rotate in a horizontal
plane when telescope is rotated about the vertical axis. Level can be kept anywhere in the
field and the levelling staff in kept vertical at the point of interest (station) whose reduced
level is required. The reading of levelling staff on the point whose reduced level is known
(the reference point), i.e., the first point, is called the back sight reading and that on the
point of interest is called the fore sight reading (on the last point of interest) or intermediate
sight reading (on intermediate points between the first point and the last point with one set
up of instrument).
The two methods for determining reduced level of various points, the Height of Instrument
method (Collimation method) and Rise and Fall method, are described in detail. Rise and
Fall method is better one as it provides check on intermediate sight as well. It must be
remembered that the checks in the two methods are only on arithmetic performed. In case,
if the entries in the level book page are made in the wrong columns, the results will be
absurd.
As it is well known that the earth surface is curved and not plane, for small distances, a
level line and a horizontal line are practically not different and result in same reading. But
for long distances the earth’s curvature does affect the reading and accordingly curvature
correction is applied. Because of the refraction of the light rays, the line of sight deviates
from its horizontal path; the refraction correction also becomes important. The curvature
correction (negative) and the refraction correction (positive) are opposite in nature and a
net correction (negative of 0.0673D2) is applied to the observed staff readings.
Different types of levelling, the sectioning, the cross sectioning, the reciprocal, the precise,
the fly, the trigonometric, the hypsometric and the barometric levellings are discussed and
described in detail. The latter two types of levelling do not result in accurate levels, but
are discussed from academic view point and may be used for crude estimation purposes.
Difficulties are a part of the survey field work and some of the possible difficulties that
may be encountered in the field are discussed and possible solutions suggested.

Exercises
6.1 List in tabular form, for comparison, the advantages and disadvantages of the dumpy
level, wye level, and tilting level.
6.2 Define the terms line of collimation, height of instrument, backsight, reduced level,
parallax and dip of horizon.
6.3 Describe the collimation method of reducing the levels. Compare the collimation
method with the rise and fall method.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 287

6.4 Distinguish between the following pairs:


(a) Backsight and fore sight
(b) Line of collimation and axis of telescope
(c) Horizontal and level surfaces
(d) Sectioning and cross sectioning
6.5 Describe briefly how levelling is carried out in the following cases:
(a) A small piece of land (b) A large sized land
(c) A borrow pit
6.6 Explain how the procedure of reciprocal levelling eliminates the effect of refraction
and curvature as well as the error of collimation?
6.7 Describe the two-peg method of permanent adjustment of a dumpy level.
6.8 Describe in the detail the processes of
(a) Differential levelling (b) Profile levelling
(c) Cross sectioning
6.9 Discuss briefly the effect of curvature and refraction in levelling. Derive an expression
for curvature correction and for combined curvature and refraction correction.
6.10 Describe the field procedure to determine the sensitivity of the bubble tube. State
the factors and their influence on the sensitivity of the bubble tube.
6.11 Briefly describe barometric levelling.
6.12 Describe the hypsometer. Explain briefly how it is used to determine the altitudes
of stations.
6.13 Why should a long base be used in determining the height of an inaccessible point
by trigonometrical levelling?
6.14 Find the error of reading on a level staff, if the observed reading is 3.830 m and at
the point sighted on the staff is 0.15 m off the vertical through the bottom.
[Ans. 0.0029 m]
6.15 For the illustrations, Figs. 6.62, 6.63 and 6.64 below set up the level notes in proper
form. Calculate the elevation required and apply the usual checks.
[Ans. 70.070 m, 77.350 m, 104.465 m]

2.485
2.530
2.815
0.325 0.15
2.775 B.M2

B.M. = 65 m

0.775
2.145
0.155
1.435
B.M. = 80 m

B.M2
288 Surveying

6.16 The following staff readings were taken with a level. The instrument having been
shifted after the 4th, 7th and 10th readings. R.L. of the starting B.M. is 100.00 m.
Enter the readings in the form of a level book page and reduce the level by the
collimation method and apply the usual checks.
2.65, 3.74, 3.83, 5.27, 4.64, 0.38, 0.96, 1.64, 2.84, 3.48, 4.68 and 5.26.
[Ans. 100.00, 98.91, 98.82, 97.38, 101.64, 101.06, 99.86, 99.22, 98.64]
6.17 During fly levelling the following note is made.
B.S.: 0.62, 2.05, 1.42, 2.63 and 2.42 m
F.S.: 2.44, 1.35, 0.53 and 2.41 m
The first B.S. was taken on a B.M. of R.L. 100.00 m. From the last B.S. it is
required to set 4 pegs each at a distance of 30 m on a rising gradient of 1 in 200.
Enter these notes in the form of a level book and calculate the R.L. of the top of
each peg by the rise and fall method. Also, calculate the staff readings on each
peg.
[Ans. R.L. 100.00, 98.18, 98.88, 99.77, 99.99, 100.14, 100.29, 100.44, 100.59.
Staff reading on pegs 2.27, 2.12, 1.97, 1.82 m]
6.18 The reduced level of ground at four points A, B, C and D are 54.35, 54.30, 54.20,
54.30 m, respectively. A sewer is to be laid so that its invert is 3.048 m below the
ground at A and it falls with a uniform gradient of 1 in 340 to D. The distances
AB, AC and AD are 35.845, 80.742 and 134.7 m, respectively. Find the invert level
and depth of the trench at B, C, and D.
[Ans. Level 51.1966, 51.0645, 50.906 m.
Depth 3.103, 3.135, 3.394 m, (negative)]
6.19 Reciprocal levelling was done between two points A and B situated on the opposite
sides of a valley 730 m wide. The following data was collected:

Instrument at Height of instrument Staff at Staff reading (m)


A 1.463 B 1.688
B 1.463 A 0.991

Determine the difference in level between A and B and the amount of collimation
error if any. [Ans. 0.3485 m (fall from A to B, 0.1594 m (negative)]
6.20 The following consecutive readings were taken with a dumpy level and 4 m levelling
staff on a continuously sloping ground at 30 m intervals.
0.680, 1.455, 1.855, 2.330, 2.885, 3.380, 1.055, 1.860, 2.265, 3.540, 0.835, 0.945,
1.530, and 2.250.
Measurement of Vertical Distances 289

The R.L. of starting point was 80.750 m.


(a) Rule out a page of the level book and enter the above readings.
(b) Carry out reduction of heights by the collimation method and apply the usual
checks.
(c) Determine the gradient of the line joining the first and last points.
[Ans. R.L.: 80.750, 79.975, 79.100, 78.545, 78.050, 77.245, 76.840,
75.565, 75.455, 74.870, 74.150; gradient, 1 in 50 fall]
6.21 Following is a page of a level field book. Fill in the missing readings and calculate
the reduced level of all the points. Apply the usual checks.

Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks


1 3.250 ? B.M.
2 1.755 ? 0.750 ? C.P.
3 1.950 ? ?
4 ? 1.920 ?
5 2.340 1.500 ?
6 ? 1.000 ?
7 1.850 2.185 ? 250.00 C.P.
8 1.575 ?
9 ? ?
10 ? 1.895 1.650 ? C.P.
11 1.350 0.750 ? Last point
[Ans. B.S.: 3.840, 2.100; I.S.: 1.340, 0.245 F.S.: 4.000;
Rise: 0.030, 0.275, 1.330; Fall: 0.195, 0.845;
R.L.: 249.260, 248.510, 248.315, 248.345, 249.845, 250.845, 250.275,
251.605,249.995, 250.705]
6.22 The following is the page of a level field book. Fill in the missing readings and
calculate the R.L. of all the points. Apply the usual checks.

Station B.S. I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L. Remarks


1 2.150 450.00 B.M.I
2 1.645 ? 0.500
3 2.345 ?
4 ? 1.965 ?
5 2.050 1.825 0.400
6 ? ? 451.50 B.M.2
7 1.690 ? 0.120
8 2.865 2.100 ?
9 ? ? 452.25 B.M.3
[Ans. B.S.: 1.425; I.S.: 0.330; F.S.: 1.650, 0.210, 1.825; Rise: 0.380, 1.720, 1.040;
Fall: 0.700, 0.410; R.L.: 450.000, 450.500, 449.800,
450.180, 449.780, 451.50, 451.62, 451.21, 452.25]
290 Surveying

6.23 In levelling between the two points A and B on opposite banks of a river, the level
was set up near A and the staff readings on A and B were 2.150 m and 3.565 m,
respectively. The level was then moved to B and the respective staff readings on A
and B were 1.965 m and 3.260 m. Find the true difference in levels of A and B.
[Ans. 1.355 m fall]
6.24 Find the combined correction for curvature and refraction for a distance of (a) 400
m (b) 3 km. [Ans. 0.1137 m, 3.8363 m]
6.25 A level is set up at C on a line AB at 60 m from A and 700 m from B. The B.S.
on A is 2.650 m and the F.S. on B is 2.780 m. Find the difference in levels between
A and B. [Ans. 0.097 m fall]
6.26 The following staff readings in metres were obtained when levelling along the
centreline of a straight road ABC using a digital level.

B.S I.S F.S Remarks


2.405 Point A (RL = 250.05 m)
1.954 1.128 C.P.
0.619 1.466 Point B
2.408 Point D
–1.515 Point E
1.460 2.941 C.P.
2.368 Point C
D is the highest point on the road surface beneath a bridge corssing over the road at
this point and the staff was held inverted on the underside of the bridge girder at E,
immediately above D. Reduce the levels, correctly apply the checks, and determine
the headroom at D. If the road is to be regraded so that AC is a uniform gradient,
what will be the new headroom at D? The distance AD = 240 m and DC = 60 m.
[Ans. 3.923 m, 5.071 m]
6.27 On a level, the angular value of 1 division of the bubble is 30 seconds and the
graduations are 2 mm long. Find
(a) The radius of curvature of the tube
(b) Reading on a staff held 100 m away for a disturbance of the bubble 3 divisions
from centre towards the observer, the reading with bubble in the centre being
2.540 m.
[Ans. 13.751 m, 2.496 m]
6.28 A line of levels was run in the form of a loop 650 m long. The initial starting point
was 100.00 m. The last foresight reading on the initial station was 2.465 m and the
height of instrument was 102.0 m. Are the levels acceptable for ordinary levelling?
[Ans. No]
6.29 A line of levels was run from A to B. The levelling was then continued to a B.M.
of elevation 40.0 m. The readings obtained are as follows. Obtain the reduced levels
of A and B.

B.S I.S F.S R.L. Remarks


1.195 A
0.445 2.370
2.150 0.995
(Contd.)
Measurement of Vertical Distances 291

0.720 B
1.465 0.260
2.630 0.905
1.305 40.0 B.M.
[Ans. R.L. of A = 37.950 m, R.L. of B = 37.655 m]
6.30 In a two-peg test of a dumpy level, the following readings were taken:
Instrument at R, mid-way Staff readings
between pegs P and Q: at P 1.525 m
at Q 1.230 m
Instrument near P: at P 1.420 m
at Q 1.025 m
How much is the line of collimation inclined upwards or downwards? What should
be the correct staff reading at Q with the instrument near P to keep the line of
collimation truly horizontal?
[Ans. 0.10 m, downwards, 1.125 m]
6.31 Two pegs A and B are driven 100.0 m apart. In the adjustment of a dumpy level,
following observations were recorded:

Instrument near Staff readings on


A B R.L. (m)
A 1.520 1.535 80.00
B 1.595 1.580 ?
State whether the instrument is in adjustment. Find the R.L. of B.
[Ans. No, 80 m]
6.32 An instrument was set up at O and the angle of elevation to a vane 4 m above the
foot of the staff held at Q was 9°30 . The horizontal distance between the instrument
and the staff was 2 km. Determine the R.L. of the staff station O. The R.L. of the
line of collimation was 2650 m. [Ans. 2984.95 m]
6.33 To find the elevation of the top F of a hill, a flag staff of 2 m height was erected
and observations were made from two stations P and Q 60 m apart. The horizontal
angles FPQ and FQP were 60°30 and 68°18 , respectively. Angle of elevations as
observed at P and Q to the top F were 10°12 and 10°48 , respectively. The staff
readings on B.M. were 1.965 m and 2.055 m, respectively, when the instruments
were at P and Q. The R.L. of B.M. is 430.00 m. Calculate the elevation of the top
of the hill. [Ans. 444.83 m]
6.34 Find the reduced level of the top of a church spire from the following data:

Instrument Reading on Vertical angle Remarks


station B.M. (m)
A 1.578 10°12 R.L. of B.M.: 543.075 m
B 1.269 8°20 Distance AB = 30 m
Stations A and B and the church spire are in the same vertical plane.
[Ans. 566.628 m]
6.35 To determine the elevation of the top of a chimney the following observations were
made:
292 Surveying

Instrument Reading on Angle of Remarks


station B.M. elevation
P 1.377 m 11°53 R.L. of B.M. = 50.15 m
Q 1.263 m 8°5
Stations P and Q and the chimney are in the same vertical plane. Find the elevation
of the chimney if the distance between P and Q was 30 m.
[Ans. R.L. 64.283 m]
6.36 It was required to obtain the elevation of the top of a television tower located on the
roof of a building. Since direct measurement was not possible, the following data
was obtained. A line AB, 135.0 m long was staked out and the horizontal angles
to the tower were observed at A as 58°30 and at B as 30°. At point B a backsight
of 2.00 m was taken on a B.M. of elevation 100.00 m and the vertical angle to the
top of tower was found to be 54°. Calculate the elevation of the top of the tower.
[Ans. 256.284 m]
6.37 The following levels were taken with a 4 m staff at 100 m interval along the line
of a proposed trench:
B.S I.S F.S Remarks
2.100 B.M. 28.75 m
2.850 Peg A
1.800 3.510 Peg B
1.580 Peg C
2.240 Peg D
1.680 2.940 Peg E
2.270
3.060
3.810 B.M. 24.07 m
If the trench is to be excavated from peg A commencing at a formation level of
26.50 m and falling to peg E at a grade of 1 in 200, estimate the height of sight
rails in meters at A, B, C, D, and E, if 3.0 m boning rod is to be used.
[Ans. 1.500 m, 1.660 m, 0.940 m, 1.100 m, 1.300 m]
6.38 A line of levels was run from a bench mark of R.L. 51.450 and ended on a B.M.
of R.L. 63.500. The sum of the back sights and fore sights were 87.775 and 73.725,
respectively. What was the closing error of the work?
[Ans. 1.980]
6.39 A dumpy level is set at A and the staff readings at A and a distant station B are 0.95
m and 2.87 m. When the instrument is set at B, the observed sights are 0.46 m at
A and 1.01 m at B. If AB = 300 m, express the collimation error in degree. Also,
assume a reasonable value of radius of earth and estimate the curvature error.
[Ans. 0° 7 46.44 ]
6.40 The top of a stack was sighted from two stations A and B, which are 125 m apart
and are in the same vertical plane with the top of the stack. The angle of elevation of
the top of the stack observed from instrument station A is 30° 25 and that observed
from instrument station B is 22° 28 . The angle of elevation from B to a vane 1.75 m
above the foot of the staff held at station A is 16° 15 . The heights of the instrument
at A and B were 1.856 m and 1.565 m respectively. The R.L. of station B is 100
m. Find out the R.L. of the top of the stack. [Ans. 174.468 m]
Measurement of Vertical Distances 293

6.41 The following observations were made on a hiltop to ascertain its elevation. The
height of the target F was 5 m.
Instrument Staff reading Vertical angle on R.L. of B.M. (m)
station on B.M. target at hiltop
Q2 2.550 18°6 345.580
Q1 1.670 28°42 345.580
The instrument stations were 100 m apart and were in line with F.
[Ans. 425.539 m]
6.42 The following observations were made in running fly levels from a bench mark of
R.L. 60.65m:
Back sight: 0.964, 1.632, 1.105, 0.850
Fore sight: 0.948, 1.153, 1.984.
Five pegs at 20 m intervals are to be set on a falling gradient of 1 in 100 m from
the last position of the instrument. The first peg is to be at R.L. 60 m.
Work out the staff readings required for setting the pegs and prepare the page of
the level book.
[Ans. Staff reading of peg 1: 1.116 m, peg 2: 1.316 m,
peg 3: 1.516 m, peg 4: 1.716 m, peg 5: 1.916 m]

Objective-type Questions
6.1 What will be the correction for curvature for a distance of 1000 m?
(a) 0.0673 m (b) 0.0785 m (c) 78.50 m (d) 6.73 m
6.2 The reading on a 4.0 m. staff at a point is observed as 2.895 m. If the staff was 8
cm out of the plumb line, the correct reading should have been
(a) 2.8938 m (b) 2.8150 m (c) 2.8961 m (d) 2.8950 m
6.3 A back sight reading on B.M. = 100 m was 3.250 m. The inverted staff reading to
the bottom of a girder was 1.250 m. The R.L. of the bottom of girder is
(a) 101.250 (b) 102.0 (c) 104.50 (d) 103.250
6.4 The sensitivity of a bubble tube is 20 . A staff is held at a distance of 200 m. What
is the error in reading it if the bubble is out by one division.
(a) 0.704 m (b) 0.0704 m (c) 0.0194 m (d) 0.1940 m
6.5 A level when set up 25 m from peg A and 50 m from peg B reads 2.847 m on staff
held on A and 3.462 m on staff held on B, keeping the bubble at its centre while
reading. If the reduced levels of A and B are 283.665 m and 284.295 m respectively,
what is the collimation error per 100.0 m?
(a) 0.015 m (b) 0.30 m (c) 0.045 m (d) 0.060 m
6.6 Levelling deals with measurement in
(a) horizontal plane
(b) vertical plane
(c) both horizontal and vertical planes
(d) inclined plane
6.7 The datum adopted in India is the mean sea level at
(a) Kolkata (b) Chennai (c) Mumbai (d) Karachi
6.8 Height of instrument may be defined as
(a) height of the instrument at the time of observation
(b) the elevation of the plane of collimation, when the instrument is accurately
levelled
294 Surveying

(c) height of instrument, if the backsight distance is equal to the foresight


distance
(d) height of staff
6.9 In an external focussing telescope, the focussing of the objective is achieved by
(a) movement of a negative concave lens
(b) by movement of objective
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) double convex lens
6.10 Line of collimation is defined as the
(a) line joining the intersection of cross-hair, optical centre of objective and its
continuation when the bubble is central
(b) Line joining the centre of eyepiece and optical centre of objective
(c) line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the bubble tube at its mid-point
(d) inclined line of sight
6.11 Pick out the correct statement.
(a) Height of instrument method is better as compared to the rise and fall
method.
(b) The length of a metric staff used in levelling is 2.0 m.
(c) The rise and fall method for the reduction of levels provides checks on all
sights.
(d) The effect of curvature is to cause the objects sighted to appear higher than
they really are.
6.12 Choose the correct statement.
(a) In levelling, if back sight is less than fore sight, the back sight station is lower
than the fore sight station.
(b) In reciprocal levelling, the error due to refraction is eliminated.
(c) At a change point in levelling, two back sights are taken.
(d) The effect of curvature is to cause the objects sighted to appear lower than
they really are.
6.13 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The nature of combined correction due to curvature and refraction is
additive.
(b) The figures on the staff are very distinct if the staff is kept near the level.
(c) In levelling, if the previous reading is less than the next consecutive reading,
it indicates a rise.
(d) The effect of curvature and refraction can be neglected, if the instrument is
kept mid-way.
6.14 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The sensitivity of a bubble tube increases with the increase of radius of
curvature of the bubble tube.
(b) The sensitivity of a bubble tube increases with the increase in the length of
the vapour bubble.
(c) The sensitivity of a bubble tube will be more if the diameter of the bubble
tube is more.
(d) All of the above.
6.15 To calculate the amount of cut and fill
(a) only profile levelling is sufficient
(b) only cross sectioning is required
(c) both profile levelling and cross sectioning are required
(d) barometric levelling is required
Measurement of Vertical Distances 295

6.16 The diaphragm of a surveying telescope is held


(a) inside the eyepiece
(b) inside the objective
(c) Either (a) or (b)
(d) inside the telescope near the eyepiece
6.17 In reciprocal levelling with one level machine the error(s) which is not completely
eliminated is due to
(a) curvature
(b) refraction
(c) non-adjustment of line of collimation
(d) both (a) and (b)
6.18 The real image of an object formed by the objective must be
(a) at the centre of the objective
(b) at the optical centre of the objective
(c) in the plane of the cross-wire
(d) on the staff
6.19 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Under high temperatures, the liquid in a level tube expands but does not affect
the observations made on the staff.
(b) To minimise error in levelling with an instrument in muddy soils, the fore
sights should be taken before back sights on an alternate set up of the
instrument.
(c) In differential levelling, the errors are eliminated completely.
(d) By keeping the line of sight parallel to the bubble line, the collimation error
is eliminated.
6.20 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Elevation of a point is its vertical coordinate.
(b) Usually average sea level is considered as datum in levelling.
(c) Levelling can be used to measure settlement of buildings.
(d) All of the above.
6.21 Choose the correct statement.
(a) In spirit levelling the vertical angles are also measured.
(b) Hypsometry is a type of levelling.
(c) Differential levelling is the most common method of spirit levelling.
(d) Both (b) and (c).
6.22 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Fly levelling is a type of spirit levelling.
(b) Sectioning and cross sectioning are one and the same type of levelling.
(c) Spot levels are points used to denote instrument position.
(d) None of the above is correct.
6.23 The liquid in a level tube should be
(a) quick acting
(b) non-freezing
(c) stable under normal temperature variation
(d) All of the above
6.24 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Wye level can be tested rapidly as compared to dumpy level.
(b) Cooke’s level is a combination of good features of dumpy and Wye-levels.
(c) in Cushing’s level, the object glass and eyepiece are interchangeable.
(d) None of the above is correct.
296 Surveying

6.25 Choose the incorrect statement.


(a) Hand level can be adjusted and used without a tripod.
(b) Abney hand level is also known as a clinometer.
(c) A clinometer can be used as a hand level by setting the pointer to zero.
(d) In tilting level the telescope can be revolved only about the vertical axis.
6.26 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) A levelling staff should be read upwards.
(b) Target staff is 3 m long.
(c) In Sopwith telescopic staff, the readings are taken downwards.
(d) None is correct.
6.27 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Centring is not required in levelling.
(b) In the two-peg test, the vertical axis is made perpendicular to the plate bubble
axis.
(c) In a tilting level only one permanent adjustment is required.
(d) In a dumpy level two permanent adjustment are required.
6.28 Choose the correct statement.
(a) By equalising back sight and fore sight observations in levelling, the errors
due to improper permanent adjustment of a level are overcome.
(b) A minus sight is booked for inverted staff reading.
(c) Spot levels are determined by sectioning and cross sectioning.
(d) All of the above.
6.29 Apart from arithmetic, the levelling work is best checked by
(a) height of instrument method (b) rise and fall method
(c) closed loop check (d) open loop check
6.30 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The permissible closing error in ordinary levelling is 12 seconds.
(b) Sectioning does not use the principle of differential levelling.
(c) Barometric levelling is most suited in flat countries.
(d) Barometric levelling is performed by altimeters.
6.31 The sensitiveness of a bubble tube in a level would decrease if
(a) the radius of curvature of the internal surface of the tube is increased
(b) the diameter of the tube is increased
(c) the length of the vapour bubble is increased
(d) the viscosity of the liquid is increased
6.32 Which one of the following eliminates the error due to curvature and refraction?
(a) Fly levelling
(b) Levelling by equalising the distances of back sight and fore sight
(c) Check levelling
(d) Precise levelling
6.33 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) In ascending a hill the back sight distance is more than the fore sight
distance.
(ii) On hills, to avoid short sights in levelling, the instrument should be set so as
to obtain zigzag sights.
(iii) While descending a hill it is easy to read a fore sight than a back sight on a
staff.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) Only (ii) is correct (d) All three are correct
Measurement of Vertical Distances 297

6.34 Choose the correct statement(s).


(i) A level must be set over an exact point by means of a plumb bob.
(ii) A transit may be used as a level.
(iii) A turning point is a point where an instrument is located.
(a) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (b) Both (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) Only (i) is correct (d) Only (ii) is correct
6.35 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Direct levelling is more precise than indirect levelling.
(ii) Trigonometric levelling gives better results than spirit levelling.
(iii) Barometric levelling gives the best results.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Only (iii) is correct (d) Both (i) and (ii) are correct
6.36 Sensitivity of a bubble increases with
(i) an increase in radius of curvature of the tube.
(ii) smoothness of finish of internal surface of the tube.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None is correct
6.37 In levelling
(i) permanent bench marks are established by some Government agency on
permanent points.
(ii) Temporary benchmarks are the points on which a day’s work is closed.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) (i) follows (ii)
6.38 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) The effect of the curvature of the earth is to cause an object to appear low.
(ii) The effect of refraction is to cause an object appear higher.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None is correct
6.39 Levels of the points can be found by
(i) measuring pressures
(ii) measuring boiling point of water
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None is correct
6.40 Reciprocal levelling eliminates the
1. errors due to earth’s curvature
2. errors due to atmospheric refraction
3. mistakes in taking levelling staff readings
4. errors due to line of collimation
Which of the above statement is correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 4

Answers to Objective-type Questions


6.1 (b) 6.2 (a) 6.3 (c) 6.4 (c) 6.5 (a) 6.6 (b)
6.7 (c) 6.8 (b) 6.9 (b) 6.10 (a) 6.11 (c) 6.12 (d)
6.13 (d) 6.14 (d) 6.15 (c) 6.16 (d) 6.17 (b) 6.18 (c)
6.19 (c) 6.20 (d) 6.21 (d) 6.22 (a) 6.23 (d) 6.24 (d)
6.25 (d) 6.26 (d) 6.27 (b) 6.28 (b) 6.29 (c) 6.30 (d)
6.31 (d) 6.32 (b) 6.33 (d) 6.34 (b) 6.35 (a) 6.36 (d)
6.37 (c) 6.38 (c) 6.39 (c) 6.40 (d)
7 TacheomeTry

Introduction
The most common method of measuring horizontal distances is chaining and that
for measuring vertical distances is differential levelling. Both of these methods
give results to the required accuracy. Chaining, however, on rough grounds does
not furnish very accurate results. When the ground is rough and more observations
at a faster rate with ordinary precision are acceptable, then tacheometry is the
choice. An example of the use of tacheometry for the above-said conditions is
the collection of data to draw contours on a topographic map. As compared to
chaining on flat grounds, the accuracy of tacheometric distances is low, but on
rough and steep grounds the accuracy is more. Tacheometry is defined as an optical
distance measurement method. Though less accurate, this method of surveying is
very rapid and convenient. The other names given to tacheometry are tachymetry
or telemetry.
The primary object of a tacheometric survey is the preparation of a contoured
plan. It is particularly suitable for filling in details on topographical maps,
preliminary location surveys (e.g., for railways, roadways, canals, reservoirs, etc.)
and surveying steep grounds, broken boundaries and water stretches, etc. Also, on
surveys of higher accuracy, it may be used to provide a ready check on distances
measured with a chain or tape.
A tacheometer is essentially a transit theodolite, the diaphragm of which is
furnished with stadia wires in addition to the cross-wire. Observations are made on
stadia rod, usually a level staff but with a larger least count (1 cm), and horizontal
as well as vertical distances are computed from these observed readings.

7.1 InsTrumenTs used


7.1.1 Tacheometer
It is a transit theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm. The stadia diaphragm consists
of two stadia hairs at equal distances, one above and the other below the horizontal
hair of the cross-hair. Various types of stadia diaphragm are shown in Fig. 7.1,
but usually the arrangement shown in Fig. 7.1(a) is provided.
Tacheometry 299

1. The value of the multiplying constant should be 100.


2. The value of the additive constant should be zero.
3. The telescope should be fitted with an anallactic lens.
4. The magnification of the telescope should be 20 – 80 diameters.
5. Magnifying power of the eyepiece is kept high.

7.1.2 subtense Theodolite


It is similar to a tacheometer but with a special 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
diaphragm, as shown in Fig. 7.2. The stadia hairs
can be raised or lowered by a micrometer screw.
The screw is provided with a milled head and a
drum scale. The drum is divided into 100 parts
and is read against a fixed index to 0.1 of a
division by a vernier. Readings are, therefore,
made to 0.001 of the pitch of the screw. A comb
scale with teeth of the same pitch as that of
the screw is provided to exhibit the number of
complete pitches. The distance through which
either stadia hair is moved from the middle one
is measured by the number of turns made by the
micrometer screw, the whole turns being read
on the comb scale seen in field of view and the
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

fractional part of a turn on the drum scale.

7.1.3 stadia rod


It is also known as vertical stave. It is a rod (Fig. 7.3) 5 – 15 m long, graduated
in decimals of a metre. For small distances, say up to 100 m, an ordinary levelling
staff may be used but beyond this a stadia rod is used, since the graduations of
an ordinary levelling staff become indistinct. There is a great variety of stadia rod
patterns in common use. But, irrespective of the patterns, an observer should be
300 Surveying

able to read easily and accurately the staff intercepts through the telescope. The
staff can be held either vertical or normal to the line of sight.

The staff must be held


truly vertical. In ordinary work the verticality
of the staff can be judged by the eye, but in
precise surveying it is judged by suspending
a plumb line or by a foldable circular bubble
attached perpendicular to the rear side of the
staff as shown in Fig. 7.4. It can be shown
that on slopes a small error in the verticality
of the staff results in serious errors in the
computed distances.
The staff must be held
perpendicular to the line of sight. The
perpendicularity of the staff may be checked
by sighting the instrument with the help of a
pair of open sights, or by means of a small telescope fixed at right angles to the
side of the staff. The staff is inclined until the telescope of the tacheometer is
bisected by the cross-wires of the telescope fitted to the staff.

1. It is a bit easy to ensure that the staff is perfectly vertical.


2. A slight error in not keeping the staff vertical causes a serious error in
computation of distances.
3. In the case of an inclined sight, it is difficult to keep the staff perpendicular
to the line of sight during high winds and in rough country.
4. In the case of normal holding, the accuracy of the direction of the staff
can be judged by the transitman even during high winds.
The telescope is directed to sight the staff. The telescope is
raised or depressed by means of a vertical tangent screw until one of the stadia
Tacheometry 301

wires strikes some graduation on the staff. The other stadia wire is also read. The
difference of the two readings is the staff intercept. Then the middle cross-wire
and the corresponding vertical angle is read. Some of the surveyors keep the
middle hair reading equal to H.I. which results in minor arithmetical work. But
this practise should be disregarded as the error due to refraction of rays near the
ground creeps in, resulting in erroneous observations.

7.1.4 subtense Bar


It is also known as horizontal stave. It is used for measuring both the horizontal
as well as the vertical distances in places where chaining is impossible because
of undulations and rough country. It is used to determine short distances of up
to 200 m.

Level Sighting vane


Target

Levelling head

It is a horizontal metal bar to which two targets are fixed at a known distance
of 0.3 – 3.0 m apart. In India, the subtense bars are usually 3.5 m long. It is
mounted on a tripod. A small spirit level is provided to level it. The alidade
provides a line of sight perpendicular to the bar, which is thereby set normal to
the line of measurement. After aligning and levelling the bar, it is clamped by the
screw underneath the tripod top. The targets are usually 20 cm in diameter and are
painted half red and half white with a 7.5 cm black centre. Sometimes targets are
made square as shown in Fig. 7.5. The targets are set apart at a known distance
and the horizontal angle between them is read by a theodolite. The vertical angle
to the bar is also read. Then the horizontal and vertical distances are computed.

7.2 meThods of TacheomeTry


There are three methods of measuring distances the stadia method, the tangential
method and the range finding by optical means. The applications of the tacheometric
methods vary according to whether an external focussing or internal focussing
telescope is being used. In either case, not much precision is required in observing
the horizontal directions, but staff intercepts should be measured very accurately.

7.2.1 stadia method


The term stadia is a greek word for a unit length. Originally it was applied to
measuring distances for athletic contests. In a tacheometer the various wires, in
addition to the cross-wires on the diaphragm, are known as stadia wires and the
vertical distance between the stadia wires is termed as stadia interval. The method
derives its name from the fact that the observations are made with respect to these
302 Surveying

wires. When the parallactic angle (Fig. 7.6), defined by means of stadia wires, is
kept fixed and the staff intercept is varied, e.g., AB and A B , the method is called
fixed hair method. A tacheometer and a staff is used to make the observations.
Another way can be to keep the staff intercept fixed, e.g., AB and A B , and
varying the parallactic angle, e.g., and (Fig. 7.6). In the latter case the stadia
wires will have to be moved and is accordingly known as the movable hair or
subtense method. A subtense theodolite in conjunction with a staff or subtense bar
is used to make the observations.

7.2.2 Tangential method


In this method of tacheometry, observations are made for vertical angles and staff
intercepts are obtained by the cross-wires only. Stadia wires are not used at all. This
method of tacheometry is similar to the method of trigonometrical levelling.

7.2.3 range finding


This method is used to find the horizontal distance and direction of a line without
going to the far end of the line. The instrument used is known as range finder. A
fixed base is used to compute the ranges. The instruments and methods used are
based on measurement of either the base angles or the angle of parallax.
In the first two methods, both the horizontal and vertical distances are obtained,
but by this method only horizontal distances can be measured. A level can be
employed, in conjunction, to measure the vertical distances.

7.3 fIxed haIr meThod


The horizontal and vertical distance (elevation) of a point may be determined
by the fixed hair (fixed stadia interval), commonly known as stadia method.
A tacheometer is kept at one point and the staff is placed on the points whose
elevations, and distances from the instrument point, are to be determined. The
stadia interval is kept fixed, and consequently the staff intercept varies (AA , BB ,
etc.) as shown in Fig. 7.7.
Tacheometry 303

The principle of the stadia method is that “in isosceles triangles, the ratio of
perpendiculars from the vertex on their bases, and the bases is constant”.
Let OAA , OBB and OCC be the three isosceles triangles (Fig. 7.7). Then,
OO = ____
____ OO = _____
OO = __1 cot __ = K
AA BB CC 2 2
where K is a constant and is the parallactic angle.
Hence, if the staff intercepts AA , BB and CC are known, the horizontal
distance OO , OO and OO can be determined, provided the parallactic angle
is known.

7.3.1 distance and elevation formulae for horizontal


sights
Figure 7.8 shows schematically a telescope of a tacheometer and stadia rod. The
surveyor sees, through the telescope, the upper and lower stadia hairs intersecting
the rod at A and B, respectively. The rays from A and B , the stadia wires, pass
through the optical centre of the objective lens and continue to the rod at B
and A.
Let
O = optical centre of the object glass,
A, B = the stadia wires,
AB = stadia interval,
C = horizontal cross-wire position,
AB = s = staff intercept,
f = focal length of object glass,
f1, f2 = the conjugate focal lengths of the lens, and are the distances between
the optical centre O and staff, and optical centre O and the image of
staff, respectively,
d = distance between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the optical
centre O and
D = distance between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the staff.
304 Surveying

d f

f2 f1
A
A O B
i C C s
F
B A
B

C D C

From the similar triangles AOB and A OB


AB = ____
____ f1
OC = __
AB OC f2
f1
_s = __
or (7.1)
i f2
By the lens formula
1 = __
__ 1 + __
1 (7.2)
f f1 f2
f1
__ f
= 1+ __1
f f2
f
Hence, substituting for __1 in Eq. (7.1) leads to
f2
f1
_s = __ –1
i f
f
or f1 = _ s + f
i
f
or f1 + d = _ s + f + d
i
or ()f
D = _ s + (f + d)
i
(7.3)

or D = Ks + C (7.4)
Equation (7.4) is known as the tacheometric distance equation. K and C are
the respective multiplying and additive tacheometric constants. The multiplying
constant is also known as stadia interval factor.
The tacheometric distance formula may also be deduced
in another way by drawing rays passing through either the interior or exterior
Tacheometry 305

principal focus, as shown in Fig. 7.8 by dark lines, of the object glass. The rays
proceeding from A and B parallel to the principal axis of the objective lens must
after refraction, at A and B , pass through F —the exterior principal focus of the
objective. Since A and B are at a constant distance from the axis, A and B are
therefore fixed points. Consequently, as F is fixed, the angle AF B is also fixed
in magnitude.
From similar triangles ABF and A B F
CF
AB = ____
_____
A B OF
Since A B = AB
CF
_s = ____
i f
f
or CF = _ s
i
Now, D = CF + OF + d
f
=_s+f+d
i

or
f
()
D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
or D = Ks + C
Elevation of the staff station = elevation of the instrument axis –
horizontal cross-wire reading
The constant K equals f / i. Its value, therefore, depends upon the stadia interval
and the principal focal length of the objective. To facilitate computation of
distances, the stadia wires are so spaced as to make the multiplying constant equal
to 100. The additive constant C equals (f + d). Practically, it is a constant value
for a tacheometer, as the value of d varies by only a small and negligible amount
when focussing the telescope on different objects. The value of C ranges from
0.25 to 0.35. If an anallactic lens is built into the telescope, it is so placed that
all the observations are reduced to the centre of the instrument and the constant C
becomes zero and the Eq. (7.4) is simplified to D = Ks. Thus, if the staff intercept
is known, the horizontal distance can be readily obtained by multiplying it by
100.
In the preceding paragraphs, it has been assumed that the tacheometer was
oriented horizontally. In general, it is seldom possible to keep the line of sight
horizontal and perpendicular to the stadia rod due to the undulations of the ground
surface, or more precisely, when the staff stations and the instrument station have
large differences in elevation. In such a case an inclined line of sight must be taken
with the staff vertical or normal to it. Before we modify the distance equation for
the said cases, consider the procedure to determine the constants experimentally
as outlined below.
1. A line AB about 200 – 250 m long is set out on a fairly level ground.
Then pegs are fixed at 25 – 30 m interval.
306 Surveying

2. The tacheometer is set up at one end of the ranged line and the staff
intercepts are obtained by taking stadia readings on the staff held vertical
on every peg.
3. By substituting the value of different distances and staff intercepts in
Eq. (7.4), a number of equations are obtained:
D1 = Ks1 + C
D2 = Ks2 + C
D3 = Ks3 + C
4. These equations are solved in pairs to obtain several sets of constants K
and C. The mean of all the obtained values of K and C are reported as
the values of the constants K and C.

e xample 7.1 The stadia readings with horizontal sight on a vertical staff held
50 m from a tacheometer were 1.285 m and 1.780 m. The focal length of the
object glass was 25 cm. The distance between the object glass and the vertical
axis of the tacheometer was 15 cm. Calculate the stadia interval.
s olution C = f + d = 25 + 15 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
s = 1.780 – 1.285 = 0.495 m
f
Now, D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
0.25
50 = ____ 0.495 + 0.4
i
i = 2.49 × 10–3 m = 2.49 mm.

7.3.2 distance and elevation formulae for Inclined sights


As the staff is held vertical, the staff intercept AB is not normal
to the line of sight OC (Figs. 7.9 and 7.10). Draw a line A B passing through C
and perpendicular to OC, cutting OA at A and OB at B .
From right angle triangle OFC
OCF = 90° –
BCB = (as CB is perpendicular to OC)
A CA = B CB =
Let the stadia hairs subtend an angle , then
COA = /2
CA O = 90° – ( /2)
CA A = 180°– (90° – / 2)
= 90° + / 2
The value of / 2 (its value being 17 11 for K = 100) is very small. Hence,
the triangles AA C and BB C may be assumed to be right-angled triangles. Thus,
AB =AC+BC
= AC cos + BC cos
Tacheometry 307

A A

90
C s

L h
B B
V
E

O
F

O F

V
L B B

C
90 s
h
A
A
E

= (AC + BC) cos


= s cos
Inclined distance OC,
L = K.A B + C
L = Ks cos + C
But D= L cos
= (Ks cos + C ) cos
= Ks cos 2 + C cos
V= FC = L sin
= (Ks cos + C ) sin
= Ks cos sin + C sin
1 Ks sin 2 + C sin
= __
2
308 Surveying

Elevation of staff station for angle of elevation = H.I. + V – h


Elevation of staff station for angle of depression = H.I. – V – h
As the staff at E is
held normal to the line of sight OC
(Figs. 7.11 and 7.12) therefore the
staff intercept AB is normal to the
line of sight OC.

Let,
AB = s = staff intercept,
CE = h = central hair reading,
= angle of elevation, and
OC = L = inclined distance.
Drop perpendicular CF to horizontal OF. Then,
L = Ks + C
OF = (Ks + C) cos
But D = OF + F F
= (Ks + C) cos + h sin
Elevation of the staff station, V = OC sin
= L sin
= (Ks + C) sin
Elevation of staff station = H.I. + V – h cos

D
O F F

L V
A

C C
s
Bh

E E
D

L = Ks + C
OF = L cos = (Ks + C) cos
Now, D = OF – FF = OF – EE = (Ks + C) cos – h sin
Tacheometry 309

Elevation of staff station, V = OC sin = L sin = (Ks + C) sin


Elevation of staff station = H.I. – V – h cos
The distance elevation formulae deduced in the foregone are applicable only
for external focussing telescopes fitted with an anallactic lens. In the instruments
equipped with an internal focussing telescope, the system of lenses of object glass
and an internal lens do not have constant focal length, since the distance between
these two is varied to achieve focussing and since the anallactic lens has to be
placed at a constant distance from the object glass. Therefore, an internal lens in
the internal focussing telescope cannot be regarded as a substitute for an anallactic
lens. But by suitably designing the optical system, the anallactic point may be
brought approximately to the centre of the instrument, thereby reducing the additive
constant to so small a figure that it may be disregarded. The variation in the focal
length is very small if the sights are more than 30 m and practically the same
formulae may be used as in the case of an external focussing telescope. For smaller
sights, an additive constant of 0.2 m, if used, gives results with an error of about
1%, except for sights less than 5 m. It is impossible to proportion the focussing
lens system to serve as an anallactic lens but some companies have produced
internal focussing telescopes which they claim to be perfectly anallactic. These
have three lenses between the objective and diaphragm and therefore necessitate
larger apertures to compensate for the loss of illumination.

7.4 anallacTIc lens


It is a special convex lens fitted between the object glass and eyepiece, at a fixed
distance from the former, inside the telescope of a tacheometer. The use of an
anallactic lens was first introduced by Porro of Milan. Its purpose is to reduce the
additive constant to zero. In the tacheometric equation D = Ks + C (Fig. 7.8) the
staff intercept s in proportional to the distance between the staff and the exterior
principal focus of the object glass (i.e., to D – C). If C is to be made zero, the
apex F of the tacheometric triangle AF B (Fig. 7.8) will have to be brought to the
centre of the instrument, i.e., the staff intercept will have to be made proportional
to its distance from the instrument. In Fig. 7.13, the apex N of the tacheometric
triangle ANB has been made coincident with the centre of the instrument by
providing an anallactic lens.
An anallactic lens is generally provided in the external focussing telescopes
only. In an internal focussing telescope it cannot be provided because a third
lens is already there, between objective and eyepiece, for focussing the objective.
However, the value of the additive constant for internal focussing telescopes is
only few centimetres and may be treated as virtually anallactic.
The advantage of an anallactic lens is that it reduces the additive constant to
zero and thus simplifies the computations of distance. However, it absorbs a certain
amount of light and also increases the cost.
Consider Fig. 7.13 where,
O = optical centre of object glass,
M = optical centre of anallactic lens,
n = distance between O and M,
310 Surveying

f2

m f1
b3 A
f
b2 a1
b
M O s
i i
N F1
a
a2 b1
n B
a3
d

F1 = principal focus of the anallactic lens


N = centre of the instrument
d = distance between O and the vertical axis of the instrument
D = distance between vertical axis of the instrument and the staff
m = distance between O and actual image ab
f1, f2 = conjugate focal lengths of the object glass
f = focal length of the object glass
f = focal length of anallactic lens
i = image size ab when anallactic lens is provided
i = image size a3b3 when anallactic lens is not provided and
(m – n), (f2 – n) = conjugate focal lengths of anallactic lens.
The rays of light from A and B are reflected by the object glass to meet at F1.
The anallactic lens is so placed that F1 is its principal focus. Thus, after passing
through the anallactic lens, the rays refract and become parallel and give the actual
image ab of the staff intercept AB.
By the law of lenses
1 = __
__ 1 + __
1 (7.5)
f f1 f2
and 1 = ______
__ 1 1
_____
f m – n + f2 – n (7.6)
f1
s = __
__
Also (7.7)
i f2
f2 – n
_i_ = ______
and (7.8)
i m–n
Tacheometry 311

Multiplying Eqs. (7.7) and (7.8) results in


f1
_s = __ f2 – n
______
i f2 m–n
From Eq. (7.5)
f –f
f1 _____
__ = 1
f2 f
ff1
or f2 = _____
f1 – f
and from Eq. (7.6)
f2 – n _________
______ f2 – n + f
m–n= f
f1 – f
_s = _____ f2 – n + f
_________
Hence,
i f f

f1 – f
= _____
f [ ( )
f
ff1
_____
1 – f
n+f
_____________
f ]
ff1 + ( f1 – f )( f – n)
= __________________
ff
f1( f + f – n) _________
f(n – f )
= ___________ +
ff f +f +n
ff f(n – f )
_s – _________
f1 = _________
f +f –n i f +f –n
Now, D = f1 + d
ff f(n – f )
_s – _________
or D = __________ +d (7.9)
( f + f – n) i f +f –n
or D = Ks + C (7.10)
ff f (n – f )
where K = ___________ and C = d – _________
( f + f – n) i f +f –n
For an anallactic lens, the value of the additive constant C is made zero.
Hence,
f (n – f )
d – _________ = 0
f +f –n
f(n – f )
or d = _________
f +f –n
fd
or n = f + _____
f+d
fd
The anallactic lens is so placed that n = f + _____. This is done by bringing
f+d
the apex of the tacheometric triangle ANB at the centre of the instrument.
312 Surveying

The value of f and i are so adjusted, that the value of the constant K is a
suitable number, say 100.
Equation (7.10) thus reduces to
D = Ks = 100s

e xample 7.2 It was required to determine the distance between two points A
and B by a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens (K = 100, C = 0). With the
instrument at A and staff at B, the observations made were a vertical angle of +
9°46 and staff intercept of 1.915 m. What is the horizontal distance AB? Later on
it was found that the constants of the instrument were 100 and 0.5. What would
be the percentage error in the horizontal distance computed?
s olution K = 100 and C = 0
D = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 100 1.915 cos2 9 46 + 0 = 185.9893 m
K = 100 and C = 0.5
D = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 100 1.915 cos2 9 46 + 0.5 cos 9 46
= 185.9893 + 0.4927 = 186.482 m
The actual distance = 185.9893 m
Error 186.482 – 185.9893 = 0.4927 m

Percentage error = 0.4927 100 = 0.2649 %


____________
185.9893

e xample 7.3 A levelling staff is held vertical at distances of 100 m and 300 m
from the axis of a tacheometer and the staff intercept for horizontal sights are 0.99
m and 3.00 m, respectively. Find the constants of the instrument.
The instrument is set up at station A and the staff is held vertical at a point B.
With the telescope inclined at an angle of depression of 10° to the horizontal, the
readings on the staff are 2,670, 1.835, 1.000 m. Calculate the R.L. of B and its
horizontal distance from A. The H.I. is 1.42 m and R.L. of station A is 450.5 m.
s olution D = Ks + C
Given: D1 = 100 m, s1 = 0.99 m
D2 = 300 m, s2 = 3.00 m
Now, D1 = Ks1 + C
or 100 = K 0.99 + C
D2 = Ks2 + C
or 300 = K 3.00 + C
From the above equations
2.01 K = 200,
200 = 99.50
K = ____
2.01
Tacheometry 313

Substituting the value of K in the second equation leads to


300 = 99.50 3 + C
or C = 300 – 99.50 3 = 1.5
Hence, the constants of instrument are 99.5 and 1.5.
Now, s = 2.670 – 1.000 = 1.670 and = 10
Horizontal distance, D = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 99.50 1.670 cos2 10 + 1.5 cos 10 = 162.63 m
Ks sin 2 + C sin
Vertical distance, V = ___
2

= 99.50 1.670 sin 20 + 1.5 sin 10 = 28.67 m


____________
2
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + H.I. – V – h
= 450.5 + 1.42 – 28.67 – 1.835 = 421.415 m

e xample 7.4 Determine the gradient from a point P to another point Q from
the following observations made with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic lens.
The constants of the instrument were 100 and 0, and the staff was held vertical.

Instrument station Staff station Bearing Vertical angle Staff readings (m)
R P 130° + 10°32 1.255, 1.810, 2.365
Q 220° + 5°06 1.300, 2.120, 2.940

s olution Refer to Fig. 7.14.


Instrument at R and staff at P
1= 10 32 , s = 2.365 – 1.255 = 1.110 m
RP = D = Ks cos2 1 + C cos 1
= 100 1.110 cos2 10 32 + 0
= 107.29 m
Ks sin 2
V = _________1 + C sin 1
2
= 100 1.110 sin 21°04 + 0
______________________
2
= 19.95 m
(Alternatively, V = D tan 1 = 107.29 tan 10 32 = 19.95 m)
Let the R.L. of R be X
Then R.L. of P = R.L. of R + H.I. + V – h
= X + 19.95 – 1.810 = X + 18.14 m
Instrument at R and staff at Q
2 = 5 06 , s = 2.940 – 1.300 = 1.640
RQ = 100 1.640 cos2 5 06 = 162.70 m
314 Surveying

V = 100 1.64 sin 10 12 + 0 = 14.52 m


_________
2
R.L. of Q = R.L. of line of collimation + V – h
= X + 14.52 – 2.12 = X + 12.40
Difference of level between P and Q
= (X + 12.40) – (X + 18.14) = 5.74 m fall
Distance PQ
Angle QRP = bearing of RQ – bearing of RP
= 220 – 130 = 90
__________________
PQ = (107.29)2 + (162.70)2 = 194.89 m
5.74 = 1 in 33.95 m fall.
Gradient = ______
194.89

e xample 7.5 To determine the elevation of station P in a tacheometeric


survey, the following observations were made with the staff held vertical. The
instrument was fitted with an anallactic lens and its multiplying and additive
constant were 100 and 0, respectively.

Instrument station H.I. (m) Staff station Vertical angle Staff readings (m)
O 1.45 B.M. – 6°00 1.335, 1.895, 2.460
O 1.45 C.P. + 8°30 0.780, 1.265, 1.745
P 1.40 C.P. – 6°30 1.155, 1.615, 2.075

If R.L. of B.M. is 250 m, calculate R.L. of P.


s olution Refer to Fig. 7.15.
Instrument at O and staff at B.M.
s1 = 2.460 – 1.335 = 1.125 m,
H.I. = 1.45 m, K = 100, 1 = 6 00 (depression)
Ks
V1 = ___1 sin 2 1 + C sin 1
2

= 100 1.125
__________ sin 12 + 0.0 sin 6 = 11.695 m
2
R.L. of plane of collimation = R.L. of B.M. + h1 + V1
= 250.00 + 1.895 + 11.695 = 263.590 m
Instrument at O and staff at C.P.
s2 = 1.745 – 0.780 = 0.965 m
H.I. = 1.45 m, 2 = 8 30
Ks2 sin 2 2
V2 = _________ + C sin 2
2
100 0.965 sin (2 8°30 )
= _________________________ + 0 sin 8 30 = 14.10 m
2
Tacheometry 315

R.L. of C.P. = R.L. of plane of collimation + V2 – h2


= 263.590 + 14.106 – 1.265 = 276.431 m

V3 H.I.
P

h3 h2 V2

C.P.
V1

O
h1

B.M.

Instrument at P and staff at C.P.


s3 = 2.075 – 1.155 = 0.920 m, 3 = 6 30
Ks3 sin 2 3
V3 = _________ + C sin 3
2
100 × 0.920 × sin 13° + 0.0
= __________________ sin 6 30 = 10.3477 m
2
R.L. of station P = R.L. of C.P. + h3 + V3 – H.I.
= 276.431 + 1.615 + 10.3477 – 1.40 = 286.993 m

e xample 7.6 Two sets of tacheometric readings were taken from an instrument
station A (R.L. = 100.00 m) to a staff station B as shown below.

Instruments P Q
Multiplying constant 100 95
Additive constant 0.30 0.45
Height of instrument 1.40 m 1.45 m
Staff held Vertical Normal

Instrument Instrument station Staff station Vertical angle Stadia readings


P A B 5°44 1.090, 1.440, 1.795
Q A B 5°44 ?

Determine:
(i) The distance between instrument station and staff station.
(ii) The R.L. of staff station B.
(iii) Stadia readings with instrument Q.
316 Surveying

s olution Instrument P at station A and staff held vertical at B


s = 1.795 – 1.090 = 0.705 m, = 5 44 , 2 = 11 28
AB = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 100 0.705 cos2 5 44 + 0.3 cos 5 44 = 70.095 m

V = Ks sin 2 + C sin
________
2
= 100 0.705 sin 11 28 + 0.3 sin 5 44 = 7.038 m
__________
2
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + H.I. + V – h
= 100.00 + 1.400 + 7.038 – 1.440 = 106.998 m
Instrument Q at station A and staff held normal at B
AB = (Ks + C) cos + h sin
= (95 s + 0.45) cos 5 44 + h sin 5 44
= (95 s + 0.45) 0.995 + h 0.0999
or 70.095 = (95 s + 0.45) 0.995 + 0.0999 h
or 946.1962 s + h = 697.167
or h = 697.167 – 946.1962 s (i)
V = (Ks + C) sin
= (95s + 0.45) sin 5 44
= (95s + 0.45) 0.0999
R.L. of B = R.L. of A + H.I. + V – h cos
= 100.00 + 1.450 + (95 s + 0.45) 0.0999 – h (0.995)
or 106.998 = 100.00 + 1.45 + (95 s + 0.45) 0.0999 – h 0.0995
or 9.5382 s – h = 5.5307
h= 9.5382 s – 5.5307 (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)
697.167 – 946.1962 s = 9.5382 s – 5.5307
955.7344 s = 702.698

or 702.698 = 0.735244 m
s = ________
955.7344
h = 9.5382 0.735244 – 5.631 = 1.4819 m
0.735244 = 1.1143 m
upper stadia wire reading = 1.4819 – ________
2
lower stadia wire reading = 1.4819 + 0.735244
________ = 1.8495 m
2

e xample 7.7 Find up to which vertical angle, in stadia work, a sloping


distance may be assumed to be horizontal so that the error may not exceed 1
in 300? The instrument is fitted with an anallactic lens and the staff is held
vertical.
Tacheometry 317

s olution Let the vertical angle be .


True horizontal distance D = Ks cos2
Sloping distance L = Ks
sloping distance
________________ = ________Ks = sec2
horizontal distance Ks cos2
Permissible error is 1 in 300, hence
L = 300
__ + 1 = ____
_______ 301
D 300 300
sec2
= 301
____
300
or = 3 18 14

e xample 7.8 A tacheometer is fitted with an anallactic lens and the constants
are hundred and zero. The reading corresponding to the cross-wire on a staff held
vertical on a point B was 2.295 m when sighted from A. If the vertical angle was
+ 25° and the horizontal distance AB was 190.00 m, calculate the stadia wire
readings and thus show that the two intercept intervals are equal. Using these
values calculate the level of B if that of A was 50.00 m and the height of the
instrument is 1.35 m
s olution D = Ks cos2 + C
or 190 = 100 s cos2 25
or s = 2.313 m
From Fig. 7.16, F G = s cos 25 = 2.313 cos 25 = 2.096 m
A E = A E sec 25 =190 sec 25 = 209.64 m
318 Surveying

2 2.096 = 36
= ______
209.64
or = 18
Now, E G = D tan (25 – )
= 190 tan (25 – 18 ) = 88.578 m
E E = D tan 25 = 190 tan 25 = 88.598 m
E F = D tan (25 + ) = 190 tan (25 + 18 ) = 88.618 m
Stadia intercept interval, GE = 88.598 – 88.578 = 0.020 m
Stadia intercept interval, FE = 88.618 – 88.598 = 0.020 m
Hence, the two staff intercepts are equal, and
s = GE + FE = 0.020 + 0.020 = 0.04 m
Middle cross-wire reading = 2.295 m
Lower stadia wire reading = 2.295 + 0.020 = 2.315 m
Upper stadia wire reading = 2.295 – 0.020 = 2.259 m
E E = V = D tan 25 = 88.598 m
R.L. of B = 50.00 + 1.35 + 88.598 – 2.295 = 137.653 m

e xample 7.9 Three points A, B and C were selected on the centre line of
an existing road curve to find its radius. The instrument was set up at B and
the readings were taken on a staff held vertical at A and C with the telescope
horizontal.

Instrument station Staff station Bearing Stadia readings (m)


B A 0°00 1.615, 1.205, 0.795
C 195°30 2.410, 1.925, 1.440

The trunnion axis was 1.50 m above N


the road at B and the instrument constants
were 100 and 0. Calculate the radius of the A
circular curve ABC, the arc lengths AB and
BC, and the gradients of AB and BC.
s olution Since traversing from A to B R
and from B to C is clockwise, the included
angle ABC will be the exterior angle. N
30
In Fig. 7.17, 2 195
O B
ABC = F.B. of BC – B.B. of AB 2
= 195 30 – 0 00 = 195 30
R
In the figure, use has been made of the
fact that the angle at the centre is twice the
angle at the circumference. C
s1 = 1.615 – 0.795 = 0.82 m
AB = Ks1 + C = 100 0.82 + 0 = 82 m
Tacheometry 319

s2 = 2.410 – 1.440 = 0.97 m


BC = Ks2 + C = 100 0.97 + 0 = 97 m
From the closed traverse ABC
W.C.B. of AB = 180 ,
Q.B. of AB = S 0 E
Q.B. of BC = S 15 30 W
L= 0
or – 82 cos 0 – 97 cos 15 30 + CA cos =0
or CA cos = 175.472 (i)
D=0
or 82 sin 0 – 97 sin 15 30 + CA sin =0
or CA sin = 25.92 (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii)

tan 25.92
= _______
175.472
or = 8 24 18

and 25.92
CA = ___________ = 177.33 m
sin 8°24 18
F.B. of CA = F.B. of BC + BCA
8 24 18 = 195 30 + (360 – ) – 540
or = 7 5 42

OBA = BAO = 180° – 2 = 82 54 18


_________
2
In triangle ABO, from the sine rule
AB
______ R
= ____________
sin 2 sin 82°54 18
82
R = ____________ sin 82 54 18 = 331.94 m
sin 14°11 24
= 8 24 18
or 2 = 16 48 36
Arc AB = R 2 = 331.94 14 11 24 (rad) = 82.21 m
Arc BC = R 2 = 331.94 16 48 36 (rad) = 97.38 m
Fall from A to B = 1.5 – 1.205 = 0.295 m
0.295 = 1 in 277.96 m
Gradient of AB = _____
82
Rise from B to C = 1.925 – 1.5 = 0.425 m
0.425 = 1 in 228.23 m
Gradient of BC = _____
97
320 Surveying

e xample 7.10 The ruins of an old fort exist on a hill. It was required to
determine the distance of the fort from the road and the height of its roof above
the plinth with a tacheometer. Observations were made on a 4 m staff held vertical
on the entrance gate of the fort and on the roof from the road. Constants of the
instrument were 100 and 0.

Instrument Height of Staff Vertical Staff readings (m)


station instrument station angle
Road 1.45 m Plinth + 10°30 2.150, 2.720, 3.290
Roof + 16°24 1.850, 2.400, 3.040

s olution Let the distance of the fort from the road be D.


s1 = 3.290 – 2.150 = 1.14 m
1 = 10 30 , K = 100, C=0
2
D = Ks cos 1 + C cos 1
= 100 1.14 cos2 10 30 + 0 = 110.2 m
Let V1 = vertical height of plinth of the entrance gate.
1 Ks sin 2 + C sin
V1 = __
2 1 1 1

1 100 1.14 sin 21 + 0 = 20.42 m


= __
2
Let V2 = Vertical height of top roof
s2 = 3.040 – 1.850 = 1.190 m
2 = 16 24 , K = 100, C=0
1 Ks sin 2 + C sin
V = __
2 2 2 2

1 100 1.190 sin 32 48 + 0 = 32.23 m


= __
2
Hence, height of top of roof above plinth = 32.23 – 20.42 = 11.81 m

e xample 7.11 To determine the distance between two points X and Y and
their elevations, the following observations were recorded upon vertically held
staves from two traverse stations R and S.
The tacheometer was fitted with an anallactic lens and the instrument constant
was 100.

Traverse R.L. (m) H.I. Coordinates Staff Bearing Vertical Staff readings
station (m) of station station angle (m)
L D
R 1020.60 1.50 800 1800 X 15°14 + 8°09 1.10, 1.85, 2.60
S 1021.21 1.53 950 2500 Y 340°18 + 2°03 1.32, 1.91, 2.50

Compute the distance XY, the gradient from X to Y and bearing of XY.
Tacheometry 321

s olution s1 = 2.60 – 1.10 = 1.50, 1 =8 9


Horizontal distance, RX = Ks1 cos2 1
= 100 1.50 cos2 8 9 = 146.985 m
Vertical distance, 1 Ks sin 2
V1 = __
2 1

1 100 1.5 sin 16 18 = 21.05 m


= __
2
s2 = 2.50 – 1.32 = 1.18 m, 2 = 2 03
Horizontal distance, SY = Ks2 cos2 2
= 100 1.18 cos2 2 03 = 117.849 m
1 Ks sin 2
Vertical distance, V2 = __
2 2 2
1
= __ 100 1.18 sin 4 06 = 4.218 m
2
Bearing of RX = N15 14 E
Latitude of RX = 146.985 cos 15°14 = 141.8205 m
Departure of RX = 146.985 sin 15°14 = 38.62 m
Bearing of SY = 340 18 = N 19°42 W
Latitude of SY = 117.849 cos 19°42 = 110.95 m
Departure of SY = – 117.849 sin 19 42 = – 39.726 m
Latitude of SR = 800 – 950 = – 150 m
Departure of SR = 1800 – 2500 = – 700 m
We know that for a closed traverse RXYSR, L = 0 and D = 0
For L=0
lat.RX + lat.XY + lat.YS + lat.SR = 0
141.8205 + lat.XY – 110.95 – 150 = 0 (lat.YS = –lat.SY)
or lat.XY = + 119.13 m
For D=0
dep.RX + dep.XY + dep.YS + dep.SR = 0
38.62 + dep.XY + 39.726 – 700 = 0 (dep.YS = –dep.SY)
or dep.XY = + 621.654 m
_____________
2 2
Distance XY = lat.XY + dep.XY
___________________
= (119.13)2 + (621.654)2 = 632.96 m
dep.XY
The bearing of XY = tan–1 ______
lat.XY
621.654 = 79 09 6.14
= tan–1 ________
119.13
Hence, bearing of XY is N79 09 6.14 E (since its latitude and departure both
are positive).
322 Surveying

R.L. of X = 1020.6 + 21.05 – 1.85 = 1039.8 m


R.L. of Y = 1021.21 + 4.218 – 1.91 = 1023.518 m
Difference in level between X and Y
= 1039.8 – 1023.518 = 16.282 m
16.282 = 1 in 38.91
Gradient of XY = _______
632.96

7.5 movaBle haIr meThod or suBTense meThod


In the movable hair method the stadia interval is variable, whereas the staff
intercept is kept constant. The staff intercept is generally fixed between 3 and 6
m. If the staff intercept is more than the staff length, only half the staff intercept
is needed. The staff intercept is also called base.
When the base is horizontal, the method is called horizontal base subtense
method and the angle is measured with the horizontal circle of the theodolite. If
the base is vertical, the method is called vertical base subtense method and the
angle is measured with the help of special diaphragms (Fig. 7.2).

7.5.1 vertical Base subtense method


The firm lines in Fig. 7.18 show the optical diagram with subtense theodolite for
a staff at P and dotted lines show it for the staff at Q.

A
A1

b b
b1 F
M C C1
i i s
a1
a a
d f
B B1
P
C D C Q
D
D1

Let s = AB = A1 B1 be the staff intercept,


i = ab, the stadia interval,
F = exterior principal focus of the objective, and
M = centre of the instrument.
From similar triangles ABF and a b F
FO = _f
FC = ____
___
s ab i
Tacheometry 323

f
FC = _ s
i
Now, the distance D = FC + MF
f
or D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
This is the distance equation for the subtense method for a horizontal line of
sight. The staff intercept in the subtense method is fixed, whereas the stadia interval
is varied, so f/i varies with the staff position. The stadia interval is measured with
the help of micrometer screw.
Let m = total number of revolution of micrometer screw,
p = pitch of micrometer screw, and
e = index error
Thus, i = mp
Substituting this value in the distance equation
f
D = ___
mp s + ( f + d)
K
= __
m s+C
f
where K = __p = multiplying constant, and
C = (f + d) = additive constant
If the index error e is there, the distance equation can be written as
Ks
D = ______
m–e +C
If the line of sight is
inclined at an angle and staff is vertical,
Ks
D = ______ 2
m – e cos + C cos

and Ks
V = ______ sin 2 + C sin
______
m–e 2
Usually, the constant K is fixed to 1000. Experimentally, it can be determined
as follows:
1. Two targets are fixed on a staff at some distance, say s.
2. A line is ranged on fairly level ground and distances D1 and D2 are measured
along it.
3. The micrometer readings m1 and m2 to move the stadia hairs are noted. The
linear distance moved by the stadia hair is equal to the number or revolutions
multiplied by the pitch.
f Ks
D1 = ____ ___
m1 p s + ( f + d) = m1 + C (7.11)
f Ks
D2 = ____ ___
m2 p s + (f + d) = m2 + C (7.12)
Solving Eqs. (7.11) and (7.12) leads to
(D1 – D2)m1 m2 (D1 m1 – D2 m2)
K = ______________ , C = ______________
m1 – m2
s(m1 – m2)
The value of the multiplying constant varies between 600 and 1000.
324 Surveying

7.5.2 horizontal Base subtense method


In this method the horizontal distance
between the instrument station O and A
the subtense bar station C is calculated
by a subtense bar. The base AB is kept O C s
in a horizontal plane and the angle AOB
(Fig. 7.19) is measured with the help of B
D
horizontal circle of the theodolite.
If the line AB is perpendicular to the
line OC, where C is the mid-point of AB,
then the distance between the instrument
and the staff is given by
1 s cot __ = ________
D = __ s
2 2 2 tan /2

If is very small then, tan /2 = __ (in radians)


2
or D = s 206265
__ (in seconds) (7.13)
The above formula is used to compute the horizontal distances.

7.5.3 effect of angular error on horizontal distances


s
We know that, D tan __ = __
2

and when is small, then tan __ = __


2 2
D
or ___ = __s D =s
2 2
Let the negative error in be and positive error in D be D. Then,
s = (D + D) . ( – )
From the above equations it follows that
D = (D + D) . ( – )

or D + D = ______
_______
D –
D
or D = ______

d
Similarly, D = ______ (when D is negative and is positive)
+
Since is too small in comparison with ,
d
D = _____ (7.14)
Tacheometry 325

7.5.4 measurement of distance and elevation on sloping


Ground by a subtense Bar
Let P and Q be the two points on a sloping ground (Fig. 7.20). It is required to
find out the horizontal distance and the difference in elevation between them. Place
a theodolite at the point P and a subtense bar at Q such that AB, the subtense
bar, is perpendicular to the line of sight OC. Measure the horizontal angle very
accurately. Also, measure the vertical angle .
s
OCA (or OCB) is a right angle, so that OC = AC cot __ = __ cot __
2 2 2
In the right-angled triangle OEC,
CE = sin
___
OC
So that CE = h = OC sin
or h = __s cot __ sin
2 2
Also, OE = cos
___
OC
So that OE = D = OC cos

or D = __s cot __ cos (7.15)


2 2
Normally s = 2 m, so that

h = cot __ sin and D = cot __ cos


2 2
R.L. of Q = R.L. of P + H.I. + h – height of subtense bar.

A C
B

h
Q

O
E

D
326 Surveying

7.5.5 advantages and disadvantages of subtense method


over stadia method
Field work for long sights is more accurate as it is easier to intersect
a fixed vane with a movable wire than to read the staff graduations. This is very
effective in setting out curves for railways, etc.
The calculations in the subtense method are more time consuming
as the number of revolutions of the micrometer screw and index error come in
the denominator.

e xample 7.12 Find out the total number of turns a micrometer screw had
to be moved in the subtense method for a staff intercept of 2.00 m, with the staff
held vertical at a distance of 100 m from the instrument. The vertical angle was
6°00 and the constants of the instrument were 1000 and 0.5.
Ks
s olution D = ___
m cos
2
+ C cos
1000 2.0
100 = _________
m cos2 6 + 0.5 cos 6
m = 19.88

e xample 7.13 A tacheometer was used to make observations on a vertical


staff. The staff intercept made was 1.200 m and the angle of elevation recorded
was 7°30 . The constants of the instrument were 100 and 0.1. What will be the
number of turns registered on a substense theodolite on the same station if the
intercept on the staff at the same point was 1.50 m. The angle of elevation being
7°06 and the constants of the instrument being 1000 and 0.
s olution D = Ks cos2 + C cos
= 100 1.2 cos2 7 30 + 0.10 cos 7 30 = 118.05 m
By substense theodolite
D = (K s cos2 )/m + C cos
1000 1.5 cos2 7°06
118.05 = ___________________
m +0

or m = 12.51

7.6 TanGenTIal meThod


In this method, stadia hairs are not used to bisect the staff for observations. Two
vanes at a constant distance apart are fixed on the staff. Each vane is bisected by
the cross-hair and the staff reading and vertical angle corresponding to each vane
are recorded. This method is preferred when the telescope is not equipped with a
stadia diaphragm. Since in this method two manipulations of the instrument and
two sights are required for one set of observations, there are more possibilities
of error as compared to the stadia and subtense methods of tacheometry. Though
the results do not differ much, however, the tangential method should definitely
be regarded as inferior to the other two methods of tacheometry. There are three
Tacheometry 327

cases for deducing distance and elevation formulae depending upon the nature of
the vertical angles.

7.6.1 distance and elevation formulae


Refer to Fig. 7.21. Let
D = distance between instrument station O and staff station P
V = vertical distance between the instrument axis and the lower vane
s = distance between the vanes—staff intercept
1 = vertical angle to the upper vane B
2 = vertical angle to the lower vane C
O = position of instrument axis
r = height of lower vane C, above the foot of the staff at P and
h = height of the instrument.
From triangle O KB, V + s = D tan 1
From triangle O KC, V = D tan 2
From the above equations
s = D (tan 1 – tan 2)
s
or D = _____________
tan 1 – tan 2
Elevation of station P = elevation of instrument axis + V – r
= elevation of station O + h + V – r

V
P

O 1
2
K
h

O
D

From triangle O KC (Fig. 7.22),


V = D tan 2
From triangle O KB,
V – s = D tan 1
328 Surveying

From the above equations


D tan 1 + s = D tan 2
or D (tan 2 – tan 1) = s

s
or D = _____________
tan 2 – tan 1

But V = D tan 2

s tan 2
= _____________
tan 2 – tan 1

Elevation of staff station P = elevation of station Q + h – V – r

From triangle O KC (Fig. 7.23),


V = D tan 2

From triangle O KB, s – V = D tan 2

From the above equations


s = D tan 1 + D tan 2

s
or D = _____________
tan 2 + tan 1

But V = D tan 2

s tan 2
V = _____________
tan 1 + tan 2
Elevation of staff station P = elevation of station O + h – V – r
Tacheometry 329

e xample 7.14 In the tangential method of tacheometry, two vanes were fixed
2 m apart, the lower vane being 0.5 m above the foot of the staff held vertical at
station A. The vertical angles measured were +1°12 and –1°30 . Find the horizontal
distance of A from the instrument, if the height of line of collimation is 100 m.
Also find the R.L. of A.
s 2
s olution D = _____________ = ___________________ = 42.433 m
tan 1 + tan 2 tan 1°12 + tan 1°30
V = D tan 2 = 42.433 tan 1 30 = 1.111 m
R.L. of A = 100 – V – 0.5 = 100 – 1.111 – 0.5 = 98.388 m

7.7 ranGe fIndInG


It is a method of determining horizontal distances, without visiting the point for
which the measurement is required. This is done by instrument known as range
finder. A range finder is of great advantage in measuring distances to inaccessible
objects. These are extremely useful in the reconnaissance of the triangulation
scheme where the need to obtain a location of forward points in a chain is a very
urgent one. Range finders do not measure angles of elevation and are, therefore, by
themselves, unable to measure vertical distances. As compared to a tacheometer, a
range finder gives precise results; since in the latter the problem of refraction error,
because of grazing rays, is avoided by selecting the target at a suitable height.
The range finder is used in military and also sometimes in ordinary topographical
work, particularly in such operations as traversing along a wide river.
Basically there are two types of range finders but the method of determining
distances by either of them depends upon the solution of a triangle. In some of
the range finders, the point whose range is desired is situated at the apex of the
triangle—with a base of known length measured at the observer’s place—to be
solved. These instruments are so graduated as to directly give the range for a
standard base. Examples of such range finders are telemeter and mekometer. In the
other type of instruments such as Barr and Stroud range finders, the principle used
is the same but the base of the triangle to be solved is contained in the instrument
itself. Usually, one of the base angles is kept at a right angle. The angle at the
apex of the triangle is known as the parallax of the object.
330 Surveying

7.7.1 features
A range finder consists of two mirrors M1 and M2, (Fig. 7.24 (a)) placed at the
end of a line AB usually about 1 – 2 m long and also placed perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. Mirror M1 is a fixed mirror and its reflecting surface makes an
angle of 45 to AB. Whereas, mirror M2 is allowed to rotate about an axis in its
plane and through its centre about B. P1 and P2 are the two right-angled prisms
fixed at the mid-point of AB. The prism P1 is mounted above the prism P2. The
parallel plane faces of both of these prisms are kept perpendicular to AB and also
to the plane of the paper. Two objectives O1 and O2 are placed at equal distances
from the mid-point of AB and an eyepiece E is placed at right angles to AB so as
to receive the reflected rays from both the prisms.

7.7.2 Principle and Working


The principle used is that the rays from a distant object falling on the ends of
two closely placed (1 – 2 m) points can be considered to be parallel. In addition
to the above, if a ray is successively reflected from two plane mirror surfaces, the
angle between the initial and final direction of the ray is twice the angle between
the mirrors.
To understand the working of a range finder, consider a ray aA reflected by
the mirror M1 along AB at right angles to aA. It is then reflected by prism P1 at
right angles to AB so as to pass through the eyepiece at E. Similarly, mirror M2
placed at B if set to 45 will reflect the image of b to the eyepiece. Thus, the
image of an object on a line bB will appear to lie immediately below the image
of an object on aA.
If the mirror M2 is rotated by , a ray cB from an object C lying on aA will
be reflected through the prism P2 to pass through the eyepiece. The angle cBb
will be 2 . Consequently, by measuring the angle , angle cBb can be deduced.
Tacheometry 331

From Fig. 7.24 (b), the distance AC can be computed since ACB = cBb = 2
and the distance AB is known.

7.7.3 Telemeter
It is about 12 cm long and 4 cm Telescope
in diameter (Fig. 7.25). It consists Eyepiece Scale
of a metal tube enclosing two
mirrors one of which is known
as the index glass and the other
the horizon glass. At one end
of the tube there is telescope, Window
whereas at the other end a
graduated collar is connected to
the index mirror by a metal arm.
The index mirror can be moved in azimuth. The horizon mirror can also be turned
by a few degrees by a small toothed wheel.
It works on the principle that if a ray is successively reflected from two plane
mirror surfaces, the angle between the initial and final direction of the ray is twice
the angle between the mirrors.
Let O be an object whose range is to O
be found from A (Fig. 7.26). The observer
stands at A with the range finder and adjusts
the instrument so that the mirrors make an
angle of 45 and directs the telescope in
the direction approximately at right angles
to AO. The telescope is then adjusted until
a ray from the object O, entering from a
rectangular opening on the side of the tube,
is reflected from the index mirror and forms
C A D
an image in the lower part of the horizon
glass. The observer then sees through the 20 m
front of the tube directly and fixes a ranging
rod at C which will be at right angles to AO,
and moves to a point D in line with CA. The distance AD is, say 20 m. At D, the
observer directs the telescope towards C and rotates the collar until the image of
O is seen again which will be coincident with the direct vision of C.
The angle between the mirrors will be half of ODA. The arrangements on
the scale are so made that instead of giving this angle, the tangent of this angle
with a base of 20 m is indicated directly, which is the required distances AO.
The accuracy of the results very much depend upon how precisely the base AD
is measured. By exercising proper care, results with an accuracy of 1 in 100 can
be obtained.

7.7.4 mekometer
This type of range finder is obsolete nowadays. It was extensively used by the
military in the past. It consists of two instruments connected by silk covered
332 Surveying

hemp base cord 25 or 50 yards in length. The left-hand O


instrument at A consists of two mirrors inclined at 45
as in an optical square, and the right-hand instrument
consists of one fixed mirror and another capable of
rotation as in the sextant.
The surveyor at the left-hand instrument sights the
object O whose range is to be determined and moves
to such a position that the reflected image of the right-
90
hand instrument at B coincides with the direct image
of O. In such a position, OAB = 90 (Fig. 7.27).
A B
Now, from the other instrument at B, the 25 or 50 yards
observer directly sights the object O and rotates
the movable index mirror until the image of the
instrument at A coincides with that of O. The
reading on the scale should be OBA. But the
graduations on the drum of the instrument at B are arranged so as to indicate
directly the distance AO. This is done by proportioning the graduations to the
tangents of angles subtended at B for a base of 25 or 50 yards. The observations
can be made with an accuracy of 1 in 10.

7.7.5 Barr and stroud range finder


It finds extensive use in military surveying. The base used ranges from 0.30 to
30 m. These range finders can be used to determine the vertical as well as the
horizontal distances. Some of the range finders are fitted with stereoscopes and
are called stereoscopic range finders.
In this type of range finder, the rage is determined from the measurement of
the parallax angle. The instrument consists of two telescopes provided with object
glasses O1 and O2 and a common eyepiece (Fig. 7.28). The rays from an object
enter from the opening W1 and are successively reflected by 90 from two opposite
faces (at 45 ) of the silvered pentagonal prism P1. The deflected rays pass through
the object glass and are diverted through the prism P3 to the eye through eyepiece
e. A similar course W2P2O2 e is followed by the rays entering from opening W2.
The prisms are so arranged that the image of the object from window W1 is seen
in the lower half and that from the window W2 is seen in the upper half. To
achieve the coincidence of the two images, a prism P4 is placed in the path of the
rays from P2. The movement of P4 necessary to obtain coincidence, is a measure
Tacheometry 333

of the range and is indicated on the scale. The reading is observed from another
eyepiece. Cylindrical lenses C1 and C2 known as astigmatisers, are used to convert
the image of a point, such as stars, into the vertical line. The observations can be
made with an accuracy of 1 in 250.

7.8 sPecIal InsTrumenTs


Certain instruments, attachments or some modifications are available which,
when provided, facilitate reduction of observations. Some such examples are
Beaman stadia arc, Fergusson’s percentage unit system, gradienter, direct reading
tacheometers, auto-reduction tacheometer, and double image tacheometer. For
surveys of large extent where the number of points observed are many, the
calculation or reduction of stadia notes can be done quickly with the help of
reduction diagrams and tables. Tacheometric reduction diagrams and tacheometric
tables are given in Appendices XIII and XIV.

7.8.1 Beaman stadia arc


This is a special attachment fitted externally to a tacheometer to reduce the
observations. This facilitates the determination of horizontal and vertical distances
without the use of stadia tables (Appendix XIII). Out of the two: cos2 and (1/2)
sin 2 , the former varies very slowly for the small angle usually required in
tacheometry. Therefore, if the scale is graduated for the values of for which (1/2)
sin 2 = 0.01, 0.02, and so on, the distances can be readily worked out.
The arc carries two scales H and V. The central points of these are marked
0 and 50, respectively. (Fig. 7.29) for the telescope in horizontal position. To
avoid possible confusion between elevations and depressions, 0 is marked as 50
on the V-scale. A common index is used to read both the scales. The graduations
of the V-scale are of magnitude 0.01 corresponding to every (1/2) sin 2 . For
example, when the index reads 49 or 51, the line of sight is inclined by an angle
corresponding to the first division on the scale. In such a case V = Ks (1/2)
sin 2 = 100 s 0.01 = s.
90

90
80

80
70

20

70

Vertical Beaman
90
60

10

circle arc
80
60

50
70

0
60

40 10 50 50
20 40
30 30
20
20 10 0
3
10 20
10

30 20 30
10 10 20

Vernier
334 Surveying

Let the index read 48 or 52, then the line of sight is inclined by an angle
corresponding to the second division. Then,
1
V = ks __ sin 2 = 100 s 0.02 = 2s
2
Since the central graduation on the V-scale is marked 50, when the reading is
less than this value it indicates an angle of depression, while a reading of more
than 50 indicates and angle of elevation.
The H-scale is graduated to such values so as to represent the percentage
by which an observation is to be reduced to obtain the corresponding distance.
Therefore, the reading on the H-scale multiplied by the staff intercept gives the
correction to be subtracted from the distance computed from D = Ks.
When using the instrument it is preferred to set the V-scale to a whole number
to simplify the calculations and read the corresponding
value of H. The H-scale will not read a whole number.
Since V is proportional to (1/2) sin 2 , and the 3 2 1
correction for H to sin2 , the spacing between
graduations decrease as the vertical angle increases
24 22 20
and this restricts the use of the vernier. Therefore, an V V
accurate reading can be obtained only by setting the
V-scale to read a whole number. The H-scale, in such 3 2
a case, will not read a whole number (Fig. 7.30) and H
the value may be interpolated.
As an example let staff intercept, s = 2 m and let
the cross-wire reading = 2.35 m. Let the observation
made on the Beaman scale be as shown in Fig. 7.30. Then,
V = 2 22 = 44 m
The staff station is (44 – 2.35) = 41.65 m above the instrument axis. To facilitate
calculation of horizontal distance, the stadia arc also carries a scale of percentage
reductions to be applied to the distance readings. The distance scale in Fig. 7.30
reads 2.1, so that
The horizontal distance = 2 100 – 2 2.1 = 195.8 m.

7.8.2 fergusson’s Percentage unit system


The system was devised by Mr. J.C. Fergusson. A circle is graduated in terms of
tangents of angles as percentage, and therefore, the divisions are unequal. This
system facilitates the reduction of observations in tangential tacheometry.
A circle is inscribed in a square and is divided into eight parts as shown in
Fig. 7.31. Each of the eight tangents of length equal to the radius of the circle is
divided into 100 equal parts. Each point so formed is joined to the centre. Lines
so formed divide each octant into 100 unequal parts, each of which subtends 1/100
of the tangent, which is the telemetric unit.
To use it, a theodolite with this system is made to sight upon a graduated rod. A
reading is taken on the lower staff point (target) with a whole percentage unit. The
telescope is then raised by some units say h and again the staff reading is made.
Then, distance D = 100 s/h. The elevation of staff station is usually determined
as in the tangential method.
Tacheometry 335

01
02
03
04
05

06
07

08

09
0
90

10
20
30
40
50
60
80

70
0 9 80
0
70
90 60

10
80
70 50
60
50 40
40 30
30 20
20
10 10
0 0

7.8.3 Gradienter
It is mainly used in setting out gradients, but is also used in tacheometry. When
the tangent screw actuating the vertical circle of a theodolite is provided with a
micrometer head and a scale for counting the whole turns by which it has been
turned, it is called gradienter. The pitch of the screw is kept such that when moved
by one revolution, the line of sight moves by tan–1 0.01.
The telescope of the instrument is directed towards the staff, with the line of
sight horizontal, and the staff reading is made. The screw is then given one turn
and the staff is again read. The difference in the two readings is the staff intercept
s. Then, distance D = 100 s.
For inclined sights, the staff may be held vertical or normal to the line of
sight. Usually, the vertical staff position is employed. For an angle of elevation
(Fig. 7.32) the observation is first made to a lower point, say B, and the vertical
angle is recorded. The line of sight is then moved by tan–1 0.01, say to A, by
the gradienter screw, and the reading is made again. Let the staff intercept AB be
equal to s. In case A and B are the two fixed targets then s = nc, where n is the
number of turns the screw has to be moved and c is the distance by which the
line of sight moves by one revolution of the screw. The horizontal distance D and
the vertical distance V can be calculated from the following equations:
nc
tan = ____
100

(100 cos2
D = s _________
nc
1
__
2
sin 2 )
(100 sin 2
V = s _________ × sin2
2nc )
336 Surveying

A
s
B

7.8.4 direct reading Tacheometer


This is also known as self-reducing tacheometer. With this tacheometer the amount
of computation is reduced, and the accuracy of the results is the same as that by the
other methods. By a tacheometer fitted with anallactic lens the equations deduced
are D = Ks cos2 and V = Ks (1/2) sin 2 . Provisions are made on the diaphragm
of the instrument to read directly s cos2 and (1/2)s sin 2 . Examples of this type
of instrument are Jeffcott and Szepessy direct reading tacheometers.
It was invented by Dr. H.H. Jeffcott.
This enables the computations of horizontal and vertical distances directly, by
entirely dispensing with the reduction formulae. It consists of three pointers
(Fig. 7.33) of which the middle one is fixed, say A, on the axis, defining the line
of collimation and the other two, say B and C, are accentuated by a cam mechanism
as the telescope is elevated or depressed. The right-hand movable pointer C is
called the distance pointer, and the left-hand movable pointer B is called the height
pointer. The left-hand pointer moves upwards relative to the fixed pointer for
angles of elevations and downwards for angles of depression. The intercept on the
target staff between the two pointers A and B directly gives the value of (1/2) s
sin 2 , and the intercept between pointers A and C gives the value of s cos2 .
Further, the intercept between A and C when multiplied by 100 directly gives the
horizontal distance and the intercept between A and B when multiplied by 10 gives
directly the vertical distance. It is also arranged that the
reading corresponding to the pointer A is equal to the
height of the instrument above the station peg. The
telescope is equipped with an anallactic lens. The staff
reading is first taken by setting the fixed pointer at the
metre or decimetre mark and then the other two pointers
are read after adjusting them. The main drawback of
the instrument is the inconvenience in reading the
pointers.
Tacheometry 337

As an example, let the noted readings be 1.85, 1.40 and 1.05 m, then
horizontal distance, D = 100 (1.85 – 1.40) = 45 m
vertical distance, V = 10 (1.40 – 1.05) = + 3.5 m
The instrument derives this name
from its Hungarian inventor Joseph Szepessy. It overcomes the inadequacies of the
tangential tacheometry in which two
telescope pointings are required. A
scale of tangents of vertical angles is
13
engraved on a glass plate attached to
the vertical circle cover, so that it does
not rotate when the telescope is moved 14
in a vertical plane. It uses percentage
angles. With the help of prisms the
15
scale is brought in the view through
an eyepiece, and when the telescope
is directed towards a staff, the image 16
of the latter is placed alongside that
of the scale (Fig. 7.34).
17
The scale of tangents is divided
into 0.005 and is figured at every 0.01
in terms of 100 times the tangent.
Thus, the graduation 14 corresponds
to tan–1 0.14 or 14%.
To take a reading, the staff is sighted and the vertical circle tangent screw is
adjusted so that preferably a numbered graduation falls opposite the horizontal
cross-hair. Read the staff intercept between the small 0.005 divisions immediately
above and below this numbered division. The horizontal distance will be this
length of staff intercept multiplied by 100. The vertical distance, V, is found by
multiplying the intercept by the number corresponding to the division opposite the
horizontal cross-wire. As an example, if the number against which the horizontal
cross-wire is set at 15 and the staff intercept is 1.15 m
then,
D = 1.15 100 = 115 m
and V = 15 1.15 = 17.25 m

7.8.5 auto-reduction Tacheometer (hammer and fennel)


This instrument makes the method of determining the horizontal distance and
difference in elevation most simple, as only one observation is made. The
instrument is provided with a special auto-reduction device. The field of view
of the instrument’s telescope is divided into two halves. One half is used to view
the staff and the other to view a diagram (Fig. 7.35) in which four curves N, E,
d, and D are shown. The N-curve is the zero curve, the E-curve is for reading
distance, the D-curve is to be used for vertical angles up to 14 and the d-curve
for vertical angles up to 47 (where the plus sign means elevation and the minus
338 Surveying

sign means depression). D and d-curves are the height curves. The multiplying
constant for the distance curve is 100 whereas for the height curves D and d it
is 10 and 20, respectively.

D D
10 + 10
20
+ 20
d Dd

d d

E E
N
N

To take a reading the N-curve is made to bisect the specially marked zero point
of the staff. In such a condition the perpendicular edge of the prism should be in
line with the staff. The staff readings are then taken with the distance curve and
height curves. The distance curve reading is multiplied by 100 to get the desired
horizontal distance. The readings corresponding to the D (d)-curve when multiplied
by 10 (20), gives the difference in elevations between the instrument and staff
stations.

7.8.6 double Image Tacheometer


This instrument is meant to provide more accurate results than obtainable with
the methods described so far. The accuracy of measurement is 1 in 5000. It is
most suitable for control traverses using medium length sights and of large-scale
works. If many observations are to be made from one point, as in contouring,
then it is inconvenient.
It consists of a horizontal subtense bar supported over a vertical graduated
rod. The bar on its upper edge is graduated in metres and on the lower edge in
decimetres. The staff is observed through a theodolite fitted with glass wedges in
front of the object glass. These wedges displace the two horizontal images of the
upper and lower halves of the staff, one viewed directly and the other deflected by
the wedge prism (Fig. 7.36). The displacement is in the direction of their length
by an amount proportional to the distance to the staff station. The observer sees
the graduations of one part of the staff superimposed upon those of another part.
As the telescope is rotated in a vertical plane, the tacheometric angle is varied
automatically by suitable rotation of the wedges in such a way that 100 times the
displacement readings of the images gives directly the horizontal distance. For
determining the difference in elevation between the instrument and vertical staff,
the setting of the wedges is altered by turning them as a unit by 90 . Then 100
times the displacement readings of images is the required difference in elevation.
The distances so obtained are directly in metres. The decimetres are obtained
by reading the staff vernier which is seen as the lower image. Centimetres and
Tacheometry 339

millimetres are obtained from the graduated micrometre head which is responsible
for rotation of the rhomboid prism about a vertical axis.

7.9 omnImeTer
This is an instrument similar to the transit theodolite, invented by Eckohold, and
was used for the tangential method of tacheometry. It is obsolete nowadays.
It is a transit theodolite with a compound microscope at right angles to the
optical axis of the telescope and passing through the horizontal axis. When the
line of collimation of the telescope is horizontal, the microscope tube will be
vertical. If the telescope is moved in a vertical plane, the microscope also moves
correspondingly. A graduated scale is placed upon the vernier plate and is read
with the help of the microscope. This scale is fitted into a slide and can be moved
either way by means of a micrometer screw. The longitudinal movement of the
scale is required so that the graduation corresponding to the approximate reading
may be brought into the line of sight of the microscope. When the telescope is
horizontal, the zero of the scale should be on the middle of the scale.
The telescope is directed towards a graduated staff provided with two targets
at a fixed distance apart. Instead of reading vertical angles to these vanes, the
corresponding readings of the scale are recorded. In Fig. 7.37, A is the point at
which the line of collimation would cut the vertical through A (the staff station),
A1 the point at which the microscope cross-hairs intersect the horizontal scale.
OA1 will be at right angles to OA . When the vane b is sighted, the microscope
cross-wire intersects the graduated scale in b1 and when vane c is sighted, the
corresponding scale reads c1 . Either or both the points b and c may be below A
and will be an indication of the angle of depression.
From Similar triangles OA c and OA1 c1
bc
OA = OA1 _____
b1 c1
s
D = OA1 _____
b1 c1
340 Surveying

c
s
b

A O
A

Scale
c1 b1 A 1

The difference in levels,


A1 b1
_____
Ab = s
b1 c1
R.L. of A = R.L. of O + A b – Ab
As a1 b1 and b1 c1 are the measurements made with the microscope, the horizontal
distance D and the reduced level of the staff station can be determined.

7.10 sources of error


Errors in tacheometric work may be instrumental, personal or natural. The common
instrumental errors in tacheometry are caused by improper spacing of stadia wires,
incorrect stadia rod graduations, and index error. The most common personal errors
are due to improper positioning of stadia rod, incorrect rod readings during long
sights because of indistinct graduations, and careless levelling for measurements
of vertical angles. Natural factors such as wind and temperature changes also
affect the observations.
Most of the errors can either be eliminated or minimised by careful manipulation
of the instrument and rod, and by limiting the length of sights.

7.11 mIsTakes
Some of the mistakes in tacheometry are recording wrong staff intercepts, using
a wrong stadia interval, and confusion in indicating whether the vertical angle is
an angle of elevation or an angle of depression.

7.12 accuracy
The degree of accuracy of the measurements that can be achieved by a tacheometer
depends by and large, upon the power and optical precision of the instrument, and
on the type and scale markings of the stadia rods. The vision of an observer, the
length of sight, and the inclination of the line of collimation are also responsible
for the obtainable accuracy. However, the position of the sun (whether in front
or behind the observer) also affects the accuracy of the measurements made. It
Tacheometry 341

also varies with the conditions prevailing at the time an observation is made. The
atmospheric conditions that undermine accuracy are large temperature variation
near the ground surface and high winds which prevent the staff from being held
steady.
The main factor affecting accuracy is probably the length of sight, since for long
sights the graduations become indistinct. The error in reading the rod is accidental.
Therefore, it will not be directly proportional to the length of the traverse but the
error tends to compensate and reduces as the length of the survey increases. For
a single short sight, under normal conditions for ordinary angles of inclination,
the expected error in the horizontal distance may be of the order of 1 in 500 and
for a vertical distance, it should not be more than 0.1 m. For long lines, where a
number of set ups are required, the error will tend to be proportional to the square
root of the number of set ups. An accuracy of 1/3000 to 1/10 000 in distance is
obtainable for sights up to about 120 m. The average error in horizontal distance
varies from 1 in 600 to 1 in 850. The closing error in a stadia traverse should
__
not be greater than 0.055 p , where p is the __ perimeter of the traverse.__The error
in closure for elevation varies from 0.08 k on level ground to 0.25 k on hilly
areas, where k is distance in kilometres.

Summary
Tacheometry is a very useful method in rough terrains, and yields fairly good results, where
measurement with chain/tape will be crude and not reliable. In this method of surveying,
the horizontal and vertical distances are calculated trigonometrically using the observed staff
readings corresponding to the horizontal cross-wire and stadia-wires, and vertical angels.
The surveying, using a tacheometer, can be performed by any of the three methods, the
stadia method (the fixed hair method) and the subtense method (the movable hair method)
the tangential method (the most convenient and preferred for contouring) and; range finding.
In the tangential method the readings are taken with cross-wire on two targets fixed on
wooden rod at known distance apart and with bottom target fixed at known height from
the bottom of the staff. In the first method, the staff readings are observed corresponding
to the cross-wire and stadia wires.
In fixed hair method the basic distance equation used is D = Ks + C, where K and
C are constants and s is the staff intercept. An anallactic lense is placed in the telescope
at such a place that K becomes 100 and C zero. This simplifies the equation to D = Ks
making the calculation of distance D simpler. The staff in this method can be kept vertical
or normal to the line of sight depending upon the field conditions. In vertical subtense
method, the equation is same expect that m – e term appears in the denominator where
m is number of revolutions of micrometer screw and e the index error. The equation is
Ks
D = + C. the value of constant K is usually adjusted to be 1000 to make the
m e
calculation simpler. The subtense method can also be applied by keeping a subtense bar
(staff) horizontal and the method is called horizontal base subtense method.
Sometimes it becomes impossible to access objects in field and keep staff over them.
In such cases range finders are used. The principle, working and types of range finders are
described. Some of the most commonly used range finders, the telemeter, the mekometer
and the Barr and Stroud finder are described.
Special instruments, attachments and modifications to tachometer are discussed at the
end of the chapter. These facilitate the reduction of observations. Sources of errors, mistakes
342 Surveying

and degree of accuracy that can be achieved in tacheometry under various conditions are
discussed.

Exercises
7.1 Define tacheometry. What are the various methods employed in tacheometric survey?
Explain the method most commonly used.
7.2 Explain the procedure to determine the tacheometric constants by
(a) Fixed hair method
(b) Movable hair method
7.3 Derive the distance equation for an anallactic lens. What are its advantages?
7.4 What do you understand by tacheometry? Discuss the errors in stadia surveying.
What is the utility of an anallactic lens in a tacheometer?
7.5 What is the principle of the subtense bar method of measuring horizontal distances?
Explain the construction details of a subtense bar.
7.6 Explain how a subtense bar is used to determine horizontal distances.
7.7 Explain briefly the construction of each of the following.
(a) Subtense bar (b) Auto-reduction tacheometer (c) Telemeter
7.8 Define the term range. How are the range finders classified? Explain the working
principle of a range finder.
7.9 Write short notes on: (a) telemeter (b) mekometer (c) Barr and Stroud range
finder.
7.10 Explain briefly the types of special fittings to a tacheometer with special reference
to the Beaman stadia arc.
7.11 A tracheometer fitted with stadia wires 4 mm apart, has its object glass
(f = 200 mm) fixed at a distance of 250 mm from the trunnion axis. From the first
principles, establish the tacheometric distance equation if the staff intercept is s.
[Ans. D = 100 s + 0.45 m]
7.12 Write short notes on
(a) Fergusson’s percentage unit system
(b) Beaman stadia arc
(c) Gradienter
(d) Szepessy direct reading tacheometer
(e) Omnimeter
7.13 Describe briefly the construction and working of
(a) Auto-reduction tacheometer
(b) Double image tacheometer
7.14 Briefly discuss the following:
(a) Errors in tacheometry
(b) Accuracy of tacheometric observations
7.15 Following observations were recorded with a tacheometer fitted with an anallactic
lens (K = 100; C = 0). Calculate the reduced levels of change point and of station
T. The staff was held vertical during the observations and the reduced level of B.M.
was 500.0 m.
Instrument H.I. (m) Staff Vertical Staff readings (m)
station station angle
O 1.500 B.M. – 4 30 1.250, 1.400, 1.550
O 1.500 C.P. + 6 12 1.550, 1.750, 1.950
T 1.350 C.P. – 7 45 1.390, 1.550, 1.710
[Ans. 506.291 m, 510.767 m]
Tacheometry 343

7.16 The following readings were taken by a tacheometer from station B on stations A,
C and D in clockwise direction:
Sight Horizontal Vertical Stadia readings (m)
circle reading angle Top Middle Bottom
A 301 10
C 152 6 – 5 00 1.044 2.283 3.522
D 205 06 + 2 30 0.645 2.376 4.110
The line BA has a bearing of 58°46 and the instrument constants are 100 and 0.
Find the slope of the line CD and its bearing.
[Ans. Slope 1 in 7.54 rising, W.C.B. 7 16 26.7 ]
7.17 A tacheometer has a multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of 0.
When set 1.35 m above station B, the following readings were obtained:
Station Sight Horizontal Vertical Staff readings (m)
angle angle
A 28 21
B 82 03 00
C 20 30 1.140, 2.292, 3.420
The coordinates of A are N00 and E163.86 while that of B are N118.41 and
E163.86.
Find the coordinates of C and its height above the datum, if the level of B is
27.30 m. [Ans. N88.87, E375.37, height = 101.148 m]
7.18 A tacheometer is set up at an intermediate point on a traverse course PQ and the
following observations were made on a vertically held staff:
Staff station Vertical angle Staff intercept (m) Axial hair reading (m)
P + 9 30 2.250 2.105
Q + 6 00 2.055 1.875
The instrument is fitted with an anallactic lens. The multiplying constant is 100.
Compute the length PQ and the R.L. of Q if the R.L. of P is 350.50 m.
[Ans. PQ = 422.13 m, R.L. = 335.46 m]
7.19 The following readings were taken by a tacheometer with the staff held vertical.
The tacheometer is fitted with an anallactic lens and the multiplying constant is 100.
Find out the horizontal distance from A to B and the R.L. of B.

Instrument Staff station Vertical Staff readings (m) Remarks (m)


station angle
B.M. – 6°0 1.100, 1.153, 2.060 R.L. of B.M.
A B + 8°0 0.982, 1.105, 1.188 = 976.00 m
[Ans. AB = 94.14 m, R.L. = 988.81 m]
7.20 A tacheometer is placed at a station A and readings on a staff held vertical upon
a B.M. of R.L. = 100.00 m and at a station B are 0.640, 2.200, 3.760 and 0.010,
2.120, 4.230 m, respectively. The angle of depression of the telescope in the first
case is 6°19 and in the second case is 07°42 . Find the horizontal distance from A
to B and the R.L. of station B, if the instrument has constants 100 and 0.5.
[Ans. R.L. = 78.15 m, D = 414.92 m]
344 Surveying

7.21 Determine the gradient from a point P to a point Q and the distance PQ. Observations
were made with a tacheometer and the staff was held vertical at each of the stations.
The instrument was fitted with an anallactic lens.
Instrument Staff Bearing Vertical angle Staff readings (m)
station station
P 134° + 10°32 1.365, 1.920, 2.475
O Q 224° + 5°6 1.065, 1.885, 2.705
[Ans. 1 in 36.1 (falling), 194.89 m]
7.22 It was required to find the distance between two points A and B and their reduced
level. Two arbitrary points C and D were suitably selected and the tacheometric
observations recorded were as follows. The reduced levels of C and D were 100 m
and 110 m, respectively.

Instrument H.I. Total Coordinates Staff Q.B. Vertical Staff


station (m) station angle readings (m)
N E
C 1.450 300.000 812.170 A N39°24 W + 16°24 1.65, 2.75,
3.85
D 1.500 586.650 1250.750 B N37°12 E + 25°12 2.50, 3.20,
3.90
Calculate:
(a) Length of line AB
(b) Gradient of line AB
(c) Reduced levels of A and B
[Ans. 673.83 m, 1 in 170.16 (rising), 158.29 m, 162.24 m]
7.23 The constants for an instrument are 1000 and 0.5. Calculate the distance from the
instrument to the staff when the micrometer readings are 5.246 and 5.246. The staff
intercept is 2.0 m and the vertical angle measured is + 4°30 , the staff being held
vertical. [Ans. 189.95 m]
7.24 In the tangential method of tacheometry, two vanes were fixed at an interval of
1 m on a 3 m staff with the bottom vane at 1.0 m. The staff was held vertical at
station A and the vertical angles measured for the two vanes were 5°30 and 3°15 ,
respectively. Find the reduced level and horizontal distance of A, if the R.L. of a
B.M. was 400 m. [Ans. 400.437 m]
7.25 Two targets spaced 6.0 m apart were fixed on a subtense bar and the vertical
angles measured on the two upper and lower targets were 2°29 30 and 1°28 40 ,
respectively. If the lower target was at an elevation of 249.2 m, what was the height
of instrument. [Ans. 240.46 m]
7.26 Describe the conditions under which tacheometric surveying is advantageous. Up to
what vertical angle may sloping distances be treated to be horizontal so that error
may not exceed 1 in 200, the staff being held vertical and the instrument fitted with
an anallactic lens. [Ans. not greater than 4°02 41 ]

Objective-type Questions
7.1 The standard accuracy of tacheometric distance determination is
(a) 1 : 10 (b) 1 : 100 (c) 1 : 500 (d) 1 : 10.000
Tacheometry 345

7.2 If the spacing of cross-hairs in a stadia diaphragm of tacheometer is 12 mm, and


the focal length of the object glass is 24 cm, then the multiplying constant of the
tacheometer is
(a) 20 (b) 100 (c) 0.005 (d) 200
7.3 If the focal length of an object glass is 25 cm, stadia interval is 1.25 mm and the
distance from object glass to the trunnion axis is 15 cm, the additive constant is
(a) 0.1 (b) 0.4 (c) 0.2625 (d) 25.125
7.4 If the intercept on a vertical staff is observed as 0.75 m from a tacheometer, with the
line of sight horizontal, fitted with anallactic lens, the horizontal distance between
the tacheometer and the staff station is
(a) 0.75 m (b) 7.5 m (c) 75 m (d) 750 m
7.5 In Beaman stadia arc, if the V-scale reading is 45, it indicates
(a) depression
(b) elevation
(c) that the horizontal distance is 45 m
(d) that the vertical distance is 45 m
7.6 In Fergusson’s percentage unit system the circle is divided into
(a) 2 parts (b) 4 parts (c) 6 parts (d) 8 parts
7.7 The purpose of an anallactic lens in a tacheometer is to
(a) increase magnification
(b) reduce effective length of the telescope
(c) to eliminate multiplying constant
(d) make staff intercept proportional to its distance from the tacheometer
7.8 The stadia method in tacheometry is used to determine
(a) horizontal angles
(b) vertical angles
(c) horizontal distances
(d) horizontal and vertical distances
7.9 A subtense bar can be used to determine
(a) long distances of up to a km
(b) short distances of up to 200 m
(c) very short distances of up to a few centimetres
(d) very long distances of up to 100 km
7.10 Subtense bar is used for
(a) levelling
(b) measurement of horizontal distances in almost flat areas
(c) measurement of horizontal distances is undulated areas
(d) measurement of angles
7.11 If a staff is held normal to the line of sight and the angles of elevation and depression
are kept same, then the horizontal distance between the instrument station and the
staff station computed by observations will be
(a) same in both the cases
(b) greater at an angle of elevation than at an angle of depression
(c) greater at an angle of depression than at an angle of elevation
(d) unpredictable
7.12 Theodolites used for making tacheometric observations by optical wedge system are
(a) provided with stadia hair in front of the eyepiece
(b) not provided with stadia hair at all
(c) fitted with a glass wedge inside the telescope
(d) fitted with a glass wedge in front of the objective lens
346 Surveying

7.13 Tilt of the staff in stadia tacheometry increases the intercept, if it is


(a) away from the telescope and pointing downhill
(b) towards the telescope and pointing uphill
(c) away from the telescope and pointing uphill
(d) None of the above
7.14 In tangential tacheometry, an ordinary level staff is used which
(a) leans towards the instrument for inclined sight upwards
(b) leans away from the instrument for inclined sight downwards
(c) is vertical in all cases
(d) is equipped with two targets a fixed distance apart
7.15 If the vertical angles of inclined sights do not exceed 10° and non-verticality of the
staff remains within 1°, the stadia system of tacheometric observation can be made
with
(a) staff normal
(b) staff vertical
(c) staff normal as well as vertical
(d) staff horizontal
7.16 The intercept of a staff
(a) is maximum, if the staff is held truly normal to the line of sight
(b) is minimum, if the staff is held truly normal to the line of sight
(c) decreases, if the staff is tilted away from normal
(d) decreases, if the staff is tilted towards normal
7.17 A gradienter is used
(a) to set out gradients (b) to determine horizontal distances
(c) to determine vertical distances (d) for all of the above
7.18 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Mekometer is more handy as compared to a telemeter.
(b) Astigmatisers are used to convert the images of stars into thin vertical
lines.
(c) Telemeter is superior to Barr and Stroud range finders.
(d) Range finders are more precise than tacheometers.
7.19 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) On the Beaman stadia arc, zero is marked as 50 on the V-scale to avoid
confusion between elevations and depressions.
(b) On the H-scale of Beaman stadia arc, the values are interpolated.
(c) Beaman stadia arc is graduated in terms of tangents of angles as
percentage.
(d) In Fergussion’s percentage unit system, the divisions on the scale are
unequal.
7.20 Choose the incorrect statement
(a) Tacheometry is preferred over chaining on undulating grounds.
(b) Tacheometry is very suitable for preliminary location surveys.
(c) Vertical holding of staves is better than normal holding since the error on
account of improper staff holding is less.
(d) A subtense bar is used to measure short distances.
7.21 Choose the correct statement.
(a) In a Szepessy direct reading tacheometer, the middle of the three pointers is
fixed.
(b) In Jeffcott direct reading tacheometer, the intercept between the right movable
pointer and the middle fixed pointer multiplied by 100 gives the horizontal
distance.
Tacheometry 347

(c) Jeffcott direct reading tacheometer does not reduce vertical distances.
(d) In Szepessy direct reading tacheometer, the scale of tangents is divided to
0.005 and is figured at every 0.01.
7.22 Which of the following represents a correct match?
(i) Movable hair method: The intercept of the staff is kept constant and stadia
hair interval is variable.
(ii) Fixed hair method: The intercept on staff is variable and stadia hair intervals
is fixed.
(iii) Tangential method: The stadia hair are not used.
(a) Only (iii) is correct
(b) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) All three statements are correct
(d) Only (ii) and (iii) are correct
7.23 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) In the subtense method, the staff intercept is varied,
(ii) Tangential method of tacheometry is superior to the subtense method,
(iii) An anallactic lens can be provided only in external focussing telescopes.
(iv) Anallactic lens reduces the multiplying constant to zero.
(a) (i) is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (iii) is correct (d) (iii) and (iv) are correct
7.24 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Range finding is a method of obtaining vertical distance.
(ii) Telemeter is an example of a range finder.
(iii) Sextant is an example of a range finder.
(iv) Mekometer is an example of a range finder.
(a) Only (iv) is correct (b) (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) (ii) and (iii) are correct (d) (ii) and (iv) are correct
7.25 Match List-I (Instrument) with List-II (Use) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(i) Subtense bar (A) To determine difference in elevation
between points.
(ii) Sextant (B) To determine horizontal distance.
(iii) Tangent clinometer (C) To measure angles.
(iv) Range finder (C) To establish right angles.
Codes:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (B) (D) (A) (C)
(b) (A) (C) (B) (D)
(c) (B) (C) (A) (D)
(d) (A) (D) (B) (C)

Answers to Objective-type Questions


7.1 (d) 7.2 (a) 7.3 (b) 7.4 (c) 7.5 (a) 7.6 (d)
7.7 (d) 7.8 (d) 7.9 (b) 7.10 (c) 7.11 (a) 7.12 (d)
7.13 (d) 7.14 (d) 7.15 (a) 7.16 (b) 7.17 (d) 7.18 (b)
7.19 (c) 7.20 (c) 7.21 (d) 7.22 (c) 7.23 (c) 7.24 (d)
7.25 (c)
8 Plane Table
Surveying

Introduction
The plane table is an instrument used for surveying by a graphical method in
which the field work and plotting are done simultaneously. The main advantage
of plane tabling is that the topographic features to be mapped are in full view. It
is most suitable for small and medium scale-mapping (1 : 10,000 to 1 : 2,50, 000).
Because of development in aerial survey techniques, plane tabling is now not
so universally used. But being the best method of teaching the principles of
topographic survey, providing ground control for aerial survey and for preparing
a triangulation network for reconnaissance survey, plane tabling is preferred even
today and sustains its importance.
A plane table is a drawing board mounted on a tripod (Fig. 8.1). An alidade is
used to plot the directions and a clinometer to measure the elevations. Accessories
such as a plumbing fork or U-frame,
trough compass, spirit level, drawing
sheet and waterproof cover are also
required for the field work.
In using the plane table, a
drawing sheet is mounted, with
adhesives or pins, on the drawing
board. Before commencing a plane
table survey, the instrument stations
are fixed to control the entire
area. These stations may be fixed
by surveying a trigonometrical
framework, establishing a network
of control points on a pattern to suit
the scale at which plane tabling is
to be carried out. The elevations
of these points are determined by
methods described in Chapter 6. The
surveyor then starts filling in details
from any of these control points, one
by one, and traverses all the control
Plane Table Surveying 349

points. The directions of the


lines are drawn directly with
the alidade on the drawing
sheet mounted on the table to
locate the points of interest.
The elevations of the points
of observation are measured
with an Indian clinometer
or telescopic alidade. The
finished maps so produced
are called topographic maps.
The graphical method of
producing topographic maps
is known as cartographic
surveying. All the measurements made are plotted directly on the drawing sheet
instead of recording in the field book. Figure 8.2 shows a plot of rays from
ground station A to stations B and C. BAC on the ground will appear as bac on
the plane table sheet. When all the points of interest are plotted, the contour lines
are interpolated while standing at the instrument station with the lay of land in
view. The amount of details that can be portrayed depends on the scale of the
survey and the nature of the topography.
The principle used in plane table surveying is that an unknown point of interest
can be established by measuring its directions from known points.

1. The observations and plotting are done simultaneously. Hence, there is no


risk of omitting necessary details.
2. The errors and mistakes in plotting can be checked by drawing check
lines.
3. Irregular objects can be plotted accurately as the lay of land is in view.
4. It is most rapid and useful for filling in details.
5. No great skill is required.
6. It is less costly than theodolite survey.
7. It is advantageous in magnetic areas, where compass survey is not
reliable.

1. It is not suitable for work in a wet climate and in a densely wooded


country.
2. The absence of measurements (field notes) are inconvenient, if the survey
is to be replotted to some different scale.
3. It is heavy and awkward to carry and the accessories are likely to be lost.
4. It does not give very accurate results.

8.1 DeScriPTion of Plane Table


A plane table instrument, as stated above, consists of a drawing board mounted
on a tripod in a way so that the board can be levelled, rotated about a vertical
350 Surveying

axis, and clamped in any required position. It also consists of an alidade and some
accessories which are described in the following paragraphs.

8.1.1 board
The drawing board is carefully made of well-seasoned wood in a way to counteract
the effect of warping and damages from weathering. The upper surface is kept
smooth. The table at the centre of the underside, is attached to the tripod by means
of a screw and wing nut (Fig. 8.3). By means of the wing nut, the table can be
clamped in any position. Plane
tables are available in the
following different sizes. Levelling
Designation Size screw
(mm × mm)
B0 1500 × 1000 Wing nut
B1 1000 × 700
B2 700 × 500
B3 500 × 350

8.1.2 Tripod
An open frame type light tripod is usually provided. In the simplest form of
plane tables, levelling of the board is achieved by manipulating the tripod legs
and checking the horizontality of the board by means of two spirit levels fixed
at right angles to each other in a
block of wood. For a beginner it Orientation
Ball clamp screw
is rather difficult to keep the plane
table level throughout the work, Clamp
piece Socket
since even with a slight pressure
on any side of the table, the level
of the board is disturbed. In some
of the other forms of the tripod
heads, levelling screws (Fig. 8.3),
or ball-and-socket joint (Fig. 8.4) Spring Wing nut
is provided to facilitate levelling.

8.1.3 alidade
It is a wooden or brass ruler of about 50–60 cm in length. It is also known
as sight rule. Two vanes, the ‘object vane’ and the ‘sight vane’ (Fig. 8.5), are
hinged at its two ends. It is
essential that the plane of the
vanes should be perpendicular
to the underside of the alidade
while the observations are made.
These vanes should be folded
over the alidade top surface,
when not in use. The line of
sight thus provided, is parallel
Plane Table Surveying 351

to the ruling or fudicial edge of the alidade, but it is unnecessary that the line of
sight be parallel to the fudicial edge, provided the horizontal angle between the
two remains constant. A scale is attached to the bevelled fudicial edge so as to
plot distances to the scale. Owing to the limited range of inclination of the line of
sight of the simple alidade, it is inconvenient to work in the hilly country.
Where points too high or low are to be sighted, the accuracy and the range
are considerably increased by providing a telescopic alidade. With the addition
of stadia wire and a vertical graduated circle, the need of a clinometer can be
eliminated. It is preferable to use the plain alidade rather than a telescopic one,
since the former is much lighter, easier to manipulate on the table and quicker in
operation. This is true even in hilly areas where a telescopic alidade may be thought
to be particularly useful for measuring steep vertical angles, but for subsequent
details, a simple and light instrument is always preferred.

8.1.4 Trough compass


Usually it is 15 cm long (Fig. 8.6)
and is provided to plot the magnetic
meridian (N – S direction) to facilitate
orientation of the plane table in the
magnetic meridian.
Although a trough compass
is sufficiently accurate for field
surveying, it is not precise owing to a parallax arising from the difficulty of
ensuring that the eye is in the vertical plane of the needle. To overcome this
difficulty the trough compass is modified. An eyepiece and a diaphragm are placed
on one side of a tube having a magnetic needle inside. Such a compass is known
as tubular compass. The diaphragm of the tubular compass consists of a glass
plate with vertical rulings, which is in the same plane as one end of the needle.
The observer, on looking through the eyepiece, sees the end of the needle without
the parallax.

8.1.5 Spirit level


The essential condition in plane table surveying is that
the board should be level. This is usually accomplished
with a circular spirit level. It is placed on the board
in two positions mutually at right angles and the
bubble is centred in each position to make the board
horizontal.

8.1.6 Plumbing fork


It is a hairpin-shaped brass frame (Fig. 8.7) having two
arms of equal length. One end of the frame is pointed
and is kept over the drawing sheet touching the plotted
position of the instrument station. The other end of the Plumb bob
frame carries a plumb bob. The position of the plane
table is adjusted until the plumb bob hangs over the
352 Surveying

station occupied by the instrument. The use of a plumbing fork is justified only
if the scale of plotting is large, the rays being short. However, for small-scale
mapping, which is usually done with a plane table, the use of plumbing fork is
a sheer waste.

8.1.7 indian clinometer


Since a large number of points of observation are required to plot contours in
plane table survey, the direct or spirit levelling proves to be very slow and thus
an Indian pattern clinometer (Fig. 8.8) is employed. This instrument was made by
J.H. Steward.
It consists of a base plate
about 22.5 cm long, to the ends
of which two hinged vanes are
attached. These vanes can be
folded down when not in use. The
rear vane called ‘eye vane’ carries
a sight hole and the front vane
known as ‘object vane’ is graduated
in degrees on the left side of its
central slit and in natural tangents
on the right side. The extreme
range of elevation or depression
is 23°. The two vanes, when in
use, are kept vertical by means
of pivoted collapsible struts. The
front vane is fitted with a sliding
frame which carries a horizontal cross-hair and is operated by a rack-and-pinion
device. When the instrument is levelled, the eye hole of the rear vane is horizontally
opposite the zero of the scales on the front vane. Furthermore, to the base plate
is attached a level bubble, which when centred indicates that the instrument is
levelled. The bubble is centred by means of a levelling screw provided behind the
rear vane.
To use the instrument, the clinometer is placed over the levelled plane table. The
instrument is then directed towards the target and its bubble is brought to the centre
of its run by means of the levelling screw. The eye is placed at the sight hole and
the sliding frame on the front vane is moved up or down till the horizontal hair
bisects the target. The corresponding scale reading is noted. If the target distance
from the instrument is known, the elevation may be deduced. Its application in
contouring with a plane table will be discussed later in Section 9.5.
Before commencing the work with a clinometer, it should be checked if the
two vanes are truly vertical and the instrument is accurately levelled.

8.1.8 Drawing Sheet


The drawing sheet used should be of the best quality to withstand rubbing and
scrubbing. Because of humidity, unequal expansion and contraction of the sheet
may alter the scale and distort the map. It should never be rolled or folded and
Plane Table Surveying 353

should be carried flat in a portfolio. The sheet should be well stretched and held
firmly on the board to prevent any displacement of the sheet by the friction of the
alidade. For small works, the sheet may be fixed by means of ordinary drawing
pins or adhesive tape. However, the pin heads cause inconvenience and interfere
in the placing of the alidade. The perforations made by inserting pins may enlarge
during the work itself and the sheet is apt to shift. A better way is to use six screw
clamps, and if any of these get in the way of the alidade, they may be shifted.
However, the best way is to paste linen round the margins of the board and then
to mount the sheet on the board.

8.2 TemPorary aDjuSTmenTS


8.2.1 Surface of the board should be Perpendicular
to the vertical axis of the instrument
This can be achieved by placing a spirit level over the plane table and moving
the legs to make the bubble central. The table is then turned through 180°. The
spirit level is now placed at 90° to its previous position and the bubble is again
made central. The procedure is repeated and if the bubble remains central in each
position, the adjustment is correct. If a ball-and-socket arrangement is provided, the
board can be made perpendicular to the vertical axis without disturbing the legs.

8.2.2 The fudicial edge of the alidade should be a


Straight line
To check this, draw a line along the ruling edge, reverse the alidade and place it
against the ends of the line. Again draw a line which should coincide with the
previous line. If the two lines do not coincide, the edge is rubbed with sand paper
and is corrected.

8.2.3 The Two vanes should be Perpendicular to the


base of alidade
Set the alidade on the corner edge of a building or on a suspended plumb bob. Set
the alidade vanes along any of the above two. The plumb line and vane should
coincide. If they do not coincide adjust from the hinges till the vane coincides
with the plumb line.

8.3 SeTTing uP The Plane Table


It includes the following operations: (1) Centring, (2) Levelling, (3) Orientation.

8.3.1 centring
It is the operation of bringing the plotted station point exactly over the ground
station. To achieve this the pointed leg of the plumbing fork is placed against the
plotted point and the plumb bob is suspended from its other leg. Exact centring
is important for large-scale mapping only. For small-scale mapping, an error in
centring of about 30 cm is permissible.
354 Surveying

8.3.2 levelling
It is the operation of bringing the plane table in a horizontal plane. Set the plane
table at a convenient height, which is elbow level, by spreading the legs. Level
the board with the help of a spirit level.

8.3.3 orientation
It is the operation of keeping the plane table parallel to the position it occupied
at the first station. In such a condition all the lines plotted will be parallel to the
corresponding lines on the ground. If the board position is different at successive
stations, the relative positions of the plotted details will not remain the same as
the relative positions of the details on the ground. Consequently, the plotted work
of the previous stations cannot be connected to that of the successive stations. It
should be noted that during orientation the table is rotated and the plotted position
of the instrument station is also disturbed and shifts relative to the ground stations
except when the plotted point happens to lie on the vertical axis of the instrument.
The operations of orientation and centring are therefore interrelated.
Since accurate orientation is an essential condition, a compromise can be made
with centring, though within permissible limits. Whenever an exact centring is
required, for example, in large-scale surveys, repeated orientation and centring by
shifting the table are necessary. However, accurate centring will be a needless effort.
Since, usually, the distance of the instrument station from the stations to be plotted
is quite large and since a small scale is used for plotting, the error in centring is
rendered negligible. There are three methods of orienting the plane table.
The trough compass is placed on the top right corner of
the plane table in such a way that the magnetic needle points exactly towards the
N – S direction. Draw this line along the edge of the compass. Shift and set up
the plane table on the next station. Place the trough compass along the N – S line.
Rotate the table till the magnetic needle coincides with N – S line drawn previously.
This is a crude method of orientation and cannot be employed at stations where
local attraction is suspected.
This is the most accurate method of orientation. The plane
table is set on a new station and the alidade is placed against the line joining the
new station with the preceding station. The table is rotated until the line of sight
bisects the previous station.
To achieve this, let the plane table be shifted from station A to B (Fig. 8.10),
and let the line ab has been plotted with the plane table at A. Set up the table on
B, place the alidade along the plotted line ba and rotate the table until the line of
sight bisects the station A. Clamp the board. The line ba truly represents the line
BA on the ground.
The method of resection will be discussed in details in Section 8.8.

8.4 meThoDS of Plane Table Surveying


The methods of surveying with a plane table are radiation, traversing, intersection
and resection. The applicability of a particular method of surveying depends upon
Plane Table Surveying 355

the visibility between stations which are to be plotted from the instrument stations,
the possibility of obtaining the required measurements and the measurements
available to locate the instrument station itself. At each station, in addition to
drawing rays to assist in fixing further points, the surveyor will fix nearby details
by radiation. In the figures illustrating these methods, capital letters such as A, B
and C have been used to indicate the ground points and small letters such as a, b
and c are their corresponding plotted positions on the drawing sheet.

8.5 raDiaTion
In this method the instrument is setup at a station and rays are drawn to various
stations which are to be plotted. The distances are cut to a suitable scale after
actual measurements (Fig. 8.9).

Select a station O such that all the other stations A, B, C and D


are accessible and visible from O. Plot the N – S direction. Setup a plane table
at O. Place the alidade at o and successively sight stations A, B, C and D. Draw
rays from o to the stations and cut the distances oa, ob, oc and od to the chosen
scale. Join a, b, c and d.
This method is suitable only when the area to be surveyed is small
and all the stations are visible and accessible from the instrument station. The scope
of the method is increased when the distances are measured by a tacheometer. In
the field it is sometimes used to locate the details of the area in conjunction with
the method of traversing.

8.6 TraverSing
This method is similar to compass or theodolite traversing. The table is set at
each of the stations in succession. A foresight is taken to the next station and the
distance is cut to a suitably chosen scale.
356 Surveying

Set up the plane table at the initial station A (Fig. 8.10). Transfer
ground station A as a on the drawing sheet. Draw a ray aB along the fudicial edge
with the alidade pivoted against a. Cut the distance ab to the selected scale. Shift
and set up the table at B. Orient the plane table. Place the alidade at b and sight
station C. Draw a ray bC along the alidade and cut the distance bc to the selected
scale. The procedure is carried out till all the stations are traversed.

It is most suited when a narrow strip of terrain is to be surveyed,


e.g., survey of roads, railways, etc. This method can be used for traversing both
the open as well as close traverses.

8.7 inTerSecTion
In this method two stations are so selected that all the other stations to be plotted
are visible from these. The line joining these two stations is called base line. The
length of this line is measured very accurately. Rays are drawn from these stations
to the stations to be plotted. The intersection of the rays from the two stations
gives the position of the station to be plotted on the drawing sheet. Sometimes,
this method is also termed as graphical triangulation.
Let A and B be the two accessible stations (Fig. 8.11), such that A
and B can be suitably plotted. C is the station to be plotted by intersection. Place
the plane table at A. Set it up. Plot the N – S direction. Transfer ground station A
as a onto the drawing sheet. With the alidade centred at a, sight station B. Draw
a ray aB and cut ab to a suitable scale. With the alidade at a, sight C also and
draw a ray aC. Shift the table to B and set it up. Place the alidade at b and sight
C. Draw a ray bC. The intersection of the two rays gives the position of station
C as c on the plane table.
This method is very commonly used for plotting details. It is preferred
when the distance between the stations is too large, or the stations are inaccessible,
or the ground is undulating. The most suitable example is of broken boundaries
which can be very conveniently plotted by this method.
Plane Table Surveying 357

c
A a B
b Base line a b

8.8 reSecTion
It is a method of orientation employed when the table occupies a position not
yet located on the drawing sheet. Therefore, it can be defined as the process of
locating the instrument station occupied by the plane table by drawing rays from
the stations whose positions have already been plotted on the drawing sheet. The
resection of two rays will be the point representing the station to be located,
provided the orientation at the station to be plotted is correct, which is seldom
achieved. The problem can be solved by any of the methods such as resection
after orientation by back ray, by two points, or by three points. These methods
are described in the sections to follow.
This method is employed when during surveying the surveyor feels
that some important details can be plotted easily by choosing any station other than
the triangulation stations. The position of such a station is fixed on the drawing
sheet by resection.

8.9 reSecTion afTer orienTaTion by back ray


This method is very useful when one of the plotted stations is accessible from
the station to be plotted.
Let a and b be the
plotted positions of the two ground
stations A and B. Station C is to
be plotted (Fig. 8.12). Set up the
table at A, with a above A. Keep
the alidade along ab and orient the
table so that B is bisected. Pivot
the alidade at a, sight C and draw
ray aC. Shift the instrument and
set it up at C. Place the alidade
along ca and rotate the table till
it is oriented. With alidade pivoted
358 Surveying

against b, sight B and draw a back ray. The resection of this ray with the previous
ray gives the position of station C as c on the drawing sheet.

8.10 reSecTion afTer orienTaTion by Two PoinTS


The two-point problem consists of locating the position of a plane table station
on the drawing sheet by observation of two well-defined points, whose positions
have already been plotted on plan.

1. Let A and B be the two


A B
stations plotted as a and b on
the drawing sheet (Fig. 8.13).
It is required to plot station C,
where the plane tabling is to
be done.
2. Choose an arbitrary station D a a
b b1
O
such that CD is approximately c b
d1 1
parallel to AB. CAD and d1 c
D
CBD should not be very C
acute, which is the necessary
condition for good intersection
of points.
3. Set up the plane table at D. Orient it approximately by eye judgement
such that ab is parallel to AB. Clamp the table.
4. Pivot the alidade against a, sight A, and draw a back ray. Pivot the alidade
against b, sight B, and draw a back ray. The two rays intersect at d1.
5. This will not be the correct position of D as the orientation at D is not
exact.
6. Pivot the alidade against d1 and sight C. Draw a ray d1C and fix the
position of c1 by estimation.
7. Shift the table to station C. Set up the table and orient it by back sighting
at station D.
8. Pivot alidade against a, sight A and draw a back ray resecting the line
d1c1 in c.
9. Pivot the alidade at c and sight B. Draw a ray to B. If the ray passes
through the plotted point b, the orientation of the table is correct and c is
the correct position of C. Whereas, if this ray cuts the previously plotted
line d1b at some other point, say b1, then the position c is not the correct
position of C. To eliminate this error the table must be rotated by the
b1ab. To do this a ranging rod O is fixed, in line with ab1 far away
from the plane table.
10. The alidade is kept along ab1 and O is bisected.
11. The alidade is kept along ab and the table is rotated till the ranging rod
at O is bisected. It is oriented now. The table is then clamped.
12. With alidade touching a sight A and draw a back ray to C. Then, with
alidade touching b, sight B and draw a back ray to C. The resection of
these two rays gives the position of C.
Plane Table Surveying 359

8.11 reSecTion afTer orienTaTion by Three PoinTS


The three-point problem consists in locating the position of a plane table station
on the drawing sheet by means of observation of three well-defined points, whose
positions have already been plotted on plan. Let A, B, and C, be the three well-
defined points and let their plotted positions be a, b and c. It is required to fix
ground station T on plan as t. There are three methods to do this.

8.11.1 Tracing Paper or mechanical method


Setup the plane table at T. Fix a tracing paper on the plane table and
transfer approximately station T as t on tracing paper (Fig. 8.14). Pivot the alidade
against t. Sight stations A, B and C and draw rays towards each of them. Remove
the tracing paper and move it on the drawing sheet in such a way that the three
rays on the tracing paper pass through the plotted positions of the ground stations.
Prick the point t on the drawing sheet. This gives the required position of the plane
table. Remove the tracing paper. Place the alidade along ta and orient the table by
turning it until the line of sight bisects A. Keep the alidade against b and draw a
back ray. Keep the alidade such that it touches C and draw a back ray. These two
rays should pass through t. However, if a triangle of error is formed because of
careless manipulation, it can be eliminated by the trial-and-error method.

8.11.2 graphical method


There are various graphical methods to solve the three-point problem. But the most
simple and the best one is the Bessel’s solution by the inscribed quadrilateral. It
is based on the geometric principle that in any inscribed quadrilateral, the angle
made by one of the sides with one of the diagonals is equal to the angle made
by the opposite side with the other diagonal.
Set up the table at the ground station T. Place the alidade along ca
and turn the table until A is sighted (Fig. 8.15). With the alidade touching c, sight
B and draw a ray cB (cb ). Place the alidade along ac and turn the table until
C is sighted. With the alidade touching a, sight B and draw a ray aB through a
360 Surveying

intersecting the previous ray cb at d. Place the alidade along bd, and turn the table
until B is sighted. With the alidade touching a bisect A and draw a ray through a
resecting bd at t. Thus, station T is plotted as t. If the work is correct, cC must
also pass through t.

B C
A C
B

A
b d c d
b b
a b
c a b c
a
T T t T

(a) (b) (c)

8.11.3 Trial-and-error method or lehmann’s method


This method is very commonly used in field
measurements as it is very accurate. The position B
of a plane table is estimated by judgement. Let
it be t . The alidade is kept against t a and the A
table is oriented. Pivot the alidade on b and
sight B, and draw a back ray. Now, pivot the b
alidade against c and sight C, and draw a back C
ray. If the orientation is correct, the three rays c
resect at one point t, otherwise a triangle or a
error is formed (Fig. 8.16).
This triangle is reduced to a point by trial
and error. Triangle of error

While orienting the table, the farthest of


the three points should be sighted. By
doing so, the triangle of error formed will be small t
in size and can be rapidly reduced to a point.

The adjustment in
orientation is facilitated by Lehmann’s rules
for estimating the exact position of t from the
triangle of error.
1. The distance of the point t to be fixed from each of the rays aA, bB, and
cC is proportional to the respective distances of the stations A, B, and C
from the station T.
2. While looking towards the stations the point t to be fixed, will either be
to the left or to the right of each of the rays.
Plane Table Surveying 361

From the above two rules it follows that the plotted position of the instrument
station t lies within the triangle of error only when the ground station T lies
within the triangle ABC. These two rules are sufficient to reduce the triangle of
error to one point. In addition, some derivatives may be used to provide a quick
solution.
1. When T is outside the great circle ABC, t is always on the same side of
the ray drawn to the most distant station as the intersection of the other
two rays.
2. When T falls within any of the three segments of the great circle ABC,
formed by the sides of the triangle ABC, the ray towards the middle station
lies between t and the intersection of other two rays.
3. If plane table station T lies on the great circle (passing through the points
A, B and C) the correct solution is not possible, because the three rays
will always meet at a point even if the table is not oriented.

8.12 SuiTabiliTy of reSecTion


The method of resection has great practical utility. The surveyor can select a
number of necessary favourable stations for filling in details accurately, which
have not even been thought about during the selection of the control stations.
The selection of such an instrument station solely depends upon the surveyor, but
with the condition that the two or three plotted stations should be visible from it.
The three-point method is more useful than the two-point method because of the
simplicity and accuracy of the former.

8.13 STrengTh of fix


In the three-point method of orientation, the relative position of instrument station
T with respect to the three points say a, b and c has a great influence on the
accuracy with which the position of t can be determined. If the three points are
so arranged with respect to T that a circle circumscribing the three points A, B
and C pass through the instrument station T (i.e., the four points are concylic),
the position t is indeterminate. This is so because there can be an infinite number
of positions for t on the circumference of the circle passing through a, b and c.
Even with a faulty orientation, the three rays aA, bB and cC will always resect at
one point. In such a case, the method fails altogether. Therefore, the strength of a
fix may be defined as the accuracy with which the plane table position t can be
located with respect to the three plotted points.
The fix is good when T is within the triangle ABC, and particularly when it
is at the orthocentre and the middle station is much nearer than the others. On
the other hand, the fix is bad or poor when the instrument station T is near the
circumference of the circumscribing circle.

8.14 Plane Table TraverSing verSuS TheoDoliTe


TraverSing
In a theodolite traversing, the directions of the lines measured with the graduated
circle and the vernier are noted in the field book and plotting is then done in the
362 Surveying

office. On the other hand, in plane table traversing, the directions of lines are
drawn with an alidade directly on a drawing sheet in the field at the time each
object is sighted. The plane table survey saves a lot of time since only 50 – 60%
of points will be sufficient to make a contour map as compared to the theodolite
stadia survey with the same degree of accuracy. This is so because in a plane
table survey the lay of land is always in view and exact contours can be drawn
even with less number of points. But the plane table has a great disadvantage in
that it cannot be used in wet climate, whereas a theodolite can be used. Also, a
theodolite can be used to locate the points more accurately than by a plane table.
Since the plane table is quite large in size, it is not as stable as a theodolite and
often its levelling is disturbed during the work.

8.15 Plane Table Survey verSuS chain Survey


A plane table survey is suitable for small scales, usually ranging from 20 m : 1
cm to 40 m : 1 cm, whereas a chain survey is adopted for a large scale ranging
from 0.25 m : 1 cm to 0.6 m : 1 cm. The measurements and details can be made
accurately with chain survey, if the ground is relatively flat. For undulating and
rough ground, a plane table gives more accurate results. If time is less and many
details are to be located with intermediate accuracy, plane tabling may be the
choice. Above all, the plus point in plane tabling is that there is no possibility of
omitting any details as the plotted work can be compared with the actual features
on the ground during the field work itself.

8.16 SourceS of error


In general, the sources of error are the same as discussed for a transit, but a few
of them need special mention. As discussed in the development of the plane table
details, not much care is exercised in centring. The error due to inaccurate centring
may be appreciable only for large-scale plans. On the other hand, the major source
of error in small-scale plans is due to shrinkage and warping of the drawing sheet.
The table not being level, disturbed orientation during long sights, and too few
observation points, are some of the other sources of error.

8.17 error Due To inaccuraTe cenTring


Centring of a plane table is defined as that instrument configuration when the
plotted position of the station on the drawing sheet lies vertically above the
ground point. Usually after orientation, the centring is disturbed and a lot of effort
in repeated centring (by shifting) and orientation is required to achieve the two
simultaneously. For small-scale plans, it is general practice to sacrifice centring
and save the time which may be wasted in achieving the exact centring. This
necessitates an awareness of the limits of the permissible error. The error caused
by faulty centring depends upon the scale of the plan and the length of the ray
from the instrument station to the station plotted. Let A be the instrument station
and B and C are to be plotted. The incorrect plotted position of the station A is
a and actual position with accurate centring should have been a . Thus a a is the
error due to inaccurate centring (Fig. 8.17). Angle Ca B is subtended by the rays
Plane Table Surveying 363

from C and B. The angular error at B and C due to the centring error will be
aBa and aCa . Extend aa to o.

B C

b o c
b c
a
d e
a

Ba o = Baa + aBa and Ca o = Caa + aCa


Ca B = Ba o + Ca o
= Baa + Caa + aBa + aCa
= BaC + aBa + aCa
or BaC = Ca B – ( aBa + aCa )
Therefore, the angular error at a is the sum of the angles subtended at points
B and C by the error aa .
The false position of B and C will
be b and c instead of b and c, respectively. The displacements
bb = ab sin aBa = ab aBa (Since aBa is small)
and cc = ac sin aCa = ac aCa (Since aCa is small)
If the scale of plan is 1 cm = k metre, a d = a e = ek
AB AC
Also ab = ___, and ac = ___
k k
Actual displacement bb = ___( ) AB
k
AC
aBa cm and CC = ___
k ( ) aCa cm
e
___ e
___
Now, aBa = and aCa =
AB AC
e
__ e
__
Hence, bb = and cc =
k k
Taking the limit of precision in plotting as 0.025 cm:
__e = 0.025
k
364 Surveying

or __e = ___
1
k 40
k
or e = ___
40
It should be noted that the error should not exceed the scale divided by 40.
Therefore, accurate centring is not required except for short sights which are in
case of large-scale surveys.
e xample 8.1 After surveying an area with plane takle at a station it
was detected that the centring of the instrument was not done accurately. The
displacement of the plotted point at sight angles to the ray was 20 cm. The scale
used was 1 cm = 15 m. Determine the error in the plotted position of the point.
What is the significance of the error incurred?
S olution Scale is 1 cm = 15 m
1
Representative fraction, k =
1500
1
Displacement of the plotted position, e = 20 × = 0.013 cm < 0.025 m
1500
Since permissible error in plotting is 0.025 cm and the error was 0.013 cm
only, it is not significant.

Summary
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying in which field work and plotting
are done simultaneously. The advantage of this method of surveying is that since the
entire area being surveyed is in view of the surveyor, there is no possibility of omitting
any important detail. However, in poor and wet atmospheric conditions, plane table survey
can not be resorted to. Further, a lot of accessories are required which are likely to be lost
while surveying, if proper care is not taken.
The instrument, plane table, consists of a board (with drawing sheet) mounted on
a tripod. An alidade used to sight the detail and plot the lines is placed over the sheet
mounted on the table and the details plotted. The various methods, i.e., radiation, traversing,
intersection and reaction to be used depending upon the terrain are described. The two-
point and three-point problems for locating the stations are discussed along with their short
comings. The accuracy of fixing the plane table position has been discussed with regards
to centring and orientation. These two processes, centring and orientation, influence each
other and one of these has to be sacrificed.

Exercises
8.1 State the advantages and disadvantages of plane tabling.
8.2 What are the various methods of plane tabling? What is the permissible error in
centring of a plane table?
8.3 What are the various methods of resection? Explain resection by back sighting.
8.4 State the three-point problem. Explain how is it solved by the graphical method.
8.5 State the two-point problem. How is it solved?
8.6 Tabulate the advantages and disadvantages and one practical use of each of the three
methods of orienting a plane table.
Plane Table Surveying 365

8.7 Compare a plane table traverse with a transit stadia traverse.


8.8 Compare the radiation and intersection methods of plane table surveying and give
an example of the most desirable application of each.
8.9 What are the factors upon which accurate orientation of a plane table depends?
8.10 A plane table is set inside the triangle formed by three known points. Show how
the position of the table is located by Lehmann’s rule? In this method, what is the
strongest location of the table?
8.11 State the factors influencing the size of the triangle of error.
8.12 In setting up the plane table at a station P, the corresponding plotted point p was
not accurately centered over P. If the displacement of P was 10 cm in a direction
at right angles to the ray, determine the displacement of the point from it’s true
position on the plan if scale of the plot was 1 cm = 1 m. [Ans. 1 mm]

Objective-type Questions
8.1 During orientation of a plane table
(a) the farthest point is sighted (b) the nearest point is sighted
(c) Either (a) or (b) (d) the previous station is sighted
8.2 A mosque is situated on the far side of a river and is inaccessible. It can be located
by
(a) radiation (b) traversing (c) intersection (d) resection
8.3 Accurate centring in plane table surveys is necessary for
(a) small-scale maps (b) large-scale maps
(c) filling in details
(d) to solve triangle of error rapidly
8.4 The three-point problem fails when an instrument station lies
(a) on the great circle
(b) in any of the segments formed by the great triangle and great circle
(c) on the orthocentre of the great triangle
(d) Both (b) and (c)
8.5 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Centring and orientation are interrelated in a plane table survey.
(b) Exact centring of plane table is essential for a large-scale map.
(c) Centring of plane table cannot be sacrificed at the cost of orientation for a
small-scale map.
(d) Plane table survey is most suited for filling in details if the country is open
with good intervisibility.
8.6 Choose the correct statement.
(a) U-frame is used for orienting the plane table.
(b) The drawing sheet used in plotting a plane table survey needs no special care
in fixing on the board.
(c) An alidade is also called a sight rule.
(d) A simple alidade and Indian pattern clinometer serve the same purpose.
8.7 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Irregular objects can be plotted accurately by plane table survey.
(b) The absence of field notes is inconvenient, if the plane table survey is to be
replotted to some other scale.
(c) Orientation means keeping the plane table at successive stations parallel to
the position it occupied at the first station.
(d) The method of radiation in plane tabling is most suited for a built-up area.
366 Surveying

8.8 If the plotted position of an instrument station is not known, the most accurate
orientation of the plane table can be achieved by
(a) a trough compass
(b) backsighting
(c) observations of two well-defined points
(d) observations of three well-defined points
8.9 The most accurate method of orientation by the three-point method of plane tabling
is the
(a) tracing paper method (b) graphical method
(c) trial-and-error method (d) Both (a) and (b)
8.10 It is necessary to go to one of the plotted stations in the method of resection
(a) by trough compass (b) by a back ray
(c) by both (a) and (b) (d) by three points
8.11 Lehmann’s rule states that while looking towards the station, the plane table location
to be fixed is always to the
(a) left of each of the rays
(b) right of each of the rays
(c) left or right of the ray to the most distant station
(d) left or right of each of the rays
8.12 The major source of error is small-scale mapping by plane table is due to
(a) inaccurate centring (b) long sight
(c) shrinkage of drawing sheet (d) few observations.
8.13 Select the correct statement(s).
(i) In plane tabling, checks can be applied to the work in the office.
(ii) Plane table survey is best for temperate countries.
(iii) Accurate centring of the plane table is necessary for a large-scale survey.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) Both (ii) and (iii) are correct
8.14 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) Plane tabling for filling in details is most suited to built-up areas.
(ii) Plane table survey is most suited to equatorial countries.
(iii) In plane tabling, strength of fix means the true clamping of the plane table
board.
(iv) Exact orientation is more important in plane tabling than accurate centring
for small-scale maps.
(a) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (b) Both (ii) and (iv) are correct
(c) Only (iv) is correct (d) Both (iii) and (iv) are correct.
8.15 Choose the correct statement(s).
(i) A plane table is more stable than a theodolite.
(ii) A plane table can be used to locate the points more accurately than by a
theodolite.
(iii) Contour maps can be prepared in less time by a plane table than by theodolite
stadia method.
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Only (iii) is correct (d) Both (ii) and (iii) are correct
8.16 Match List-I (Methods) with List-II (Procedures) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(i) Traversing (A) Rays are drawn to locate the station
on which the tabel is set up.
Plane Table Surveying 367

(ii) Resection (B) At least two rays are drawn from two different
stations to the details to be located.
(iii) Intersection (C) Rays are drawn in the direction of details
through the station point on which the table
is set up.
(iv) Radiation (D) Rays are drawn on the map by setting up the
table over each of the stations towards the
subsequent station.
Codes
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (D) (C) (B) (A)
(b) (B) (A) (D) (C)
(c) (D) (A) (B) (C)
(d) (B) (C) (D) (A)
8.17 Plane table is most suitable instrument for surveying of
(i) small scale survey.
(ii) medium scale survey.
(iii) large scale survey.
Of these
(a) (i) is correct (b) (ii) is correct
(c) (i) and (ii) both are correct (d) (iii) is correct
8.18 Consider the following in plane table surveying:
(i) Alidade
(ii) Trough compass
(iii) Indian clinometer
The fudicial edge is related to
(a) (i) only (b) (ii) only
(c) Both (i) and (ii) (d) Both (i) and (iii)
8.19 In plane table survey of small extent, the accuracy of the plotted work can be
increased by the use of a tachometer in which of the following method?
(a) Radiation (b) Traversing
(c) Intersection (d) Resection
8.20 For survey of broken boundaries with a plane table most appropriate method will
be
(a) open traversing (b) intersection
(c) radiation (d) resection

Answers to Objective-type Questions


8.1 (d) 8.2 (c) 8.3 (b) 8.4 (a) 8.5 (c) 8.6 (c)
8.7 (d) 8.8 (d) 8.9 (c) 8.10 (b) 8.11 (d) 8.12 (a)
8.13 (d) 8.14 (c) 8.15 (c) 8.16 (c) 8.17 (c) 8.18 (d)
8.19 (b) 8.20 (b)
9 Contouring

Introduction
The relative position of points in plan are represented by a map. The value of a
map is enhanced if the relief, or variation in the elevation of earth’s surface, is
also included along with their relative positions in plan. There are two methods
by which the conformation of the ground may be presented on a map. One way
is by delineating the surface slopes by hachures, shading, etc., intended to give an
impression of relative relief. The relative elevations of the points are not indicated
in such a case. To a layman, this method of portraying relief is very simple and
legible and is very commonly used for geographical mapping. The other way,
which is usually employed in plans for engineering purposes, is plotting the contour
lines (imaginary line passing through points of equal elevations) on maps. These
lines are so arranged that the form of the earth’s surface can be portrayed with
greater accuracy and thoroughness, and can readily be interpreted. Practically, all
the surveying instruments may be used to an advantage at one time or another to
obtain the relative elevation of the points and, therefore, one should be conversant
with the various instruments required and the methods of vertical as well as
horizontal measurements explained in the previous chapters.
Contours are used by engineers in a variety of ways. Some of the engineering
uses of contours are the following:
1. With the help of a contour map, proper and precise location of engineering
works such as roads, canals, etc., can be decided.
2. In location of water supply, water distribution and to solve the problems
of stream pollution, etc.
3. Planning and designing of dams, reservoirs, aqueducts, transmission lines,
etc.,
4. To select sites for new industrial plants.
5. To ascertain the intervisibility of stations.
6. To ascertain the profile of the country along any direction.
7. To estimate the quantity of cutting, filling and the capacity of reservoirs.
Contouring 369

9.1 Definitions
9.1.1 Contour
A contour may be defined as an imaginary line passing through points of equal
elevation. Thus, contour lines on a plan illustrate the conformation of the ground.
A contour line may also be defined as the intersection of a level surface with the
surface of the earth. When the contours are drawn underwater, they are termed
as submarine contours, fathoms or bathymetric curves. Usually the contours are
not visible on the grounds excepts in the case of shorelines. The best method of
representation of features such as hills, depressions, undulations, etc., on a two-
dimensional paper is by contours. Contour lines are usually drawn free hand with
breaks in the drawn contours for placing the numbers representing the elevations.
A contour representation along with the ground profile is shown in Fig. 9.1. From
the contour representation of Fig. 9.1, it is evident that steeper the slopes of the
surface the more crowded are its contour lines. Hence, contour lines are usually
found spaced on a map or plan with different densities.

650

600
Ground
Profile

650

600

9.1.2 Contour interval


The vertical distance between consecutive contours is termed as contour interval.
It is desirable to have a constant contour interval throughout the map. However,
in special cases, a variable contour interval may also be provided. For example, in
India, the high mountain region along the northern frontiers had to be contoured
for some parts at double the normal contour interval owing to excessive average
steepness. A variable contour interval is, as far as possible avoided since it gives
a false impression of the relative steepness of the ground in different parts of the
map. Usually contour intervals are taken as 1 to 15 m. The smaller the contour
interval, the more precisely the terrain relief is delineated on the plan. The contour
interval depends upon the following factors:
370 Surveying

Contour interval is inversely proportional to the scale of


the map. For a topographical map, the interval may range as shown below:
Ground Large scale Intermediate scale Small scale
surface (1 cm = 1 – 10 m) (1 cm = 10 – 100 m) (1 cm = 100 m onwards)
Flat 0.2 – 0.5 m 0.5 – 1.0 m 1.0 – 3.0 m
Rolling 0.5 – 1.0 m 0.5 – 1.5 m 2.0 – 5.0 m
Hilly 1.0 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 3.0 m 5.0 – 15 m
For topographical maps, a general rule is
25
Contour interval = ___________________ m
number of cm per km
Contour interval is kept large up to 2.0 m for projects
such as highways and railways, whereas it is kept as small as 0.5 m for measurement
of earth works, building sites, dams, etc. For a city survey, a contour interval of
0.5 m may be adopted, and for more extended surveys such as a geological survey,
a contour interval of usually 6 – 15 m is adopted.
For town planning schemes with a scale of 1 cm = 15 – 100 m, the interval may
be taken as 0.5 – 2 m. For a location survey on a scale of 1 cm = 50 – 200 m,
it may be 2 – 3 m.
Contour interval varies with the topography of the
area. It is large for steep grounds and small for flat grounds.
Contour interval is kept large when time is less.
Contour interval is kept large when funds are short and limited.

9.1.3 Horizontal equivalent


The horizontal distance between consecutive contours is termed as horizontal
equivalent. It is not a constant value and varies from point to point depending
upon the steepness of the ground. Steeper the ground, lesser is the horizontal
equivalent. The horizontal equivalent between two points can be estimated by
dividing the contour interval with the gradient between the points of interest. For
example, if contour interval = 1 m, gradient = 1 in 20, the horizontal equivalent
= 1/(1/20) = 20 m.
Figure 9.2 depicts contour lines in the plan of the truncated cone section at
points A, B, C and so on. The relative heights of B over A, C over B, etc., in the
section represent the vertical intervals, whilst on the plan the distances B from A,
C from B, etc., are the horizontal equivalents.
Figure 9.3 depicts contour lines on a plan from a section of irregularity. The
contours will occur in smaller horizontal distances, in proportion to the steepness
of the ground. Convexity or concavity of the slope can also be ascertained from the
contour representation, e.g., AA shows the concavity and BB shows convexity.

9.1.4 Contour gradient


A line lying on the ground surface throughout, and maintaining a constant
inclination to the horizontal is termed as contour gradient. In the field it can be
located quickly by means of a clinometer, theodolite or a gradienter. The tracing of
Contouring 371

A B

A B

Section

A A B B

contour gradients is a common field operation in the location of road and railway
routes over a range of hills.

9.1.5 grade Contours


The lines having equal gradient along a slope are called grade contours. The
difference in elevation of two points of grade contours divided by the distance
between them is always a constant gradient. Figure 9.4 represents a contour plan
for a valley. Suppose it is required to locate a road from P descending down to S
along the grade 1.5 in 30. Let the contour interval be 1 m. Suppose, the point of
commencement of road, i.e., the point P lies on the 12 m contour. The contour
interval is 1 m and the road is to be laid on a grade of 1.5 in 30 m. This implies
that 1.5 m vertical interval is attained in 30 m. Hence, 1 m vertical interval will be
attained in (30/1.5) 1 = 20
m. With point P as centre, 12
draw an arc of 20 m, to the P
chosen scale, on the contour 11 Q
map cutting the next contour 10 Q
in points Q and Q . PQ and R
9 R
PQ can be the possible road
S S
alignments. It is important
to note that the arc may cut
the contour in more than one
place showing that more than
one alignment is possible.
This procedure is repeated at
the other successive points
R and S.
372 Surveying

9.2 gHat traCer


This is an instrument used for locating points on a given contour gradient.

9.2.1 Construction
It consists of a hollow tube with an eye hole at one end and cross-wire at the other
end to provide a line of sight. It is attached to a sliding A-shaped bracket with a
hole for suspension (Fig. 9.5). A weight is attached to the tube. The top edge of
the weight is bevelled. When it is at zero, the line of sight is horizontal. In case
the weight is towards the observer, the line of sight is elevated, and when towards
the cross-wire, it is depressed. The scale attached to the tube gives the gradient.

Target Supporting
hole

A-frame Stand

Tube
Graduated scale

Rack Sliding weight

9.2.2 Working
The instrument is placed on a point A, with its centre above it on the line, say
AB, whose gradient is to be measured. The target is placed on the other point B,
at the same height as that of the centre of the tube. The observer sees through
the eye hole and moves the weight till the target is bisected. The corresponding
reading on the tube is noted.
In case the points are to be established along a given gradient, say 1 in 30,
from a point, say A, the instrument is kept at A with the reading on the tube as
30. The target, set at the same height as that of the centre of the tube, is directed
to move along the line of sight till it is resected. This fixes the point, say B, on
the desired gradient. The instrument is moved from A to B and the procedure is
repeated for any number of desired points.

9.3 typiCal lanD features anD tHeir Contour forms


The features of the earth’s surface are very diverse. Some of the conventional
contour representations along with land forms are depicted in Fig. 9.6 and are as
explained as follows.
Contouring 373

9.3.1 slopes
A slope may be gentle or steep. A gradient up to 1 in 2.5 (20° with horizontal)
is referred to as gentle slope (Fig. 9.6 (a)), whereas higher gradients (20° – 45°
with horizontal) are termed as steep slopes (Fig. 9.6 (b)). In the former case,
the contours are far apart, and are spaced closely in the latter case. A very steep
slope is termed as scrap. A high scrap is known as crag. When the ground bulges
outward, it is referred to as a convex slope (Fig. 9.6 (c)). The gradient at higher
levels will be gentle, but quite steep at lower levels. Thus, the contours at the
higher levels will be far apart, whereas quite close towards the ground. In case
of a concave slope (Fig. 9.6 (d)), the ground has a depression. The ground at the
lower levels is gentle but is quite steep at higher levels. Thus, the contours will
be far apart at the lower levels, but they become progressively closer with increase
in elevation.

400 500
10 200300
400
300
0
200
100

Metres Metres
400 500
300 400
300
200
200
100 100
0

0
400
40

35 250 35
0 0
30 0
0 0 25
3
200 200

Metres Metres
400 400
350 350
300 300
250 250
200 200
374 Surveying

9.3.2 High-lying forms


These are characterised by elevated grounds, for example hill, hillock and plateau.
Hills are elevated ground usually with a pointed peak. The contours of a hill
(Fig. 9.6 (e)) are a bit circular in shape with increasing contour values inwards.
Hillocks are elevated lands, quite low in height with gentle side slopes (Fig. 9.6 (f)).
A plateau is a broad relief feature which has a relatively even surface at the top
(Fig. 9.6 (g)), but is conspicuously higher than the surrounding land. It is also
known as table land. Since the top is almost flat, very few contours will be there as
compared to the sides which are often steep and thus have closely spaced contours.

700
60

65
0 650 500 700

0
55 600
550 500 0 0
400 00 50
3

Metres Metres
750
700
700
Metres 650
650
600 500 600
550 400 550
500 300 500

9.3.3 low-lying forms


The most common among the low-lying forms are ravines, valleys, etc. A ravine
is a trough like depression of the earth’s surface, elongated in one direction with
the bottom inclined towards one side (Fig. 9.6 (h)). It is a depression washed out
in the ground by the flowing water. Valley is a broad ravine with a gently sloping
bottom. Casually the shape is of Vee (Fig. 9.6 (i)). The contours run close to Vee.
In case the ground is low as compared to the surrounding land and the sides slope
105 0 50
95 10 0

10
0 00
5
10

0 9
0

0 90
90 0
0 85
85 0

Ravine represented by contours


Upper reaches Metres
Scraps
indicated 1050
by teeth 1000
950
900
850
800
Contouring 375

gently, it is referred to as a depression (Fig. 9.6 (j)). The contours will be quite
few and far apart. When the valley floor is very narrow and has steep sides on
a level terrain, it is termed as gorge (Fig. 9.6 (k)) and in mountains as canyons.
Because of the steepness of sides, the contours are crowded.

0
150
0
140
0 0 0
13 120
00

1500
11

1400 300
00
10

1
1200
200

1100
1000
300
400
500
Metres
1500
Metres 1400
500 1300
400 1200
300 1100
200 1000

9.3.4 Valley line and ridge line


The slopes of ravine intersect along a line referred to as the axis of the ravine, the
line of discharge, or a valley line in case of a valley. The counter part of a ravine
is a ridge—a convex form of terrain gradually declining in one direction. Two
ravines are usually separated by a more or less pronounced ridge (Fig. 9.6 (l)).
The line along which the slopes intersect is referred to as the axis of ridge, the
watershed or watershed line. The watershed line is usually wavy.

9.3.5 saddle
The lowest points on the watershed are known as passes. A pass is narrow low
land passing through high mountains on either sides. Sometimes this narrow low
land is cut back by the streams. This steep-sided depression is known as a col.
When the depression is broad and low, it is known as saddle (Fig. 9.6 (m)).
376 Surveying

9.3.6 spur
A part of land in form of tongue, which
juts out from a hilly area is known as spur 1500 1400
(Fig. 9.6 (n)). The contours are similar to
that of a valley, with a difference that here 1300
1200
the counter values decrease towards the 1100
1000
Vee.
Metres
9.3.7 escrapment 1500
A high land, having flat narrow top with 1400
steep (scrap) slope on one side and gentle 1300
1200
(dip) slope on the other side is known as 1100
1000
escrapment (Fig. 9.6 (o)). The contours will
be closer towards the steep side and far apart
towards the gentle side.

1000
900
800 00 00

0 00 0
10 9

50 6 70
700
0
600 80
500
Metres Metres
1000 1000
900 900
800 800
700 700
600 600
500 500

9.3.8 Cliff
These are the steep rock faces along the sea coast and may be vertical (Fig. 9.6 (p))
where the contour lines coincide with each other or an overhanging cliff (Fig. 9.6 (q)
where the contour lines intersect each other.

9.4 CHaraCteristiCs of Contour lines


Since every point on a contour line has the same elevation, a contour map with
a constant interval portrays the conformation of the ground in a characteristic
manner. A knowledge of its characteristics aid the plotting and interpretation of
the features on a map. These characteristics are listed below.
1. All the points on a contour line have the same elevation. The elevations
of the contours are indicated either by inserting the figure in a break in
the respective contour or printed close to the contour. When no value is
Contouring 377

250
200
150
100
50

Metres
250
200
150 500
100
50 400 300
0 200

present, it indicates a flat terrain. A zero metre contour line represents the
coast line.
2. Two contour lines do not intersect each other except in the cases of an
overhanging cliff (Fig. 9.6 (q)) or a cave penetrating a hillside.
3. A contour line must close onto itself, not necessarily within the limits of
a map.
4. Equally spaced contour represent a uniform slope and contours that are
well apart indicate a gentle slope.
5. A set of close contours with higher figures inside and lower figures outside
indicate a hillock, whereas in the case of depressions, lakes, etc., the higher
figures are outside and the lower figures are inside.
6. A watershed or ridge line (line joining the highest points of a series of
hills) and the thalweg or valley line (line joining the lowest points of a
valley) cross the contours at right angles.
7. Irregular contours represent uneven ground.
8. The direction of the steepest slope is along the shortest distance between
the contours. The direction of the steepest slope at a point on a contour
is, therefore, at righ angles to the contour.

9.5 metHoDs of Contouring


Contours can be drawn if the horizontal and vertical measurements of the properly
selected points are given. The field work can be executed in various ways owing
to the availability and use of a variety of instruments. Broadly, the methods can
be divided into direct and indirect ones. In the direct method of contouring, the
reduced level of various selected points on a contour line are obtained and their
positions are located. The contours are then drawn by joining these points. It is a
very accurate method but is very tedious and time consuming. Indirect methods
are those in which the points are selected at random, the positions and elevations
of which are not necessarily located on a contour line. The positions and reduced
levels of all such points are then determined. Thereafter contours are drawn by
378 Surveying

interpolation. Usually the indirect methods of contouring are preferred as they are
not that tedious and less time consuming. Though not as accurate as the direct
methods, it is a general practise to opt for indirect methods so as to increase the
number of contours rather than to consume more time and obtain fewer contours
which are difficult to interpret.

9.5.1 Direct methods


The field work in contouring consists of horizontal and vertical control. The
horizontal control for a small area can be exercised by a chain or tape and by
compass, theodolite or plane table for a large area. For vertical control either a
level and staff or a hand level may be used.
The method consists of locating a series of points on the
ground having the same elevation. To do this an instrument ground station is
selected so that it commands a view of most of the area to be surveyed. The height
of the instrument is fixed from the nearest benchmark. For a particular contour
value, the staff reading is worked out. The staff man is then directed to move right
or left along the expected contour until the required reading is observed. A series
of points having the same staff readings and thus the same elevations, are plotted
and joined by a smooth curve.
The principle used is the same as that used in the method using
a level and staff. However, this method is very rapid and is preferred for certain
works. The instruments used are a hand level, giving an indication of the horizontal
line from the eye of the observer and a level staff or a pole having a zero mark
at the height of the observer’s eye and graduated up and down from this point.
Instead of the hand level, an Abney level may also be used. When an observation
is made on the pole, the reading on it is the difference in elevation between the
foot of the observer and that of the pole. In this method, the instrument man stands
over the benchmark and the staff man is moved near to a point on the contour
which has to be plotted. As soon as the instrument man observes the required staff
reading for a particular contour, he instructs the staff man to stop and locates the
position of the point to be mapped.

9.5.2 indirect methods


This is also called coordinate method of locating contours.
The entire area is divided into squares or rectangles forming a grid (Fig. 9.7). The
elevations of the corners are then determined by spirit levelling. Thereafter levels
are interpolated. This method is very suitable for a small open area where contours
are required at a close vertical interval.
In this method a transit traverse is run. Then
suitably spaced sections are projected from traverse lines. The observations are
made in the usual manner with a level, clinometre, or theodolite at points on
these transverse lines (Fig. 9.8). The contours are then interpolated. This method
is suitable for road, railway and canal survey.
Contouring 379

101.2 104.8 108.8

103 103
98.8 108.0 98.8 108.0
100
106
102
104 108

101.9
106.7 110.5

Transverse
lines

140
Traverse
lines 135 150
145

A plane table is placed on the traverse station and an


alidade is sighted on a rod with two targets at a fixed distance apart (1 – 2 m).
The direction of the line is drawn along the ruling edge of the alidade. With a
tangent clinometre the vertical angles are read corresponding to the two targets. The
distance and elevation of the staff point is reduced by trigonometric relations. The
contours are then interpolated. The observer scales the computed distance along the
plotted line to locate the point and writes the computed elevation in such a way that
the plotted position of the point coincides with the decimal point of the elevation
value. Meanwhile the staff man selects and moves to the next point and continues
the work till sufficient observations for interpolating contours are made.
This method is particularly suitable for hilly areas and
at places where plane tabling is impractical. First of all, reconnaissance of the
area is done and a network of traverses is arranged in such a way that the entire
area can be covered. The traverse stations are so chosen that large vertical angles,
particularly for long sights, are avoided. From these traverse stations a number of
radial lines are drawn at some angular interval depending upon the nature of the
country. A tacheometer, fitted with an anallactic lens, is placed on the traverse
stations. The observations corresponding to cross-wire, stadia wires and vertical
angles are carried out on all the control stations and on the points of detail. The
elevations and distances are then calculated and from the observed data, contours
are interpolated.
380 Surveying

9.5.3 Comparison of the methods of Contouring


The direct methods are useful for large-scale maps, small contour intervals, and
when a high degree of precision is required in locating contours. Usually this
method is employed for making contour maps for small plots, particularly for the
exact location of details. In large surveys, the method can be used to its advantage
if the ground is relatively flat or has a gentle slope. In such a case there will
be only few contours and even with one setup of the instrument, the required
observations can be made rapidly.
The indirect methods find their application when the ground surface is irregular
or has a steep slope. It is most suited for hilly areas. The method of squares is
best suited for large-scale mapping, when the required degree of precision is
average. The method of cross sections is best adopted for route surveys where the
observations are required for small distances on either side of the centre line for
earthwork computations.

9.6 interpolation of Contours


The process of drawing contour lines by inferring their plan position and trend
from spot levels or from other contours with wider intervals is known as contour
interpolation. It is presumed that the intervening ground has uniform slope.

9.6.1 By estimation
This is a very crude method and is usually adopted where the ground forms are
quite regular, the scale of the map is small, and high accuracy is not required.
The positions of the contour points between the ground points are estimated and
contours are drawn through them. It is assumed that the slope between the ground
points is uniform.

9.6.2 By arithmetic Calculations


This method is used when high accuracy is required and the scale of the map is
of intermediate or large. In this method the distance between two points of known
elevations are accurately measured. Then with the help of arithmetic calculations,
the positions of the required elevation points are computed.
Let A and B be the two points with R.L. 52.60 m and 55.80 m, respectively,
and at a distance of 16.00 m apart. Let the contour interval be 1.00 m and let it be
required to locate contours between the two points A and B with values 53.00 m
and 54.00 m. The contours can be located as follows:
Difference of level between A and B = 55.80 – 52.60 = 3.20 m
Difference of level between point A and 53.00 m contour
= 53.00 – 52.60 = 0.40 m
0.40
Distance of 53.0 m contour from point A = ____ 16 = 2.00 m
3.20
Difference of level between point A and 54.00 m contour
= 54.00 – 52.60 = 1.40 m
1.40
Distance of 54.0 m contour from point A = ____ 16 = 7.00 m.
3.20
Contouring 381

9.6.3 By graphical method


When high accuracy is required and many interpolations are to be made, this
method of plotting contours proves to be the most rapid and convenient. On tracing
paper, parallel lines are drawn at some fixed interval, say 0.5 m. Every tenth line
is made thicker. Let A and B be two points of elevation at 50.50 m and 64.50 m,
respectively. The tracing paper is placed with point A on the line 50.50 m and is
turned till the point B is on line 64.50 m. The intersections of the line AB and
the lines of the required elevation point will give the position of the point on the
respective contour.

9.7 Determination of HeigHt of a point anD


slope of a line
If the point lies on a contour line its height is given
by that of the contour line. To ascertain the height of a point c lying amid two
contour lines of heights say 50 and 51 m (Fig. 9.9), draw a line ab through the
point c and at right angles to the contour lines. Then the height can be obtained
by interpolation as under.

hc bc
The length bc and ba may be scaled off from the relation, __ = ___, using
ha ba
bc
property of similar triangles. Thus hc = ___ ha, where ha = contour interval (= 1 m
ba
in the present case). The height of point c = 50 + hc.
If the distance bc is 3/4 of ba, then hc = 3/4ha = 3/4 1 = 0.75 m, and height
of point c = 50.75 m.
Let a line on the ground AB (Fig. 9.10) be at an
angle to the horizontal. The tangent of this angle is called the gradient of the
line and is given by
B
h
i = tan = __ (9.1)
d
h
Thus the gradient of a line is equal to the
ratio of the height difference h to the horizontal A
C
distance d which may be scaled off from the plan d
or map.
382 Surveying

Supposing, h = 1 m and horizontal equivalent, d = 20 m


i = 1/20 = 0.05
Assuming d = 1 we obtain i = h. Hence, gradient of a line can be regarded as
the height difference per unit horizontal distance. The gradient is positive if the
line to which it refers points upslope and is negative if the line points downslope. The
gradient i = 0.05(5%) indicates that the line on the ground rises 5 m every 100 m of the
horizontal distance.
For example, gradients of lines de and df of Fig. 9.9(a) are
Gradient of de = 1/20 = 0.05 = 5% (assuming scaled off distance de from
plan = 20 m)
Gradient of df = 1/25 = 0.04 = 4% (assuming scaled off distance df from
plan = 25 m)

9.8 Determination of tHe rate of slope


A measure of the steepness of a slope is provided by the gradient or inclination
of a line to the horizontal. The length of de (Fig. 9.9(a)) is much less than that
of df, though the vertical distance between the contour lines is the same in both
cases, i.e., 1 m. Consequently, the line de has a larger gradient than the line df.
Obviously, the shortest distance between two adjacent contour lines corresponds
to the steepest lines on the ground. In order to avoid calculation of i every time
while determining the steepness of a slope, it is usual to plot a graph on the plan
referred to as a graph of contour intervals. It enables one to determine the gradient
i given the contour interval h. Also, sometimes it is possible to plot a graph of
contour lines so that it gives steepness of a slope in terms of the angle of slope
. Therefore, we must distinguish between graphs of contour intervals giving
gradients and those giving angles of inclination to the horizontal. It must be noted
that a graph of contour intervals can only be used for a particular plan and for
a particular contour interval. This is because the contour intervals are plotted on
the graph for the scale used by that map or plan and the gradients and angles of
inclination are calculated for the contour interval shown on that map or plan.
For contour interval, h = 1 m, Eq. (9.1) gives
1
i = __ (9.2)
d
For different values of i as indicated below, the corresponding values of d (in
metres) are as follows, a plot of which is shown in Fig. 9.11(a). This graph can
be used to determine the gradients of lines.
i ... 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.70 1.0
d (m) ... 100 33.3 20 14.3 10 5 3.3 2.5 2 1.4 1
The vertical axis in Fig. 9.11(a), is divided into arbitrarily chosen intervals
and perpendicular to it are the horizontal equivalents. As an example, to find the
gradient of the line ba (Fig. 9.9), the dividers are set to ba and by transferring
it from the plan to the graph of Fig. 9.11(a), the gradient may be found which
comes to be 0.04 or 4%.
Contouring 383

t 45°
1.00 30°
0.70 20°
0.50 15°
0.40 10°
0.30

0.20
0.10 4°

0.07
0.05a 2°
b
0.03 1°
0.01 d d 0°30
(a) (b)

Substituting tan for i in Eq. (9.2),


d = cot (9.3)
Similarly, for different values of , the horizontal equivalents d are tabulated
below and are plotted in Fig. 9.11(b).

... 0°30 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 10° 15° 20° 30° 45°


d (m) ... 114.6 57.3 28.6 19.1 14.3 11.4 5.7 3.7 2.8 1.7 1.0

The horizontal equivalent of ba (scaled off) transferred from the plan to this
graph gives = 3.3°.

9.9 plotting a line of a speCifieD graDient on


a map or plan
Often, it is required to lay out a line of a specified gradient when the centre line of
a road, railway, tunnel or a pipeline, is to be located. The shortest routes may be
shown directly on the ground, on topographic plans or maps, with contour lines.
Suppose it is required to plot the shortest line from a point A (Fig. 9.12) to
the point B such that the gradient never exceeds five per cent. This means that
the positive or negative gradient of the line should not exceed 1 m for every 20
m of horizontal distance. Since the contour interval is 5 m and to observe the five
per cent requirement, the distance along the route between adjoining contour lines
should be at least 100 m. The dividers are spread to
100 m according to the map’s scale and then with one
of the divider’s point at A, the two arcs are drawn
to cross the next contour line at the two point c and
d. The procedure is repeated from these points until
an arc meets the contour line of 30 m and so on.
This operation yields two options AcB and AdB. The
direction AdB has fewer curves, and is thus shorter
and more regular. Therefore, this option is preferable
to the option AcB and can be taken as the solution
(also see Section 9.1.5).
384 Surveying

9.10 DraWing seCtion from a Contour map


A cross section shows the shape of a portion of land in outline as it would be
visible. To draw a cross section across any contour map (Fig. 9.13), first draw a
section line on the map (in the given map, AB is the section line). Now draw a
base line, below the contour map, just equal to the section line; and at each end
of the base line draw a vertical line. Then mark off along these vertical lines, the
required number of equal divisions of about 5 mm each. Through these points draw
horizontal lines parallel to the base line and number them according to the contour
intervals given in the map. Now
from the points at which the
section line cuts the contours of
the map, drop perpendiculars to
meet the horizontal lines.
Where these perpendiculars
meet the horizontal lines, put
a dot there. Join these dots
carefully by a curve. Now the
required cross section is ready.
Here, it should be kept in mind
that while making the curve, the
tops of hills and the hollows of
valleys are shown round; the
tops of plateaus are shown flat.
It is customary to exaggerate
the terrain relief by plotting the
heights using a scale that is ten
times larger than the profile’s
horizontal scale.

9.11 appliCations
Since a contour map is a three-dimensional representation of the earth’s surface,
it furnishes a lot of information. Some of the uses that a contour map can be put
to, are as follows.
From a contour map it can be ascertained
whether any two points are intervisible or not.
Let it be required to ascertain the intervisibility of two stations A and B
having elevations 62 m and 90 m, respectively, as shown on the contour map
(Fig. 9.14 (a)).
Join A and B. The difference in elevation of A and B is 28 m (90 – 62 = 28).
The line of sight will have an inclination of 28 m in the distance ab (Fig. 9.14
(b)). Draw projections to mark points of elevation of 90, 85, ...., 62 on the line
ab. Compare these points with the corresponding points in which the contours cut
the line ab. At the point e, the ground has an elevation more than 75 m, whereas
line of sight will have an elevation less than 75 m (between 75 and 70 m).
Contouring 385

It can be seen that there will be obstruction in the range CD. Similarly, checks
can be made for other points.
The extent of a drainage area may be estimated on a contour
map by locating the ridge line around the watershed. The ridge line should be
located in such a position that the ground slopes are down on either side of it. The
area is found by planimetreic measurements as explained in Section 12.6.
Reservoirs are made for water supply and for power
or irrigation projects. A contour map is very useful to study the possible location
of a dam and the volume of water to be confined. All the contours are closed
lines within the reservoir area.
The areas A1, A2, A3, ...., An between successive contour lines can be determined
by a planimetre and if h is the contour interval, the capacity of the reservoir can be
estimated by the application of either the trapezoidal or the prismoidal formula.

Volume, [
A1 + An
V = h _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An – 1
2 ] (9.3)

h
Volume, V = __ [A1 + An + 4 (A2 + A4 + + An – 1)
3
+ 2 (A3 + A5 + + An – 2)] (9.4)
386 Surveying

The most economical and suitable site for structures such


as buildings, bridges, dams, etc., can be found from large-scale contour maps.
On the contour lines of the original surface, the
contours of the desired altered surface are drawn. By joining the intersections
of the original contours and the new ones of equal value, the line in which the
new surface cuts the original is obtained. Excavation is required within this line,
whereas the surrounding parts will be in the embankment. The volume of a cut
or a fill is found by multiplying the average by the contour interval. For details
refer to Section 13.9.
By inspecting a contour map the most suitable site for a road,
railway, canal, etc., can be selected. By following the contour lines, steep gradients,
cutting and filling, etc., may be avoided.

9.12 moDern metHoDs of DepiCting relief on a map


Some of the modern methods of depicting the relief on a map, besides the routine
methods (hachuring, shading and contouring), are as follows:

9.12.1 altitude tint method


In small-scale maps, contours cannot be conveniently used to represent large
topographical features, e.g., mountains, etc., since the contour interval will be quite
large. The relief is represented by layers of different heights, each in a different
colour. A specific colour scheme for such maps proves to be very helpful. Each
shade of colour, or band, represents a definite elevation range; the exact elevations
are not represented. A legend is also prepared on the map margin to indicate the
elevation range represented by each colour. This is also known as hypsometric
tint method.

9.12.2 stereographic method


This is supposed to be the most advanced method of showing relief and was
developed by Prof. Karl Peucker of Vienna. In this method, the contours with violet
oblique plastic shading and a generous application of cliff symbols are combined
with tint, graded from greenish grey for valley to orange brown for high altitudes.

9.12.3 shaded relief


In this method, relief is indicated by a shaded effect, which is achieved by tone
and colour resulting in darkening of one side of terrain features, such as hills and
ridges. The darker the shading, steeper is the slope. The use of illumination and
shadow produces an appearance of three dimensional space or a flat surface map.
Shadows give illusion of depth. Shaded relief nowadays is also created digitally.

9.12.4 Kitiro method


In this method, an impression is created that the scene is obliquely illuminated.
This is achieved by plotting the intersection of a series of parallel, equally spaced,
inclined planes with conventional contour lines. The inclined contours obtained
Contouring 387

mathematically are used to delineate the exact intensity of light and shade on the
ground surface.

9.12.5 Horizontal form lines


In reconnaissance survey, the mountains are sketched by broken horizontal lines.
These lines run in the direction of the contour lines. These broken lines give only a
general idea of relief and are not labeled by representative elevations. In this system
of representing relief, steepness is expressed by a closer spacing of the lines.

9.12.6 morphographic method


In this method, the altitude tint method is used for representing elevations along
with the landscape, wherein pictorial symbols—as derived from airplane views—
are used. Generally, the symbols are derived from oblique views.

9.12.7 Combinations
Often the advantages of the two or more methods are combined together to
pronounce the relief. Contour lines furnish quite exact information about slope and
elevation, hachuring and plastic shading bring out visibility, altitude tints emphasise
elevations, and the form lines represent mountains. Any or all the above methods
can be combined to represent any relief in the desired way and to produce the
best possible results.

9.13 aCCuraCy
The accuracy for contouring cannot be specified in simple and definite terms. The
accuracy with which the contours fulfil their functions of portraying ground forms
depend on the slope of the ground and on the error in the height of contour. The
standard error of contours may be from one-third to one-quarter of the contour
interval.

e xample 9.1 Find a suitable contour interval on a map drawn to a scale of


1:50,000.
s olution
Scale is 1 cm = 50,000 cm
or 1 cm = 0.5 km
Hence, number of cm per km = 1/0.5 = 2.0
Contour interval = 25/2 = 12.5 m

e xample 9.2 The contour interval on a map is 12 m. If the upward gradient


of 1 in 20 is required to be drawn between two points, what will be the horizontal
equivalent.
s olution Horizontal equivalent = contour interval gradient
= 12 20 = 240 m
388 Surveying

e xample 9.3 From a topographic map, the areas enclosed by contour lines
for a proposed dam are given below. Find the volume of impounded water using
trapezoidal formula.
Contour (m) Area enclosed (hectares)
500 20
505 100
510 400
515 900
520 1100
s olution
[
A1 + An
V = h _______ + A2 + A3 + A4
2 ]
[
20 + 1100
= 5 _________ + 100 + 400 + 900
2 ] 104

= 9,800 10 4 cu. m.

Summary
Contours are the lines joining the points of equal elevation. When plotted on maps or
plans, the form of the earth’s surface can be portrayed with accuracy and can be readily
interpreted. When contour plans are available the location of engineering projects can be
decided and planned in a better way. The conventional contour representations for various
features of earth’s surface are presented. Some of the important characteristics of contours
are explained for clear understanding and to aid plotting. Various methods of plotting
contours, instruments and procedures are described. Methods for interpolating contours of
specific value are discussed. The applications of contours for specific engineering purpose
are elaborated. Some of the other methods of depicting ground relief are also presented.
Some guidelines are also presented to decide the contour interval to help the beginner in
the professional life.

Exercises
9.1 Define a contour. State the various characteristics of contour lines.
9.2 Discuss in detail, the methods of direct and indirect contouring.
9.3 What are the various methods of interpolating contours? State the suitability of each
one of them.
9.4 Write a short note on the uses of contour maps for engineering purposes.
9.5 The area within the contour lines at the site of a reservoir and the face of a proposed
dam are as follows:
Contour (m) Area (m2)
300 620
302 8 400
304 60 240
306 90 510
308 100 200
(contd.)
Contouring 389

310 301 500


312 70 300
314 450 500
316 527 280
Taking 300 m as the bottom level of the reservoir and 314 m as the water level,
find the volume of water in the reservoir. [Ans. 1 713 420 m3]
9.6 On the contour map (Fig. 9.15) given below, show the following features:
(a) Spur (b) Cliff (c) Saddle (d) Valley

N
400

600
500

0
40
600
500

300

10
0
0
Scale: 1: 100,000

9.7 On the contour map (Fig. 9.16) given below, show the relief features.
(a) Spur (b) Cliff (c) Saddle (d) Steep slope
(e) An isolated hill

N
400
0

0
40

20 0
3 00 10
0
30
400
500

0
30

0
40 00
3
0
10

Scale: 1: 200,000
390 Surveying

Objective-type Questions
9.1 At what angle does a ridge line intersect contours?
(a) 90° (b) 45° (c) 30° (d) 0°
9.2 For mountainous region, a suitable contour interval may be
(a) 0.2 m (b) 2 m (c) 20 m (d) 200 m
9.3 The direction of steepest slope on a contour is
(a) along the contour (b) at right angles to the contour
(c) at 45° to the contour (d) at 30° to the contour
9.4 The method usually adopted to contour a rough country where ordinary levelling is
tedious and chaining is slow and inaccurate is
(a) spirit levelling (b) differential levelling
(c) plane tabling (d) tacheometry
9.5 The lines joining the points of equal elevation on the surface of the earth are known
as
(a) isohytes (b) isogonics (c) agonics (d) contours
9.6 A series of closed contours on a map indicates
(a) a close traverse (b) a depression
(c) a summit (d) Either (b) or (c)
9.7 Pick out the incorrect statement.
(a) The contour interval depends upon the time available.
(b) Contours can be drawn underwater.
(c) Usually the contour interval is kept constant, but a variable interval may be
used if required.
(d) A ground of contours with higher figures inside indicates a depression.
9.8 The relief of the earth’s surface can be represented by
(a) hachures (b) shading (c) contours (d) all of these.
9.9 On geographical maps, the relief of the earth’s surface is usually portrayed by
(a) contours (b) isohytes
(c) shading and hachures (d) kitiro method
9.10 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Contour maps cannot be used to ascertain the intervisibility of points.
(b) Contours drawn underwater are known as aqueous contours.
(c) Contour interval may be located in the field by a gradienter.
(d) Contour interval is inversely proportional to the square of the scale of a
map.
9.11 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Two contour lines intersect in the case of a vertical cliff.
(b) A watershed crosses the contours at right angles.
(c) The direction of steepest slope is along the longest distance between the
contours.
(d) In the direct method of contouring, the contours are not interpolated.
9.12 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) A hand level is used for direct contouring.
(b) Direct contouring methods are very useful for small-scale maps.
(c) For a canal survey, the method of cross sections is most suited.
(d) In the indirect method of contouring, the contours are interpolated.
9.13 Choose the correct statement.
(a) Indirect contouring methods are useful for country with a gentle slope.
(b) Method of squares for plotting the contours is best suited for route surveys.
Contouring 391

(c) Method of coordinates is used for plotting the contours.


(d) Arithmetic method of interpolating contours is the most rapid and accurate.
9.14 Choose the correct statement.
(a) From a contour map the capacity of a reservoir cannot be estimated.
(b) While contouring steep hills, a variable contour interval may be adopted.
(c) Limitation of funds does not affect the contour interval.
(d) From a contour map, the possible location of a dam cannot be ascertained.
9.15 Choose the incorrect statement.
(a) Closely spaced contour lines indicate a gentle slope.
(b) Surface slope on a map may be indicated by short lines of various widths
known as hachures.
(c) The direction of the steepest slope on a contour map is along the normal to
the contour line.
(d) A contour line is the intersection of a level surface with the surface of the
earth.
9.16 Match List-I (Term) with List-II (Description) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(i) Contour (A) Line joining magnetic north and south
(ii) Line of collimation (B) Line joining subsidiary station on the main
line
(iii) Tie line (C) Line joining points of same elevation
(iv) Magnetic meridian (D) Line joining optical centre of the objective
lens with point of intersection of cross-wires.
Codes
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (C) (D) (B) (A)
(b) (D) (C) (B) (A)
(c) (C) (D) (A) (B)
(d) (D) (C) (A) (B)
9.17 Match List-I (Land feature) with List-II (Description) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(i) Vertical cliff (A) Contour lines of different elevations unite to
form one line
(ii) Steep slope (B) Contour lines of different elevations cross
one another
(iii) Hill (C) Contour lines are closely spaced
(iv) Overhanging cliff (D) Closed contour lines with higher values
inside them.
Codes
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(a) (D) (C) (A) (B)
(b) (A) (C) (D) (B)
(c) (A) (B) (D) (C)
(d) (D) (B) (A) (C)
9.18 Contours can be interpolated by
(i) Arithmetic method
(ii) Trigonometric method
392 Surveying

(iii) Graphical method


(iv) Magnetic meridian
Of these
(a) Only (i) and (ii) are correct (b) Only (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) Only (i) and (iii) are correct (d) All (i), (ii), and (iii) are correct
9.19 Contours can be used to determine
(i) Height of points
(ii) Slope of points
(iii) Gradients
(iv) Steepnes of slope in terms of the angle of slope
Of these
(a) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(b) Only (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) All (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) are correct
(d) Only (i), (iii), and (iv) are correct
9.20 For plotting contours which of the following method(s) are indirect methods
(i) Hand level method
(ii) Method of squares
(iii) Plane table method
(iv) Magnetic meridian
Of these
(a) Only (i) is correct
(b) Only (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) Only (i) and (iii) are correct
(d) Only (i), and (ii) are correct

Answers to Objective-type Questions


9.1 (a) 9.2 (b) 9.3 (b) 9.4 (d) 9.5 (d) 9.6 (d)
9.7 (d) 9.8 (d) 9.9 (c) 9.10 (c) 9.11 (c) 9.12 (b)
9.13 (c) 9.14 (b) 9.15 (a) 9.16 (a) 9.17 (b) 9.18 (c)
9.19 (d) 9.20 (b)
10 ToTal-sTaTion
survey

Introduction
In field survey, use of electronics-based instruments is now so widespread that
it would be difficult to imagine any contemporary site surveying without it. The
recent applications of electronics in surveying instruments have enabled surveyors
to collect and process field data much more easily and to a higher precision than
is possible using routine instruments.
A total station, also known as electronic tacheometer, is an optical instrument.
It is a combination of an electronic theodolite (Section 4.27)—for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles, an electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM)
device (Section 2.18)—for measurement of slope distances and on-board software
to convert the raw observed data to three dimensional coordinates. Thus with a total
station one may determine the actual positions (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and
elevation) of surveyed points, or the position of the instrument from known points,
in absolute terms. Further, the EDM that measures the slope distance can calculate
and display horizontal distance and difference in level. This is accomplished
with the help of microprocessor normally working concentric with the telescope
eyepiece, and is generally housed in a casting that forms part of the telescope.
Total stations are operated using a multifunction keyboard which is connected
to a microprocessor built into the instrument. The microprocessor in the total
station can not only perform a variety of mathematical operations—for example,
averaging multiple angle measurements, averaging multiple distance measurements,
calculation of rectangular coordinates, calculation of slope corrections, distances
between remote points, remote object elevations, atmospheric and instrumental
corrections—but in some cases, can also store observations directly using an
internal memory. In addition to the above facilities, the total station can interface
with data loggers or other computers, either to store survey data or to retrieve
previously prepared setting out data. The provision of a removable card of the
size of a credit card, which can be slot into the side of the total station, makes it
unique. Typically each card has 1 MB of memory, which can store or supply data
for about 10,000 points.
Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-
optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotation glass
394 Surveying

cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best-quality total stations are capable
of measuring angles down to 0.5 arc-second. The low-cost construction-grade total
stations can generally measure angles up to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave
or infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument’s optical path, and bounced off of the object to be measured. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the on-board
computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and receiving
multiple frequencies and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the
target for each frequency. Most total stations use a purpose-built glass Porro
prism as the reflector for the EDM signal and can measure distances out to a few
kilometres, but some instruments are reflectorless, and can measure distances to
any object that is reasonably light in colour, out to a few hundred metres. The
typical total station EDM can measure distances accurate to about 3 millimetres
or 1/100th of a foot.
Though a number of companies are manufacturing total stations, to acquaint
the reader, Leica TCA 1800 and Nikon C-100 total stations are shown in Plates 8
and 9. Their technical specifications are summarised in Table 10.1. However, the
features common to the majority of total stations are described as follows.

10.1 FeaTures oF ToTal sTaTion


The various features of a TCA version total station are shown in Fig. 10.1. The
total station system offers more functionality and greater flexibility for a wider
variety of survey applications. The large display is positioned under the telescope to
give the user access to much more information at a glance. The keyboard, with its
function keys, is easily understood and permits convenient input. Removable data
storage, the large battery capacity and on-board application programs ensure that
every available facility is contained in one unit. Some of the total station systems
also offer the external connection of external data loggers, computers or batteries.
The removable PCMCIA card for data storage have also been incorporated. Figure
10.2 shows the features of total station operation.
Controlling electronic total stations with remote interface devices opens a
big, new section in the world of surveying applications. Exchanging data and
configurations between instruments and computers or transferring data directly
to a data logger highly enhances the flexibility and functionality of total station
sensors. The latest total stations, as well as the previous series support a large
set of interfacing commands, to allow direct user access via serial interface.
For an example, the Leica Geo Serial Interface (GSI) is a general-purpose,
serial data interface for bidirectional communication between total stations and
computers. GSI uses a simple command structure to read/write values from/
to the sensor. Global and instrument specific word indexes (WI) are used to
specify various data types. Depending on the type of total stations used, GSI
provides a specific set of commands considering the instrument series functionality.
S. No. Item Leica TCA 1800 Nikon C-100
1. Angle measurement Reading system: Absolute, continuous, diametric Incremental encoder
Unit of reading: Degree / gon / 6400 mil / V% Degree / gon / 6400 mil
Least count: 1 / 0.1 mgon 5 or 10 (360°), 1 or 2 mgon (400G), 0.02 or 0.05 mil
Accuracy: 1 (0.3 mgon) 1 (0.3 mgon)
Tilt sensor: 4 (0.07 gon) ± 3.5
2. Distance measurement Range
With circular prism: 2500 m With single prism 700 m
With 360° reflector: 1300 m With tripple prism 1000 m
With mini prism: 1300 m
Accuracy: 1 mm + 2 ppm ± (5 + 5 ppm × D) mm (at – 10 to 50°C)
Measuring time: 3s 0.8–2.1 s
Total-station Survey

3. Ambient temperature Measuring: – 20 to 50°C – 20 to 50°C


range Storage: – 40 to 70°C – 40 to 60°C
4. Telescope Magnification: 30 × 26 ×
Clear objective operature: 42 mm 36 mm
Shortest focussing distance: 1.7 m 1.0 m
5. Level vial Sensitivity of level vial: 2 (electronic) 30 /2 mm
Sensitivity of circular level vial: 4 /2 mm 10 /2 mm

(Table 10.1 Contd.)


395
396

(Table 10.1 Contd.)

6. Optical plummet Magnification: 2× 3×


Field of view: — 5°
Focussing range: — 0.5 m to infinity
Image: Erect Erect
Accuracy: At 1.5 m instrument
height: ± 0.8 mm
7. Display LCD: 8 rows of 30 characters Dot matrix LCD
Surveying

Keyboard: Language versions loadable and 16 characters × 4 lines


switchable keyboard in both faces
8. Weight Main unit: 7.5 kg Main unit: 6 kg
9. Battery Ni – Cd, 12 V Ni – Cd, 7.2 V
Total-station Survey 397

10.1.1 angle Measurement


An electronic theodolite of a total station is used to measure angles. All the features
of electronic theodolites described in Section 4.27 are applicable to total stations.
A total station can record angles with a resolution between 1 and 20 . All the
instruments incorporate either a single-axis or a dual-axis compensator, the latter
being expensive. Since the electronic transit provides a digital read out of those
angles instead of a scale; it is both more accurate and less prone to errors arising
from interpolating between marks on the scale or from misrecording. The read
out is also continuous; so angles can be checked at any time.
The highly accurate and reliable angle-measurement system consists of a static
line-coded glass circle, which is read by a linear CCD array. A special algorithm
determines the exact position of the code lines on the array and determines the
precise measurement instantly. As the code on the glass circle is absolute and
continuous, an initialisation of the instrument is required prior to measurements.
A dual-axis compensator constantly monitors tilts of both the vertical axis and the
trunion axis. The compensator consists of an illuminated line pattern on a prism,
which is reflected twice by a liquid mirror forming the reference horizon. The
398 Surveying

reflected image of the line pattern is read by a linear CCD array and then used to
mathematically determine both tilt components. These components are then used
to immediately correct all angle measurements.

10.1.2 Distance Measurement


The electromagnetic distance measuring device, measures the distance from the
instrument to its target. The EDM sends out an infrared beam which is reflected
back to the unit, and the unit uses time measurements to calculate the distance
travelled by the beam. Generally, a total station measures a slope distance, and
the microprocessor uses the vertical angle recorded by the theodolite along the
line of sight to calculate the horizontal distance. In addition, the height distance
between the trunnion axis and the prism centre is also calculated and displayed.
All the total stations use coaxial optics in which the EDM transmitter and receiver
are combined with the theodolite telescope. Three modes are usually available for
distance measurement:
It has a resolution of 1 mm and a measurement
time of 1 to 2 s.
It has a resolution of 1 but a measurement time of
3 to 4 s. This is more accurate than the standard mode, since the instrument
refines the arithmetic mean value by making repeated measurements.
Total-station Survey 399

The distance measurement is repeated automatically


at intervals of less than 1 . Normally, this mode has a resolution of 10 mm.
The range of a total station is typically 1 to 3 km to a single prism assuming
good visibility. The precision of a typical total station is 5 mm. The distance
readings are automatically corrected for atmospheric effects such as pressure and
temperature.
In general, three distance measurement functionalities are available with the
total station system, the first being the distance measurement with a reflector
(IR-Mode), secondly the distance measurement without a reflector (RL-Mode) and
the third being the distance measurement—long range.
The IR mode EDM
transmits a visible laser beam to specular targets such as prisms or reflector
tapes. The reflected light is detected by a sensitive photo receiver and converted
into an electrical signal. After digitising and accumulating the signal, the distance
is determined by means of modern phase-measurement techniques. A modulation
frequency of 100 MHz is the time base for the high accuracy of distance. The
coaxiality and the divergence angle of the laser beam together with the automatic
target recognition (ATR), allow dynamic tracking of targets quickly and accurately
in three dimensions. In general, the accuracy with the measure time adopted for
the total station include
Standard mode 1 mm + 1.5 ppm/typical 2.4 s
Fast mode 3 mm + 1.5 ppm/typical 0.8 s
Tracking mode 3 mm + 1.5 ppm/typical < 0.15 s
Averaging mode 1 mm + 1.5 ppm
Display resolution 0.1 mm
The reflectorless
EDM transmits an accurately collimated visible red laser beam to the target. The
distance is measured by an optimally designed system analyser technique that
allows measuring targets at distances more than 400 m to 1000 m. The coaxiality
of the measurement beam and its extremely small diffraction limited spot size allow
the highest degree of pointing and measurement accuracy. The main component
of the EDM is a system analyser, which uses modulation frequencies in the range
of 100 MHz. The system analyser properties are defined for each individual
measurement for both the EDM beam and the target qualities. As a result of the
system analysis, the parameters for every individual measurement are known.
The distance is calculated using modern signal processing based on the principle
of maximum likelihood. Besides the drastically increased sensitivity which leads
to a sensational increase in reflectorless measurement range, the new EDM system
provides many other advantages such as a very high measurement quality and
reliability even when measuring in rain, frost, dust or snow. In addition, the
measurement system helps to prevent errors by detecting if there are multiple
targets within the measurement beam. The accuracy with the measure time adopted
for the total station include
0 m – 500 m 2 mm + 2 ppm/typical 3-6 s, max. 12 s
500 m 4 mm + 2 ppm/typical 3-6 s, max. 12 s
400 Surveying

Atmospheric conditions Object in shade, sky overcast


Display resolution 0.1 mm
The highly collimated red laser beam
can also be used to measure to prism targets at distances between 1000 m and
12000 m or a reflector tape at extended ranges. The visibility of the laser beam
simplifies the search of far distant reflectors, because the reflected light is even
visible at distances of more than 5000 m. The distance is measured by the same
phase measurement technique as for the infrared beam. The main module of the
lone range EDM is again a system analyser (similar to the system analyser used
for reflectorless measurements) but with a reduced frequency set between 100 MHz
and 150 MHz. The distance is calculated by an estimation method using modern
signal processing incorporating the advantages such as high measurement quality
and reliability when measuring in rain or snow and the detection of multiple targets
within the measurement beam. The accuracy with the measure time adopted for
the total station include
Entire measurement range 5 mm + 2 ppm/typical 2.5 s, max. 12 s
Display resolution 0.1 mm

10.1.3 Control Panel


The total station is activated through its control panel. It consists of a keyboard
and multiple line liquid crystal display (LCD). The LCD is moisture proof, can be
illuminated, and some LCDs incorporate contrast controls to accommodate different
viewing angles. Some of the total stations have two control panels, one on each
face of the electronic theodolite, making them easier to use. The keyboard enables
the user to select and implement different measurement modes, enables instrument
parameters to be changed and allows special software functions to be used. Some
keyboards incorporate multifunction keys to carry out specific tasks, whereas
others use keys to activate and display menu systems (similar to computers).
Most total stations include data recorders. The raw data (angles and distances)
and/or the coordinates of points sighted are recorded, along with some additional
information (usually codes to aid in relating the coordinates to the points surveyed).
The data thus recorded can be directly downloaded to a computer at a later time.
The use of a data recorder further reduces the potential for error and eliminates
the need for a person to record the data in the field.
Angles and distances are usually recorded electronically in a digital form as raw
data. If a code is entered from the keyboard to define the feature being observed,
the data can be processed much more quickly by downloading it into appropriate
software. On numeric keyboards, codes are represented by numbers, whereas
keyboards with feature codes are also available.

10.1.4 Prism for attachable eDM


With few exceptions, the EDM requires that the target be highly reflective, and a
reflecting prism is normally used as the target. The reflecting prism is a cylindrical
device 10 cm in height; at one end is a glass covering plate and at the other is a
truncated cone with a threaded extension. It is normally screwed into a target/
bracket on the top of a pole; the pointed tip of the pole is placed on the points
Total-station Survey 401

to be surveyed. The intersection of the vertices of the prism lies exactly at the
intersection of the reflector and can therefore be used directly as the target. When
using a theodolite in conjuction with an EDM for measuring over short distances,
it is recommended that the single-prism holder be used. The height difference
between the telescope’s optical axis and the infra-
red beam is corrected by the corresponding
difference at the target; therefore the cross-hair
at the centre of the reflector is to be aimed at

1000Z56
measurement. An example of single-prism holder
is shown in Fig. 10.3 by a GPH1Z/GRZ3 single-
prism holder.
The 360-degree reflector prism is also available
as an option. It allows measurements and
automatic target recognition from any direction.
Since it does not always need to be turned
towards the instrument, the reflector provides
additional comfort for a rod-man and improved
surveying efficiency. The grouping of six prisms
of the 360° reflector makes the accuracy of
horizontal measurement and that of vertical
measurement with automatic target recognition
independent of the position of the reflector. As
an example, the overall positioning accuracy of
the GRZ4 360° reflector prism is ±5 mm in
distance and ±5 mm for the angle (horizontal and
vertical). When the arrow on the upper rubberized
mount points towards the instrument and therefore
the front face of a prism points towards the EDM,
the accuracy is improved. The GRZ4 reflector is
highly recommended for topographic and stake-
out surveys. Leica circular prisms are
recommended for surveys requiring higher
accuracy than that provided by the GRZ4 prism.
Figure 10.4 shows a GRZ4 360° reflector
prism.

10.1.5 Power supply


Rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries are used for power supply. The usage time
is 2 to 10 h. Some total stations have an auto power-save feature which switches
the instrument off or puts it into some standby mode after it has not been used
for a specified time.
NiCd batteries reach their full capacity after two or three normal recharge cycles,
each of a 14-hour charge followed by a full discharge. If battery performance drops
noticeably, run one or two full cycles, i.e., charge for 14 hours and then discharge
it until the ‘Battery almost flat, change battery’ message appears.
402 Surveying

10.1.6 accessories
It is a visible light which enables a pole-mounted
prism to be set directly on the line of sight. The device flashes three colour lights.
If the prism is to the left of the line of sight, a green light flashes. If the prism is
to the right, a red light is seen. And if the prism is on line, a white light flashes,
the frequency of which doubles when it strikes the prism, confirming that the
prism is in the correct position.
It is a communication system which allows speech to be
transmitted from the instrument to the prism. This consists of a small microphone
on the control panel which is activated by pressing a key and a receiver with small
loudspeaker mounted on the prism pole.
A special form of reflector known as corner cube prism, which
is pole mounted, is used as a target. These are constructed from glass cubes or
blocks, and they return a beam along a path exactly parallel to the incident path
over a range of angles of incidence of about 20° to the normal of the front face of
the prism. As a result, the alignment is not critical and is quickly set when making
observations. Associated with all reflecting prisms is a prism constant. This is the
distance between the effective centre of the prism and the plumbing and pivot point
of the prism. The effective centre of a prism is normally well behind the physical
center or vertex. A typical prism constant value is – 30 or – 40 mm.

10.1.7 Care and Transport


When dispatching the instrument, the complete original packaging case and
cardboard box is used. If a distance-measuring device is mounted on a theodolite,
both instruments must be packed separately in their own transport case. The
distance-measuring device mounted on the telescope can cause inadmissible loads
to the tilting axis bearing during transport, resulting in misadjustments and in
damage to the bearing.
When transporting the instrument in the field, always make sure that either
the instrument is carried in its original transport case or the tripod with its legs
splayed across the shoulder is carried, keeping the attached instrument upright.
For cleaning and drying the total station system

When storing the equipment, particularly in summer and inside a vehicle, take
the storage temperature limits into account (– 40°C to + 70°C/– 40°F to + 158°F).
Data cards, cables and plugs should be kept clean and dry. Blow away any dirt
lodged in the plugs of the connecting cables. Unplugging connecting cables or
removing the card during the measurement may cause loss of data. Always switch
off the instrument before removing the cables or the card.
The reflector prisms that are cooler than the ambient temperature tend to fog. It
is not enough to simply wipe them. Keep them for some time inside your jacket
or in the vehicle to allow them to adjust to the ambient temperature.
Total-station Survey 403

If the instrument becomes wet, leave it unpacked. Wipe down, clean and dry
the instrument (at not more than 40°C/104°F). Pack up the equipment only when
it is perfectly dry.
The battery chargers are intended for indoor use only. Use a battery charger
in a dry room only, never outdoors. The batteries should be charged only at an
ambient temperature between 10°C and 30°C (50°F to 86°F). A temperature of
0°C to + 20°C (32°F to 68°F) is recommended for storing the batteries.

10.2 seTTing-uP anD orienTing a ToTal sTaTion


To start a survey work with help of a total station, it is primarily necessary to
set up the total station at the control station of which the easting and northing
are already known. The process of setting up total station consists of centring it
over the station, levelling and orientation. Since the two processes, centring and
levelling, influence each other, the process is of trial and error. The step by step
procedure for setting up is as follows.

10.2.1 Centring
The tripod is placed over the station and its three legs are spread. It is ensured
that tripod is at suitable height so that the surveyor can work conveniently when
the total station is tightened over its top.
One of its leg is placed firmly in the ground and the other two legs are moved
radially in or out so as to bring approximately centre of the total station over the
station mark. With the laser beam emitted by the total station ensure the centring has
been achieved. The laser plummet is located in the standing axis of the instrument
(Fig. 10.5). If not, slide the instrument over the tripod by loosening it, by the use
of tightening screw provided with the tripod plate to achieve exact centring.
404 Surveying

10.2.2 approximate levelling-up


The total station has to be set approximately over the ground reference point
using the optical or laser plummet primarily and then it has to be ensured that
the tripod legs are firmly placed into the ground. The total station plate has then
to be levelled using the tripod legs as shown in Fig. 10.6. Now, any one of the
three legs is moved circumferentially, keeping the other two legs fixed, to bring
the bull’s eye bubble (Fig. 10.6) central which is provided over the tribrach. In
this process, the centring will get disturbed. A number of trials may be required
to achieve levelling. The procedure is same as that of an electronic theodolite
elaborated in Section 4.27.

10.2.3 Precision levelling-up


Once the total station is approximately levelled and placed over the station point
on the tripod, the system is fine-tuned through the levelling using the electronic
bubble with the help of the foot-screws. The process is similar to that as explained
in Chapter 4 for theodolite and the steps are portrayed in Fig. 10.7.

A B

A B

C
Total-station Survey 405

Using the plummet, make sure the total station is still over the reference point.
If not, centre exactly the instrument by shifting the tribrack on the tripod plate.
Rotate the instrument through 90°, 180° and 270° to check that the total station
is perfectly levelled. In most total stations, a compensator takes care of the final
levelling up.
The process of levelling and centring are repeated until the required accuracy
is achieved.

10.2.4 orientation
After the instrument has been switched on, the instrument model and software
model are briefly displayed. The instrument carries out a system test and then
engages the main menu.
The horizontal circle can be oriented and application programs started. For this
first, the coordinates of the station point are set, and the point number of station
point is entered. The coordinates of the station is entered directly or is imported
from data file of the memory card. The station data consists of point number,
easting, northing, station height and instrument height. Orientation implies fixing
line of sight in a particular known direction w.r.t. which measurement of angles
or bearings are done.
For traversing by measurement of angles the reference point is back sighted,
and the Hz direction is set to 0° 00 00 , or a known value is entered. The total
station is ready for making the measurements of angles. The total station can also
be oriented in north direction with an attachment consisting of a magnetic needle.
This facility is available in some of the makes of total station. In others where this
arrangement is not available, the Hz direction is set to 0°00 00 for measurement of
bearing of the first survey line and traverse measurements are made. This method
of orientation is carried out with the help of on-board software and is explained
in Section 10.3.2.

10.3 on-BoarD soFTware


In addition to controlling the angle and distance functions of a total station, the
microprocessor is also programmed to perform calculations of slope corrections,
coordinates, etc., and are described below.

10.3.1 reduced levels


From the slope distance and vertical angle, the total station on-board software
calculates and displays the horizontal and vertical distances. The reduced level
of the prism station can be calculated as shown in Fig. 10.8 and subsequently
be displayed on the display screen of the total station. The reduced level of the
instrument station, the height of the instrument and the height of the prism is to
be provided at the time of measurement.
406 Surveying

10.3.2 Bearing Measurement


The horizontal circle of a total station can be set to read a known bearing by
entering the coordinates of the station occupied followed by the coordinates of the
reference station. The reference station is then sighted. The orientation program is
activated to calculate the bearing from the occupied station to the reference station
and to set the horizontal circle to display this bearing. Bearings are measured
with respect to north. For this angle HzB of the reference point, say B, of known
coordinates (Fig. 10.9) is measured. The total station is then rotated by calculated
angle V0 to set the total station to point in the north direction. The instrument’s
Total-station Survey 407

on-board software calculates and displays the angle V0 on the display screen.
The calculations performed by the on-board software are explained in Fig. 10.9.
The total station would now be ready for further coordinate measurements or for
setting out.

10.3.3 Coordinates Measurement


For determining the coordinates of new points, first the horizontal circle of a total
station is oriented. The new point is sighted and the distance and circle reading are
taken. The point measurement for coordinate calculation is explained in Fig. 10.10.
The instrument’s on-board software calculates and displays coordinates of the
new point on its display screen. The coordinate measurement program in the total
station system is to be activated before the measurement.

10.3.4 Traverse Measurements


Traversing consists of measurements of a series of distances and angles, between
successive points that enable the calculation of the coordinates of those points.

10.3.5 resection
This is also known as free stationing. Many a time some additional control points
called minor control points are fixed in surveying. The coordinates of these will
have to be entered in the total station. These points are sighted and the distances
and circle readings are measured. The total station calculates the coordinates of
these stations.
408 Surveying

10.3.6 remote elevation Measurement (reM)


This function is used to determine the heights of inaccessible points where it is
not possible to locate the prism. The measurements are taken along an extended
plumb line through the prism, and to achieve this, the prism is positioned vertically
above/below the point under consideration. The prism height is entered into the
instrument and the horizontal distance to the prism is determined. In the REM
mode, the total station will now display the height from the ground at the prism
to any point along the vertical through the prism.

10.3.7 setting out Functions


A total station can also be used for setting out if the horizontal angles and distances
or the coordinates are known. First, the horizontal circle is oriented to a reference
station. When the values of the horizontal angles and distances are known, these
are entered into the total station. The setting-out mode is activated by pressing
the appropriate key. The difference between the entered and measured horizontal
angle values (dHA) is displayed. The telescope is rotated until a difference of
zero is displayed. Following this, a pole-mounted prism is located on the line of
sight as near to the required distance as possible. After the alignment, the prism
is sighted and the distance to it is measured by the total station. The difference
between the measured and entered distances is displayed. By moving the prism,
this difference is reduced to zero to locate the point.
When the coordinates of the point to be set out are known, these coordinates
are entered into the total station after orientation. The setting-out mode is selected
and the difference between the calculated and measured bearings is displayed. The
telescope is rotated until the difference is zero, such that it points in the required
direction. After the alignment, the prism-mounted pole is used and moved in a
way similar to the previous case for horizontal distance to set out the point.

10.4 eleCTroniC DaTa reCorDing


Earlier for plotting details, surveying was done manually. Later, with the advent of
computers, the practise was to key in the data recorded in the field books into the
computer for plotting details. The need for a better method of getting information
from the field to a computer was also accentuated with the introduction of a total
station. As a result, the conventional method of recording surveys was overtaken
by developments in computer mapping and survey instrumentation which made
electronic data recording and transfer essential.

10.4.1 Data loggers


Initially, the devices used were simple data loggers. But major advances were
made when it became possible to connect small portable computers to total
stations. These intelligent data loggers could be programmed to ask the surveyor
for information, to record data from an instrument in a suitable format and, if
necessary, to perform calculations using data transmitted to them. The following
are some of the methods of recording data electronically.
Total-station Survey 409

These are dedicated to a particular instrument and can store


and process surveying observations. These are also referred to as electronic field
books. They use solid-state technology enabling them to store large amounts of
data in a device of the size of a pocket calculator.
The angle and distance readings are transmitted from the total station to a
data recorder and these are stored together with point numbers generated by the
recorder and feature codes which are entered manually on site. Observations are
normally stored as angles and distances, called raw data, but a data recorder can
convert these to three-dimensional coordinates prior to transfer to a microcomputer.
All data recorders have some resident programs to collect and process data. After
completion or during the survey, data collected is transferred from a data recorder
to a computer. For faster transmission, a compressed binary form is used. The
models GRE 4n and GRE 4a supplied by Leica have a memory capacity of 2000
data blocks.
These are hand-held computers adapted to survey data
collection. Comparing with a data logger, they offer a more flexible approach
to data collection since they can be programmed for many forms of data entry.
Storage capacity may be up to 4 MB of RAM.
These are also called memory cards which take the
form of plug-in cards onto which data is magnetically encoded by a total station.
The data logger and portable computers may be thought to be of disadvantage as
these are extra pieces of instrument which may fail in some way. So, alternatives
like memory cards have been developed. Data is transmitted to the memory card
using a non-contact magnetic coupling system which eliminates the need to attach
sockets or pins to the card. The data cards available have a memory of about 500
to 4000 suitably coded points.
A total station can be fitted with an internal memory
capable of storing 900 to 10,000 points. This enables data to be collected without
the need for a memory card or data recorder. The files can be retrieved, checked
and edited in the field using the instrument’s display.
If the total station is being used without any data recorder, the capability of
performing all survey computations—including closures and adjustments—is
highly desirable. However, if the total station is being used as part of a system (field data
collection/data processing/digital plotting) then the computational capability of the data
recorders becomes less important. The data recorder in such a case could be designed only
to record the raw data and attribute data such as point number, point type and operation
code. Computations and adjustments would then be performed by the coordinate geometry
programs available.

10.5 suMMary oF ToTal sTaTion CharaCTerisTiCs


1. Angle units degree or gon
2. Distance units ft or m
3. Pressure units in. Hg or mmHg
4. Temperature units °F or °C
5. Prism constant – 30 or – 40 mm
410 Surveying

6. Offset distance
7. Face 1 or Face 2 selection
8. Height of instrument (HI)
9. Height of reflector (HR)
10. Automatic point number incrementation
11. Point numbers and code numbers for occupied and sighted stations
12. Date and time settings

10.5.1 Capabilities of a Total station


1. Monitors battery status, signal attenuation, horizontal and vertical axes
status, collimation factors
2. Computes coordinates
3. Traverse closure and adjustment
4. Topography reductions
5. Remote object elevation
6. Distance between remote points
7. Inversing
8. Resection
9. Horizontal and vertical collimation corrections
10. Setting out
11. Vertical circle indexing
12. Records, search and review
13. On-board software
14. Transfer of data to the computer
15. Transfer of computer files to the data recorder.

10.6 FielD ProCeDures For a ToTal sTaTion in


ToPograPhiC surveys
Total stations can be used in any type of preliminary survey, control survey, or
layout survey. They are most suitable for topographic surveys in which the surveyor
can find the X, Y, Z (easting, northing, elevation) positions of a large number of
points (about 2 to 3 times of those using conventional techniques) per day.

10.6.1 initial Data entry


The initial data entry could be all or some of the following:
1. Project description
2. Data and crew
3. Temperature
4. Pressure
5. Prism constant
6. Curvature and refraction setting
7. Sea-level correction
8. Number of measurement repetitions
9. Choice of Face 1 and Face 2 positions
10. Automatic point number incrementation
11. Choice of units
Total-station Survey 411

10.6.2 survey station Descriptors


Each survey station or point must be described with respect to surveying activity,
station identification and other attribute data. Generally, the total stations prompt
the data entry and then automatically assign appropriate labels. Point description
data can be entered as alpha (for example, backsight as BS) or numeric (for
example, backsight as 20) codes.

10.6.3 survey station entries


1. Code Say 20 (BS), 30 (IS), 40 (FS)
2. Height of instrument
3. Station number (say) 110
4. Station identification code
5. Coordinates of occupied station
6. Coordinates of back sight station

10.6.4 sighted Point entries


1. Operation code
2. Height of prism
3. Station number: 120 (BS)
4. Station identification code

10.6.5 Procedure
Refer to Fig. 10.11.

1. The total station is mounted on tripod, centred and levelled. The initial
data and occupied station data are entered.
(i) When the instrument is set up and turned on it sets itself to be pointing
to zero degrees (north) when power is first supplied. The total station
is then reset to zero degree when it is actually pointing north.
(ii) If battery dies during measurements, the instrument must be reset to zero
degrees.
2. Sight at desired station, say 120; press the zero set button to set the
horizontal circle at zero.
3. Enter code 20 (BS).
412 Surveying

4. The prism is mounted on a pole of known height. The reflection point of


the prism gets aligned with the centre of the pole. Since the instrument
aims at the prism, it calculates the position of the prism and not that of
ground point. The ground point is located by subtracting the height of
the pole. This necessitates that the pole is held upright while making
observations. Measure and enter the height of the prism.
5. Press the appropriate measure buttons, e.g., slope distance, etc.
6. Press the record button after each measurement. In the automatic mode,
all the three X, Y, and Z measurements are made after pressing just one
button.
7. After the station measurements have been recorded, the data recorder on
board will prompt for the station point number (e.g., 120), and the station
identification code.
8. For next sights, repeat steps 4 – 7 using appropriate data.
9. When all the topographic details in the area of the occupied station (110)
have been recorded, the total station is moved to the next traverse station
and the process is repeated.
10. Download the data to a computer, where it is stored into a format that is
compatible with the computer program that is to process the data.
11. If the topographic data are for a closed traverse, the traverse closure is
calculated, and then all adjusted values of X, Y, Z are computed.
12. From the data stored in coordinate files, the data required for plotting by
digital plotters is assembled, and the survey can be quickly plotted at any
desired scale.
The pole is designed to be placed on the survey point in a vertical position; it
cannot be placed on a point on the face of a wall, if required, because of the
bulk of the prism, the pole, and the target to which the prism is attached. In such a case,
reflecting tape instead of the prism may be used. Alternatively, the prism may be kept
touching the wall point without its pole and target. Further, the prism is designed to work
on the pole—to give a reading to the centre of the pole rather than the back of the prism.
In this case, the prism will give a reading a little behind the backmost point of the prism
housing.

10.7 ToTal sTaTion wiTh enhanCeD CaPaBiliTies


While using a total station, the assistant places a reflector prism on the point
of interest and the surveyor sights the prism by moving the telescope. A lot of
advancements have been made to automate the total station and to reduce the
number of personals required to accomplish the measurements. Some of the recent
developments affected to the total station and its capabilities are summarised as
follows.
Total stations with motorised angle movements, called servo stations, are now
most commonly used for general surveying operations. When a servo station is able
to recognise a reflector prism itself, it is called automatic station. The automatic
stations use either radio waves or imaging technologies to recognise the target.
Since the surveyor does not need to point the target manually, the speed of the
field work is considerably increased. Moreover some modern total stations are
Total-station Survey 413

robotic allowing the operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote
control. This eliminates the need for an assistant staff member to hold the reflector
prism over the point to be measured. The operator holds the reflector himself and
controls the total station instrument from the observed points.
When these automated total stations are combined with monitoring software,
these are called monitoring stations. The monitoring stations are very useful in
systematically surveying the control points located on a monitored structure,
without an operator. For bridges, dams, tunnels, multi-storey buildings and other
structures of importance, it is crucial to monitor their positional changes over
time, observing even small movements, to indicate potential danger of structural
failure. Another functionality offered recently in the total stations is that of grid
scanning. This is accomplished by a servo station combined with a reflectorless
distance measurement device. The surveyor can program the measurement of the
points by specifying a view window area and setting the horizontal and vertical
intervals of the points to be measured. This needs only specifying optimum point
interval (grid interval) to represent the object with sufficient accuracy, rather than
aiming at each individual point. A grid scanner total station (Plate 10) is capable
of measuring 20 points per seconds. This facility of scanner in total station is of
immense value, to the safety of the structures and in prevention of loss of life,
since it can identify even a minute distressed location in a structure.
The total stations with imaging capabilities have also been developed. Such total
stations have coaxial digital camera sensors built into the telescope and are called
imaging stations (Plate 11). With an imaging station the surveyor can immediately
take a photo, write a note on touch screen and save it after measuring the point.
The photo is automatically referenced to the station point and the measured point.
It is also possible to create ortho-rectified images by taking several photographs
of the object of interest and combine them to form one single image.
Recently, total stations have become available that can integrate conventional
robotic surveying with Global Positioning System (GPS). The GPS unit is mounted
above the reflector prism in addition to the remote controller operating the total
station (Plate 12). Since both the total station and the GPS operate on the same
software, the surveyor can opt to measure points either using the total station or
the GPS. The use of GPS enhances the capability of a total station as the line
of sight is not required between points to be measured, and as compared to the
traditional total station, high precision for the measurement is enhanced especially
in the vertical axis compared with GPS. These reduce the consequences of each
technology’s disadvantages, i.e., GPS for poor accuracy in the vertical axis and
lower accuracy without long occupation periods, and total station which requires
line-of-sight observations and must be set up over a known point or with a line of
sight of two or more known points. Therefore, the instrument can be used to its
full potential; on open sites measurements can be made with GPS and in covered
areas, where the GPS fails, the work can be continued with the total station.

Summary
Recent unprecedented developments in surveying equipments have been closely associated
with advances in electronic and computer technologies. Digital theodolite for measuring
414 Surveying

horizontal and vertical angles combined with electronic distance measurement (EDM)
device with data collector and electronic field books, with interfaces to computer, printer
and plotter have resulted in total station surveying. A total station has now replaced the
traditional instruments because of the precise and accurate measurements without much
of site problems and less number of survey personals required. Moreover, the errors are
eliminated which may otherwise arise due to wrong reading and recording of data or missing
data because of use of traditional instruments. The detail of total station and the procedure
for making measurements are described.

Exercises
10.1 Describe how a total station has brought revolution in surveying.
10.2 Describe briefly the salient features of total station.
10.3 Write short notes on
(a) Retroreflector (b) Geotronics unicom
(c) Lumi-guide (d) Orientation
10.4 Write short notes on
(a) Centring (b) Approximate levelling up
(c) Measurements of coordinates
(d) Measurement of bearing with regards to total station
10.5 What on-board softwares are available in total stations? Discuss briefly.
10.6 What are the various electronic data recording devices available? Compare their
merits and demerits.
10.7 Discuss setting up and orientation of a total station.
10.8 Explain briefly, how can we perform topographic survey with a total station.
10.9 Discuss briefly about the recent advancements in total stations and their usefulness
in monitoring structures.

Objective-type Questions
10.1 LCD in the control panel of a total station stands for
(a) Light control device (b) Liquid crystal display
(c) Light centred device (d) Lasting calibrated device
10.2 EDM in a total-station measures directly
(a) vertical angles (b) horizontal angles
(c) slope distances (d) horizontal distances
10.3 A total station displays
(a) slope distances (b) horizontal distances
(c) gradients (d) contours
10.4 Geotronics union in total station is
(a) visible light device (b) communication device
(c) special reflector (d) battery system
10.5 Laser plumet in total-station is used for
(a) centring (b) levelling
(c) orientation (d) bisection of point sighted

Answers to Objective-type Questions


10.1 (b) 10.2 (c) 10.3 (b) 10.4 (b) 10.5 (a)
11 Curves

Introduction
Curves are defined as arcs, with some finite radius, provided between intersecting
straights to gradually negotiate a change in direction. For example, when two
straights of a highway or railway are at some angle to each other, a curve is
introduced between them to avoid an abrupt change in direction and to make the
vehicle move safely, smoothly and comfortably. This change in direction of the
straights may be in a horizontal or a vertical plane, resulting in the provision of
a horizontal or a vertical curve, respectively.

11.1 ClassifiCation
Curves are basically classified as horizontal or vertical curves, the former being
in the horizontal plane and the latter in the vertical plane.
The horizontal curves are further classified as simple circular, compound,
reverse, transition, combined, and broken-back curves. Vertical curves are usually
parabolic and are classified as summit and sag vertical curve. When vertical
and horizontal curves overlap, their study is simplified by considering them
separately.

11.1.1 simple Circular Curve


A curve, connecting two intersecting
straights having a constant radius all
through is known as a simple circular
curve. It is tangential to the two straights
at the joining ends. In Fig. 11.1, T1 T T2
is a simple circular curve of radius R,
joining the two straights T1 I and T2 I
intersecting at a point I.

11.1.2 Compound Curve


When two or more simple circular curves,
of different radii, turning in the same
direction join two intersecting straights,
416 Surveying

the resultant curve is known as


a compound curve. In Fig. 11.2,
T 1 T T 2 is a compound curve
with two simple circular curves
T1 T and T T2 of radii R1 and R2,
respectively. ATB is the common
tangent, and T is the common
tangent point.

11.1.3 reverse Curve


When two simple circular curves,
of equal or different radii, having
opposite direction of curvature
join together, the resultant curve
is known as a reverse curve.
In Fig. 11.3, T1TT2 is a reverse
curve, formed from the curves
T1TV and T2 TU of radii R1 and
R2, respectively, joining the two
straights T1U and T2 V. Reverse
curves are quite common in
railway yards, but are unsuitable
for modern highways. These are
also known as serpentine curve or
S-curve because of their shape.

11.1.4 transition Curve


It is a curve usually introduced
between a simple circular curve
and a straight, or between two
simple circular curves. It is also known as an easement curve. A transition curve
has a radius, gradually changing from a finite to infinite value or vice versa. It
is widely used on highways and railways, since its radius increases or decreases
in a very gradual manner. In Fig. 11.4, T1TD is the transition curve introduced
between the simple circular curve T4DD T5 and the straight T1I.

11.1.5 Combined Curve


Combined curves are a combination of simple circular curves and transition curves
and are preferred in railways and highways.

11.1.6 Broken-back Curve


In the past, sometimes, two circular curves having their centres on the same side
(Fig. 11.5) and connected with a short tangent length were used for railroad traffic.
Since these are not suitable for high speeds, they are not in use nowadays.
Curves 417

11.1.7 vertical Curve


These are curves, in a vertical plane, used to join two intersecting grade lines.
The reduced level of these curves change from point to point in a gradual and
systematic manner. A vertical summit curve is provided when a rising grade
(T1 I ) joins a falling grade (T2 I), as shown in Fig. 11.6(a), and a vertical sag
curve is provided when a falling grade (T3 I ) joins a rising grade (T4 I), as shown
in Fig. 11.6(b).

11.2 simple CirCular Curve


11.2.1 elements of simple Circular Curve
AI and BI are the two intersecting straights joined by a simple circular curve T1CT2
of radius R, as shown in Fig. 11.7. The point I is called the point of intersection
(P.I.). , the deflection angle, is the external angle between the two intersecting
straights. The internal angle, AIB ( ), is called the angle of intersection. The sum
418 Surveying

of these two angles, i.e., and is 180°. O is the centre of the circular curve.
The point T1, where the circular curve begins is known as point of curve (P.C.).
The last point of the tangent, T2 is known as point of tangency (P.T.). IT1 and IT2
are known as tangent lengths and are always equal in length. The length T1 CT2
is called the total length of curve. The middle point C of the curve is called the
apex or summit of the curve. It lies on the bisector of the angle of intersection.
The chord joining the point of curve and the point of tangency is known as long
chord. The ordinate from the apex of the curve (C) to the mid-point (D) of the
long chord is known as mid-ordinate (CD). A chord of the curve between two
consecutive regular stations (station at chain length) on it is called normal chord or
full chord. Any other chord shorter in length than this, is called subchord. Usually,
the first and the last chords of a curve are subchords. The distance between the
point of intersection I and the apex of the curve (C), i.e., IC is known as apex
Curves 419

distance. Angle T1 OT2 subtended at the centre of the curve (O) is known as central
angle. The central angle is equal to the deflection angle.

11.2.2 Designation
The curvature of a circular arc is perfectly defined by its radius. However, where
the radius is long (highways) the centre of the curve is inaccessible or remote.
In such a case the radius is of no value for surveying operations, though still
needed in certain computations; it must be replaced by a different characteristic
of the curve which is most useful. The characteristic commonly used is known as
degree of curve. A simple circular curve may, however, either be designated by
radius (in feet, metres or chains) or by degree of the curve. The former system
is adopted in UK and Australia, whereas the latter is in use in U.S.A., Canada,
France and India.
The degree of a curve can be defined either on the basis of an arc or a chord.
According to the arc definition, the degree of a curve is the central angle subtended
by an arc of 30 or 20 m length (Fig. 11.8(a)). According to the chord definition, the
degree of a curve is the central angle subtended by a chord of 30 or 20 m length
(Fig. 11.8(b)). In India, it is customary to use the arc definition for highways,
whereas the chord definition is utilised in railways.

11.2.3 relation between Degree and radius of Curve


If R is the radius of a curve and D is its degree for a 30 m arc
(Fig. 11.8(a)), then
R × D × /180° = 30
30 180°
or R = _________
D
1718.9 1719
or R = ______ _____ (11.1)
D D
420 Surveying

If D is the degree of a curve for a 20 m arc, then


R×D× /180° = 20
20 × 180°
or R = _________

1145.9 1146
or R = ______ _____ (11.2)
D D
For a 30 m chord, from triangle T1OM (Fig. 11.8 (b))
D T1M 15
sin __ = ____ = ___
2 OT1 R
15
or R = _______ (11.3)
sin D/2
D D
Since D is very small, therefore, sin __ __ . Hence,
2 2
15
R = ______________
(D/2) ( /180º)
15 2 180º
or R = ___________
D
or R = 1718.9/D 1719/D (11.4)
Similarly, for a 20 m chord, from triangle T1OM
D T1M 10
sin __ = ____ = ___
2 OT1 R
10
or R = _______ (11.5)
sin D/2
sin D D
Since D is very small, therefore, _____ __ . Hence,
2 2
10
R = ______________
(D/2) ( /180º)
10 2 180º
or R = ___________
D
1145.9 1146
or R = ______ _____ (11.6)
D D
11.2.4 formulae for elements of a simple Circular Curve
Refer to Fig. 11.7. The following important relations may be written or developed:
Let the length of the curve T1CT2 be l and let R be its
radius.
Hence, l=R
=R × ____ where is in degrees
180º
If a 30 m arc or chord definition is used, then
1719 ____ = 30
l = _____ ____
D 180º D
Curves 421

If a 20 m arc or chord definition is used, then


1146 ____ = 20
l = _____ ____
D 180º D

Tangent length, T = IT1 = IT2 = R × tan ( /2)

Long chord length, L = T1DT2 = 2T1D


From triangle OT1D
sin ( / 2) = T1D/R
or T1D = R sin ( /2)
Hence, L = 2 R sin ( / 2)

Apex distance,
2 (
IC = IO – CO = R sec __ – R = R sec __ – 1
2 )
Mid-ordinate,
2 (
O0 = CD = CO – DO = R – R cos __ = R 1 – cos __
2 )
or O0 = R vers __
2
Therefore, mid-ordinate is also known as versed sine of the curve.
The other formulae needed for computing and laying out of a simple circular
curve are developed in the section to follow.

e xample 11.1 A circular curve has a 200 m radius and 65° deflection
angle. What is its degree (i) by arc definition and (ii) by chord definition. Also
calculate:
(a) length of curve, (b) tangent length, (c) length of long chord, (d) apex
distance, and (e) mid-ordinate.
s olution (i) Arc definition
Assuming a 30 m chord length,
R × D × ____ = 30
180º
30 180 30 180
or D = ________ = ________ = 8.595°
R 200
(ii) Chord definition
Assuming a 30 m chord length,
15 D D
R = ________ (but since D is small, sin __ __ radians)
sin (D/2) 2 2
15
Hence, R = _________
D
__ ____
2 180
422 Surveying

15 2 180
or D = ____________ = 8.595°
200

(a) Length of the curve, L = R ____ = 200 × 65° × ____ = 226.89 m


180º 180º
65º
(b) Tangent length, T = R tan __ = 20 tan ___ = 127.41 m
2 2
65º
(c) Length of long chord, L = 2R sin __ = 2 × 200 sin ___ = 214.92 m
2 2

(
2 ) 65º
(
(d) Apex distance = R sec __ – 1 = 200 × sec ___ – 1 = 37.13 m
2 )
(
(e) Mid-ordinate = R 1 – cos __
2 ) = 200 × ( 1 – cos ___
2 )
65º
= 31.32 m

11.2.5 setting out a simple Circular Curve


Setting out a curve means locating various points at equal and convenient distances
along the length of a curve. The distance between any two successive points is
called peg interval. Since it is impractical to measure the peg interval along the
arc, it is measured along the chord. Also, if the chord length is less than 1/20
of the radius of the curve, the length along the chord is very nearly equal to the
length of the arc. Usual peg intervals are of 20 or 30 m, but for sharp curves it
may be reduced.
Let the chainage of the point of curve T1 be m + n (i.e., m chains + n links).
Then, the first point on the curve will be at m + 1 chains. The first chord, therefore,
will be a subchord, so as to make the first point a full station. All the other chords,
except the last one will be full chords. The last chord will be a subchord and its
length will depend upon the length of the curve and the chainage of the point of
tangency T2. For example, let the chainage of T1 be 1545.5 m; let the length of
curve be 540 m and let the peg interval be 20 m. To make the first point on the
curve a full station, a multiple of 20 m next to the chainage of 1545.5 m, i.e.,
1560 m, is selected. Therefore, length of the first subchord is 1560 – 1545.5 =
14.5 m. The remaining length of the curve = 540 – 14.5 = 525.5 m. Thus, the
number of full chords = 525.5/20 = 26.275 of which there will be 26 full chords
and a sub-chord of 5.5 m (0.275 × 20). Hence, the last subchord = 5.5 m.
The methods of setting out a simple circular curve are broadly classified as
linear and angular methods. In the former method, only a chain or a tape is
used and no angle measuring instrument is used. In the latter method, an angle
measuring instrument, such as a theodolite, with or without a chain/tape is used.
Though the angular methods are preferred since they are more accurate, they are,
nevertheless, time consuming.
Before setting out a curve in the field, the P.I., the P.C., and the point of
tangency P.T. are located. First of all, P.I. is located and a theodolite is set up
and levelled over it. The telescope is directed towards one of the straights and
is transited by 180°. The telescope is then swung towards the other straight. The
deflection angle can be noted from the horizontal scale reading of the theodolite.
The tangent length is calculated by the formula T = R tan /2. The points T1 and
Curves 423

T2 are then established at tangent length distances from the P.I. by providing line
of sights along the two straights.
The various linear
methods of setting out a simple circular
curve are
1. offsets from the long chord
2. perpendicular offsets from the
tangent
3. radial offsets from the tangent
4. successive bisection of arcs
5. offsets from the chord pro-
duced.
Let it be
required to lay a curve T1CT2 between
the two intersecting straights T1I and T2 I
(Fig. 11.9). R is the radius of the curve,
O0 the mid-ordinate, and Ox the offset at
a point P at a distance x from the mid-
point M of the long chord.
From triangle OMT1
____________
_ ____________
OM = (OT12 – MT12) = (R2 – (L/2)2)
Now, CM = OC – OM
or O0 = R – OM
__________
or O0 = R – R2 – (L/2)2
In triangle OP G
_______
OG = R2 – x2 and OM = R – O0
The required offset
PP = OG – OM
_______
Hence, PP = R2 – x2 – (R – O0)
_______
or Ox = R2 – x2 – (R – O0 ) (exact expression)
2 2 1/2
= R (1 – x /R ) – R + O0
= R (1 – x2/(2R 2) + ) – R + O0
x2
= O0 – ___ (approximate expression)
2R
By assigning different values to x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox can
be determined. The calculated offsets can be laid from the long chord and points
can be established in the field which when joined produce the required curve.
This method is suitable for small values
of the radius, length of curve and deflection angle. In Fig. 11.10, Ox is the offset
perpendicular to the tangent at a distance x from the point of curve T1.
424 Surveying

In the triangle OEP :


P O2 = OE2 + P E2
or R2 = (R – Ox)2 + x 2
or (R – Ox)2 = R 2 – x 2
______
or (R – Ox) = R2 – x2
______
or Ox = R – R2 – x2 (exact expression)
= R – (R2 – x2)1/2
= R – R (1 – x2/R 2)1/2
= R – R (1 – x 2/(2R 2) + x 4/(8R 4) + )
2 2
= R – R (1 – x /(2R )) (neglecting higher powers)
= R – R + Rx 2/(2R 2)
or Ox = x 2/2R (approximate expression)
Assigning different values to x, the corresponding values of offsets Ox can be
calculated. These calculated offsets can be laid from the tangent at known distances
x and the points can be established in the field which when joined produce the
required curve.
If the curve is drawn using the approximate expression, the resultant curve will
be a parabola instead of being circular. However, for flat curves, i.e., for curves
having very large radius as compared to length of long chord it will be circular.

Ox is the radial offset PP at any distance x along


the tangent from T1 (Fig. 11.11).
From the triangle OT1 P
OP 2 = OT 12 + T1P2
(R + Ox)2 = R 2 + x 2
Curves 425
______
R + Ox = R2 + x2
________
Ox = (R2 + x2) – R (exact expression)
= R (1 + x2/R2)1/2 – R
= R (1 + x2/(2R)2 + x4/(8R)4 + )–R
2 2
= R (1 + x /(2R ) ) – R (neglecting higher powers)
Ox = x2/2R (approximate expression)
Let T1 and T2 be the tangent points.
The long chord T1T2 is bisected at D. Mid-ordinate is equal to R (1 – cos /2).
Thus point C is established (Fig. 11.12). T1C and T2C are joined. T1C and T2C
are bisected at D1 and D2, respectively. Perpendicular offsets D1C1 and D2C2 each
will be equal to R (1 – cos /4). These offsets are set out giving points C1 and C2
on the curve. By the successive bisection of the chords T1C1, C1C, CC2 and C2T2,
more points may be obtained which when joined produce the required curve.

This is the best


method for setting out a long
curve by linear method and is
usually employed for highway
curves when a theodolite is not
available.
T 1 is the P.C. along the
tangent T1I (Fig. 11.13). T1a
is the first subchord, C1. From
the P.C., a length equal to first
subchord C1 (T1a ) is taken. The
perpendicular offset (O1) aa is
set out, thereby getting point a.
T1a is joined and produced by
distance C2 (full chord length).
426 Surveying

The second offset O2 (bb ) is set out to get point b. Points a and b are joined
and produced further by distance C3 (full chord length). The third offset O3 (cc )
is set out to get point c. The procedure is repeated till the curve is completed.
a T1a = 1 = deflection angle of the first chord
So that O1 = a a = T1a 1 = C1 1 (11.7)
T1Oa = 2 aT1a = 2 1
T1a = R × 2 1
T 1a
___ C1
or 1 = = ___
2R 2R
Putting this value of 1 in Eq. (11.7) we get
C1 C12
O1 = C1 × ___ = ___
2R 2R
For computing O2, a tangent PQ is drawn to the curve at a, and is produced
both ways.
ab = ab = C2 (length of second chord)
O2 = b b = b Q + Qb
b Q = O2
Qb = O2 (offset between the tangent and the chord)
C2 C22
O2 = C2 × 2 = C2 × ___ = ___
2R 2R
C1
O2 = C2 × 1 = C2 × ____2
2R
So that O2 = O2 + O2
C1C2 C22
= _____ + ___
2R 2R
C
= ___ (C1 + C2)
2
2R
C3
Similarly, the third offset O3 = ___ (C2 + C3 ) = cc
2R
Normally, C3 = C4 = = Cn – 1 = C (normal chord)
The last or the nth offset is given by
Cn
O n = ___ (Cn – 1 + C n )
2R
where C n is the last subchord.

1. Locate P.C. and P.T., i.e., T1 and T2.


2. Calculate the chainage of T1 by subtracting the tangent length from the
P.I. and calculate the length of the subchord so that the first peg is a full
station.
3. Calculate the length of the curve and find the length of the last
subchord.
Curves 427

4. Calculate all the offsets from O1 to O n.


5. Put the zero mark of the chain (or tape) along the tangent T1I, take a
length T1a (length of first subchord) and swing the chain such that the
arc a a = O1. The first point a on the curve is thus fixed.
6. Pull the chain along T1a produced to the point b , so that ab = C2 (normal
chord). Put the zero end of the chain at a and swing the chain with radius
ab (C2). Cut off b b equal to second offset O2. The second point b is thus
fixed.
7. Pull the chain along ab to the point c till, as discussed in step 6, the
point of tangency T2 is reached. The last point so fixed must coincide
with T2 (fixed earlier). If the error is more (> 2 m), the curve is reset. If
the error is less, it should be distributed among all the points by shifting
them parallel to the closing error by an amount proportional to the square
of the distance from the P.C., T1.
The method is good for laying out a highway curve; however, if one point is
wrongly set, all the subsequent points get affected, limiting the use of this method.

The following angular methods are commonly used for


setting out curves:
1. Rankine’s method of deflection angle (one-theodolite method)
2. Two-theodolite method
3. Tacheometric method
This method is useful for setting out
a circular curve of long length and of large radius. It yields good results except
when the chords are long as compared to the radius, so that the variation between
the length of an arc and its chord becomes considerable. It is quite accurate and is
frequently used on highways
and railways.
A deflection angle to any
point on the curve is the
angle at P.C. between the
tangent and the chord from
P.C. to that point. From the
property of a circle, this
deflection angle is equal to
half the angle subtended by
the arc at the centre.
In Fig. 11.14, T1 is the
P.C.; a, b, c, etc., are the
points on the curve; 1, 2,
3, etc., are the respective
deflection angles between
the chords and the respective
tangents at T1, a, b, etc., 1,
2, 3, etc., are the total
deflection angles to the
points a, b, c, etc.
428 Surveying

From the property of a circle that the angle subtended by a chord at the centre
is twice the angle between the tangent and the chord. Then,
T1Oa = 2 × IT1a = 2 1
Now R×2 1 = T1a = C1
C1
___
or 1 = radians
2R
C1 ____
___ 180º
or 1 = degrees
2R
C1 180º
= ___ ____ minutes
2R
C1
___
i.e., 1 = 1718.9 minutes
R
C2
___ C3
Similarly, 2 = 1718.9 minutes, 3 = 1718.9 ___ minutes
R R
For the first chord T1 a, the deflection angle 1 is its tangential angle 1. For
the second point b on the curve, the deflection angle 2 = IT1b.
Let the tangential angle for chord ab = 2, i.e., the angle between the tangent
at a and chord ab.
The angle subtended by the chord ab at T1 is aT1b = 2, so that
2 = IT1b = IT1a + aT1b
= 1+ 2= 1+ 2
Similarly, bT1c = 2,so that
3 = IT1c = IT1b + bT1c
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 2 + 3
and n= 1+ 2+ + n
= n–1+ n
Last point of the curve is T2, so that
n IT1T2 = __
=
2
Check: Sum of all the individual deflection angles is equal to half the deflection
angle of the circular curve.

1. Locate P.C. (T1), P.T. (T2) and P.I. (I).


2. Set up the theodolite exactly at T1 and make its temporary adjustments.
3. Set the vernier A to zero and bisect the P.I. Clamp the lower plate.
4. Release the upper plate and set the vernier A to read 1. The line of sight
is thus directed along T1a.
5. Hold the zero of the tape at T1, take a distance C1 (T1a) and swing the
tape with an arrow till it is bisected by the theodolite. This establishes the
first point a on the curve.
6. Set the second deflection angle 2 on the scale so that the line of sight is
set along T1b.
Curves 429

7. With the zero of the tape held at a and an arrow at the other end (chord
distance = ab), swing the tape about a, till the arrow is bisected by the
theodolite at b. This establishes the second point b on the curve.
8. The same steps are repeated till the last point T2 is reached.

This method is most convenient


when the ground is undulating,
rough and not suitable for linear
measurements. In this method,
two theodolites are used
and linear measurements are
completely eliminated. Hence,
this is the most accurate method.
It is based on the principle that
the angle between the tangent
and the chord is equal to the
angle subtended by the chord
in the opposite segment.
Thus, in Fig. 11.15,
IT1a = 1 = aT2T1 and IT1b = 2 = bT2T1

1. Set up one theodolite at P.C. (T1) and the other at P.T. (T2).
2. Set the vernier A of both the theodolites to zero.
3. Direct the theodlite at T1 towards I, and the theodolite at T2 towards T1.
4. Set an angle 1 in both the theodolites so as to direct the line of sights
towards T1a and T2a, thus the point a, the point of intersection of the two
line of sights, is established on the curve.
5. Similarly, point b is established by setting 2 in both the theodolites and
bisecting the ranging rod at b.
6. The same steps are repeated with different values of to establish more
points.
This method is expensive and time consuming, but most accurate. The various
points are established independent of each other and thus the error in establishing
a point is not transferred to the subsequent points.
This method is similar to the Rankine’s method of
deflection angles. The theodolite at T1 may be used as a tacheometer and the
tacheometric observations are made. This is a less accurate method than Rankine’s
method but the advantage is that chaining is completely dispensed with.
A point on the curve is established by feeding the deflection angle in the
tacheometer and measuring the distance of a point on the curve by placing a staff
on it.
The length of the chords joining points a, b, c, etc., to the point of curve T1
(Fig. 11.16) is given by
430 Surveying

T1a = L1 = 2R sin 1, T1b = L2 = 2R sin 2, T1c = L 3 = 2R sin 3


and T1T2 = L n = 2R sin n
= 2R sin __
2
= L (length of the long chord)
The required staff intercepts for measuring the distances are obtained from the
formula according to whether the line of sight is horizontal or inclined.

( )
f
D = _ s + ( f + d)
i
or ( )
f
D = _ s cos2 + ( f + d) cos
i

11.2.6 obstacles in laying out simple Curves

This method is used when vision is obstructed, after setting a point on the curve.
Suppose a point a has been set from the point T1, and after that it is not possible
to set the next point d and onwards due to vision being obstructed (Fig. 11.17).
Curves 431

1. The line of sight T1a is produced to C1, and a ranging rod is fixed in line
with it.
2. The theodolite is set at a, both the plates are clamped to zero and C1 is
bisected accurately.
3. The vernier plate is released and vernier A is set to 2 (the same deflection
angle 2 which was to be set from T1), so that the line of sight is
directed towards d. Distance ad is measured from a and the point d is
established.
aT1d = Fad = 2 (CF is the tangent at a)
IT1d = deflection angle for point d
= IT1a + aT1d
= 1+ 2= 2
But, C1ad = C1aF + Fad
= 1 + 2 = 2
Hence, IT1d = C1ad = 2

Let there be no obstruction up to


the second point, say b, as shown in
Fig. 11.18. The obstacle to chaining
occurs between points b and c. Set up
the theodolite at T1 and sight a point
c clear of the obstacle and measure
the angle IT1c ( 3 ). Distance T1c is
calculated from the expression T1c =
2R sin 3. In case, if chaining T1c is
not possible or inconvenient, it can be
set by tacheometry.

When the tangents are accessible


but the P.I. is inaccessible due to
some obstruction as, for instance,
the P.I. being in a water body, as
shown in Fig. 11.19, the curve may
be laid out as follows.
Two points A and B are selected
on the two tangents. These are
joined and the angles and are
measured by a theodolite. Then, the
deflection angle, = + . The length AB is measured precisely.
From triangle IAB,
AB
_________________ IA IB
= _____ = _____
sin (180° – ( + )) sin sin
432 Surveying

sin
Hence, IA = AB ×
sin ( )
sin
and IB = AB × __________
sin ( + )
Now, AT1 = IT1 – IA = R tan __ – IA
2
Also, BT2 = IT2 – IB = R tan __ – IB
2
Thus, points T1 and T2 are established. The curve can now be set out from the
point of curve T1.

11.2.7 passing a Curve through a fixed point


Sometimes a curve is required to pass
through a given point, say P, as shown
in Fig. 11.20. Let the point P be at a
distance l from the P.I. (I) and at an
angle from the first tangent.
In triangle IPO,
= – T1IO,
or = – (90 – /2),
OI = R sec /2
OI
_____ OP
= _____
sin sin
R sec /2 R
or ________ = _____
sin sin
Hence, sin = sin sec /2
Since, and are known, can be
found.
In IOP, and are known, so = 180° – ( + ) is also known.

In OAP, OA = R cos (11.8)


2
In PBI, PB = l sin
and OA = OT1 – T1A = OT1 – PB
OA = R – l sin (11.9)
From the Eqs. (11.8) and (11.9)
R cos ( /2 + ) = R – l sin
Here, we know , l and , therefore R can be computed. Angle is always an
obtuse angle but if, per chance, it comes out to be less than 90°, the supplementary
angle, i.e., 180° – , should be taken.
Curves 433

e xample 11.2 Two straight lines T1 I and T2 I intersect at chainage ( 375 + 12),
the angle of deflection being 110°. Calculate the chainage of the tangent points of
a right-handed circular curve of 400 m radius, if 20 m chain was used.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.1.
Chainage of l = (375 + 12) = 375 (chains) + 12 (links)
Deflection angle, = 110°
Tangent length = R tan 110°/2 = 400 tan 55° = 571.26 m
Length of curve = R /180° = × 400 × 110°/180° = 767.94 m
The length of chain = 20 m
Chainage of P.I. = 375 (chains) + 12 (links) = 7502.40 m
Deduct tangent length – 571.26 m
Chainage of P.C. 6931.14 m
Add length of curve + 767.94 m
Chainage of P.T. 7699.08 m
Chainage of P.C. = (346 + 55.7)
Chainage of P.T. = (384 + 95.4)

e xample 11.3 Two straights AB and BC intersect at a chainage of 4242.0


m. The angle of intersection is 140°. It is required to set out a 5° simple circular
curve to connect the straights. Calculate all the data necessary to set out the curve
by the method of offsets from the chord produced with an interval of 30 m.
s olution The chain used is of 30 m.
1720 1720
Radius of curve, R = _____ = _____ = 344 m
D 5
Deflection angle, = 180° – 140° = 40°
Tangent length, BT1 = R tan ( /2) = 344 tan 20° = 125.2 m
Chainage of intersection point B = 4242.0 m
Chainage of T1 = (4242.0 – 125.2) = 4116.8 m
Length of curve = R × × /180°
= 344 × 40° × /180° = 240.16 m
Chainage of T2 = chainage of T1 + length of the curve
= 4116.8 + 240.16 = 4356.96 m
Length of the chords
First subchord, C1 = 4140 – 4116.8 = 23.2 m
The last subchord, C9 = 4356.96 – 4350.0 = 6.96 m
There are seven unit chords of 30 m length.
Hence, there will be nine chords altogether.
The offsets are
C12 23.22
O1 = ___ = _______ = 0.78 m
2R 2 344
434 Surveying

C2 (C1 + C2) 30 × (23.2 + 30)


O2 = ___________ = ______________ = 2.32 m
2R 2 344
C2 302
O3 = O4 = O5 = = O8 = ___ = ____ = 2.62 m
R 344
C (C + C ) 6.96 × (30 + 6.96)
O9 = ___________ = ________________ = 0.37 m
9 8 9
2R 2 344
e xample 11.4 Two straights AI and BI meet at a chainage of 3450 m. A
right-handed simple circular curve of 250 m radius joins them. The deflection angle
between the two straights is 50°. Tabulate the necessary data to layout the curve
by Rankine’s method of deflection angles. Take the chord interval as 20 m.
s olution Tangent length = R tan __ = 250 × tan 25° = 116.58 m
2
Length of the curve = R × × ____ = 250 × 50° × ____
180º 180º
= 218.166 218.17 m
Chainage of starting point, T1 = 3450 – 116.58 = 3333.42 m
Chainage of the end point, T2 = 3333.42 + 218.17 = 3551.59 m
Length of the chords
There will be 12 chords altogether.
First subchord, C1 = 3340 – 3333.42 = 6.58 m
Last subchord, C12 = Chainage of T2 – 3540 = 3551.9 – 3540 = 11.59 m
C2 to C11 = 20 × 10 = 200 m
1 = 1719 × C1/R = 1719 × 6.58/250 = 45 15 = 1
2 = 1719 × C2/R = 1719 × 20/250 = 2°17 31
Hence, 2 = 2 + 1 = 2°17 31 + 45 15 = 3°2 46

3 = 3 + 2 = 2°17 31 + 3°2 46 = 5°20 17


4 = 4 + 3 = 2°17 31 + 5°20 17 = 7°37 48

5 = 5 + 4 = 2°17 31 + 7°37 48 = 9°55 19

6 = 6 + 5 = 2°17 31 + 9°55 19 = 12°12 50


7 = 7 + 6 = 2°17 31 + 12°12 50 = 14°30 21
8 = 8 + 7 = 2°17 31 + 14°30 21 = 16°47 52

9 = 9 + 8 = 2°17 31 + 16°47 52 = 19°5 23


10 = 10 + 9 = 2°17 31 + 19°5 23 = 21°22 54
11 = 11 + 10 = 2°17 31 + 21°22 54 = 23°40 25
12 = 1719 × 11.59/250 = 1°19 42
12 = 12 + 11 = 1°19 42 + 23°40 25 = 25°07
= 25° (approx.)
50º
Also, 12 = __ = ___ = 25°
2 2
which is as should be.
Curves 435

e xample 11.5 It is required to set out a curve of radius 100 m with pegs
at approximately 10 m centres. The deflection angle is 60°. Draw up the data
necessary for pegging out the curve by each of the following methods:
(i) Offsets from long chord (ii) Chord bisection (iii) Offsets from tangent.
s olution
(i) Offsets from long chord
Refer to Fig. 11.21.

Since, mid-ordinate O0 = 100 × (1 – cos 60°/2) = 13.40 m


l2
Thus, a = 13.40 – ___
2R
Let peg interval, x = 10 m, so that
102
a = 13.40 – ____ = 12.9 m
200
202
Similarly, b = 13.40 – ____ = 11.40 m
200
302
c = 13.40 – ____ = 8.90 m
200
402
and d = 13.40 – ____ = 5.40 m
200
(ii) By chord bisection
Refer to Fig. 11.22.
Length of curve = 100 × 60° × ____ = 104.72 m
180º
436 Surveying

Thus, 11 pegs are required at 10.47 m centres.


Tangent length = 100 tan 30° = 57.73 m. Hence, set out pegs at A and B. Next
bisect AB and set out at right angles a distance x, giving C.
x = 100 × (1 – cos 30°) = 13.40 m
Bisect AC and set off at right angles a distance
y = 100 × (1 – cos 15°) = 3.41 m
Similarly, z = 100 × (1 – cos 7°30 ) = 0.86 m
(iii) By offsets from tangent
Refer to Fig. 11.23.
Curves 437

Set out AC = CD = DE = EF = FG
where AG = PM = 100 × sin 30° = 50.0 m
Set pegs at 10 m interval.
______
Offset from tangent = R – R2 – x2
_________
CK = 100 – 1002 – 102 = 0.5 m
_________
DJ = 100 – 1002 – 202 = 2.02 m
_________
EH = 100 – 1002 – 302 = 4.60 m
_________
FL = 100 – 1002 – 402 = 8.35 m
_________
GM = 100 – 1002 – 502 = 13.40 m
Then, GM = IM cos 30°

(
= R sec __ – 1 cos 30°
2 )
= 100 × (sec 30° – 1) × cos 30° = 13.40 m (checked)

e xample 11.6 The following are the bearings of three lines AB = 21°45 , BC
= 80°30 , CD = 147°15 . Find the radius of a curve tangential to the three lines.
Length BC = 450 m. Also determine the tangent lengths.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.24.
T1, T2 and T3 are the tangent points.

1 = 80°30 – 21°45 = 58°45


1 58 45
T1B = BT3 = R tan R tan
2 2
2 = 147°15 – 80°30
= 66°45
2 66 45
T3C = CT2 R tan R tan
2 2
Now, BC = BT3 + T3C
438 Surveying

58 45 66 45
450 = R tan tan
2 2
R = 368.35 m
58 45
Tangent length, T1B = 368.35 tan = 207.34 m
2
66 45
Tangent length, T2C = 368.35 tan = 242.65 m
2
e xample 11.7 A simple circular curve of radius 450 m and deflection angle
70° was to be set out. The chainage of
point of curve was 1022 m. Due to
inaccessibility problem it was required to
rotate the forward tangent by 12° about
the point of tangency. Find the new radius
and chainage of the tangent points and
that of point of intersection.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.25.
= 70°
Tangent length IT2 = R tan (70°/2)
= 450 tan (70°/2)
= 315.09 m
= 70° + 12° = 82°
From triangle IT2 I1, by sine rule

I I1 I T2
=
sin 12 sin [180 (12 70 )]
sin 12
II1 = I T2
sin 98
sin 12
= 315.09 = 66.15 m
sin 98
sin 70
I1T2 = 315.09 = 299 m
sin 98

New radius, R = I1 T 2/tan ( /2)


= 299/tan (82°/2) = 343.96 m

R
Length of new arc, T1 T 2 =
180
343.96 82
=
180
= 492.26 m
Curves 439

I1 T1 = I1 T 2 = T1 I + I I1 = 315.09 + 66.15 = 381.24 m


Chainage of point of intersection I1 = 1022 – 381.24 = 640.76 m
and chainage of T 2 = 1022 + 492.26 = 1514.26 m

e xample 11.8 In making a survey for a new road, the intersection point of
two straights was found to be inaccessible. Four points P, Q, R, S (see Fig. 11.26)
were therefore selected two on each straight, and the distance between Q and R
was found to be 122.20 m. If the angle PQR was 169°47 40 and the angle QRS
148°22 20 , draw up a table of deflection angles and chainages for setting out a
200 m radius curve by pegs driven at every 20 m through chainage. Chainage of
Q = (140 + 90) chains.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.26.

= deflection angle
= IQR + IRQ
= (180° – 169°47 40 ) + (180° – 148°22 20 )
= 41°50 00
By sine rule
sin (180 148 22 20 )
IQ = × 122.20 = 96.08 m
sin (180 41 50 00 )
Chainage of I = (140 × 20 + 90 × 0.2) + 96.08 = 2914.08 m
Tangent length, IT1 = R tan ( /2) = 200 tan 20°55 00 = 76.44 m
Chainage of T1 = 2914.08 – 76.44 = 2837.64 m

Length of curve = 200 × (41°50 00 ) × = 146.02 m


180
440 Surveying

Chainage of T2 = 2837.64 + 146.02 = 2983.66 m

Now pegs are required at chainage 2837.64 m, 2840 m and at 20 m intervals


up to 2983.66 m.
(2840 – 2837.64)
First deflection angle = _______________ × 1718.9
200
= 20.283 = 20 16.9
20
Second, third, etc., deflection angles = ____ × 1718.9
200
= 171.89 = 02°51 53
(2983.66 – 2980.00)
Last deflection angle = _________________ 1718.9 = 31.455 = 31 27.3
200
The following table may now be drawn up:

Point Chainage Chord angle Total deflection angle


T1 2837.64 20.832
2840.00 171.89 20 16.9
2860.00 171.89 3°12 43.3
2880.00 171.89 6°4 36.7
2900.00 171.89 8°56 30.1
2920.00 171.89 11°48 23
2940.00 171.89 14°40 16
2960.00 171.89 17°32 9.4
2980.00 171.89 20°24 2.4
T2 2983.66 31.455 20°55 29

Check: Total deflection angle for last subchord = __ = 20°55 0


2
e xample 11.9 A circular curve of 800 m radius has been set out connecting
two straights with a deflection angle of 42°. It is decided, for construction reasons,
that the midpoint of the curve must be moved 4 m towards the centre, i.e.,
away from the intersection point. The alignment of the straights is to remain
unaltered.
Calculate the
(i) radius of the new curve
(ii) distances from the intersection point to the new tangent points
(iii) deflection angles required for setting out 30 m chords of the new curve
(iv) length of the final subchord.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.27.
Curves 441

C1C2 = 4 m, = 42°
IC1 = R1 (sec /2 – 1) = 800 (sec 21º – 1) = 56.92 m
IC2 = IC1 + 4 = 56.92 + 4 = 60.92 m
Thus, 60.92 = R2 (sec 21º – 1)
R2 = 856 m
Tangent length, IT1 = R2 tan /2 = 856 tan 21º = 328.6 m
C1 30
Deflection angle for 30 m chord = 1719 __ = 1719 × ____ = 1º 00 14
R 856
856 42
Curve length = R /180º = = 627.5 m
180
Length of final subchord = 627.5 – 600 = 27.5 m

e xample 11.10 Two straights intersecting at a point I have the following


bearings, IA 270°, IC 110°. They are to be joined by a circular curve which must
pass through a point D which is 150 m from I and the bearing of ID is 260°.
Find the required radius, tangent lengths, length of curve and setting-out angle
for a 30 m chord.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.28.
From the bearings, the angle of intersection = 270º – 110º = 160º
Hence, = 180º – 160º = 20º
DIA = 270º – 260º = 10º
OID = OIA – AID = = 70º
In triangle IDO
OI R sec /2
sin = ____ sin = sin = sec __ sin
OD R 2
442 Surveying

sin = sec 10º sin 70º


= 72º35 25
or = 180º – 72º35 25 = 107º24 35
An examination of the figure shows that must be less than 10º.
Hence, = 107º24 35
= 180º – ( + ) = 2º35 25
DI sin 150 sin 70º
Now, DO = R = _______ = ___________
sin sin 2°35 25
R = 3119 m
Tangent length = R tan /2 = 3119 tan 10º = 550 m
R 3119 20º
Length of curve = ____ = _____________ = 1089 m
180º 180º
Deflection angle for 30 m chord = 1719C1/R = 1719 × 30/3119 = 0º16 32

e xample 11.11 Two straights AI and BI intersect at an inaccessible point I.


Two points P and Q are selected on lines AI and BI, respectively. Length of PQ
= 180 m, angle APQ = 110° and angle PQB = 130°, as shown in Fig. 11.27. The
two straights are to be joined by a curve
of 500 m radius. Chainage of point P is
2500.0 m. Calculate the necessary data for
setting the curve.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.29.
1 = 180° – 110° = 70°

2 = 180° – 130° = 50°


= 1 + 2 = 70° + 50° = 120°
In triangle IPQ
IP
_____ IQ PQ
= _____ = ____________
sin 2 sin 1 sin (180º – )
sin 50º
IP = 180 × ______ = 159.22 m
sin 60º
Curves 443

sin 70º
IQ = 180 × _______ = 195.31 m
sin 60º
Tangent lengths IA = IB = R tan __
2
120º
____
= 500 × tan = 866.02 m
2
AP = AI – IP = 866.02 – 159.22 = 706.8 m
BQ = BI – IQ = 866.02 – 195.31 = 670.71 m
Chainage of point A = Chainage of P – AP
= 2500.00 – 706.8 = 1793.2 m
Length of curve = R × ×
180º
= 500 × 120° × = 1047.19 m
180º
Chainage of point B = Chainage of point A + length of curve
= 1793.2 + 1047.19 = 2840.39 m

e xample 11.12 The bearings of two straights AB and BC intersecting at B are


120°40 and 100°25 , respectively. They are to be connected by a curve of 180 m
radius. The chainage of A is 906.00 m. Submit in a tabular form, the calculations
necessary for setting out the curve by means of a theodolite, given the following
coordinates of A and C:
Point Coordinates
North East
A 153.12 13.68
C 64.74 330.12
The curve is to be set out with pegs at 25 m
interval of through chainage.

s olution Through A draw a line


parallel to the north-south line (Fig. 11.30)
and produce CB to meet the line in E. Through C draw a line parallel to the east-
west line, meeting the line AE in F.
(i) The deflection angle ( ) at B = bearing of AB – bearing of BC
= 120°40 – 100°25 = 20°15 (left)
In the triangle AEB, EAB = 180° – 120°40 = 59°20
EBA = = 20°15
AEB = 180° – 59°20 – 20°15 = 100°25
Now, ECF = bearing of CB – 270°
= (180° + 100°25 ) – 270° = 10°25
Hence, EF = FC tan 10°25
Now, FC = total departure of C – total departure of A
= 330.12 – 13.68 = 316.44 m
444 Surveying

Hence, EF = 316.44 tan 10°25 = 58.17 m


Now, AE = AF – EF
But AF = north coordinate of A – north coordinate of C
= 153.12 – 64.74 = 88.38 m
AE = 88.38 – 58.17 = 30.21 m
By the sine rule,
sin 100º25
AB = 30.21 __________ = 85.84 m
sin 20º15
(ii) Let T1 and T2 be the first and second tangent points on AB and BC,
respectively.
20º15
Tangent length, BT1 = BT2 = R tan ( /2) = 180 tan ______ = 32.14 m
2
R 180 20º15
Length of the curve = _____ = ______________ = 63.62 m
180º 180°
(iii) Chainage of A = 906.00 m
Add length of AB = + 85.84 m
Chainage of the intersection point B = 991.84 m
Deduct tangent length BT1 = – 32.14 m
Chainage of the first tangent point T1 = 959.70 m
Add length of the curve + 63.62 m
Chainage of T2 = 1023.32 m

(iv) Tangential angles


The curve will be set out with pegs at 25 m intervals of through chainage. The
curve is made up of three chords, one normal chord and two subchords.
Length of the first subchord = 975.00 – 959.70 = 15.30 m
1718.9 15.30
Tangential angle, = _____________ = 146.1 = 2°26 6
1
180º
Length of the second chord = 25 m
1718.9 25
Tangential angle = __________ = 238.7 = 3°58 42
180º
Length of the last subchord = 1023.32 – 1000.00 = 23.32 m
1718.9 23.32
Tangential angle = _____________ = 222.7 = 3°42 42
180º
The results may be tabulated as given below:
Chainage Chord length Tangential Total tangential Actual theodolite
(m) (m) angle ( ) angle ( ) reading
T1 959.70
1 975.00 15.30 2°26 6 2°26 6 2°26 10
2 1000.00 25 3°58 42 6°24 48 6°24 50
T2 1023.32 23.32 3°42 42 10°7 30 10°7 30
Curves 445

Assuming the accuracy of theodolite = 10


20º15
__ = ______
Check: = 10°7 30
2 2
11.3 CompounD Curve
A compound curve is a combination of two or more simple circular curves with
different radii. The two centred compound curve has two circular arcs of different
radii that deviate in the same direction and join at a common tangent point also
known as point of compound curvature.
Owing to the inequality of their tangent distances, compound curves permit
the fitting of a location to the topography with much greater refinement than do
simple curves. However a compound curve should not be used where a simple
curve is practicable.

11.3.1 elements of a Compound Curve


AI and BI are two straights intersecting at I (P.I.). T1DT2 is the compound curve
consisting of two arcs of radii R1 and R2 (Fig. 11.31), and D is the point of
compound curvature. MN is the common tangent making deflection angles 1
and 2 at M and N.
So that = 1+ 2
From the triangle IMN,
IM
_____ IN MN
= _____ =
sin 2 sin 1 sin (180 ( 1 2 ))
MN sin 2
Hence, IM = ___________
sin ( 1 + 2)
MN sin 2
or IM = _________
sin
MN sin 1
Also, IN = ___________
sin ( 1 + 2)
MN sin 1
or IN = _________
sin
Common tangent MN

MD = R1 tan ___
1
2

DN = R2 tan ___
2
2
Now, MN = MD + DN

MN = R1 tan ___
1
or
2

+ R 2 tan ___
2
2
446 Surveying

Length of main tangents IT1 and IT2:


IT1 = T1M + MI
MN sin 2
= R1 tan ___ + _________
1
2 sin
IT2 = T2N + NI
MN sin 1
= R2 tan ___ + _________
2
2 sin
In total there are seven elements, viz. 1, 2, , R1, R2, IT2 and IT1. If any
four of these elements are known (including at least one angle and at least two
lengths), the remaining three elements can be determined by applying the above
equations.

11.3.2 setting out a Compound Curve


A compound curve is normally set out by the method of deflection angles, using
a theodolite (Fig. 11.31). The procedure for setting out a compound curve may be
split into office work and field work for the purpose of explanation.

1. Calculate all the seven elements of the curve.


2. Locate P.I. (I ), P.C. (T1) and P.T. (T2).
3. Calculate the chainage of T1 (chainage of I – tangent length T1I)
4. Calculate the chainage of the point of compound curvature D.
Chainage of D = chainage of T1 + length of arc T1D
R1 1
= chainage of T1 + ______
180º
5. Calculate the chainage of T2 = chainage of D + R2 2 /180°
6. Calculate the deflection angles for both the arcs from their tangents, e.g.,
1 = 1 = 1718.9 C1/ R, where C1 is the chord length and R is the radius.

1. Set up the theodolite at T1 and set out the first arc T1D by Rankine’s
method of deflection angles.
2. Shift the theodolite and set it up at point D.
3. Set the vernier A to read (360° – 1/2), take a backsight on T1 and transit
the telescopes. Swing the telescope by 1/2 so that the telescope is directed
along DN and vernier A reads zero.
4. Now lay out the second arc DT2 in the same manner till T2 is reached.
5. Check the observation by measuring the angle T1DT2 which should be
equal to (180° – ( 1 + 2)/2) or (180° – /2).
e xample 11.13 A compound curve, consisting of two simple circular curves
of radii 350 m and 500 m, is to be laid out between two straights. The angles of
intersection between the tangents and the two straights are 25° and 55°. Calculate
the various elements of the compound curve.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.32.
Curves 447

Length of the common tangent


PQ = PD + DQ
55º 25º
= R1 tan ___ + R2 tan ___
2 2
55º 25º
= 350 tan ___ + 500 tan ___ = 293.04 m
2 2
= 55° + 25° = 80°
From triangle IPQ, by the sine rule
IP
______ IQ PQ
= ______ = _______
sin 25º sin 55º sin 100º
293.04 sin 25º
IP = ____________ = 125.754 m
sin 100º
293.04 sin 55º
and IQ = ____________ = 243.74 m
sin 100º
Length of tangent IT1 = IP + PT1
= 125.75 + 350 tan (55°/2) = 307.95 m
Length of tangent IT2 = IQ + QT2
= 243.74 + 500 tan (25°/2) = 354.59 m
448 Surveying

e xample 11.14 The centreline of a new railway is to be set out along a


valley. The first straight AI bears 75°, whilst the connecting straight IB bears 120°.
Due to site conditions it has been decided to join the straights with a compound
curve.
The first curve of 500 m radius commences at T1, situated 300 m from I on
straight AI, and deflects through an angle of 25° before joining the second curve.
Calculate the radius of the second curve and the distance of tangent point T2 from
I on the straight IB.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.31.
= 120º – 75º = 45º
= 25º
1
Hence, 2 = 45° – 25° = 20º
Tangent length = MD = T1M = R1 tan 1/2 = 500 tan 12º30 = 110.8 m.
In triangle MIN NIM = 180º – = 180º – 45º = 135º
Length T1 I – T1 M = 300 – 110.8 = 189.2 m
Now,
IM sin NIM 189.2 sin 135º
MN = __________ = ______________ = 391.2 m
sin 2 sin 20º
IM sin 1 189.2 sin 25º
IN = ________ = _____________ = 233.8 m
sin 2 sin 20º
T2N = ND = MN – MD = MN – T1M
= 391.2 – 110.8 = 280.4 m
T2N = R2 tan 2/2
or 280.4 = R2 tan 10º
R2 = 1590 m
IT2 = IN + NT2 = 233.8 + 280.4 = 514.2 m

e xample 11.15 A compound curve is made up of two arcs of radii 320 m


and 510 m. The deflection angle of the combined curve is 100° and that of the
first arc of radius 320 m is 54°. The chainage of the first tangent point is 920 m. Find
the chainages of the point of intersection, common tangent point, and forward
tangent point.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.33. Deflection angle of the compound curve,
= 100°
Deflection angle of the first arc, 1 = 54°
Deflection angle of the second arc, 2 = 100° – 54° = 46°.
MD = MT1 = 320 × tan (54°/2) = 163.50 m.
DN = NT2 = 510 × tan 23° = 216.48 m
MN = 163.50 + 216.48 = 379.98 m
Curves 449

Applying sine rule to the triangle MNI,


MI = 379.98 sin 46°/sin 100° = 277.55 m
NI = 379.98 sin 54°/sin 100° = 312.15 m
T1I = T1M + MI = 163.50 + 277.55 = 441.05 m
T2I = I2N + NI = 216.48 + 312.15 = 528.63 m

Chainage of T1 = 920.00 m
Chainage of I = 920.00 – 441.05 = 478.95 m
Length of first arc = 320 54° /180° = 301.6 m
Length of second arc = 510 46° /180° = 409.45 m
Chainage of D = 920.00 + 301.60 = 1221.60 m
Chainage of T2 = 1221.60 + 409.45 = 1631.05 m

11.4 reverse Curve


When conditions do not permit a simple curve inside the point of intersection of
established straights, a change in direction may be accomplished by locating curve
in the area beyond the point of intersection.
A reverse curve is a combination of two simple circular curves having opposite
directions, joining at a common tangent point called the point of reverse curvature.
Reverse curves are used when either the two straights are parallel or their angle
of intersection is too small. These are used in hilly terrains and in railway sidings
as crossovers. These are also used on highways and railways designed for low
speed. As far as possible, they should not be used on main highways and railways
designed for high speed because of the following reasons:
1. Sudden change of superelevation is needed from one edge to the other
one, near the point of reverse curvature.
2. The sudden change of curvature and direction reduces the life of the
vehicle and gives discomfort to the passengers.
3. On highways, steering becomes uncomfortable.
450 Surveying

4. It is not possible to provide proper superelevation at the point of reverse


curvature.
Under such situation it is always advised to introduce a straight length or a
reversed transition curve between two branches of the reverse curve.

11.4.1 elements of a reverse Curve


The various elements of a reverse curve are:
1. Radii R1 and R2 of the two circular arcs.
2. Angle of total deflection between straights.
3. Central angle or angle of deflections ( 1 and 2) of the common
tangent.
4. Angle ( 1 and 2) between the straight and the line T1T2.

11.4.2 non-parallel straights

Central angles 1 and 2 and length of common tangent are given, 2 > 1
To find out the common radius R and chainage of T1, E and T2.
Refer to Fig. 11.34.

R1 = R2 = R
T1U = UE and IUE = 1
T2V = VE and CVE = 2
UV = d = UE + EV

UV = d = R tan ___ + R tan ___


1 2
or
2 2
d
Hence, R = _________________
(
tan ___ + tan ___
2
1
2
2
)
= 2 – 1
Curves 451

From triangle IUV,


sin 2 sin 2
IU = UV _____ = d _____
sin sin
d sin 2
IT1 = UT1 + UI = R tan ___ + _______
1
2 sin
Chainage of T1 = chainage of I – IT1
Chainage of E = chainage of T1 + length of first arc (
R 1
_____
180º )
R 2
Chainage of T2 = chainage of E + length of second arc _____
180º( )
The first arc can be set out from T1 and the second arc from E by the method
of deflection angles.

Given T1T2 = L, 1 and 2; to find common R.


Condition: R1 = R 2 = R
Refer to Fig. 11.35.

Drop perpendicular O1K from O1 and perpendicular O2G from O2 on T1T2.


Then,
O1J = KG Let O2O1J =
O1K = GJ = R cos 1, O2G = R cos 2, O1O2 = 2R
From triangle O1JO2
O2 J R cos 1 R cos 2 1
sin = _____ = = __ (cos 1 + cos 2)
O1O2 2R 2
1
or, = sin–1 __ (cos 1 + cos 2) (11.10)
2
452 Surveying

L = T1T2 = T1K + KG + GT2


= R sin + 2R cos + R sin
1 2
L
or, R = ______________________ (11.11)
(sin 1 + 2 cos + sin 2)
Central angle for first arc, 1 = 1 + (90 – )
Central angle for second arc, 2 = 2 + (90 – )
Knowing R, 1 and 2, the length of arcs can be calculated.

Given T1T2 = L, 1 and 2, and R1 (or R2); to find R2 (R 2 > R1)


Refer to Fig. 11.35.
T1K = R1 sin 1, T2G = R2 sin 2
_____________
2 2
KG = O1 J = (O1O2 – O2J )
_________________________________
= ((R1 + R2)2 – (R1 cos 1 + R2 cos 2)
2
)
T1T2 = L = T1K + KG + GT2
________________________________
= R1 sin 1 + ((R1 + R2)2 – (R1 cos 1 + R2 cos 2)2) + R 2 sin 2
or [L – (R 1 sin 1 + R 2 sin 2)]2 = (R1 + R 2)2 – (R1 cos 1 + R 2 cos 2)2
The above equation can be simplified and knowing the value of R1 (or R2), R2
(or R1) can be calculated. Other elements of the curve can also be found out.

11.4.3 parallel straights


T1J and T2 K are two parallel straights at a distance of V passing through T1 and
T2, respectively. They have to be joined by a reverse curve between T1 and T2. C
is the point of reverse curvature. Let the two arcs have radii R1 and R2, and central
angles 1 and 2. Distance T1T2 is L, and distance between T1 and T2 along the
tangent is D as shown in Fig. 11.36. JK is the common tangent drawn at C.
Curves 453

1 = 2 = (say). Hence O1T1 and O2T2 are parallel and O1CO2 joins them.
V = T1A + BT2
= (O1T1 – O1A) + (O2T2 – O2B)
= (R1 – R1 cos 1) + (R2 – R2 cos 2)
= R1 (1 – cos 1) + R2 (1 – cos 2)
V = (R1 + R 2) (1 – cos ) (11.13)
T1T2 = L = T1C + CT2
= 2R1 sin ( 1/2) + 2R2 sin ( 2/2)
L = 2 (R1 + R2) sin ( /2) (11.14)
V
Using sin __ = __ in Eq. (11.14) we get
2 L
V
L = 2 (R 1 + R2) × __
L
or L2 = 2 (R 1 + R 2) V
__________
or L = 2V (R1 + R2) (11.15)
Also, D = AC + CB
= R1 sin 1 + R2 sin 2
D = (R1 + R 2) sin (11.16)
If, as a special case, R1 = R2 = R (say), the above Eqs. (11.13)
to (11.16) are transformed to
V = 2R (1 – cos )
L = 4R sin ( /2)
___
L = 2 RV
D = 2R sin

e xample 11.16 A reverse curve is to be run from a point T1 on AA to the


point T2 on CC (Fig. 11.35). Determine the common radius and the lengths of
the two parts of the curve, given that T1T2 is 720 m and the angles AT1T2 and
T1T2C are 47°30 and 25°12 , respectively.
s olution 1 = 47°30 , 2 = 25°12 , T1T2 = 720 m, O2O1J =
Let R denote the common radius. Then
R cos 1 + R cos 2 cos 1 + cos 2
sin = __________________ = _____________
2R 2
cos 47º30 + cos 25º12
= ___________________
2
= 52°12
The common radius R may be obtained from
T1T2
R = ______________________
sin 1 + 2 cos + sin 2
454 Surveying

720
= ________________________________ = 301.496 m
sin 47º30 + 2 cos 52º12 + sin 25º12
Now, the central angle T1O1E ( 1) of the first arc
= 1 + 90° – = 47°30 + 90° – 52°12 = 85°18
The central angle T2O2E ( 2) of the second arc
= 2+ 90° – = 25°12 + 90° – 52°12 = 63°
R 301.496 85º18
Length of the first arc = _____ = ___________________ = 448.86 m
1
180º 180º
R 2 301.496 63º
Length of the second arc = ______ = ________________ = 331.51 m
180º 180º
e xample 11.17 A reverse curve ACB is to be set out between two parallel
straights 30 m apart (Fig. 11.37). If R1 = R2 and the distance between tangent
points A and B is 120 m, calculate the radius. Also, calculate the length of the
offsets if the whole curve is to be laid by means of offsets, from the long chord
at 10 m intervals.

s olution Let R be the radius of the curve.


Distance AB = L = 120 m
Distance between the two parallels, V = 30 m
RV
We know that L = 2 × 2 R sin ( /2) = 4 ___
L
L2 1202
R = ___ = ______ = 120 m
4V 4 30
Now, length of long chord AC, L = 60 m
Offsets from AB at a distance of 0, 60 and 120 m from A are equal to zero.
Offsets from AB at a distance of 10, 50, 70 and 110 m from A are:
______ __________
O1 = R2 – x2 – R2 – (L /2)2
_________ _________
= 1202 – 202 – 1202 – 302 = 2.132 m
Curves 455

Offsets from AB at a distance of 20, 40, 80 and 100 m are:


_________ _________
O2 = 1202 – 102 – 1202 – 302 = 3.393 m
Offsets from AB at a distance of 30 m and 90 m from A are:
_______ _________
O3 = 1202 – 0 – 1202 – 302 = 3.81 m

e xample 11.18 A reverse curve is to join two straights having a very acute
angle of intersection. The common tangent (140 m) makes an angle of intersection
of 120° and 130° with the main straights. Calculate the suitable common radius.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.38.

Let R be the common radius. The deflection angles are


1 = 60°, 2 = 50°, = 1 – 2 = 10°
Length of the common tangent (PQ) = 140 m

Common tangent, ( 60º 50º


PQ = R tan ___ + tan ___
2 2 )
or R (tan 30° + tan 25°) = 140 m
140
or R = _______________ = 134.143 m
tan 30º + tan 25º

11.5 transition Curve


For high-speed traffics over alignment on which the curves are circular arcs, an
abrupt change from a straight path to a circular path is required at the point of
curvature (T1). It is obviously impossible to make this change instantaneously.
Smooth and safe rail, road operations will require a gradual transition between the
uniform operating condition on tangents and the different operating conditions on
the circular curves. A curve of varying radius and varying curvature, introduced
between the tangent length and a circular curve or between two branches of a
456 Surveying

compound curve, or a reverse curve to provide such a transition is known as a


transition or an easement curve.
When a transition curve is not provided on a road, and a vehicle passes from
a straight into a circular curve, the passengers and the vehicle experience a shock
or a jerk at the junction point because at this point the curvature changes abruptly
from zero to a definite quantity, and centrifugal force comes into play. If this
centrifugal force exceeds a certain limit the vehicle may even overturn. In the case
of railways, the side thrust will be taken by the outer rail and will cause wear of
the rail at the tangent point. To overcome these ill effects, a length of transition
curve is introduced between the straight and the circular curve at both the ends.
Thus, a transition curve is provided for the following advantages:
1. It allows a gradual transition of curvature from the tangent to the circular
curve or from the circular curve to the tangent.
2. The radius of curvature increases or decreases gradually.
3. It is provided for the gradual change in superelevation in a convenient
manner.
4. It eliminates the danger of derailment, overturning or side-slipping of
vehicles, and discomfort to passengers.

11.5.1 requirements of a transition Curve


1. It should originate tangentially from the straight (i.e., at T1 and T2), refer
to Fig. 11.39.
2. It should meet tangentially with the circular curve (i.e., at C and C ).
3. Its radius should be infinite at the origin (i.e., at T1 and T2) on the
straight.
4. Its radius at the junction with the circular curve (i.e., at C and C ) should
be the same as that of the circular curve.
Curves 457

5. Its length should be such that full cant or superelevation is attained at the
points C and C .
6. Rate of increase of curvature along the transition should be same as that
of increase of cant.

11.5.2 superelevation
Superelevation on curves is defined as the raising of the outer end of a road or
the outer rail over the inner one. C is a point on the outer edge and D is a point
on the inner one (Fig. 11.40 (a)). The difference of elevation between C and D is
called superelevation or cant at the point C.

When a vehicle moves on a curved path, there are two forces acting on it:
weight W of the vehicle and the centrifugal force P.
The notation employed in Fig. 11.40 (b) is given as follows:
h = superelevation (in m)
B = width of pavement (in m)
= angle of superelevation
W = weight of the vehicle
P = centrifugal force
v = speed of the vehicle (in m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
R = radius of the curve (in m)
The weight of the vehicle W and the centrifugal force P acting on the vehicle,
pass through the centre of gravity of the vehicle. Weight W acts vertically
downwards and centrifugal force P acts horizontally away from the centre of the
curve. For equilibrium, the resultant R of these two forces should be perpendicular
to the road surface.
Wv2
We know P = ____
gR
458 Surveying

P
__ v2
or = ___
W gR
From Fig. 11.40(b),
P
tan = __
W
h
Also, tan = __
B
h__ P v2
Hence, = __ = ___
B W gR
h
__ v2
= ___
B gR
Bv2
or h = ___
gR
In the railways, the width of the track is taken as the distance between the two
rails and is represented by a gauge G (in m). However, if speed of the vehicle
in kilometres per hour, and G and R in metres, then the cant h in centimetres is
given by

( 1000 2
v_________
60 60
h = G × ___________ × 100
)
9.81 R
Gv2 Gv2
h = _________ = ______ cm
1.27137 R 1.27 R
In the case of railways, if the
superelevation is provided as is given by the superelevation equation, the load
distributed on the two rails will be equal, consequently the springs of the train
will be equally compressed, and it will be in a state of balance or equilibrium.
Such a cant is called equilibrium cant.
According to the equation of superelevation, if the speed is more than the design
speed, the value of cant will be more (width and radius remaining constant) and
if the speed is less than the design speed, the value of cant will be less. This
excess or shortage of cant over the equilibrium cant (at design speed) is called
cant deficiency of the track. It means that if the equilibrium cant (at design speed)
is h and the cant deficiency permitted on the track is e, the track can permit a
limiting speed corresponding to cant = h ± e.

11.5.3 Centrifugal ratio


The ratio of the centrifugal force and the weight is called the centrifugal ratio.
P
Thus, centrifugal ratio = __
W
Wv2 1 v2
= ____ __ = ___
gR W gR
The maximum value of centrifugal ratio is taken as equal to 1/4 for roads and
1/8 for railways. Let v1 and v2 be the design speeds on a highway and railway,
respectively.
Curves 459

P
__ 1 v12
Thus, for roads, = __ = ___
W 4 gR
____
or v1 = gR/4

P 1 v22
and for railways, __ = __ = ___
W 8 gR
____
or v2 = gR/8
Having given a design speed v, the radius R should not be less than as given
by the above equations. For a given radius R of the track,
____
v__2 gR/8
_______
___ ___
v1 = ____ = 4/8 = 1/2
gR/4
v1 __
v2 = _____ , or v1 = 2 v2
2
Hence, for a given
__
track radius, the speed on a highway can be higher, than
on railways by 2 times.

11.5.4 Hands off velocity


From Fig. 11.40 (b), for stability
v2
tan = ___
gR
________
or v = gR tan
If a vehicle moves with a velocity v on a curve of radius R with superelevation
, the vehicle steers itself along the curve without the driver using the steering
wheel. Such a velocity is known as hands off velocity.

11.5.5 length of transition Curve


Before calculating the elements of a transition curve, it is essential to determine
the length of the transition curve. The length of a transition curve should be such
that full superelevation is attained at the end of the transition curve and applied at
a suitable rate. Following are the methods for calculating the length of transition
curves:
If the rate of application of superelevation is
1 in n of the length of the curve and h is the superelevation, the length of the
transition curve is given by:
Gv2
L = nh, where h = ____ .
gR
For a 1 cm superelevation, the length of the transition curve is n metres. So,
for a h cm superelevation, the length of the transition curve = nh metres.
The value of n may vary between 300 and 1200.
460 Surveying

Let the time rate of application of superelevation be x cm/s,


length of transition curve be L metre, superelevation be h cm, and speed of the
vehicle be v m/s.
h
As x cm cant is applied in 1 s, full cant of h cm will be applied in seconds
x
= t (say).
Distance travelled = speed time = v t
h
L =v
x
v Gv 2 Gv3
or L = metre
x gR xgR
The most scientific method
for finding the length of a transition curve is from the consideration of rate of
change of radial acceleration. According to L. Short, if the rate of change of radial
acceleration ( ) is 0.3 m/s2 per second (1 ft/s2 per second), it gives the comfort
condition for the passengers.
If the speed of the vehicle is v on a curved path of radius R, then
v2
radial acceleration = __
R
v2/R
Rate of change of radial acceleration = ____ = (say)
t
v2
t = ___ (11.17)
R
If the length of the transition curve is L and speed of the vehicle is v, then
time taken
L
t = __
v (11.18)

From Eqs. (11.17) and (11.18)


v2
___ L
= __
v
R
v3
or L = ___
R
v3
or L = _____
0.3 R
Therefore, the length of the transition curve varies inversely as the radius of
the circular curve if the velocity is independent of the radius.
If speed is in km/h then velocity of vehicle in m/s is

(
v 1000
3600
v
= _________ m/s = ___ m/s , then
3.6 )
1
L = ____
0.3R ( ___
3.6 )
v 3
Curves 461

v3
L = ____
14R
For sharp curves, however, the superelevation angle would be too great for
the safety of the vehicles at rest, on the curve, especially under a strong inward
wind. It is therefore desirable to limit the superelevation angle and reduce the
speed accordingly. Thus, __
(gR tan )3/2 R
L = ____________ = (g tan )3/2 ___
R
If angle is limited, the length of the transition curve will be directly
proportional to the square root of the radius of the circular curve.
This method is most commonly used for finding arc length of the transition curves.
Centrifugal
force ratio
P
__ 1 v2
= __ = ___
W 8 gR
For Railways
L = v3
1
_____
0.3R
__
= ( ) gR
___
4
3/2
1
_____
0.3R
= 4.52 R
__
Thus, approximately L = 4.5 R
For Roads
1 gR 1
L = v3 × _____ = ____
0.3R 8 0.3R
__
L = 12.80 R

11.5.6 ideal transition Curve


Finding a suitable transition curve is not difficult. On the contrary, the problem
confronting surveyors has been to decide which of several available forms should
be selected. Some of the forms having definite mathematical equations are as
follows:
1. Cubic spiral, or clothoid, or Euler spiral
2. Bernoulli’s lemniscate
3. Cubic parabola or Froude’s curve
Within the limits used in practise, all the above curves give substantially
the same curve on ground. However, consideration of their relative merits from
three important viewpoints—mathematical, simplicity, adaptability to variety of
conditions and ease to laying out in field—has lead most of the surveyors to
favour clothoid.
This is known as an ideal transition curve. In it, the
radius of curvature is inversely proportional to its distance, from the beginning of
the curve, i.e., l 1/r. Thus,
l r = constant = L R (11.19)
Refer to Fig. 11.41, where
462 Surveying

T1 = tangent point or the beginning of the transition curve


T1 A= first tangent line
D = junction point of the two curves
C= any point on the curve at a distance l from T1 along the curve and having
radius r
L = total length of transition curve up to its end D
R = radius of the curve at its end
= tangential angle between the first tangent and the tangent at C
s = deflection angle between the tangent at D and the first tangent, and
CC = element of length dl on the curve.
For the element CC , rd = dl, hence
1
__ d
___
r = dl (11.20)

From Eqs. (11.19) and (11.20)


d l
___ = ___
dl LR
l
or d = ___ dl (11.21)
LR
Integrating the above equation, we get
l2
= ____ + k (k is a constant of integration)
2LR
For point T1, at l = 0, = 0; k = 0
l2
Hence, = ____ (11.22)
2LR
This is the intrinsic equation of the ideal transition curve. It can also be written
as
_____
l = 2LR
____ __ __
= 2LR =K
Curves 463
____
where K = 2LR
At the end of transition curve, i.e., at D, l = L, so
L2 L
D = S = ____ = ___
2LR 2R
L
Hence, S = ___ (11.23)
2R

11.5.7 equation of transition Curve in Cartesian


Coordinates
To set out a curve by offsets from the tangent, the Cartesian coordinates of the
points are required. Let P and Q be two points, as shown in Fig. 11.42, on the
transition curve, having coordinates (x, y) and (x + x, y + y), respectively. The
distance between the points is dl. Let
= tangential angle between the tangent at P and the first tangent at T1, and

+ = tangential angle between the tangent at Q and the first tangent at T1


dx
___ = cos
dl
or dx = dl cos

or ( 2
dx = dl 1 – __ + __ – ...
2!
__
4!
4

)
We know that l=K
Differentiating partially,
K__
dl = ____ d
2

Hence,
2
K__
dx = ____ d ( 2 4
1 – ___ + ___ – ...
2! 4! )
464 Surveying

( )
3/2 7/2
K 1__
= __ ___ – _____ + _____ – ... d
2 2! 4!

Integrating, we get
K
( 1/2
x = __ ____ – ____ + ...
2 1/2 5
5/2

)
=K
__
( 2
1 – ___ + ...
10 )
l2 l2 ____
We know = ___2 = ____ and K = 2LR , hence
K 2LR

( l2
x = l 1 – _____4 + ...
____
10K )
Substituting K = 2RL

( l4
x = l 1 – _______
40 R2 L2
+ ... ) (11.24)

dy
___
Similarly, = sin
dl
or dy = dl sin

= dl ( 3
– __ + ___ – ...
3! 5!
5

)
K__
Substituting dl = ____ d we get
2

K
dy = __
2 ( 1/2
5/2
– ____ + ____ – ... d
6 120
9/2

)
Integrating, we get

( 3/2
y = K ____ – ____ + _____ – ...
3 42 1320
7/2 11/2

)
K 3/2
= _____
3 ( 2 4
K 3/2
1 – ___ + ____ ... = _____
14 440 3 ) ( 14
2
1 – ___ + ... )
l2 l2 ____
We know = ___2 = ____ and K = 2LR , hence
K 2LR
(2LR)1/2 l2
y = _______ ____
3 2LR ( ) ( 3/2
l4
1 – _______
56 R2 L2
+ ... )
l3 l4
So y = ____
6LR (
1 – _______
56 R2 L2
+ ... (11.25)
)
Equations (11.24) and (11.25) give the Cartesian coordinates of a point on an
ideal transition curve, i.e., on a true spiral or clothoid. If we take only the first
term of Eq. (11.25), i.e.,
Curves 465

l3
y = ____
6LR
We get cubic spiral. It may be noted that l is measured along the curve. The
total length of the curve is same as in the case of true spiral.
If we take the first term of both the Eqs. (11.24) and (11.25), we get
l3
x = l and y = ____
6LR
x3
i.e., y = ____
6LR
We get a cubic parabola. In the equation for cubic parabola x is measured
along the tangent.
A cubic parabola is also known as Froude’s transition curve. The use of both
the Cartesian coordinates is necessary to set out the curve.
In a cubic spiral we make only one approximation, viz. sin = , whereas in
cubic parabola we make two approximations, viz. cos = 1 and sin = . Hence,
a cubic spiral is superior to cubic parabola, but the latter is more widely used
because of its simplicity in setting out. In case of cubic parabola, the minimum
radius of curvature is obtained at a particular value of ___, the polar angle. The
minimum value of radius of curvature is given by 1.39 RL at = 8°1 54 . The
relation between polar angle and deflection angle is developed in the following
section.

11.5.8 Deflection angle


P and Q are two points on the transition curve and have coordinates (x, y) and
(x + dx, y + d y). The chord T1P makes an angle and the tangent at P makes
an angle , with the first tangent at T1, as shown in Fig. 11.43(a). Thus,
y x3/6LR
tan = __x = ______
x
x2
____
or tan = (11.26)
6LR
466 Surveying

and tan
dy d
( )x3
= ___ = ___ ____
dx dx 6LR
x2
or tan = ____ (11.27)
2LR
From Eqs. (11.26) and (11.27)
1
tan = __ tan
3
Since and are both small, we can write
1
= __
3
1 l2 l2
= __ × ____ = ____ rad
3 2LR 6LR
l2 180º 573 l 2
Also, = ____ × ____ × 60 = ______ min
6LR LR
L2 L
At point D when l = L; s= ____ = ___ rad
6LR 6R
L2 L
and s = ____ = ___ = 3 s rad
2LR 2R
so s = s– s=3 s– s=2 s

11.5.9 elements of a transition Curve


When a transition curve is to be introduced between the tangent and the circular
curve, it has to be shifted inwards by a distance S (AB) as shown in Fig. 11.44.
Curves 467

D is the end of the transition curve, where it joins the circular curve. DB is
the extended portion of the circular curve.
BOD denoted by s is the spiral angle of the tangent at D.
L L
Now, arc BD = R × s = R ___ = __
2R 2
L
Also, CD = BD = __
2
Hence the shift AB bisects the transition curve at C.
S = AB = EA – EB
= y – (OB – OE)
= y – (R – R cos s)
= y – R (1 – cos s)
2
= y – R × 2 sin ( s/2)
2
= y – 2R ___
4
s
( sin s __s
_____
2
=
2 )
L3 L2
At D y = ____ = ___
6LR 6R
L
and s = ___
2R
L2 L2 L2 L2 L2
S = ___ – 2R × _______ = ___ – ___ = ____
6R 4R 2
4 6R 8R 24R
For point C (i.e., mid-point of transition curve)
L
x = __ , y = CA
2
(L/2)3 L2 S
y = _____ = ____ = __
6LR 48R 2
Hence the transition curve bisects the shift.
(Refer to Fig. 11.44)
Total tangent length, IT1 = IA + AT1
= IA + (T1D1 – AD2)
= IA + (T1D2 – ED)

= (R + S) tan __ + (x – R sin s)
2

L
x = L, sin s = s = ___ rad
2R
L
IT1 = (R + S) tan __ + L – R ___
2 2R ( )
468 Surveying

L
= (R + S) tan __ + __
2 2

(
x = L 1 – ___
10
s
2

) s
L
= ___
2R
Tangent length, IT1 = IA + AT1

= (R + S) tan __ + (x – R sin s)
2

2 10(
= (R + S) tan __ + L 1 – ___
s
2

) ( )
–R s
3!
3
– ___
s

(
L2
= (R + S) tan __ + L 1 – _____2
2 40R ) ( ) L L3
– R ___ – _____3
2R 48R
L L2
= (R + S) tan __ + 1
2 2 120 R 2
L S
(
= (R + S) tan __ + __ 1 – ___
2 2 5R )
Refer to Fig. 11.45.
It is given by T1B + BB + B T2
R ( – 2 s)
Length of the circular curve BB = ____________
180º
R
= ____
180º ( L
– __
R ) = ____
R
180º
– L rad

R R
Total length = _____ – L + L + L = _____ + L
180° 180º
Alternatively, length of total curve
= K BB J + T1C + C T2
R L L R
= _____ + __ + __ = _____ + L
180º 2 2 180º

11.5.10 setting out a transition Curve


A transition curve is set out in the field by any of the following methods:
1. Offset method
2. Method of deflection angles
Refer to Fig. 11.45. Knowing the total deflection angle, and
the tangent length IT1 = IT2 = (R + S) tan ( /2) + (L /2), the point of intersection
I and the two tangent points T1 and T2 are fixed accurately, using a theodolite and
a chain, by the usual method.
Curves 469

Now, the perpendicular offsets to the transition curve at different points are
computed from the formula y = x3/(6LR) till the point B is fixed. x is measured
along the tangent from the point T1 and the corresponding perpendicular offset (y)
is set out, thus giving a number of points on the transition curve. Perpendicular
offsets at x = L/4, L/2, 3L/4 and L are also computed and laid in the field and
the points are marked with the help of arrows. The process is repeated from the
other tangent point T2, that is the other end of the curve till point B is fixed.
The circular curve BB can be laid (by offsets from the chord produced) using
the formula
Cn (Cn – 1 + Cn)
On = ____________
2R

1. Place the theodolite at I, mark the direction of the two tangent lines ID
and ID . Locate the tangent points T1 and T2 by measuring the tangent
lengths from I.
2. Set the theodolite at T1 and direct the line of sight to I, and keep the
vernier at zero.
3. Set the vernier to the first deflection angle 1, thus directing the line of
sight to the first point on the transition curve.
573l 2
1 = _____ min
LR
4. With the zero of the tape pinned at T1, measure a length l1 till an arrow
held at that distance along the tape is bisected by the line of sight. The
first point is thus fixed.
470 Surveying

5. Set the angle 2, so that the


line of sight is directed to the
second point. Now measure a
distance l2 from the point T1
and hold an arrow at this point
and swing it till it is bisected
by the line of sight, thus fixing
the second point.
6. The procedure is repeated until
the last point B is set out.
(i) For every point, the distance
l is measured from the point
T1 and not from the previous point, as is done on a circular curve.
(ii) At the last point B, = _____573L2 = _____
573L = __1 which gives a check on the
LR R 3 s
field work.
7. To set the circular curve, shift the theodolite to the junction point B. Direct
the telescope to the point T1, with vernier reading 360° – 2 s /3.
Since BT1 I = (1/3) s, hence B1 BT1 = (2/3) s.
The telescope is now rotated by an angle (2/3) s till zero reading is
obtained. On transiting, the telescope is now directed along the tangent
B1B produced. The circular curve BB is now set from the point B by the
usual method of deflection angles ( 1 = 1719 C1/R) till the point B is
reached, the position of which may be checked by measuring the offset
(4S) from the tangent IT2.
8. The other transition curve from T2 is set up in a way similar to the first one.

11.5.11 Bernoulli’s lemniscate Curve


As discussed earlier, there are three types of transition curves which are commonly
used. While the cubic spiral and the cubic parabola are used on railways, the
lemniscate is used on highways, where it is required to have the curve transitional
throughout, having no circular curve in between. On highways, the lemniscate is
used in preference to the spiral for the following reasons:
1. Its radius of curvature decreases more gradually.
2. The rate of increase of curvature reduces towards the end of the transition
curve.
3. It resembles an autogenous curve of an automobile, i.e., the path actually
traced by an automobile when turning freely.
In Fig. 11.47, curve OA is the Bernoulli’s lemniscate, OB is the cubic spiral or
clothoid, and OC is the cubic parabola.
Up to a small deviation angle (12°) the three are the same, but for larger angles,
a spiral is sharper and a cubic parabola is flatter. The clothoid and lemniscate are
identical up to deviation angle of 60°. At deviation angle of 135°, the radius of curvature
of the lemniscate is a minimum and beyond this it increases again. The notation for
Fig. 11.47 is as follows.
Curves 471

P = any point on the curve having coordinates ( , ) in the polar system


= deflection angle between the tangent at P and the initial tangent OI
= angle between the polar ray OP and that tangent PP

= POP = polar deflection angle, the angle between the polar ray OP
and the initial tangent OI, and
OP = length of the polar ray
The polar equation of a lemniscate is given by
_______
= K sin 2
Differentiating with respect to , we get
d
___ cos 2
K _______
= _________
d sin 2
We know that,
d
tan = ___
d
_______ sin 2
tan = K sin 2 = tan 2
K cos 2
Therefore, =2
and as = + , hence = + 2 = 3 .
Thus for the lemniscate curve, the deviation angle is exactly equal to three
times the polar deflection angle. For clothoid and cubic parabola, this is only
approximately true.
472 Surveying

The radius of curvature r at any point is, by the usual formula


2
2 d
d
r = 2
2 d d2
2
d d 2
d d2
Substituting the values of ___ and ____2 we get
d d
K
r = ________
______ (11.28)
3 sin 2

Substituting K = _______
______ in Eq. (11.28) we have
sin 2

r = _______ (11.29)
3 sin 2
From Eq. (11.28),
K = 3r sin 2
______
Substituting sin 2 = /K

K = 3 r (11.30)
If l is the length of the curve corresponding to a deviation angle , then
dl
___ K
= r = _________
_______
d 3 sin 2
Integrating the above equation
K__
l = ___
2 [ 1 1
2 tan1/2 – __ tan5/2 + ___ tan9/2 – ...
5 12 ]
The limitation of the above expression is that it involves tedious computations.
The transition curve shown in
Fig. 11.48 is transitional throughout.
Let the total deflection angle of the
tangents IT1 and IT2 be , IM the apex
distance, AMB the common tangent
to the two branches of lemniscate,
the polar angle for T1 M and n the
polar deflection angle for T1 M.
AIB = 180° –
1
AIM = __ (180° – ) = 90° – __
2 2
IMA = 90°
IAM = n =3 n
1 1
n = __ n = __ __ = __
3 3 2 6
Curves 473

Consider triangle T1 IM
1
T1 IM = (180° – )
2
= 90° – __
2
T1 MI = 90° + 2 n = 90° + __
3
IT1 M = n = __
6
If the apex distance and the total deflection angle are given the two sides, T1 I
and T1 M can be calculated by sine rule. Knowing the tangent lengths, the tangent
points T1 and T2 can be located and the curve can be set out.
If the minimum radius at the end (M) and the deflection angle are known,
the length of the polar ray can be calculated by
T1 M = = 3r sin 2 n
Knowing T1 M, the lengths T1 I and IM can be calculated by sine rule. The
tangent points can then be located and the curve can be set out.

11.5.12 Comparison of transition Curves


The three types of transition curves in the Cartesian system has been depicted
in Fig. 11.47. These appear to be the same up to a deviation angle of 12°. Also
up to an angle of 45°, the clothoid and the lemniscate are very similar with the
radius of curvature decreasing gradually. On the other hand, the cubic parabola
shape departs considerably from those of the other two, especially after 45°. A
comparison of the various transition curves is presented in Table 11.1.

Clothoid Cubic spiral Cubic parabola Lemniscate


l2 l3 x3 _______
= ____ y = ____ y = ____ = K sin 2a
2RL 6RL 6RL
The curve is ideal The curve is not The curve is not The curve satisfies
as it satisfies the ideal because of ideal because of the requirement of
requirement that the truncation approximating the an ideal transition
curvature should of terms in the x-coordinates with curve.
increase with length. infinite series. the length.
The curve is rather The curve is easy The curve is easy The curve is difficult
difficult to lay out to lay out by to lay out in to lay out but the
offset method. terms of x and y relation is exact in
Whereas for offsets. However, this case. Moreover
the deflection for angles greater the rate of change
method, the than 90° the of cu r vature is
relation is true for relation is not gradual and hence
small angles only. strictly true. has found extensive
use in highways.

e xample 11.19 A road 8 m wide is to deflect through an angle of 60°


with the centre line radius of 300 m, the chainage of the intersection point being
474 Surveying

3605.0 m. A transition curve is to be used at each end of the circular curve of


such a length that the rate of gain of radial acceleration is 0.5 m/s3, when the
speed is 50 km/h. Find out:
(i) Length of the transition curve
(ii) Superelevation
(iii) Chainage of all junction points
(iv) Offsets at x = L/4, L/2, 3L/4 and L.
s olution Deflection angle = 60°
Radius of the circular curve, R = 300 m
Road width, B = 8 m
Chainage of I = 3605.0 m
Speed of the vehicle = 50 kmh
50 1000
or v = __________ = 13.888 m/s
3600
v3 (13.888)3
(i) Length of the transition curve = ___ = _________ = 17.86 m
R 0.5 300
Bv2 8 (13.888)2
(ii) Superelevation, h = ____ = ___________ = 0.5243 m
gR 9.81 300
Bv2 8 502
Alternatively, h = _____ = _________ = 52.493 cm
1.27R 1.27 300
L2 (17.86)2
(iii) Shift, S = ____ = = 0.0443 m
24R 24 300
L
Length of tangent, IT1 = (R + S) tan __ + __
2 2
17.86
= (300 + 0.0443) tan 30° + _____ = 182.16 m
2
Chainage of tangent point T1 = chainage of I – IT1
= 3605.0 – 182.16 = 3422.84 m
R
Length of combined curve = _____ + L
180º
300 60°
= ____________ + 17.86 = 332.02 m
180º
Chainage of tangent point T2 = 3422.84 + 332.02 = 3754.86 m
Chainage of junction point B = chainage of T1 + L
= 3422.84 + 17.86 = 3440.70 m
Chainage of junction point B = chainage of T2 – L
= 3754.86 – 17.86 = 3737.00 m
x3
(iv) y = ____
6LR
L L3 (17.86)2
Offset at x = __ : y = _________ = ____________ = 0.00276 m
4 64 6LR 64 6 300
Curves 475

L L3 L2 S
Offset at x = __ : y = __________ = ____ = __ = 0.0221 m
2 8 6 LR 48R 2
3L
Offset at x = ___ : y = 27 × (0.00276) = 0.07452
4
L2
Offset at x = L: y = ___ = 4S = 0.1772 m
6R
e xample 11.20 Lay out the transition curve of Example 11.19 by the method
of deflection angles, taking the peg interval as 5 m.
s olution Chainage of T1 = 3422.84 m
So, first chord = 3425 – 3422.84 = 2.16 m
Deflection angles from main tangent:
573l 2
= _____ min.
LR
573 2.162
1 = ___________ min = 0.499 = 29.9
17.86 300
573 7.162
2 = ___________ min = 5.4 = 0°5 28.9
17.86 300
573 12.162
3 = ____________ min = 15.8 = 0°15 48.8
17.86 300
573 17.162
4 = ___________ min = 31.49 = 0°31 29.4
17.86 300
573 17.862
5 = ____________ min = 34.11 = 0°34 6.7
17.86 300
Check:
1 L 180º 30L 30 17.86
5 = __ ___ × ____ = ____ = = 0°34 6.7
3 2R R 300

e xample 11.21 Two straights deflecting at 39°20 are joined by a circular


curve of radius 225 m. This circular curve is to be shifted away from the tangents
to admit transitions 75 m long of the cubic parabola type at each end. If the forward
chainage of the intersection point along the first tangent is 1727.40 m and the
curve deflects to the right, find the chainage of the tangent and junction points of
both the transitions and the tangential angle to set off from the first tangent point
for the 1650 m peg and from the first junction point to the 1700 m peg.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.49.
L2
Shift, S = ____
24R
752
= _________ = 1.04 m
24 225
L
Tangent length = (R + S) tan __ + __
2 2
39º20 75
= (225 + 1.04) tan ______ + ___ = 118.28 m
2 2
476 Surveying

Chainage of intersection point = 1727.40 m


Tangent length = 118.28 m
Chainage of T1 = 1727.40 – 118.28 = 1609.12 m
Length of transition curve = 75.00 m
Chainage of P1 = 1609.12 + 75.00 = 1684.12 m
R
Total length of new curve = _____ + L
180º
= 225 × (39°20 /180°) + 75.00
= 229.46 m
Hence, chainage of T2 = 1609.12 + 229.46 = 1838.58 m
Length of transition = 75.00 m
Chainage of P2 = 1838.58 – 75.00 = 1763.58 m
For the tangential angle at 1650 m peg, we have
x3
y = ____
6LR
where x = 1650 – 1609.12 = 40.88 m
y x2 (40.88)2
tan 1650 = __
x =
____ = ____________
6LR 6 75 225
= 0°56 44
1650
For the 1700 m peg, deflection angle is given by
1718.9
= ______ × (1700 – 1684.12) = 02°01 19
225
L
tan P1 = ___
2R
y 3
L /6LR L
tan P1 = __
x = ______ = ___
l 6R
Curves 477

L
( L
)
P1 P1 P1 = tan–1 ___ – ___ = tan–1
2R 6R ( ___
3R )
L

= tan–1 ( ________
3 225 )
75
= 06°20 25

P1 P1P = 06°20 25 + 2°1 19 = 08°21 44

e xample 11.22 Assuming the equation = f ( ), where and are the


interstice coordinates at any point on a transition spiral. Prove that 2 = 2 RL ,
where R = minimum radius of curvature, L = length of spiral and = the spiral
angle.
A curve on a branch route is to be transitional throughout with a total deviation
of 52°24 . The design speed is to be 80 km/h, the maximum
centripetal ratio 0.25 and the rate of change of radial
acceleration 0.3 m/s3.
Calculate: (i) the length of each spiral, (ii) the minimum
radius of curvature and (iii) the tangent distance, if the apex
distance is 30 m.
s olution In Fig. 11.50, let
R = radius of circular curve (i.e., minimum radius of
curvature of spiral)
r = radius of curvature at any point P on the spiral,
situated at a distance round the curve from the
origin T
c = the cant at P
C = the total cant at S, the junction with circle.
= angle between straight and tangent at P to the spiral
s = value of at S, the junction with circle
L = total length of transition spiral
Now, cant is applied uniformly with distance round the spiral.
c C
Rate of increase of cant = __ = constant = __ (1)
L
2
V
But necessary cant at any point = distance between rail centres × ___
gR
For any given velocity, v1,

c r
c
__ R
or = __
r (2)
C
From Eqs. (1) and (2)
R
__ __
r = L

or
1
__ ___ d
___
r = RL = d ( 1
__ d
___
r = curvature = d )
478 Surveying

or d = ___ d
RL
Integrating the above equation
2
1
= ___ .d = ____ + k
RL 2RL
where k is a constant of integration.
But as the origin was taken at the tangent point T,
= 0, at =0
Hence, k=0
Equation of ideal spiral is 2 = 2RL
In this example, = 52°24 , v = 80 km/h = 22.22 m/s, = 0.3 m/s3 (Shortt’s
value)
= 0.25
v2
___
Since = 0.25
gR
(22.22)2
R = __________ = 201.32 m
9.81 0.25
2
We know that = 2RL
When = L,
L = 2R

and = __
2
Hence L = 2R × ( __2 )
=R×
= 201.32 × 0.914 = 184.00 m (since 52°24 = 0.914 rad)
v3 (22.22)3
= ___ = = 0.296
LR 184 201.32
< 0.3 which is OK.
(The value of is less than 1; had it been more than 1, a great value of L or R
would have been necessary.)
L2
Shift, S = ____
24R
(184)2
= __________ = 7.00 m
24 201.32
54º24
AIM = 90° – __ = 90° – ______ = 62°48 (Refer to Fig. 11.48)
2 2
54º24
IT1M = n = ______ = 9°4
6
IMT1 = 90° + 2 n = 90° + 2 × 9°4 = 108°8
Curves 479

sin IMT1
Tangent length, T1I = IM × ________
sin IT1M
sin 108 8
= 30 × = 180.92 m
sin 9 4

e xample 11.23 The coordinates of three points A, B and C are as follows:

Point North (units) East (units)


A 700 867
B 700 1856
C 1673 2031

These points define the directions of two railway straights OAC and BC, which
are to be connected by a reverse curve formed of circular arcs of equal radii (Fig.
11.51).

The circular arcs are to be linked together


__ and to the straights by an easement
curve of length (in chains) equal to R , where R is the radius of the circular
arcs in chains. Calculate the radius of the circular arcs if the metric chain used is
30 m long.
s olution The effect of the transition curve is to shift the main circular arc
inwards. The amount S of this shift is given by S = L2/(24R), where L is the length
of the transition and R is the radius of main circular arc. It may be proved that
the transition curve bisects the shift, and vice versa.

In Fig. 11.51, slope OAC = tan –1 ( 1673


2031 – 867 )
– 700
___________

= tan –1 0.836 = 39°54


480 Surveying

Slope BC = tan–1 ( 2031 – 1856 )


1673 – 700
____________

= tan–1 5.56 = 79°48


AP = (R + S) tan __
2

Similarly, QB = (R + S) tan __
2
Equating (AP + PQ + QB) to AB, and expressing both lengths in chains by
taking both the radii equal to R and the shifts in chains, lead to
__ 1856 – 867
(R + S) tan __ + R + (R + S) tan __ = __________
2 2 30
__
or 1.2 (R + S) = 32.97 – R
__
or 1.2 (R + S) + R = 32.97 (1)
__
2 2 __
L ( R)
Since, S = ____ = _____ (as L = R chains)
24R 24R
1
= ___ = 0.042 chain
24
Equation (1), therefore, reduces to
__
1.2R + R – 32.92 = 0
Taking R as a variable in the above quadratic equation:
R = 23.4 chains

e xample 11.24 A transition curve is required for a circular arc of radius


200 m, the gauge being 1.00 m and the maximum superelevation restricted to 75
mm. The transition is to be designed for a velocity, such that no lateral pressure
is imposed on the rail and the rate of gain of radial acceleration is 0.25 m/s3.
Determine, from first principles, the required length of the transition and the
design speed.
s olution The requirement for a transition is that the curvature should increase
in direct proportion to the distance. Refer to Fig. 11.52.
Curves 481

1
__ x
and since = R at x = L
R
__ x
= __
L
dy 2 3/2

where
{ ( )}
1 + ___
dx
= _____________
2
dy
___
dx2
But since dy/dx is small, the above equation may be taken as
1
= _______
d y/dx2
2

1
__ d2y x
or = ___2 = ___
dx RL
Integrating the above equation
x3
y = ____
6RL
dy
(with no constants of integration since ___ = 0, where x = 0)
dx
Now the radial acceleration = v2/ , and its rate of increase with time is given by
d v2
( )
= __ __
dt

( )
d v2x
= __ ___
dt LR
v2
= ___
LR
But v is known from the requirement of no lateral pressure on a superelevation of
75 mm (Fig. 11.53).
75 v2
tan = _____ = ___
1000 gR
75
or v2 = _____ × 9.81 × 200
1000
or v = 12.13 m/s
v3
Hence, = ___ = 0.25
LR
12.133
or L = __________ = 35.69 m
0.25 200
Hence, the length of transition required is 35.69 m.

e xample 11.25 A road 10 m wide deflects through an angle 49°38 , the


forward chainage of the intersection point being 5441.20 m and a circular arc
of radius 175 m is to be designed for a speed of 15 m/s with a rate of gain of
radian acceleration of 0.50 m/s3. Determine the required length of transition, the
482 Surveying

maximum superelevation of the outer curb, and prepare a table giving all necessary
data required to set out the first transition with pegs at 10 m intervals of through
chainage.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.54.
For a design speed of 15 m/s, we have
v2
___ = tan
gR
v2 152
or = ___ = __________ = 0.1311
gR 9.81 175
so that the superelevation on a 10 m width is
10 × 0.1311 = 1.311 m
v3
Rate of gain of radial acceleration = ___
LR
153
or 0.50 = _____
175L
or L = 38.57 m
The equation of the transition is therefore,
x3 x3 x3
y = ____ = ______________ = _______ (1)
6LR 6 175 38.57 40498.5
and the shift
L2 38.572
S = ____ = ________ = 0.35 m
24R 24 175
Refer to Fig. 11.55.

L
Tangent length T1 I = (R + S) tan __ + __
2 2
38.57
= (175 + 0.35) tan 24°49 + _____ = 100.37 m
2
Curves 483

Chainage of T1 = 5441.20 – 100.37 = 5340.83 m


Chainage of P1 = 5340.83 – 38.57 = 5379.40 m
The following table may now be drawn up from Eq. 1
Chainage x (m) y (m) Remark
5340.83 0 0 T1
5350.00 9.17 0.019
5360.00 19.17 0.174
5370.00 29.17 0.613
5379.40 38.57 1.417 P1

e xample 11.26 It is proposed to connect the straights AB and CD by a


composite reverse curve with the point of reverse curvature on BC. The points B
and C are the intersection points of the tangents of the first and second circular
curves, which have a common radius of R metres. The transition curves are to be
introduced at each end of the circular curves. Given the following total coordinates

of A, B, C and D, and that the length of the transition curve as 4.472 R metres,
find the common radius of the circular curves.
Point Total latitude (m) Total departure (m)
A + 711.6 + 3309.6
B + 769.2 + 3792.6
C + 1435.6 + 4249.6
D + 1448.6 + 4691.2

s olution Let 1, 2 and 3 be the reduced bearings of the lines AB, BC and
CD, respectively. Refer to Fig. 11.56.
departure
Then using tan = ________
latitude
The bearings 1, 2 and 3 are as follows:
3792.6 – 3309.6 483.0
tan 1 = _______________ = _____
769.2 – 711.6 57.6
or 1 = N83°12 E
4249.6 – 3792.6 457.0
tan 2 = _______________ = ______
1435.6 – 769.2 666.4
or 2 = N34°27 E
4691.2 – 4249.6 441.6
tan 3 = _______________ = _____
1448.4 – 1435.6 12.8
or 3 = N88°20 E
Deflection angle 1 between AB and BC = 83°12 – 34°27 = 48°45
Deflection angle 2 between BC and CD = 88°20 – 34°27 = 53°53
Length of BC = (1435.6 – 769.2) sec 34°27 = 808.2 m
__
Length of the transition curve = 4.472 R
484 Surveying
__
L2 (4.472 R )2
Shift, S = ____ = __________ = 0.833 m
24R 24R
Total tangent length of the first circular curve
L
= (R + S) tan ___ + __
1
2 2 __
48º45 R
= (R + 0.833) tan ______ + 4.472 ___
2 2
Total tangent length of the second circular curve __
53º53
______ R
___
= (R + 0.833) tan + 4.472
2 2
Now BC = the sum of these two tangent lengths
__
= (R + 0.833) (0.45309 + 0.50825) + 4.472 R = 808.2 m
__
Hence, 0.96134 R + 0.833 × 0.96134 + 4.472 R = 808.2 m
__
or R + 4.652 R = 807.4
Solving this quadratic equation, we get R = 685.4 m

11.6 vertiCal Curve


A curve used to connect two different grade lines of railways or highways is
called a vertical curve. Such a curve is introduced to round off the angle and to
obtain a gradual change in the gradient so that the vehicles passing over it may
not experience a shock or a sudden jerk. It also keeps the gradients of the roads
within certain limits and provides a minimum sight distance. A vertical curve may
be circular or parabolic. The latter one is preferred and invariably used because
of the following reasons:
1. It is flatter at the top and hence provides a longer sight distance. Greater
the sight distance, lesser is the possibility of any accident.
2. Rate of change of grade is uniform throughout and hence produces best
riding qualities.
3. It has simplicity in computation work.
The general equation of a parabolic curve with a vertical axis is given by
y = ax 2 + bx + c (11.31)
At x = 0, y = c
dy
___ = 2ax + b (11.32)
dx
At x = 0
dy
___ = b = g1
dx
Equation (11.32) gives the slope of the curve at any point on it. Now,
d2 y
____ = 2a (11.33)
dx 2
Equation (11.33) represents the fact that the rate of change of gradient is
uniform throughout, and hence produces a smooth riding condition.
When the ratio of length of curve to radius is less than 1 in 10, there is practically
no difference between the shapes of a circle and a parabola. However, in general
parabola is used.
Curves 485

On highways or railways, gradients on a straight are expressed conveniently as


a percentage gradient. Thus +x % grade means an upgrade or a rising gradient of
x metres in every 100 metres, whereas – y% grade denotes a falling or descending
gradient of y metres in every 100 metres (Fig. 11.57). For example, 1 in 4 gradient
means 25% grade and depending on its direction, is positive or negative. The usual
convention is that gradients rising to the right are considered positive and those
to the left are negative.

11.6.1 types of vertical Curve


There are two types of vertical curves:
1. Summit curve 2. Sag curve
This is provided in either of the following three cases:
(a) When an upgrade is followed by a downgrade (Fig. 11.58(a)).
(b) When a steeper upgrade is followed by a milder upgrade (Fig.
11.58(b)).
(c) When a milder downgrade is followed by a steeper downgrade
(Fig. 11.58(c)).
This is provided in either of the following three cases:
(a) When a downgrade is followed by an upgrade (Fig. 11.58(d)).
(b) When a steeper downgrade is followed by a milder downgrade
(Fig. 11.58(e)).
(c) When a milder upgrade is followed by a steeper upgrade (Fig. 11.58(f)).

11.6.2 total Change of Grade


It is the algebraic difference of two grades. For example, if a + g1% (upgrade)
is followed by a – g2% (downgrade) the total change of grade is [+ g1 – (–g2)]%
486 Surveying

= (g1 + g2)%. Similarly, if a – g1% grade is followed by a + g2% grade the total
change of grade is [– g1 – (+ g2)]% = – (g1 + g2)%.

11.6.3 length of vertical Curve


The length of a vertical curve is determined by the permissible rate of change of
grade or from centrifugal consideration as appropriate.
Based on permissible rate of change of grade:
total change of grade_
Length of curve = ______________________________
permissible rate of change of grade
For example, if two grades of +1.2% and –0.9% meet, the length of vertical
curve required for a rate of change of grade of 0.1% per 30 m chain will be
(+ 1.2) – (– 0.9)
L = _____________ 30 = 630 m
0.1
Curves 487

For first class railway work 0.1% change of grade per chain (of 30 m) is
permitted at summits and 0.05% per chain (of 30 m) at sags. The rate of change
of grade is 0.06% per chain (of 20 m) at summits and 0.03% per chain (of 20 m)
at sags. Twice of these value may be adopted for second class railways. The length
of a vertical curve should always be an even number of chains so that half of it
can be provided on either side of the apex (Fig. 11.59).
It has already been pointed out that the parabolas
in vertical curves can be approximated to circular curves. Therefore, rate of change
of grade will equal curvature. Thus, for a length of curve 2l and radius R,
d2 y 1
2
2a
dx R
We know that, y = ax2 = a(2l)2 = 4al2
g1l g2 l g1 g2
Also, y l
100 100 100
g1 g2
Hence, 4 al 2 l
100
g1 g2
or a
400l
1 g g
2 1 2
R 400l
200l v2
R
g1 g2 f

( g1 g2 )v 2
l
200 f
( g1 g2 )v 2
or L (since L = 2l)
100 f
where f = allowable centrifugal acceleration for velocity v.
1. For summit curves where algebraic change of gradient is large, visibility
governs length of vertical curves.
2. For sag curves and summit curves formed by flat gradients, centrifugal effect
governs the length of vertical curves.
3. For flat gradients, it is sufficiently accurate to treat the length along the
tangents, since the length along the curve and the long chord equal to length
2l (Fig. 11.59).

11.6.4 assumptions on a vertical Curve


Since a vertical parabolic curve is quite flat, the following assumptions can be
made in computing the elements of the curve (Fig. 11.59).
488 Surveying

1. A line IH drawn from I (point of intersection) parallel to the axis of the


parabola bisects the long chord joining T1 and T2, i.e., T1 H = HT2.
2. The vertical curve bisects the distance between I (P.I.) and H the middle
point of T1 T2, i.e., IM = MH.
3. The curve is so flat that the length of the vertical curve T1 MT2 is taken
equal to the length of the long chord T1 HT2.
T1 H = T1 M = IT1
4. Offsets from the tangents to the curve are proportional to the square of
their distances from the first tangent point so that Y x2
Y1 ___
__ x12
or = 2
Y2 x
2

11.6.5 setting out a vertical Curve


Refer to Fig. 11.60. Length of the vertical curve is determined, and chainage of
T1 and T2 is found out.

g1
R.L. of T1 = R.L. of I – ____ l
100
g2
R.L. of T2 = R.L. of I – ____ l
100
1
R.L. of H = __ (R.L. of T1 + R.L. of T2)
2
Hence, IH = R.L. of I – R.L. of H
1
and IM = __ IH
2
Curves 489

To compute offsets to the curve, let y1, y2, y3, etc., be the offsets at distances
x1, x2, x3, etc., so that
y1 __
___ x12
= 2
IM l
x1 2
or ( )
y1 = __ IM
l
x
Similarly, ( )
y2 = __
l
2 2
IM

and so on.
R.L. along the tangent
g1
R.L. of point a = R.L. of T1 + ____ x1
100
g1
R.L. of point b = R.L. of T1 + ____ x2
100
R.L. along the curve.
at a = R.L. of a – y1
at b = R.L. of b – y2
All the offsets are thus computed and R.L. of the points on the curve are
found.
In case of a sag curve, the offsets are to be added to the R.L. of the points on
the tangent to get the R.L. of the points on the curve.

Refer to Fig. 11.61.


Let a vertical parabolic curve starts from origin O. Let OX and OY be the axes of
the rectangular coordinate system. Let OI and IA be the two tangents having slopes
+ g1% and – g2%. Let Q be a point on the curve having coordinates (x, y).

The equation of the parabola can be written as


y = ax 2 + bx
dy
___ = 2ax + b
dx
490 Surveying

dy
At x = 0, ___ = g1
dx
g1 = 2a × 0 + b
or b = g1
Hence, the equation of the parabola is
y = ax 2 + g1 x
Now, PQ = PR – QR
or PQ = g1 x – y
or PQ = – ax 2 (by substituting value of y in equation of parabola)
2
or PQ = h = cx (from Fig. 11.61, considering c = –a)
Thus, the difference in elevation between a vertical curve and a tangent to it,
varies as the square of the horizontal distance from the point of tangency. This
difference in elevation is known as tangent correction.
The offsets are measured vertically, although theoretically they should be
measured parallel to the axis of the parabola to obtain a true curve. When the
grades are equal, the axis is vertical, and the theoretical condition is fulfilled. But when
the grades are unequal, the axis is slightly tilted. Hence, there will be a slight distortion
by making the ordinates vertical instead of making them parallel to the tilted axis. For all
practical purposes, the distortion is negligible.
The value of c may be found as follows. Refer to Fig. 11.62.

Let n be the number of 30 m chords on either side of the apex of the curve.
Produce OI to C, so that OI = IC and C is vertically above A.
Through I draw IB horizontal, meeting AC in B, so that
AC = BC + AB
= ng1 + (– ng2 )
= n (g1 – g2) (11.34)
The horizontal distance of the last station A on the curve is n + n, i.e., 2n
chains, and its vertical distance CA from the tangent OIC is given by:
Curves 491

h = cx 2
or AC = c (2n)2 = 4 cn2 (11.35)
From Eqs. (11.34) and (11.35)
n (g1 – g2) = 4 cn2
g1 – g2
or c = ______ (11.36)
4n
Proper care should be taken to put the signs of g1 and g2.

11.6.6 elevation by tangent Corrections


Suppose the chainage and elevation of the apex I are known, then
1. Let, the length of the curve on either side of I be n chords of equal length
l (say 30 m), then:
Chainage of O = chainage of I – nl
Chainage of A = chainage of I + nl
2. Calculate the elevations of starting point O and that of point A
Elevation of O = Elevation of I – ng1
Elevation of A = Elevation of I – ng2
3. Compute the tangent corrections from y = cx2 for the various stations on
the curve:
y1 = 1c; y2 = 4c; y3 = 9c; ...; yn = (2n)2c
4. Compute the elevation of the corresponding stations on the tangent OIC.
Elevation at any station on the tangent
= Elevation of O + n g1
where n = the number of that station from O.
5. Determine the elevation of the station on the curve by adding algebraically
the tangent corrections to the elevation of the corresponding station on
the tangent OI. For example, elevation of the third station on the curve =
elevation of third station on tangent ± y3.

11.6.7 elevation by Chord Gradient


In the method of chord gradients, the successive difference in the elevation between
the points on the curve are
computed. The difference being
called the chord gradients.
The elevation of each point is
determined by adding the chord
gradient to the elevation of the
preceding point.
Refer to Fig. 11.63. Take
two successive points P and Q
on the curve. Through O draw
a horizontal line OQ2. Through
492 Surveying

P and Q draw vertical lines P1PP2 and Q1QQ2. Through P draw a horizontal
PQ3.
The difference in elevation between P and O is
PP2 = P1P2 – P1P = g1 – c
First chord gradient = g1 – c (from y = cx2, x = 1)
g1 – g2
where c = _______
4n
Similarly, Q1 Q2 = 2g1, Q1 Q = 22 c = 4 c, Q3 Q2 = PP2 = g1 – c
The difference in elevation between P and Q is
QQ3 = Q1 Q2 – Q1 Q – Q3 Q2
= 2g1 – 4c – (g1 – c) = g1 – 3c
Hence, second chord gradient = g1 – 3c. We can similarly show that third chord
gradient = g1 – 5c.
Hence, N th chord gradient = g1 – (2N – 1) c
Knowing the chord gradients for different points, their elevations can be
calculated as follows:
Elevation of first station = elevation of tangent point O + first chord gradient
Elevation of second station = elevation of first station + second chord gradient.

11.6.8 sight Distance


The sight distance may be defined as the minimum distance between two vehicles
moving along a curve, when the driver of one vehicle can just see the other vehicle
on the road.
Sight distance S less than the length of the curve L
Refer to Fig. 11.64.
Curves 493

We know that y = cx 2.
g1 – g2 L
AC = ______ __ (L is the length of curve)
100 2
2
when x = L, h = cL (Refer to Section 11.6.5)
g1 – g2 L
or cL2 = _______ __
100 2
g1 – g2
______
c= (i)
200L
g1 – g2 L g1 – g2
IM = cx 2 = _______ __
200 2 ( ) 2
= _______ L2
800
(ii)

we know that, h1 = cl 21 and h2 = cl 22


___ ___
h1
__ h2
__
S = l1 + l2 = c + c
1__ __ __
= ___ ( h1 + h2 )
c
1 __ __
or S 2 = __
c ( h1 + h2 )2 (iii)

From Eqs (i) and (ii)


S 2 (g1 – g2)
or L = _______________
__ __ (iv)
200 ( h1 + h2 )2
If, h1 = h2 = h, we get
200L
S2 = _______ 4h
(g1 – g2)
(g1 – g2) S 2
or L = __________ (11.37)
800 h
the total change of grade is N, i.e., N = g1 – g2, then
NS 2
L = _____
800 h
Sight distance S greater than the length of curve L
Refer to Fig. 11.65.
494 Surveying

Sight distance,
L
S = __ + 100 ×
2 ( h1
__ h2
__
g1 + g2 ) (11.38)

The algebraic difference of the two grades, N = g1 – g2


For minimum sight distance, the rate of change of grade of g2 will be equal to
and opposite to that of g1 (i.e., dg1 = – dg2).
Differentiating partially Eq. (11.38).
h1 h2
– __2 dg1 – __2 dg2 = 0
g1 g2
h1 h2
or – __2 dg1 + ___2 dg1 = 0 (For minimum sight distance)
g1 g2
h1 __
__ h2
or 2
– 2 =0
g1 g2
_____
or g2 = h2 /h1 g1 (i)
The scalar value of the algebraic difference of the grades,
n = g1 + g2
_____
= g1 + h2 /h1 g1
__
h1
or g1 = __________
__ __ n (ii)
h1 + h2
From Eqs. (i) and (ii) __ ___
h1 h2
and g2 = __________
__ __ __ n
h1 + h2 h1
__
h2
or g2 = __________
__ __ n (iii)
h1 + h2

Substituting the values of g1 and g2 in Eq. (11.38).

L 100
S = __ + ____
2 n [ h1
____
__
__ ( h1 +

__
h1
__
__ h2
h2 ) + ____
__ __
__ ( h1 + h2 )
h2 ]
L ( h1 + h2 )2
= __ + 100 ____________
g1 – g2
2
__ __
200 ( h1 + h2 )2
or L = 2S – _______________
g1 – g2 (11.39)

If h1 = h2 = h,
200
L = 2S – g______ × 4h
1 – g2

800h
or L = 2S – ______
g1 – g2 (11.40)
Curves 495

e xample 11.27 If the sight distance equals half the total length of the curve,
determine the true length of curve for the following data:
g1 = 2%, g2 = 1.5%
Observer’s eye level above the ground =1.2 m

s olution ( g1 g2 )S 2
L
800h
h = 1.2, S = L/2
L2
[2 ( 1.5)]
L 4
800 1.20
L = 1097.14 m
e xample 11.28 A 3% rising gradient meets a 2% down gradient. A vertical
curve 200 m long is to be used. The pegs are to be fixed at 20 m interval. Calculate
the elevation of the curve points, by tangent corrections and chord gradients, and
calculate the staff readings required, given that the height of collimation is 350.0
m, R.L. of the apex is 350.0 m and its chainage is 1000.00 m.
s olution By tangent corrections method
200
The total number of stations on the curve = ____ = 10
20
Number of stations on each side of the apex n = 5
(i) Chainage of O = 1000 – 5 × 20 = 900 m
Chainage of I = 1000 + 5 × 20 = 1100 m
(ii) The pegs are fixed at an interval of 20 m. Hence,
20
g1 = ____ × 3 = + 0.6
100
20
g2 = – ____ × 2 = – 0.4
100
(iii) Elevation of O = 350 – 5 × 0.6 = 347.00 m
Elevation of A = 350 – 5 × 0.4 = 348.00 m
g1 – g2 0.6 – (– 0.4) ___
1
(iv) c = ______ = __________ = = 0.05
4n 4 5 20
y1 = 12c = 0.05
y2 = 22c = 4 × 0.05 = 0.20
y3 = 32c = 9 × 0.05 = 0.45
yn = (2 × 5)2 c = 100 × (0.05) = 5.0 m
Elevation of station 1 on the tangent = 347.00 + 1 × g1
= 347.00 + 0.6 = 347.6 m
Elevation of station 2 on the tangent = 347.00 + 2 × 0.6 = 348.2 m
496 Surveying

Elevation of station 10 on the tangent = 347.00 + 10 × 0.6 = 353.0 m


Elevation of first point on the curve = 347.60 – 0.05 = 347.55 m
Elevation of second point on the curve = 348.2 – 0.20 = 348.00 m
Elevation of tenth point on the curve = 353.00 – 5.0 = 348.00 m
The data can be tabulated as follows:

Station Chainage Grade Tangent Curve Height of Staff Remarks


elevation correction elevation collimation reading
(+)
0 900 347.0 0.00 347.00 350.00 3.00 Beginning
of the
curve
1 920 347.6 0.05 347.55 2.45
2 940 348.2 0.20 348.00 2.00
3 960 348.8 0.45 348.35 1.65
4 980 349.4 0.80 348.60 1.40
5 1000 350.0 1.25 348.75 1.25 Vertex of
the curve
M
6 1020 350.6 1.80 348.80 1.20
7 1040 351.2 2.45 348.75 1.25
8 1060 351.8 3.20 348.60 1.40
9 1080 352.4 4.05 348.35 1.65
10 1100 353.0 5.00 348.00 2.00 End of
the curve
A

The required staff readings for pegs are obtained by subtracting the elevations
of the points from the height of collimation.

s olution By chord gradient method


3
Here g1 = ____ × 20 = 0.6
100
g1 – g2
and c = ______
4n
0.6 – (– 0.4) 1
= __________ = ___ = 0.05
4 5 20
First chord gradient = g1 – c = 0.6 – 0.05 = 0.55 m
Elevation of first point = elevation of O + chord gradient
= 347.00 + 0.55 = 347.55 m
Second chord gradient = g1 – 3c = 0.6 – 0.15 = 0.45 m
Elevation of second point = elevation of first point + second chord gradient
Curves 497

= 347.55 + 0.45 = 348.00 m


Third chord gradient = g1 – 5c = 0.6 – 0.25 = 0.35 m
Elevation of third point = 348.00 + 0.35 = 348.35 m
Fourth chord gradient = g1 – 7c = 0.6 – 0.35 = 0.25 m
Elevation of fourth point = 348.35 + 0.25 = 348.60 m
Fifth chord gradient = g1 – 9c = 0.6 – 0.45 = 0.15 m
Elevation of fifth point = 348.60 + 0.15 = 348.75
Sixth chord gradient = g1 – 11c = 0.6 – 0.55 = 0.05 m
Elevation of sixth point = 348.75 + 0.05 = 348.80 m
Seventh chord gradient = g1 – 13c = 0.6 – 0.65 = –0.05 m
Elevation of seventh point = 348.80 – 0.05 = 348.75 m
Eighth chord gradient = g1 – 15c = 0.6 – 0.75 = – 0.15 m
Elevation of eighth point = 348.75 – 0.15 = 348.60 m
Ninth chord gradient = g1 – 17c = 0.6 – 0.85 = – 0.25 m
Elevation of ninth point = 348.60 – 0.25 = 348.35 m
Tenth chord gradient = g1 – 19c = 0.60 – 0.95 = – 0.35 m
Elevation of tenth point or A = 348.35 – 0.35 = 348.0 m
Thus, knowing the elevation of all the points of the curve, the staff readings
can be calculated as before.

e xample 11.29 A sag vertical curve between gradients of 3 in 100 downhill


and 2 in 100 uphill is to be designed on the basis that the head lamp sight distance
of a car travelling along the curve equals the minimum safe stopping distance at the
maximum permitted car speed. The head lamps are 0.8 m above the road surface
and their beams tilt upwards at an angle of 1° above the longitudinal axis of the
car. The minimum safe stopping distance is 165 m. Design the curve.
s olution Headlamp of the car is 0.8 m above road level and tilted up at an
angle of 1°.

Taking the origin and axis as shown in Fig. 11.66, the coordinates of P (x , y ),
distant 165 m from the car, are
x = 165 cos 1° = 164.97 m
y = 0.8 + 165 sin 1° = 0.8 + 2.88 = 3.68 m
498 Surveying

As parabola is normally used for a vertical curve, let y = kx 2 be the equation


of the parabola with vertex at O and passing through P. As
y = 3.68, at x = 165,
therefore, 3.68 = k × 1652
3.68
k = ____ = 1.35 × 10 –4
1652
Hence, the equation of curve is y = 1.35 × 10 –4 x2
Differentiating this:
dy
___ = 2.7 × 10 –4 x (1)
dx
Referring to Fig. 11.67, in which PQ and QR are the two slopes to be joined
by the sag vertical curve, the slope of PQ is 3 in the 100 downhill and the slope
of QR is 2 in 100 uphill. Slope of QR relative to direction PQ is 5 in 100.

Take origin and axes as shown in Fig. 11.67. Knowing that gradient of P which is
5/100, we require to determine the length L.
From Eq. (1) above
Slope at x = L is 2.7 × 10 –4 × L
5
____ = 2.7 × 10–4 × L
100
L = 185.18 m
Hence, required length of sag vertical curve is 185.18 m.

e xample 11.30 A parabolic vertical curve of length L is formed at a summit


below an uphill gradient of a% and a downhill gradient of b%. As part of a road
improvement, the uphill gradient is reduced to c% and the downhill gradient is
increased to d %; but as far as possible, the original curve is retained. Show that
the length of the new vertical curve is
(c d )
L
( a b)
Curves 499

s olution Let L be the length of the new vertical curve. The equation of the
parabola may be written as
y = k x2
No appreciable error is involved if the chord lengths are assumed to be of the
same length as the distance along the curve, i.e., are assumed to be L and L along
the chord and the curve, respectively. It is required to find L
y = k x2
dy
___ = 2kx
dx
1 dy
x = ___ ___
2k dx
Equating this successively to the gradients (a + b) and then (c + d ), we get
1
L = ___ (a + b)
2k
1
___ L
or = _____
2k a+b
1
and L = ___ (c + d)
2k
(c + d)
or L = L ______
(a + b)
which is the required length of the new vertical curve.

e xample 11.31 A 1.5% gradient meets a – 0.5% gradient at a chainage of


1000 m and reduced level of 75 m. The sight distance is 300 m. Determine the
length of the vertical curve and the R.L. of the tangent points. Assume that the
eye level of the driver is 1.125 m above the road surface.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.68.
S = 300 m
g1 = 1.5%
g2 = – 0.5%
h1 = 1.125 m
Let h2, the height of the object,
be 0.1 m.
Let us assume S < L, then
S 2 (g1 – g2)
L = ______________
__ __
200 ( h1 + h2 )2
3002 (1.5 0.5)
L= = 474.68 m
200 ( 1.125 0.1)2
Length of the vertical curve = 474.68 m
500 Surveying

474.68
Length of the curve on either side of the apex = ______ = 237.34 m
2
Chainage of point of intersection = 1000 m
Chainage of first tangent point = 1000 – 237.34 = 762.66 m
Chainage of second tangent point = 1000 + 237.34 = 1237.34 m
R.L. of point of intersection = 75 m
R.L. of the beginning of the curve = 75 – 237.34 × g1
237.34 1.5
= 75 – ___________ = 71.44 m
100
R.L. of the end of the curve = 75 + 237.34 g2
237.34 0.5
= 75 – ___________ = 73.81 m
100

e xample 11.32 In a highway, 1 in 50 elevation gradient meets a 1 in 400


fall gradient at a chainage of 1200 m and at a reduced level of 150.00 m. If the
sight distance be 300 m, determine the length of the vertical curve and the reduced
levels of the tangent points and the apex of the curve using 30 m chain. Assume
the eye level of driver to be 1.2 m above the road surface and the height of the
obstacle to be 0.1 m.
s olution Refer to Fig. 11.69.

1
g1 = ___ × 100 = 2%
50
1
g2 = – ____ × 100 = – 0.25%
400
Let us assume S < L, then
S 2 (g1 – g2) 3002 × (2 + 0.25)
L = ________________
__ __ = ___________________
___ ___
200 ( h1 + h2 )2 200 ( 1.2 + 0.1 )2
= 508.79 m
Length of the vertical curve = 508.79 m
Curves 501
508.79
Length of the curve on either side of the apex = ______ = 254.395 m
2
Chainage of the point of intersection = 1200 m
Chainage of the first tangent point = 1200 – 254.395 = 945.605 m
Chainage of the second tangent point = 1200 + 254.395 = 1454.395 m
R.L. of the point of intersection = 150 m
R.L. of the beginning of the curve, i.e., of O = 150 – 254.395 g1
254.395 2
= 150 – ___________ = 144.912 m
100
R.L. of the end of the curve, i.e., of B = 150 + 254.395 g2
254.395 0.25
= 150 – ______________ = 149.36 m
100
1
R.L. of E = __ (R.L. of O + R.L. of B)
2
1
= __ (144.912 + 149.36) = 147.136 m
2
Since F is mid-way between I and E, hence
1
R.L. of vertex F = __ (R.L. of I + R.L. of E)
2
1
= __ (150 + 147.136) = 148.568 m
2

11.7 sourCes of error


Some of the sources of error in curve computations and layout are:
1. Inability to set on the plates of the theodolite, the required subdivision of
a minute for the deflection angles.
2. Poor intersections between tape line and sight line on flat curves.
3. Use of less than full tape-lengths on arc-definition curves.
4. The large numbers which must be used to obtain answers with six
significant figures.
5. Carrying out grade percentages beyond 0.01%. Multiples of 0.05% or
0.10% are desirable for highways.
6. Carrying out computed elevations to less than 3 mm.
7. Selecting the vertex at other than a full station in a vertical curve.

11.8 mistakes
Some typical mistakes that occur in laying out a curve in the field are as
follows:
1. Failure to double or quadruple the deflection angle at the P.I. before
computing or laying out the curve.
2. Adding the tangent distance to the station of the P.I. to get the station of
the P.C.
502 Surveying

3. Using 30 m chords to lay out arc-definition curves having D greater than


2°.
4. Taping subchords of nominal length for chord-definition curves having D
greater than 5°.
5. Arithmetical errors.
6. Using an incorrect offset at the vertex.
7. Subtracting the offsets from the tangents for a sag curve, or adding them
for a summit curve.

Summary
Curves are arcs of finite radius introduced between two straights (roads, railways, etc.) to
negotiate the change of angle of intersection and to provide smooth riding conditions. They
are classified as horizontal curves and vertical curves. The horizontal curves are further
classified as simple circular curves, compound curve, reverse curve, etc. To make a smooth
transition from a finite radius of curve to infinite radius of the straight, transition curves are
introduced. The various elements of the different types of curves, their laying in the field
by linear methods, angular methods and by a combination of the two have been described
highlighting their limitations. The obstacles in laying out simple circular curves and the
methods to overcome the problems are discussed.
To make a smooth and comfortable change of curvature from straight to the curve, a
transition curve is introduced. The transition curve may be true spiral (clothoid), a cubic
spiral, or a cubic parabola. A cubic spiral is superior to cubic parabola, but the latter is more
widely used because of its simplicity in setting out. Bernoulli’s lemniscate is another form
of transition curve which is preferred for roads being of autogenous nature and a smoother
change of curvature along its length. Suitability of type of transition curves for highways
and railways is discussed and the ideal transition curve is formulated. Characteristics of
various transition curves are discussed as well. Different methods of finding the length of
transition curves are described.
Vertical curves are provided to negotiate the gradients of the two straights. The vertical
curves are discussed in detail. Parabola is most suitable shape for vertical curves, since it
provides a uniform rate of change of gradient and produces smooth riding condition. The
length of vertical curve depends upon the stopping sight distance and overtaking sight
distance, and on the change of grade to be negotiated. Types and setting out of vertical
curves are discussed.

Exercises
11.1 What purpose do curves serve? What are the elements of a simple circular curve?
Explain how a simple circular curve is designated.
11.2 Explain the following:
(a) Tangent point and point of curve
(b) Mid-ordinate
(c) Deflection angle
(d) Normal chord and subchord
(e) Full station
11.3 List the various methods of setting out a simple circular curve. Explain briefly the
Rankine method of deflection angles.
11.4 What is a transition curve? State the various types of transition curves with the help
of a neat sketch. Explain briefly its necessity.
Curves 503

11.5 Define superelevation. Obtain expressions for it as applicable on a highway and


railway. What is cant deficiency?
11.6 What are the essential requirements of a transition curve? Derive an expression for
an ideal transition curve.
11.7 Define and obtain expressions for the following:
(a) Degree of curve (b) Shift of curve
(c) Equilibrium cant (d) Sight distance
11.8 (a) Explain the methods used for determining the length of a transition curve.
(b) Where are reverse curves provided?
(c) Explain the functions of a transition curve.
11.9 (a) Show that a parabola is an ideal vertical curve.
(b) Define sight distance. Derive an expression for it on a (i) summit vertical
curve (S < L) and (ii) sag vertical curve (S < L), S being the sight distance
and L the length of the curve.
11.10 Calculate the ordinates at 10 m distance for a circular curve having a long chord
of 80 m and a versed sine of 4 m.
[Ans. O1 = 3.75 m, O2 = 3.01 m, O3 = 1.76 m]
11.11 In a town-planning scheme, a 9 m wide road is to intersect another road 12 m wide
at 60º, both being straight. The kerbs forming the acute angle are to be joined by
a circular curve of 30 m radius and those forming the obtuse angle by one of 120
m radius.
Calculate the distances required for setting out the four tangent points.
Describe how to set out the larger curve by deflection angle method and tabulate
the angles for 15 m chords. [Ans. 69.28, 51.96 m. = 3°35 ]
11.12 Two tangents PQ and QR to a railway curve meet at an angle of 140°. Find the
radius of the curve which will pass through point M, 24 m away from the intersection
point Q, the angle PQM being 100°. [Ans. 320.4 m]
11.13 Two roads having a deviation of 52°30 are to be joined by simple 8° curve. Chainage
at the intersection point is 7820 m, calculate the necessary data and explain in detail
how to set out the curve: (a) by chain and offset only, and (b) if a theodolite is
available.
A degree of the curve is the angle subtended at the curve by a chord of
30 m length.
[Ans. Offsets from chord produced: O1 = 1.57 m, O2 = 3.91 m,
O3 to O6 = 4.19 m, O7 = 2.47 m,
Deflection angles: 1 = 3°27 40.8 , 2 = 7°27 40.8 , ..., 7 = 26°14 19.2 ]
11.14 Two tangents meet at chainage 1022 m, the deflection angle being 36°. A circular
curve of radius 300 m is to be introduced in between them. Calculate the
(a) tangent length
(b) length of circular curve
(c) chainage of the tangent points
(d) deflection angles for setting out the first three pegs and the last peg on the
curve by the Rankine method (pegs are to be fixed at 20 m interval).
[Ans. 97.47 m, 188.40 m, 924.53 m, 1112.93 m, 1°28 38.6 , .........]
11.15 In setting out a circular railway curve, it is found that the curve must pass through
a point 15 m from the intersection point and equidistant from the tangents. The
chainage of the intersection point is 2880.00 m and the intersection angle (the
deflection angle) is 28°. Calculate the radius of the curve, the chainage at the
beginning and end of the curve and the degree of the curve for a 20 m chord.
[Ans. 490 m, 2757.83 m, 2997.17 m, 2.34°]
504 Surveying

11.16 A straight BC deflects 24º right from a straight AB. These are to be joined by a
circular curve which passes through a point P, 200 m from B and 50 m from AB.
Calculate the tangent length, length of curve and deflection angle for a 30 m
chord.
[Ans. R = 3802.6 m, IT = 808.27 m, curve length = 1592.8 m, = 0º13 33 ]
11.17 A new railway line is to have its centre line on the courses of a traverse, the details
of part of which are as follows:
Course Length Bearing
BC 1458.20 85°29 20
CD 180.20 99°9 00
DE 84°16 40
If the minimum straight between curves is 20 m, find the maximum allowable radius
and the chainage of the four tangent points the chainage of B being 0.0 m.
[Ans. 640 m, 1381.54 m, 1534.14, 1554.14 m, 1720.26 m]
11.18 A compound curve is to consists of an arc of 900 m radius followed by one of
1200 m radius and is to connect two straights intersecting at an angle of 93°28 .
At the intersection point, the chainage, if continued along the first tangent, would
be 2329.20 m and the starting point of the curve is selected at chainage 1354.20
m. Calculate the chainage at the junction point of the two branches and at the end
of the curve. [Ans. 1850.57 m, 3001.09 m]
11.19 A right-hand circular curve is to connect two straights PQ and QR, the bearings of
which are 60°30 and 120°42 , respectively. The curve is to pass through a point S
such that QS is 79.44 m and the angle PQS is 34°36 . Determine the radius of the
curve. If the chainage of the intersection point is 2049.20 m, determine the tangential
angles required to set out the first two pegs on the curve at through chainage of 20
m. [Ans. 452.6 m, 0°50 8 , 1°15 57 ]
11.20 A reverse curve AB is to be set out between two parallel railway tangents, 12 m
apart. If the two arcs of the curve are to have the same radius, and the distance
between the tangent points A and B is 96 m, calculate the radius of the curve. The
curve is to be set out from A and B at 8 m intervals along that line. Calculate the
offsets.
[Ans. R = 192 m, Om = 0.0 m, 0.838 m, 1.339 m, 1.505 m,
1.339 m, 0.838 m, 0.0 m]
11.21 A reverse curve is to be run from a point T1 on AA to the point T2 on CC . Determine
the common radius, and the lengths of the two parts of the curve, given that T1T2
is 720 m and the angles AT1T2 and T1T2C are 47°30 and 25°12 , respectively.
[Ans. R = 301.496 m, length of first arc = 448.86 m,
length of second arc = 331.51 m]
11.22 Calculate the chainage at the beginning and at the end of a B.G. railway track when
it deflects through an angle of 30° with a centre line radius of 300 m. Given:
(a) The rate of radial gain of acceleration is 0.3 m/s2.
(b) The design speed of the train is 60 km/h.
(c) The chainage of the intersection point is 1400 m.
[Ans. 1293.80 m, 1502.23 m]
11.23 Two straights on the centre line of a proposed railway curve intersect at 2610.0 m, the
deflection angle being 46°. A circular curve with 400 m radius and transition curves
are to be inserted, the latter being 90 m in length. Make all necessary calculations
Curves 505

to set out this curve by deflection angles. Pegs are to be set out at every 30 m of
continuous chainage.
[Ans. First transition curve: 25 , 19 40 , 1°7 33 , 2°8 55
Circular curve: 22 8 , 2°31 3 , ..., 16°32 35
Second transition curve: 3 11.76 , 31 , 1°27 37 , 2°8 55 ]
11.24 Two tangents intersect at 2865 m, the deflection angle being 52°30 . It is proposed
to put in a circular curve of 480 m radius with a cubic parabolic transition curve,
60 m in length, at each end. The circular curve is to be set out with pegs at every
30 m and the transition curve at every 15 m of through chainage. Tabulate the data
relative to stations at chainages 2640 and 2700, and the junctions of the transition
curves with the circular arc.
[Ans. Deflection angle at chainage 2640 = 34 52 ,
deflection angle at chainage 2658.11 = 1°11 37 ,
deflection angle at chainage 2700 = 2°29 55 ,
deflection angle at chainage 3037.99 = 22°39 26 ]
11.25 Two straights deflecting at an angle of 48°40 are to be connected by an arc of radius
__
300.0 m with clothoid transition curve of the form S = m and 75 m long at each
end. Using the first two terms of the expansions for sin and cos , calculate:
(a) The Cartesian coordinates of the first junction point taking the tangent point
as origin and the straight as the X-axis
(b) The shift
(c) The tangent length from the intersection point
(d) The total length of the curve
[Ans. 74.88 m, 3.12 m, 0.78 m, 173.52 m, 329.69 m]
11.26 Find the length of the vertical curve connecting two uniform grades from the
following data:
(a) + 0.8% and – 0.6%; rate of change of grade = 0.1% per 30 m.
(b) – 0.5% and + 1%; rate of change of grade = 0.05% per 30 m.
[Ans. 420 m, 900 m]
11.27 Calculate the reduced levels of the various station pegs on a vertical curve connecting
two uniform grades of + 0.5% and – 0.7%. The chainage and reduced level of the
point of intersection are 500 m and 330.75 m, respectively. Take the rate of change
of grade as 0.1% per 30 m.
[Ans. 329.85, 329.985, 330.09, 330.165, 330.21, 330.225, 330.21,
330.165, 330.09, 329.985, 329.850, 329.685, 329.49]

Objective-type Questions
11.1 The long chord and tangent length of a circular curve of radius R will be equal if
the angle of deflection is
(a) 30° (b) 60° (c) 120° (d) 150°

11.2 The ratio of the radius and the apex distance of a curve of radius R deflecting
through is

(a) sect __ – 1 (b) 1 – sec __ (c) cot __ – 1 (d) tan __ – 1


2 2 2 2
11.3 The radius of a simple circular curve is 30 m and the length of the specified chord
is 30 m. The degree of the curve is
(a) 57.29 (b) 3.70 (c) 55.60 (d) 37.03
506 Surveying

11.4 If the angle of intersection of a curve is , then the deflection angle will be
(a) /2 (b) 180° – (c) 180° + (d) 90° +

11.5 For a curve of radius 100 m and normal chord 10 m, the deflection angle given by
Rankine formula is
(a) 1°45.95 (b) 2°51.53 (c) 0°35.95 (d) 1°25.95
11.6 If r is the radius of curvature at any point of transition curve and l is the distance
from the beginning of the transition curve to that point, then for ideal transition
(a) l r (b) l r 2 (c) l 1/r (d) l 1/r 2
11.7 If l is the length of a transition curve and R is the radius of a circular curve, then
the shift of each curve is directly proportional to
l l l 1
(a) R and __ (b) __ and l 2 (c) ___ and l (d) R 2 and _ .
l 2 R R 2 l
11.8 If the radius of a circular curve is five times the length of a transition curve, then
the spiral angle is given by
1 1 1 1
(a) __ rad (b) ___ rad (c) ___ rad (d) ___ rad
5 10 20 40
11.9 Total angle of deflection of a transition curve is
(a) spiral angle (b) spiral angle/2
(c) spiral angle/3 (d) spiral angle/4
11.10 If the rate of gain of radial acceleration is 0.3 m/s3 and a full centrifugal ratio is
developed on the curve, the ratio of the length of the transition curve of same radius
on road and rail is
(a) 2.844 (b) 3.844 (c) 1.351 (d) 0.351
11.11 A lemniscate curve between the tangents will be transitional throughout if the polar
deflection angle of its apex is
(a) /2 (b) /3 (c) /4 (d) /6
11.12 A lemniscate curve will not be transitional throughout if its deflection angle is more
than
(a) 45° (b) 60° (c) 90° (d) 180°
11.13 In a lemniscate curve the ratio of the angle between the tangent at the end of the
polar ray and the straight, and the angle between the polar ray and the straight is
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 6 (d) 3/2
11.14 If an upgrade of 1.5% is followed by a downgrade of 0.5% and the rate of change
of grade is 0.2% per 20 m chain, then the length of the vertical curve is
(a) 100 m (b) 200 m (c) 300 m (d) 400 m
11.15 If the sight distance (S) is equal to the length (2l ) of the vertical curve joining the
two grades g1% and g2%, the height of the apex will be
(g 1 – g2)l
________ (g1 – g2)l
(a) (b) ________
400 200
S–l
____ (g1 – g2)l
(c) (g1 – g2) (d) ________
400 800
11.16 The minimum radius of curvature of a cubic parabola is
___ ___
(a) 1.39 RL at = 24°5 41 (b) 2.78 RL at = 12°2 50
___
(c) RL at = 0° (d) None of the above.
11.17 For what deflection angle is there little difference between lemniscate, clothoid and
cubic parabola types of curves?
(a) 12° (b) 24° (c) 45° (d) 60°
Curves 507

11.18 If centrifugal ratio is given and the rate of change of radial acceleration is 0.3 and
the comfort condition also holds good, the length of the transition curve for railway
is given by
__ __ V V3
(a) 4.5 R (b) 12.80 R (c) ____ (d) ____
14R 0.3R
11.19 For a maximum centrifugal ratio, the limiting velocity on railways is (if R is the
radius)

(a)
gR (b) gR (c)
gR (d)
gR
2 4 8 16
11.20 For a transition curve, the radius should decrease with increase in deflection angle,
but for a cubic parabola, the radius starts increasing after a particular value. That
value of the deflection angle is
(a) 8° (b) 12° (c) 16° (d) 24°
11.21 An upward grade of 1% meets with a descending grade of 1%. The rate of change
is 0.05% per 20 m chain. The length of curve is
(a) 800 m (b) 80 m (c) 40 m (d) 220 m
11.22 If the radius of a simple circular curve is 400 m and deflection angle is 120°, the
mid-ordinate is
(a) 100 m (b) 200 m (c) 400 m (d) 800 m
11.23 A simple circular curve of radius 400 m has to be laid out by radial offsets from
the tangents. The radial offset along the tangent and 20 m away from the point of
curve is
(a) 0.5 m (b) 2 m (c) 4 m (d) 0.25 m
11.24 The chainage of a point of tangent is 1435 m. If 20 m chain has been used to lay
out a simple circular curve of 400 m by the method of deflection distances, the
offset required at last chord will be
(a) 0.43 m (b) 0.53 m (c) 0.55 m (d) 0.66 m
11.25 The total deflection angle for a simple circular curve at a point is 90°. A tangent
is drawn which has a length of 150 m between the two tangents and this makes an
angle of 45° with the back tangent. The radius of the curve is
(a) 181 m (b) 451 m (c) 305 m (d) 498 m
11.26 In a compound curve there are seven factors which decide the nature of curve. These
are radii of the curves, back tangent and forward tangent, total deflection angle,
deflection angle between back tangent and common tangent, and deflection angle
between forward and common tangent. How many elements should be known for
designing the curve.
(a) All should be known (b) Any 2
(c) Any 3 (d) Any 4
11.27 The three transition curves deviate after an angle of
(a) 4° (b) 12° (c) 8° (d) 20°
11.28 In setting out a vertical curve by chord gradient method if the first chord gradient
is 0.16, the fourth chord gradient will be (take c = 0.01)
(a) 0.12 (b) 0.10 (c) 0.09 (d) 0.08.
11.29 A curve tangential to four sight lines and consisting of arcs of different radii is
known as
(a) one-centred compound curve (b) two-centred compound curve
(c) three-centred compound curve (d) four-centred compound curve
11.30 Overturning of vehicles on a curve can be avoided by using a
(a) compound curve (b) vertical curve
(c) reverse curve (d) transition curve
508 Surveying

11.31 Different grades are joined together by a


(a) compound curve (b) transition curve
(c) reverse curve (d) vertical curve
11.32 When the length of any chord of a curve is less than peg interval, it is known as
(a) small chord (b) subchord (c) normal chord (d) short chord
11.33 The angle of intersection of a curve is the angle between the
(a) back tangent and forward tangent
(b) prolongation of back tangent and forward tangent
(c) forward tangent and long chord
(d) back tangent and long chord
11.34 If D is the degree of a curve of radius R, then the tangential angle may be obtained
by Rankine’s method, in minutes, by multiplying the length of the chord by the
(a) degree of curve (b) square of the degree of curve
(c) inverse of the degree of curve (d) radius of curve
11.35 Transition curves are introduced at each end of a circular curve to obtain
(a) gradual decrease of curvature from zero at the tangent point to a specified
quantity at the junction of the transition curve with the main curve
(b) gradual increase of superelevation from zero at the tangent point to a specified
amount at the junction of the transition curve with the main curve
(c) gradual change of gradient from zero at the tangent point to the specified
amount at the junction of the transition curve with the main curve
(d) None of the above
11.36 The properties of an autogenous curve for an automobile are given by
(a) true spiral (b) cubic parabola
(c) Bernoulli’s leminscate (d) clothoid spiral
11.37 An ideal transition curve is a
(a) cubic parabola (b) cubic spiral
(c) parabola (d) true spiral
11.38 For setting out a simple curve using two theodolites
(a) offsets from tangents are required
(b) offsets from chords produced are required
(c) deflection angles from Rankine’s formula are required
(d) None of the above are required
11.39 If superelevation is provided, assuming the friction to be zero,
(a) pressure below outer and inner side wheels will be same
(b) vehicle will skid laterally
(c) vehicle will overturn
(d) None of the above
11.40 Perpendicular offset from the junction of a transition curve and circular curve to the
tangent is equal to
(a) Shift (b) 0.5 × Shift (c) 2 × Shift (d) 4 × Shift
11.41 Reverse curves are not recommended on main highways since
(a) a sudden change in curvature reduces the life of the vehicle and gives
discomfort to the passengers
(b) it is not possible to provide proper superelevation at the point of reverse
curvature
(c) it is not possible to provide a transition curve between the two simple circular
curves forming the reverse curve
(d) Both (a) and (b)
Curves 509

11.42 Pick out the incorrect statement.


A transition curve is provided between a curve and a straight since
(a) its radius of curvature increases or decreases gradually
(b) a gradual change in superelevation can be accommodated in a convenient
manner
(c) it bisects the shift
(d) it eliminates the danger of derailment
11.43 An ideal transition curve is
(a) clothoid (b) cubic parabola
(c) Bernoulli’s lemniscate (d) parabola
11.44 Froude’s transition curve is
(a) cubic spiral (b) cubic parabola
(c) Bernoulli’s lemniscate (d) ellipse
11.45 Pick out the correct statement.
(a) Cubic spiral is known as Froude’s transition curve.
(b) Cubic parabola is known as clothoid.
(c) Reverse curve is known as easement curve.
(d) None of the above.
11.46 For an ideal transition curve,
(a) length of curve should be inversely proportional to the curvature
(b) centrifugal force should be proportional to the curvature
l2
(c) intrinsic equation is = ____
2RL
(d) all the above are true
11.47 In India, curves are designated by
(a) degree of curve (b) radius of curve
(c) length of curve (a) all of the above
11.48 The arc definition for degree of curve is practised in
(a) highways (b) railways
(c) canal alignment (d) tunnels
11.49 Pick out the correct statement.
(a) Cubic spiral is more widely used than cubic parabola since the former is
simple to set out.
(b) In the equation of a cubic spiral, only one approximation is made, whereas in
the equation of a cubic parabola, two approximations are made, which makes
cubic spiral superior to cubic parabola.
(c) The shift of a curve is given to be L2/(24 R 2 )
(d) Bernoulli’s lemniscate is the ideal transition curve.
11.50 Generally the transition curve used on highways is
(a) Cubic spiral (b) cubic parabola
(c) Bernoulli’s lemniscate (d) Both (a) and (b)
11.51 A parabola is best suited for a vertical curve, since
(a) it provides a longer sight distance
(b) rate of change of grade is uniform throughout
(c) smooth riding condition are provided
(d) All of the above
11.52 In the limiting case of overturning, while traversing a simple circular curve by a
vehicle, pressure below the
(a) outer wheels will be zero
(b) outer wheels will be maximum
510 Surveying

(c) outer and inner wheels will be same


(d) inner wheels will be maximum
11.53 If the angle of intersection and radius of a simple curve are 120° and 700 m
respectively, then which of the following statement(s) is/are true?
(i) Length of long chord is 700 m
(ii) Length of curve is 350 m
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (ii) is correct
(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) None is correct
11.54 The deviation angle is exactly equal to three times the polar deflection angle in the
case of
(a) clothoid (b) lemniscate
(c) cubic parabola (d) cubic spiral
11.55 Match the following:
(i) Ratio of long chord to tangent length of a (A) sin ( /2)
curve of radius R and deflection angle (B) cos ( /2)
(C) 2 cos ( /2)
360 sin ( /2)
(ii) Ratio of long chord to length of curve (D) ___________

360 cos ( /2)


(E) ____________

(a) (i) – C, (ii) – D (b) (i) – B, (ii) – D


(c) (i) – C, (ii) – E (d) (i) – D, (ii) – C.

Answers to Objective-type Questions


11.1 (c) 11.2 (a) 11.3 (a) 11.4 (b) 11.5 (b) 11.6 (c)
11.7 (b) 11.8 (b) 11.9 (c) 11.10 (a) 11.11 (d) 11.12 (c)
11.13 (a) 11.14 (b) 11.15 (a) 11.16 (a) 11.17 (a) 11.18 (a)
11.19 (c) 11.20 (d) 11.21 (a) 11.22 (b) 11.23 (a) 11.24 (d)
11.25 (a) 11.26 (d) 11.27 (b) 11.28 (b) 11.29 (c) 11.30 (d)
11.31 (d) 11.32 (b) 11.33 (a) 11.34 (a) 11.35 (b) 11.36 (c)
11.37 (d) 11.38 (c) 11.39 (a) 11.40 (b) 11.41 (d) 11.42 (c)
11.43 (a) 11.44 (b) 11.45 (d) 11.46 (d) 11.47 (a) 11.48 (a)
11.49 (b) 11.50 (c) 11.51 (d) 11.52 (b) 11.53 (a) 11.54 (c)
11.55 (a)
12 MeasureMent
of area

Introduction
One of the objects of many of the surveys is to obtain quantities such as areas and
volumes. After plotting and finishing a plan, the surveyor has to make a true record
of areas and earthworks of the various properties shown on it. This chapter deals
with the methods employed for the measurement of areas. The British units of area
measurements are square feet or acres, whereas the metric units are square metres
or hectares. Tables 12.1 and 12.2 give the relations between the two systems.

Square Acres Square Square Square Square Square Metric


mile chains poles yards feet links equivalents (m2)
1 640 6400 102 400 3 097 600 2 589 900
1 10 160 4 840 43 560 100 000 4 046.7
1 16 484 4 356 10 000 404.67
1 30.25 272.25 625 25.29
1 9 20.7 0.836
1 2.3 0.0929
1 0.040 467

Square Hectares Ares Square Square British equivalents


kilometre (ha) (a) metres centimetres
1 100 10 000 1 000 000 0.3861 sq. mile
1 100 10 000 2.4710 acres
1 100 1 000 000 1 076.4 sq. ft.
1 10 000 10.764 sq. ft.
1 0.155 sq. ft.
512 Surveying

12.1 MeasureMent of area


Foremost amongst the reasons for making land surveys is the determination of
area. Land is frequently bought and sold by the area measure. Building costs are
often computed on the basis of per square metre of area. Quantities of water lost
to evaporation from a reservoir are functions, in part, of reservoir area. These are a
few examples of the deductions that can be made when the land area is known.
B C E

F G
A
D

The field work consists of a series of linear and angular measurements defining
the outline of a piece of land, forming a closed polygon. In practise, it is seldom
the case that the boundaries of the piece of land under consideration form a
regular figure. In such cases, the irregularities in the boundary lines are adjusted
by establishing mean lines. The boundary ABCDE may be represented by a mean
line FG (Fig. 12.1). The area calculated should be the area as projected on a
horizontal plane rather than the actual land surface area. The following are some
of the prevalent methods of area determination:
These may be made by dividing the area into
geometrical figures, offsets from base line, double meridian distances, and coordi­
nates.
These may be made by computations based on
measurements scaled from plan or by use of a planimeter. The former method is
more accurate, since the errors that may creep in because of plotting and scaling
in the latter method are eliminated. However, the method of measurements on plan
is more common and less troublesome.

12.2 CoMputation of area by GeoMetriCal fiGures


For areas of small extent, the land can be divided into a series of triangles,
making the necessary measurements, calculating the area of each triangle by the
usual geometrical and trigonometric formulae and then adding all of these to find
the total area. Some of the formulae used for determining the area (A) of various
geometric figures are as follows.

(a) Triangle: A = base × half of the perpendicular height


(b) Parallelogram: A = base × perpendicular height
(c) Trapezoid: A = half of the parallel sides × perpendicular height
(d) Trapezium: A = area as found by dividing the figure into two
triangles
Measurement of Area 513

(e) Regular polygon: A = length of perimeter × half of the perpendicular


distance from the centre of sides.
n L2 180°
Also, A = ____ cot2 ____
n
4
where n is the number of sides and L the length of one side.

A s(s a )(s b)(s c)


a b c
s
2
If the two sides and the included angle (Fig. 12.2(a)) are known, the area
is given by
1
A a b sin C
2
1
A b c sin A
2
1
A c a sin B
2

(b) For right­angled triangle (Fig. 12.2(b)),


the area is given by
ab
A
2
b2 cot B
A
2
2
b tan A
A
2
2
c sin 2 B
A
4
a (c a )((c a )
A
2
Often the boundaries of a plot of land form irregular curves. In such cases, the
irregular boundary is replaced by a straight line so that the areas contained
between it and the irregular boundary are disposed equally, as nearly as can be judged,
on either side of the straight line as shown in Fig. 12.1. Any attempt made to equalise
large irregularities will introduce an error in the final result and therefore small triangles
may be introduced in such cases.
514 Surveying

12.3 area froM offsets


Offsets are made from a base line to the irregular boundary of the land parcel of
which area is required. The irregular field is thus reduced to a series of trapezoids
by the right­angled offsets drawn from points at regular interval along the base
line as shown in Fig. 12.3. There are several formulae to calculate the area of
the figures so formed. When the boundary between the offsets is more or less a
straight line, the trapezoidal rule is used, whereas if it is parabolic, Simpson’s rule
yields better results. Poncelet’s rule and Francke’s rule may be used for curved
boundaries; the latter one yields the best results. However, the degree of precision
can be increased in all the above methods by increasing the number of offsets.

O1 h1 O2 h2 O3 h3 O4 h4 O5 h5 O6 h6 O7 hn On

d
L = nd

For all the rules given below, reference may be made to Fig. 12.3 unless stated
otherwise.

12.3.1 Mid-ordinate rule


The offsets h1, h2, , hn are measured at the mid­point of each division.
Area = average ordinate length of base
h1 + h2 + ... + hn
= _______________
n L
h1 + h2 + ... + hn
= _______________
n nd
= (h1 + h2 + + hn) d
where n = number of divisions.

12.3.2 average ordinate rule


The offsets O1, O2, , On are measured at the end of each division and are spaced
apart at equal distances d.
Area = average ordinate length of base
O1 + O2 + ... + On
= ________________ L
n+1
O + O 2 + ... + On nd O
= ________________ nd = ______
1
n+1 n+1

12.3.3 trapezoidal rule


O1 + O2
Area of first trapezoid = ________ d
2
Measurement of Area 515

O2 + O3
Area of second trapezoid = ________ d
2
On – 1 + On
Area of last trapezoid = __________ d
2

Summing up, [
O1 + O2 O2 + O3 On – 1 + On
A = d ________ + ________ + ... + __________
2 2 2 ]
[
O1 + On
= d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
12.3.4 simpson’s one-third rule
The boundary between the extremities of three consecutive offsets
is a parabolic arc whose axis is parallel to the ofsets. Refer to Fig. 12.4.
O1 + O3
Area of trapezoid ABDC = ________ 2d
2
The area of the parabolic segment formed by the chord and the curve is known
to be two­thirds of the area of the (circumscribed) parallelogram bounded by the
chord, a parallel tangent and the extended end offsets.

2
Area enclosed by segment CIDHC = __ × area of parallelogram CDFE
3
2
= __ (HI × AB)
3
2
= __
3 [( O1 + O3
O2 – _______ 2d
2 ) ]
(O1 + O3
2 )
2
3 (
O1 + O3
Area of first two divisions = ________ 2d + __ O2 – ________ 2d
2 )
d
= __ (O1 + 4O2 + O3)
3
d
Similarly, area of next two divisions = __ (O3 + 4O4 + O5)
3
d
and area of last two divisions = __ (On –2 + 4On – 1 + On)
3
516 Surveying

Summing up,
d
Total area: A = __ [O1 + 4O2 + 2O3 + 4O4 + ... + 2On – 2 + 4On – 1 + On]
3
d
= __ [(O1 + On) + 4 (O2 + O4 + ... + On – 1) + 2 (O3 + O5 + ...
3
+ On – 2)]
The essential condition for the application of Simpson’s rule is the division of
the required area into even number of segments, i.e., the number of offsets should
be odd.
In case an apex is formed at the boundary of either or both the ends as shown
by dotted curved lines in the Fig. 12.4, the offset O1 or On becomes zero. This
should not be disregarded from the formula and in no case should O2 or On – 1 be treated
as the first or the last offset.

d
Area = d h + ___ (O1 – h1 + On – hn)
12

d
Area = d h + ___ (8O1 + h2 – 9h1 + 8On + hn – 1 – 9hn)
72
e xample 12.1 Determine the area in hectares between the line AB and a
meandering stream for offsets taken at a regular interval of 20 m along the line
AB (Fig. 12.5). Use both the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule.

A B
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Point A B
Distance (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Offset length (m) 23 40 42 30 32 60 10 14 22

s olution
Interval, d = 20 m
Trapezoidal rule

[ O1 + On
A = d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
Measurement of Area 517

[
23 + 22
= 20 _______ + 40 + 42 + 30 + 32 + 60 + 10 + 14
2 ]
2
= 5010 m = 0.5010 hectares
Simpson’s rule
d
A = __ [(O1 + On) + 4 (O2 + O4 + + On – 1) + 2 (O3 + O5 + + On – 2)]
3
20
= ___ [(23 + 22) + 4 (40 + 30 + 60 + 14) + 2 (42 + 32 + 10)]
3
20
= ___ [45 + 576 + 168]
3
= 5260 m2 = 0.5260 hectares

e xample 12.2 The following perpendicular offsets were taken from a chain
line to an irregular boundary:

Chainage (m) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210


Offset length (m) 0 2.65 3.80 3.75 4.65 3.60 5.00 5.80
Calculate the area between the chain line and the irregular boundary by
(i) average ordinate rule, (ii) mid­ordinate rule, (iii) trapezoidal rule, and (iv)
Simpson’s rule.
s olution Refer to Fig. 12.6.

2.65 3.80 3.75 4.65 3.60 5.00 5.80


A B C D E F G H
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210

Number of divisions = 7 Interval, d = 30 m


(i) Average ordinate rule
O1 + O2 + ... + On
A = ________________ nd
n+1
0 + 2.65 + 3.80 + 3.75 + 4.65 + 3.60 + 5.00 + 5.80
= _____________________________________________ × (7 × 30)
7+1
= 767.825 m2
(ii) Mid-ordinate rule
0 + 2.65
h1 = ________ = 1.325 m
2
2.65 + 3.80
h2 = __________ = 3.225 m
2
518 Surveying

3.80 + 3.75
h3 = __________ = 3.775 m
2
3.75 + 4.65
h4 = __________ = 4.20 m
2
4.65 + 3.60
h5 = __________ = 4.125 m
2
3.60 + 5.00
h6 = __________ = 4.30 m
2
5.00 + 5.80
h7 = __________ = 5.40 m
2
A = (h1 + h2 + + hn) d
= (1.325 + 3.225 + 3.775 + 4.20 + 4.125 + 4.30 + 5.40) × 30
= 793.2 m2

(iii) Trapezoidal rule

[O1 + On
A = d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
[
0 + 5.80
= 30 × ________ + 2.65 + 3.80 + 3.75 + 4.65 + 3.60 + 5.00
2 ]
= 790.5 m2
(iv) Simpson’s rule
Since there are even number of offsets (8), Simpson’s rule cannot be applied
directly. Area between the first and seventh offset (A1) has therefore been
computed by Simpson’s rule and between seventh and eighth offset (A2) by
the average ordinate method. The total area will be the sum of these two
areas.
d
A1 = __ [(O1 + On ) + 4 (O2 + O4 + O6 ) + 2 (O3 + O5)]
3
30
= ___ × [(0 + 5.00) + 4 (2.65 + 3.75 + 3.60) + 2 (3.80 + 4.65)]
3
= 619 m2
5 + 5.80
A2 = ________ × 30 = 162 m2
2
A = 619 + 162 = 781 m2

12.4 area froM Coordinates


A figure represented by a closed traverse may be so divided that its area can be
computed from the latitudes and departures of the lines. Determination of area of
a closed traverse from coordinates is a simple process, provided the coordinates
of each corner of the traverse are known.
Area is equal to one­half of the sum of products obtained by multiplying
each Y­coordinate by the difference between the adjacent X­coordinates. The
Measurement of Area 519

X­coordinate must always be taken in the same order around the traverse. Refer
to Fig. 12.7.
1
Area = __ [YA (XB – XD) + YB (XC – XA) + YC (XD – XB) + YD (XA – XC)]
2
r=n
1
also, Area = __ N (E – Er – 1)
2 r=0 r r + 1
where n is the number of sides of the figure, and (N0, E0), (N1, E1), , (Nn, En),
(N0, E0) are the coordinates of the points.
This formula is based on the
summation of the areas of a series
of trapezoids. The coordinates
used are the total latitudes and
total departures for the stations.
N and E coordinates are taken to
be plus and S and W coordinates
are taken to be minus. It is
advantageous to have the traverse
in the first quadrant so that the
coordinates of all the stations
may be rendered positive. Some
of the other prevalent methods
for computing areas by coordinates are as follows.

12.4.1 by latitude and Meridian distance (M.d.)


The meridian passing through the most westerly station is termed as the ‘reference
meridian’. The perpendicular distance of the mid­point of a line passing through
this from the reference meridian is reckoned as meridian distance or longitude of
the line. The longitude of the next line is the algebraic sum of the longitude of the
preceding line, half the departure of
that line and half its own departure. B
Since the reference meridian is
through the most westerly station, the
longitudes are reckoned as positive if
they are northern ones and negative
C
if they are southern ones. Consider
Fig. 12.8.
A
Longitude of BC = longitude of AB
1
+ __ departure of AB
2
1
+ __ departure of BC.
2
The area within the lines of a D
closed traverse is the algebraic sum
of the products of the latitude of each
line with its longitude.
520 Surveying

12.4.2 by latitude and double Meridian distance (d.M.d.)


In the computation of longitudes, it can be seen that the departure is to be halved.
This consumes quite more time unnecessarily. To expedite the work, a double
longitude method is used. The double longitude of either of the lines meeting at
the most westerly station is the departure of the line. Double longitude of any other
line is the algebraic sum of the double longitude of the preceding line, the departure
of that line and its own departure. Here, reference may be made to Fig. 12.8.
D.M.D. of BC = D.M.D. of AB + departure of AB + departure of BC
The algebraic sum of the products of the latitude of each line by its double
longitude is twice the required area.

12.4.3 by departure and total latitude


The area within the lines of a closed traverse survey is the algebraic sum of
the products of the total latitude of each station and half the algebraic sum of
departures of the two lines meeting at a station. Since total latitudes are utilised
for plotting the survey, this method involves less extra work than the previous
methods. Refer to Fig. 12.9.

I4

d5 d4
I3
d1 d2 d3

I1 I2

Area = [area of triangles] + [area of trapezoids]

[
d1 l1 d5 l4 d3 l2 d3 l3
2 2 2 2 2 ] [
d2 (l1 + l2) d4 (l3 + l4)
= ____ + ____ + ____ – ____ + _________ + _________
2 ]
l1 (d1 + d2) l2 (d2 + d3) l3 (–d3 + d4) l4 (d4 + d5)
= _________ + _________ + __________ + _________
2 2 2 2
e xample 12.3 The following table gives the corrected latitudes and departures
(in metres) of the sides of a closed traverse PQRS:

Latitude Departure
Side
N S E W
PQ 128 9
QR 15 258
RS 143 9
SP 0 276
Measurement of Area 521

Compute its area by (i) D.M.D. method, and (ii) M.D. method.
s olution
( i) By D.M.D. method

Line Latitude (L) Departure (D) D.M.D. (m) Area (mL)


PQ + 128 +9 9 + 1 152
QR + 15 + 258 276 + 4 140
RS – 143 +9 543 – 77 649
SP 0 – 276 276 0
Sum = – 72 357
1 77 357
Hence, area = __ mL = 36178.5 m2
2 2
Here, negative sign has no meaning.
(ii) By M.D. method

Line Latitude Departure (1/2) Departure M.D. Area (mL)


(L) (D) ((1/2) D) (m)
PQ + 128 +9 + 4.5 4.5 576
QR + 15 + 258 + 129 138 2 070
RS – 143 +9 + 4.5 271.5 – 38 824.5
SP 0 – 276 – 138 138 0
Sum = – 36 178.5

Total area = mL = 36 178.5 m2

e xample 12.4 In Fig. 12.10, the coordinates are given is metres with the
first number in parentheses being the north coordinate and the second, the east
coordinate. Compute the area of the figure using (i) coordinate method, and
(ii) trapezoidal rule.
522 Surveying

s olution
Independent coordinates
Points Interval (m) Ordinate
North (Y) East (X)
A 100 802 – 0
B 711 802 50 711 – 100 = 611
C 635 852 50 635 – 100 = 535
D 994 902 50 994 – 100 = 894
E 241 952 50 241 – 100 = 141
F 844 1002 50 844 – 100 = 744
G 266 1052 50 266 – 100 = 166
H 811 1102 50 811 – 100 = 711
I 100 1102 50 100 – 100 = 0

(i) Coordinate method


1
Area = __ [YA (XB – Xl) + YB (XC – XA) + YC (XD – XB) + YD (XE – XC)
2
+ YE (YF – XD) + YF (XG – XE) + YG (XH – XF) + YH (XI – XG) + YI (XA – XH)]
1
= __ [100 (1102 – 802) + 711 (802 – 852) + 635 (802 – 902) + 994 (852 – 952)
2
+ 241 (902 – 1002) + 844 (952 – 1052) + 266 (1002 – 1102)
+ 811 (1052 – 1102) + 100 (1102 – 802)]
= – 157 050 m2 = 157 050 m2
(ii) Trapezoidal rule
Interval,
d1 = 852 – 802 = 50 m
d2 = 902 – 852 = 50 m
d3 = 952 – 902 = 50 m
and so on.
Constant interval, d = 50 m

[
O1 + On
A = d ________ + O2 + O3 + ... + On – 1
2 ]
[
611 + 0
= 50 _______ + 535 + 894 + 141 + 744 + 166 + 711
2 ]
= 174 825 m 2

12.5 area by Coordinate squares


The plan of the parcel of land is marked off in squares of unit area. The complete
unit squares are counted and the partial units are estimated. To simplify the
procedure, a tracing paper with squares marked to the desired scale is placed
over the plan and the number of squares and partial units are counted. This
Measurement of Area 523

method is very rapid and is advantageous if approximate results are required at


the preliminary stage.

12.6 area by planiMeter


It is a mechanical integrator used for the measurement of areas of figures, plotted
to a scale. There are two types of planimeters: the Amsler polar planimeter and the
rolling planimeter; the former being most commonly used. Most of the methods
for determining area, except Simpson’s rule, assume straight line boundaries.
However, often areas do not have straight lines for boundaries. If such areas are
drawn to some scale on a map or plan, their values can be very easily found by
the planimeter. Some of the other uses of planimeter are measuring areas of cross
sections for highways and railways, and checking computed areas in property
surveys and property divisions.
The most common type of a planimeter is the polar planimeter. The area is
computed by utilising the relationship between the tracing arm point, moved over
the outline of the figure, and the connected recording wheel (drum and disk),
which records the displacement.

12.6.1 Construction
A planimeter (Fig. 12.11) essentially consists of two bars hinged together. At the
extreme end on one of the bars, a weight is suspended over a ‘needle point’ or
‘anchor point’ which is used to anchor the bar outside the area to be measured. The
other bar known as the tracing arm, has a ‘tracing point’ at its extreme end. The
tracing point is moved as desired, about the needle point. At the other end of the
tracing arm, there is a roller which rolls on the surface of the plan as the pointer
is moved. Thus, when in use, the planimeter has three contact points on the surface
of the plan, the anchor point, the tracing point, and the roller circumference. The
roller drum circumference is graduated in one hundred parts. A fixed vernier is
attached to the roller drum, which reads one­tenth of the drum division. A disk is
also connected to the roller, by a ‘work drive’, which is graduated into ten parts.
One revolution of the roller turns the disk through one part. The length is so
designed that the tracing point is moved completely around the boundary of the
area to be measured when the roller makes one complete revolution. The statement
is true when the anchor point is outside the figure.
Weight
Polar arm
Collar Needle point

Tracing arm
Pivot Tracing index

Graduated wheel
524 Surveying

In large planimeters the tracing arm is made adjustable. This arrangement has
two distinct advantages. Firstly, the arm can be adjusted to the unit area of the
plan; and secondly, the planimeter may be tested for any unit area, and if found
to be incorrect, the error can be eliminated by adjusting the arm.

12.6.2 theory underlying Computation of area


Consider a moving line AB, of length L (Fig. 12.12 (a)), the ends of which move
in a given loci. The ends A and B, of the line AB, are displaced to A1 and B2
respectively. Let the normal displacement of end A be d z and rotation of B1 as d .
The area swept ABB2 A1,
1
dA = L dz + __ L L d
2
1
__
or dA = L dz + L2 d (12.1)
2
Now suppose a wheel F fixed upon AB, its plane being perpendicular to that
line, so that in the displacement of AB, the wheel rolls when the point F moves
perpendicularly to AB, and glides without turning when F is displaced in the
direction of AB. Let d be the angle through which the wheel turns upon its axis
in passing from F to F . If r is the radius of the wheel, rd is the length of arc
applied to the paper. This length is equal to dz (the rotation of the wheel in the
translation from AB to A1B1 corresponding to the normal displacement only) + the
arc L d (letting AF = L = A1F ).
rd = dz + L d (12.2)
Eliminating dz from Eq. (12.1)

dA = rLd
L2
2 (
+ __ – LL ) d (12.3)

dA = rLd + ( L2
__
2
– LL ) d (12.4)

When the directing curve AA1 is exterior to the area X (Fig. 12.12 (a),
rLd = rL = Lz (where z = r )
d = 0, since AB returns to its original position without having made a circuit
about O.
x

dz B
F Y x
B A
R A
B1 A1 R O
B2 F d
O
Y
(a) (b)
Measurement of Area 525

Integrating Eq. (12.4),


A = A = Lz (12.5)
When the directing curve AA1 is within the area X (Fig. 12.12 (b)),
d = 2 , since AB returns to its original position after making a circuit
about O.
A = dA + area of circle described by OA
By integrating Eq. (12.4),

A = Lz + 2 ( L2
__
2
– LL )
A = A + R2
= Lz + (L2 – 2LL + R2)
_____________
= Lz + area of a circle of radius L2 – 2LL + R2 (12.6)
where R = the length of the anchor arm from the hinge to the point
The sign of 2LL is negative if the wheel is between the tracing point and the
pivot point, otherwise it is positive.
If r is the radius and n the number of revolutions of the wheel (drum), then
Lz = L × 2 r × n
= Mn (12.7)
where M is known as the multiplier constant (= 2 r L)
If B is to travel along a circle of radius R, no rotation of the wheel will be
caused and such a circle is called zero circle. Its area forms a constant to be
added to the recorded results when the anchor point is placed within the area to
be measured. The area of this zero circle may be determined by tracing a closed
figure, first with the anchor point outside the boundary of the figure, and then
with the anchor point inside. The difference between the two areas thus obtained
will be the area of the zero circle.
Area of zero circle, A = (L2 ± 2LL + R 2)
where L = length of the tracing arm,
L = distance between the pivot and the wheel, and
R = length of the anchor arm.
Use plus sign when the wheel is outside the pivot and tracing point and minus
sign when it is between the pivot and the tracing point.

12.6.3 Working
To measure an area with a planimeter, the following procedure may be adopted:
1. The tracing arm is so adjusted as to give the results in the desired units.
2. The anchor point is suitably fixed outside the area to be measured. It
should be in such a commanding position that the tracing point may reach
all parts of the boundary. However, for large areas, the anchor point may
be kept inside the area.
3. A point is marked on the boundary and the tracing point is placed over
it.
526 Surveying

4. Observe the wheel, the counting disc and the vernier. The reading is
recorded and is known as initial reading (I.R.).
5. The tracing point is guided clockwise along the boundary till it returns to
the starting point.
6. The disc and drum readings are noted. This is known as the final reading
(F.R.). The difference of the final and initial reading gives the required
plan area A. Hence,
A = M (F.R. – I.R. ± 10 N + C ) (12.8)
where M = multiplying constant.
N = number of times the zero mark of the dial passes the fixed mark.
It is positive if zero of the dial passes the fixed index in the
clockwise direction.
C = a constant marked on the tracing arm. It is additive when the
anchor point is inside the figure, and is zero when anchor point
is outside the figure.
7. The true area of the land is obtained by multiplying the plan area by the
scale to which the plan is drawn.
(i) The accuracy of the planimeter should be tested regularly. This is done by
carefully drawing a square, say of 15 cm side, and by moving the planimeter
around its boundary.
(ii) A correction for zero circle must be applied if the anchor point is placed
inside the area to be measured.
(iii) To check the area measured, the boundary of the area may be traced in the
opposite direction to that made in the beginning. The initial and final readings
at the starting point should agree within a limit of two to five units.

12.6.4 planimeter Constant (M)


It is also known as multiplier constant. The value of the constant for various
settings of the tracing arm are generally furnished by the instrument maker. When
not furnished, it can be calculated by the expression,
M = 2 rL (12.9)
where M is the planimeter constant, L the length of the tracing arm and r the
radius of the roller or wheel. The value of M is generally kept at 100 cm2. For
any other setting of the tracing arm, M = A1/d1 = A/d
where
A1 = known area,
A = area to be determined,
d1 = total change in the reading due to the movement of the tracing point along
the periphery of the area, and
d = change in the wheel readings for known area.

12.6.5 adjustments of planimeter


The planimeter should be examined before application with respect to the following
requirements:
1. The planimeter registering roller must rotate about the axis freely and
without vibrations.
Measurement of Area 527

This is attained by adjusting the screws near the bearings, for which purpose
it is necessary to loosen the corresponding clamp screws. Thereafter, the
screws are tightened and a clearance between the edges of the registering
roller and the vernier must be provided for the passage of a thin sheet of
paper.
2. The plane of the registering roller rim must be perpendicular to the axis
of the tracing arm.
As a test, a figure is traced twice with the planimeter with the registering
roller in two different positions. If the obtained values differ by a value
exceeding 1 : 200 of their arithmetical mean, the area should always be
determined at two positions of the registering roller and the arithmetic
mean of the resulting values should be taken.

12.6.6 accuracy
If the relationship between the number of revolutions and an area is established
accurately, the errors involved in the planimetric measurements are accidental and
are principally due to the inability of the observer to follow exactly the boundary
of the figure with the tracing point. For the same care and skill on the part of
an observer, the smaller the area, the larger is the relative error of measurement.
Hence, the area determined with a planimeter is more accurate when the area is
greater and particularly when the plotting scale is large. It can safely be considered
that for an area of about 15 cm2 on paper, the planimeter provides an average
precision of 1 : 400 when the planimeter and the plan are both in good condition.
In any case, the error should not exceed 1 in 200.

e xample 12.5 A surveyor drew a 10 cm square on a piece of paper and


traced it with a planimeter for three times with the following readings: 2070,
3680, 5290, 6900. He then used this planimeter to determine the drainage area
marked off on a map. He traced the drainage area four times with the following
readings: 2840, 6470, 0105, 3730, 7360. If the map scale is 1 cm = 50 m, what
is the area in hectares.
s olution The observed planimeter readings for the square are 2070, 3680,
5290 and 6900.
The initial reading (I.R.) is 2070.
Difference of first reading from I.R. = 3680 – 2070 = 1610
Difference of second reading from first reading = 5290 – 3680 = 1610
Difference of third reading from second reading = 6900 – 5290 = 1610
Average of the three values, d1 = 1610
Area of the square, A1 = 10 × 10 = 100 cm2
Drainage area
Observed planimeter readings are 2840, 6470, 0105, 3730 and 7360.
The initial reading (I.R.) is 2840.
Difference of first reading from I.R. = 6470 – 2840 = 3630
528 Surveying

Difference of second reading from first reading = 0105 + 10 000 – 6470


= 3635
Difference of third reading from second reading = 3730 – 0105 = 3625
Difference of fourth reading from third reading = 7360 – 3730 = 3630
The average of the four values, d = 3630
d
( ) 3630
( )
Area, A = __ A1 = _____ × 100 = 225.46 cm2
d1 1610
Scale is 1 cm = 50 m

( )
50 2
Actual drainage area = 225.46 × ___ = 563 650 m2
1
= 56.365 hectares
e xample 12.6 The area of a square of 10 cm side was measured by a
planimeter with the anchor point outside the figure and the initial and final readings
were found to be 6.852 and 8.704, respectively. With the same setting of the tracing
arm and the anchor point outside, another irregular figure was traversed clockwise
and the initial and final readings were found to be 2.378 and 8.626, respectively.
What is the area of the figure?
If the plan scale is 1 cm = 10 m, calculate the area in m2.
s olution Area of the figure = M (F.R. – I.R. ± 10 N + C )
Here, N = 0 and C = 0, as the anchor point is outside the figure.
First case:
10 × 10 = M (8.704 – 6.852)
100
or M = _____
1.852
Second case:
Area = M (8.626 – 2.378)

(100
)
= _____ × 6.248 = 337.365 cm2
1.852
Again, 1 cm2 = 100 m2 (since 1 cm = 10 m)
2
Area of the figure = 337.365 × 100 = 33 736.5 m

e xample 12.7 Calculate the area of the zero circle with the following data:

I.R. F.R. Position of anchor point Remarks


6.520 2.724 Outside the figure The zero of the counting disc
crossed the fixed index mark
once in the clockwise direction.
1.222 7.720 Inside the figure The zero of the counting disc
crossed the fixed index mark
twice in the anticlock direction.
Measurement of Area 529

Assume that the tracing arm of the planimeter was so set that one revolution
of the measuring wheel measures 100 cm2 on the paper.
s olution
First case
C = 0, N = 1
Area of the figure = M (F.R. – I.R. + 10N )
= 100 × (2.724 – 6.520 + 10 × 1),
= 100 × 6.204 = 620.4 cm2
Second case
Area of the figure = M (F.R. – I.R. – 10N + C)
= 100 × (7.720 – 1.222 – 10 × 2 + C)
= 100 × (–13.502 + C)
Equating the two values,
100 × (–13.502 + C) = 620.4
or C = 19.706
Hence, the area of the zero circle
= M × C = 100 × 19.706 = 1970.6 cm2

e xample 12.8 The length of tracing arm of a planimeter is 15.92 cm. The
distance from the hinge to the anchor point is 16.0 cm. The diameter of the rim of
the wheel is 2 cm. The wheel is placed outside (beyond the hinge from the tracing
point) at a distance of 3.00 cm from the hinge. Calculate the area corresponding
to one revolution of the wheel and the area of the zero circle.
s olution We know that the value of M is the area of the plan corresponding
to one revolution of the wheel point.
Here, L = 15.92 cm, d = 2 cm
Hence, M = 15.92 × × 2 = 100.03 cm2
Area of the zero circle = (L2 + 2LL1 + R 2 ); wheel being outside
Here, L = 15.92 cm, L1 = 3.0 cm, R = 16.0 cm
Area of the zero circle = [(15.92)2 + (2 × 15.92 × 3.00) + (16.0)2]
= (253.446 + 95.52 + 256.0) = 1900.555 cm2

12.7 diGital planiMeter


It is an area­curvimeter which plots the apexes of polygonal figures without the
need to trace straight lines. Also, it is able to make measurements of curved
contours and very small areas. Hence, the device functions not only as a planimeter
and curvimeter, but also as a measuring system (computer + digitiser) as well.

12.7.1 Construction
A typical digital planimeter model X­PLAN 380 d III is shown in Plate 13. It
consists of the following keys:
530 Surveying

It is most important part of instrument (Fig. 12.13) and


offers a large number of facilities for calculation of area and length. It consists
of the following:

CE/c is the clear entry/clear key to clear the displayed number, cancel
measurements, and interrupts printing. When pressed during
calculations only the last entry made is cleared. If pressed second
time the entire calculation is cleared.
RM Recall memory key
+M Adds displaced figures to internal memory
+ is the summation key.
END is the end key for completed measurement value
COPY Prints display without effecting display measurement
SET The set key is used for setting the required unit and scale. The first
depression of the key is for unit setting, the second depression for the
vertical scale ratio, and the third depression for horizontal scale ratio.
YES Affirms option posed by display
NO Rejects option posed by display
P/NP print/No print key
0 – 9 Number input keys
#P Number point key
SFT Shifts to secondary function key
MARK Used to initiate/ terminate the mark mode—for coordinate point
marking
. Decimal key
+/– Changes the sign of the displayed figure
+ – × Arithmetic keys
= Equals key
F0, F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, F6, F7, F8, F9—When X­ PLAN is connected to a computer,
these become function keys.
CLM Clear memory key
CL Clear summation key
FEED Feed paper into printer
SET Interface set key
# Automatic memory function key
Measurement of Area 531

When it is lifted, trace arm is released and power is switched


on.
It travels upwards and downwards on the surface to be
measured. The arm oscillates approximately 115° and has a measurement area of
approximately 380 mm in width.
Numbers up to eight figures, decimal and negative numbers
can be displayed on the display screen. Measuring units, memory and functions
are also displayed.
A diamond inlaid wheel is used for greater precision
and durability. It eliminates slipping as well.
It is used to start the operation. In the point mode,
it is used for plotting apexes by depressing it.
This is the point to put on the top of the line to be traced.
It is large size revolving eccentric lens having a wider field of
view.
Point measurement mode and continuous measurement
mode can be altered by this.
When measuring an arc, this key is pressed near the center
of the arc to switch in to arc measurement mode.
When the key is pressed immediately following [S/P] key
or [ARC] key input, that input will be cancelled and the measurement is allowed
to continue from that point.

12.7.2 Working
For measuring an area of a polygonal figure
(Fig. 12.14) consisting of straight and curved
lines, both the point and continuous mode of
device are used. The former mode is used to
measure straight lines, whereas the latter is
used for curved lines.
The tracing arm fixing lever is lifted to
switch on the power. The SET key is pressed
to set up the measurement conditions for
measurement of area. When on the display
screen AREA appears the YES key is pressed.
Then the unit of measurement is set. Scale ratio can now be entered by selecting
scale ratio assignment. The required horizontal and vertical scale ratios are set.
For example, let 1 in 1000 be the horizontal scale ratio to be set. When set key is
pressed for the second time, the symbol RX blinks on the display. The denominator
of the given scale ratio, i.e., 1000 is set with the number keys and the set key
is pressed again. Now the symbol RY blinks and the vertical scale ratio may be
set.
532 Surveying

To start with the measurement, the center mark of the tracer lens is set at the
initial point, say A, and the Start/ Point switch is depressed. If a straight line is
to be traced, say AB, the trace mark is set at the other point B of the straight line
and the Start/Point switch is depressed again. But in case, the path to be traced
is a curved one such as between points C and D, the CON, continuous switch is
pressed for continuous mode operation and the path is traced precisely from C to
D. Since the line from point D to point A is a straight line, the [CON] switch is
pressed again at point D to return to straight line mode (point mode).
To find the area enclosed by the figure [S/P] key is pressed at point A. The
area enclosed is displayed on the screen. The area and the length in given units
and ratios are displayed. The trace arm fixing lever is pushed down to switch off
the power.

12.7.3 special features


It offers few distinguishing facilities. Some of them are:
1. Simultaneous measurement of the area and length of line (length of
contour).
2. It measures both in Metric and British system of units, i.e., mm, cm, m,
km, in, ft.
3. It has a measuring range of:
380 mm in vertical direction,
20000 mm in horizontal direction.
4. The resolution in the line measurement is as high as 0.01 mm.
5. Accuracy: Within 0.1% margin of error.
6. It has rechargeable Ni­cd battery as the power source with a life of
approximately 40 h.
7. It is nearly 920 gm in weight.
8. Dimension of instrument body in (334 mm × 162 mm × 47 mm).
All the above features help a person to find the area and length of curved
contours and very small areas with higher degree of precision. The instrument is
also capable of measuring centroid of an area; centroid of an arc; radial distance;
angle; coordinates; contour­based volume; volume, surface area and center of
gravity of revolutionary solids.

12.8 subdivision of an area


In practise, often a surveyor comes across a problem of subdividing a given
piece of land into different parts of known areas. There can be two cases, given
as follows.

12.8.1 subdividing an area from a point on its boundary


The problem essentially consists of finding the coordinates of another
point on the boundary, so that the line joining the two points subdivides the given
area as desired.
Measurement of Area 533

Let there be an area ABCDEF from which a definite area A1 is to be cut off
from a point G on the boundary (Fig.
12.15). The following procedure may
be followed:
1. Calculate the area of the figure
ABCDEF from the known coor­
dinates and plot the figure on a
fairly large scale.
2. By judgement, or by trial and
error, find a station, say F, so
that the area bounded on one
side of the line GF is approx­
imately close to the desired
value.
3. Compute the length and bearing
of GF and the area of the figure GFABG. Let it be A .
4. Length and bearing of GF is known. The bearing of FH is also known.
Hence, angle GFH can be computed. The actual line of subdivision GH
can be found from the relation:
1
A1 – A = __ FH FG sin GFH
2
(A1 – A )
or FH = 2 ________ sin GFH
FG
5. Once length of FH is known, the coordinates of H can be found.

12.8.2 subdividing an area by a line of Given bearing


The problem consists of finding the coordinates of two points on the
boundary of a given piece of land so that the line joining these points has the
given bearing and subdivides the area as desired.
Let there be an area ABCDEF (Fig. 12.16) from which a definite area A1 is
to be cut off by a line whose bearing is known. The following procedure may be
followed:
1. Calculate the area of the figure
ABCDEF from the coordinates and
plot it on a fairly large scale.
2. From any of the stations, say
C, draw a line CG in the given
direction so that it cuts off an area
CGABC (A ) approximately equal
to the desired area (A1).
3. Calculate the bearing and distance
of CA.
4. The three lines AB, BC, and CA
form a triangle, and since the
bearings of the lines are known,
the three angles of triangle ABC
are also known.
534 Surveying

5. From these three angles and the computed distance CA, the lengths CG
and AG can be calculated.
6. Calculate the coordinates of G.
7. Using the coordinates of G, A, B and C, calculate the area of the figure
CGABC.
8. If KJ is the actual cut off line, then
A1 – A = area of figure CGJKC.
9. From C and G drop perpendiculars CI and GH on line KJ. Let CI = GH
= x, angle JGH = , and angle KCI = . These angles can be found,
since the bearings of the lines are known.
10. Length JK = CG – x tan + x tan
x
11. Area of figure CGJKC = __ (CG + JK)
2
x
= __ (CG + CG – x tan + x tan )
2
x
= __ (2CG + x (tan – tan ))
2
x2
= x CG + __ (tan – tan )
2
x2
A1 – A = x CG + __ (tan – tan )
2
12. The above equation is quadratic which can be solved for x.
13. Having found x, calculate GJ and CK.
GJ = x sec , CK = x sec
14. Calculate the coordinates of J and K.

e xample 12.9 Derive an expression for the area of a piece of ground enclosed
by straight lines joining a series of points having coordinates (N1, E1) , , (Nn,
En), (N0, E0). Find the area enclosed by the traverse ABCDEFA whose coordinates
are, respectively, (0, 0), (300, 100), (450, 350), (425, 600), (200, 600), (– 100,
350), (0, 0) and find the position of a fence due north and south which divides
the area in two halves.
s olution Refer to Fig. 12.17.
Let there be a closed traverse ABCDEA running in clockwise direction.
Area ABCDEA = Trapezium [BC 32 + CD 43 + DE 54 – EA15 – AB 21]
1
Area BC 32 = __ (NB – NC) (EC + EB)
2
1
Area CD 43 = __ (NC – ND) (ED + EC)
2
1
Area DE 45 = __ (ND – NE) (EE + ED)
2
1
Area EA15 = __ (NA – NE) (EE + EA)
2
Measurement of Area 535

1
Area AB 21 = __ (NB – NA) (EA + EB)
2
1
Area ABCDEA = __ [NB – NC) (EC + EB) + (NC – ND) (ED + EC)
2
+ (ND – NE) (EE + ED) – (NA – NE) (EE + EA)
– (NB – NA) (EA + EB)]
1
= __ [NC (– EC – EB + ED + EC) + ND (– ED – EC + EE + ED)
2
+ NE (– EE – ED + EE + EA) + NB (EC + EB – EA – EB)
+ NA (EA + EB – EE – EA)]
1
= __ [NA (EB – EE) + NB (EC – EA) + NC (ED – EB)
2
+ ND (EE – EC) + NE (EA – ED)]
It will be seen from the above that we must multiply each north coordinate
by the difference between the following and preceding east coordinates (always
subtracting the preceding east coordinate from the following one), add together
algebraically and then halve.
In general form, if a figure has coordinates
(N0, E0 ), (N1, E1 ), , (Nn , En), (N0, E0)
n
Area = 1/2 Nr (Er + 1 – Er – 1 )
r=0
where n = number of sides of the figure.
The coordinates of the closed traverse ABCDEFA are as follows.

Point North East


A 0 0
B 300 100
C 450 350
D 425 600
E 200 600
F – 100 350
536 Surveying

1
A = __ [NA (EB – EF) + NB (EC – EA) + NC (ED – EB) + ND (EE – EC)
2
+ NE (EF – ED) + NF (EA – EE)]
1
= __ [0 (100 – 350) + 300 (350 – 0) + 450 (600 – 100)
2
+ 425 (600 – 350) + 200 (350 – 600) – 100 (0 – 600)]
1
= __ [0 + 105 000 + 225 000 + 106 250 – 50 000 + 60 000]
2
= 223 125 square units.
From inspection it can be found that CF is a north–south line which may divide
the area ABCDEFA in a approximately two halves. Required half area = 1/2 × 223 125
= 111 562.5 square units
Area of figure CDEFC
1
= __ [NC (ED – EF) + ND (EE – EC) + NE (EF – ED) + NF (EC – EE)]
2
1
= __ [450 (600 – 350) + 425 (600 – 350) + 200 (350 – 600) – 100 (350 – 600)]
2
1
= __ [+ 112 500 + 106 250 – 50 000 + 25 000]
2
= 96 875 square units.
Since this area of 96 875 units is less than half the area by 14 687.5 units
(111 562.5 – 96 875), so the line FC will have to be shifted to its left by a distance
x so as to make up this deficiency.
Let the required dividing line be GH at a distance x from CF, as shown in
Fig. 12.18.
NC – NG ________
________ NC – NB
x =
EC – EB
450 – GK _________
_________ 450 – 300
x =
350 – 100
Measurement of Area 537
3
or GK = 450 – __ x
5
350 –
____ = _______x
HK
Also,
100 350
2
or HK = 100 – __ x
7
Hence, GH = GK + KH
3 2 31
= 450 – __ x + 100 – __ x = 550 – ___ x
5 7 55
1
( 31
Area of trapezium GCFH = __ 550 + 550 – ___ x x
2 55 )
31
= 550 x – ___ x2
70
31
or 14 687.5 = 550x – ___ x2
70
or x2 – 1241.9x + 33 165.3 = 0
or x = 27.30 units
Hence, the required north–south dividing line runs 350 – 27.3 = 322.70 units due
east of A.

12.9 sourCes of error


Some of the sources of error in computation of area are as follows.
1. Poor selection of offsets and intervals which do not fit properly within an
irregular boundary.
2. Using too large coordinate squares, making it difficult to estimate partial
squares.
3. Adjustments of latitudes and departures not made in accordance with true
conditions.
4. Poor selection of the origin, resulting in minus values of coordinates and
double meridian distances.
5. Poor setting of the planimeter and failure to check planimeter constant.
6. Inaccurate determination of the planimeter constants.

12.10 Mistakes
Some of the mistakes in computing area are:
1. Confusion in signs of coordinates, latitudes, departures, and double
meridian distances.
2. Failing to consider the area of the zero circle in case the anchor point is
kept inside the area to be measured.
3. Failing to repeat the starting point while listing coordinates in using the
difference between sums of products of adjacent diagonal terms taken
down to the right and those taken up to the right.
538 Surveying

Summary
One of the objects of surveying is to determine the area of the land surveyed. Different
methods of finding area, e.g., by geometrical figures, from offset, from coordinates and
by planimeter are described. The instrument, planimeter is discussed in detail. Problem of
division of land parcel is discussed and methods of solution, fitting in the field conditions
are described.

Exercises
12.1 State and derive the following:
(a) Trapezoidal rule (b) Simpson’s rule
12.2 Discuss in brief the various methods of measurements of area by offsets from the
base line. State the relative merits and demerits of each method.
12.3 Describe the principle underlying the construction of a planimeter.
12.4 Describe the procedure of measuring a given area with the help of a planimeter. What
is meant by ‘zero circle’? How is it accounted for in the measurement of areas?
12.5 Briefly describe the procedure of partitioning a given property.
The three sides of a triangle are 51.240 m, 68.25 m and 72.20 m. What is the area
of the triangle in hectares?
[Ans. 0.167 hectare]
12.6 In order to obtain the area of a plot, a series of perpendicular offsets—2.2 m, 3
m, 1.65 m, 2.46 m, 2.00 m, 2.25 m and 1.68 m—were laid from a survey line
to an irregular boundary at regular intervals of 5 m. Find the desired area using:
(a) Trapezoidal rule, (b) Simpson’s rule.
[Ans. 66.5 m2, 70.03 m2]
2
12.7 Find the area (in m ) from the following field notes of a chain survey.
72.00 F
E 36.45 52.60
38.20 24.00 C
D 52.00 16.40
10.20 32.00 B
0.0 A
[Ans. 3734.72 m2]
12.8 The following offsets were taken from a chain line to a hedge at regular intervals
of 5.0 m:
Offsets (m): 2.72, 3.46, 5.23, 6.80, 4.86, 3.35, 3.00, 2.50, 1.60.
Determine the area included between the chain line and the hedge by:
(a) Mid­ordinate rule, (b) Average ordinate rule and (c) Trapezoidal rule
[Ans. 156.8 m2, 150.84 m2, 156.8 m2]
12.9 A series of perpendicular offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary.
Determine the area using Simpson’s rule.

Distance (m) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Offset (m) 2.2 2.6 0.85 1.24 2.05 1.66 1.00 0.84
[Ans. 112.53 m2]
Measurement of Area 539

12.10 The data of a closed traverse survey is shown below. Determine the area.

Line Latitude Departure


(m) (m)
AB – 300 + 450
BC + 640 + 110
CD + 100 – 380
DA – 440 – 180
[Ans. 253 100 m2 ]
12.11 Following are the corrected latitudes (m) and departures (m) for a closed traverse.
Obtain its area.
Side Latitude Departure
N S E W
AB 108 4
BC 15 249
CD 123 4
DA 0 257
[ Ans. 29 221.5 m2 ]
12.12 Following are the corrected latitudes and departures of the lines of a closed traverse.
Calculate the area of the traverse by the D.M.D. method.
Line Latitude (m) Departure (m)
AB – 116.1 – 44.4
BC + 6.8 + 58.2
CD + 80.5 + 17.2
DA + 28.8 – 31.0
[ Ans. 4723 m2]
12.13 The following observations were recorded by a planimeter with the wheel inside the
plotted area. Find the area if the tracing arm is rotated clockwise by two revolutions.
Diameter of wheel = 1.90 cm.
Initial reading = 1.923
Final reading = 9.753
Distance from the line to the anchor point = 16.00 cm
Distance from the line to the tracing point = 10.70 cm
Distance from the line to the wheel = 1.65 cm
[Ans. 275.7 cm2]
12.14 The tracing area of a planimeter is so set that one revolution of the roller corresponds
to 10 cm2. A figure is traversed clockwise first with the anchor point outside and
then with the anchor point inside. The observed difference in planimeter reading are
2.342 and – 9.319, respectively. Find the area of the zero circle. [Ans. 116.6 cm2]
12.15 An area was measured with a planimeter with the anchor point inside the area. The
initial and final readings were 2.268 and 4.582. The zero mark on the disc passed the
fixed index mark once in the clockwise direction. The constant C of the instrument
was 26.430 and M = 10 cm2. Calculate the area of the figure. [Ans. 387.44 cm2]
540 Surveying

12.16 Calculate the area enclosed by a traverse ABCD for the following data.

Line Latitude (m) Departure (m)


AB + 32.00 + 40.20
BC – 3.00 + 92.00
CD – 97.85 + 6.402
DE – 15.64 – 107.00
EA + 84.6 – 31.60
[Ans. 12 862.27 m2 ]

Objective-type Questions
12.1 The area of an oblique triangle ABC of base b and perpendicular height h
is
(a) 1/(2bh)
___________________
a+b–c
(b) s (s – a) (s – b) (s – c) where s = _________
2
1
(c) __ b c sin A
2
(d) All of the above
12.2 One hectare of an area is equivalent to
(a) 102 m2 (b) 104 m2 (c) 106 m2 (d) 109 m2.
12.3 If n is the number of sides and L the length of sides of a regular polygon, its area
is
n 180° n 180°
(a) __ L2 cot2 ____
n (b) __ L2 sec2 ____
n
4 4
n 2
__ 180°
2 ____ n 2
__ 180°
2 ____
(c) L cosec n (d) L tan n
4 4
12.4 The method of computing areas by subdividing a plot into triangles is suitable for
(a) work of small nature (b) work of big nature
(c) road work (d) canal work
12.5 The method suitable for computing the area when the boundary line departs
considerably from a straight line is
(a) mid­ordinate rule (b) average ordinate rule
(c) trapezoidal rule (d) Simpson’s rule
12.6 Meridian distance of a survey line is the
(a) distance of its mid­point from the meridian
(b) distance of its far end from the meridian
(c) distance of its near end from the meridian
(d) departure of the line
12.7 In calculating the area of a plan by a planimeter, the area of zero circle is excluded
when the
(a) anchor point is inside the area
(b) anchor point is outside the area
(c) tracing arm is inside the area
(d) tracing arm is outside the area
Measurement of Area 541

12.8 The area of an irregular plotted figure can be accurately obtained with the help of
a
(a) pentagraph (b) parallax bar
(c) planimeter (d) Any of these
12.9 Area enclosed between a curved boundary and a chain line can be found by
(a) Simpson’s rule (b) Poncelet’s rule
(c) Francke’s rule (d) All of these
12.10 Simpson’s rule for calculating area is applicable only when the ordinates are
(a) odd (b) even
(c) Either (a) or (b) (d) None of these
12.11 Which of the following figures are equal to one acre?
(i) 43560 sq. ft
(ii) 40 gunthas
(iii) 10 sq. Gunter’s chain
(iv) 4840 sq. yards
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) (i), (ii) and (iii) (b) (ii), (iii) and (iv)
(c) (i), (ii) and (iv) (d) (i), (iii) and (iv)
12.12 For calculating area of a right angled triangle ABC with angle C being 90° which
of the following(s) is (are) correct?

(i) (ii) (iii)

Of these
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (i) and (ii) are correct
(c) Only (i) and (iii) are correct (d) All (i), (iii) and (iv) are correct
12.13 The assumption that the boundaries between the extremities of three consecutive
offsets is a parabolic arc whose axis is parallel to the offsets is made for
(i) Average ordinate rule
(ii) Mid­ordinate rule
(iii) Simpson’s one­third rule
Of these
(a) (i) and (iii) are correct (b) (ii) and (iii) are correct
(c) Only (iii) is correct (d) only (i) is correct
12.14 In measuring area of the land surveyed the numbers of offset were 16. Which of
the following rule(s) can not be used directly for estimating the area?
(i) Mid­ordinate rule (ii) Trapezoidal rule (iii) Simpson’s one­third rule
Codes
(a) (i) (b) (i) and (ii) (c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (iii)
12.15 The area of a closed traverse is given by algebraic sum of the products of latitude
of each line with its longitude. The method is known as area by
(i) Coordinates
(ii) Latitude and meridian distance
(iii) Latitude and double meridian distance
(iv) Departure and total latitude
Codes
(a) (ii) only (b) (iv) only
(c) (i) and (iv) (d) (ii) and (iii) only
542 Surveying

Answers to Objective-type Questions


12.1 (d) 12.2 (b) 12.3 (a) 12.4 (a) 12.5 (d) 12.6 (a)
12.7 (b) 12.8 (c) 12.9 (d) 12.10 (a) 12.11 (c) 12.12 (b)
12.13 (c) 12.14 (d) 12.15 (a)
13 MeasureMent
of VoluMes

Introduction
An important application of practical surveying is to measure volumes of earthwork,
masonry and concrete for various types of construction projects. As an example, a
surveyor will be called upon to estimate the amount of earth moved in a highway
construction, since the contractor is often paid on the basis of the amount of earth
moved. As another example, if earth is taken from a private property, the land
owner would like to be paid for it and will, therefore, call upon a surveyor to
estimate the amount of earth taken away. Some of the other applications of volume
computations are determining the capacity of bins, tanks, reservoirs, borrow pits,
pipelines, sewers, cellars, grading, etc.
Masonary and concrete volume may be computed by solid geometry from
dimensions on a plan. But in practise, the quantities are computed from actual
structural dimensions taken in the field. These solids are usually prisms, pyramids,
cones or frustums of these solid figures.
Most of this chapter deals with the methods of computing earthwork for cuts
and fills for ordinary grading. The earthwork volumes, in general, are computed
from the cross sections. The cross sections taken before construction are called
original cross sections and those after the construction is completed are called
final cross sections. These cross sections define parallel areas at definite points at
known distances apart, along the centre line of the project. The solid between these
cross sections approximates a prismoid. Since the exact geometrical form of the
solid is not realised in the field, the accuracy of the results in impaired. The unit
of volume is cubic metres, but the capacity of reservoirs is measured in millions
of litres. The volumes may be of objects having straight or curved surfaces. For
the computation of volumes in curved surfaces, the effect of curvature is taken into
account. It is common practise to first calculate the volumes between the straight
surfaces and then to apply a correction, if any, for curvature.
After the quantities of the cut and fill have been determined, a ‘mass diagram’
is used to balance the quantities of cut and fill and in solving the problems of
length and direction of haul. Before discussing the procedures for determining
and calculating the earthwork volumes, it is important to understand a few terms
which will be encountered frequently.
544 Surveying

13.1 Definitions
The grade or gradient between two points of fixed elevations is equal
to the difference in elevation divided by the distance between the points. The grade
is generally given as a percentage: 1.5%, 2%, 3%, etc.
A cut and fill at any point is the difference between the grade
elevation at that point and the elevation of the existing structure.
A geometrical solid bounded by planes is known as
polyhedron.
It is a polyhedron with two of its faces (bases) as equal polygons
lying in parallel planes and having their homologous sides parallel. The other
faces are parallelograms formed by planes passing through the homologous sides
of the equal polygons.
If the two bases in the prism are not parallel, it is known as truncated prism.
If one of the bases is perpendicular to the lateral edges, the prism is known as
right truncated prism.
It is a solid that has parallel plane bases or ends and is bounded
on the sides either by planes or warped surfaces. It may be conceived as generated
by a right line generatrix moving continuously around the perimeter of the two
bases as directrices. It may be composed of any combination of prisms, pyramids,
wedges, cylinders, cones, or frustums whose bases and apices lie in the bases of
the prismoid. Since cylinders and cones are special forms of prisms and pyramids,
it may be said that prismoids may be resolved into prisms, pyramids and wedges,
and any formula for volume applicable to all the three, will also be applicable to
a combination of these.
In practise, the slope lines of a cross section
(assumed to be straight lines in determining its area) may not be straight lines.
This may cause a decrease or an increase of actual area than the calculated one.
If the variation is such as to cause a decrease in the cross-sectional area, it is
known as over break. On the other hand, if the area increases, the increase is
called under break.
When the volume of a completed embankment is less
than the volume of the excavation from which the material for fill was obtained,
the difference is known as shrinkage. Whereas, if the volume of embankment is
greater, the difference is called swell.
The estimates of the cost of excavation are usually based on a
specified length of haul called the free haul. The average excess of haul is known
as overhaul.

13.2 MethoDs of MeasureMents of VoluMe


In practise, it is rare to measure volumes directly. Indirect measurements are
obtained by measuring distances and areas bearing a relation to the volume desired.
The most common methods used are cross section method, spot level method, and
contour line method.
Measurement of Volumes 545

13.3 MeasureMent froM Cross seCtions


This is the most commonly used method for computing volumes. The total volume
is divided into a series of solids by the planes of cross sections. The spacing of
the cross sections depends upon the character of the ground and the accuracy
desired.
When the ground is irregular, the cross sections must be taken close together.
In addition to the sections at regular intervals (20 – 30 m) these should also be
taken at points of change from excavation to embankment and vice versa, and
where a marked change of slope occurs. The area of these cross sections can be
found by calculating from the field data or by a planimeter if the cross section
has been plotted. The usual field data available is the centre depth of earthwork
and the slope of the original ground on either side of the centre line, side widths
and side heights. The volume is computed by the average end area formula or by
the prismoidal formula.

13.4 types of Cross seCtions anD areas


The various types of cross sections which may be encountered in a route are
shown in Fig. 13.1. A level section (Fig. 13.1 (a)) is suitable for a flat terrain and
a two-level or three-level section (Figs. 13.1 (b) and (c)) is employed for ordinary
ground conditions. A five-level (Fig. 13.1 (d)) or a multilevel section is employed
for rough topography. A transition section (Fig. 13.1 (e)) and side-hill section
(Fig. 13.1 (f)) occur in passing from cut to fill and on side-hill locations.
The notation used for the area calculations in the following subsections is given
below.
b = subgrade (constant formation) width. It is the finished roadway and
depends upon the project requirement. It is kept wider in cuts than on
fills, to provide for drainage
s:1 = side slope (s horizontal to 1 vertical). Usually cut slopes are kept 1:1
and fill slopes 1.5:1 for ordinary soils
n:1 = transverse slope of original ground (n horizontal to 1 vertical)
h = depth of earthwork on centre line
d, d1 = the side widths. These are the distances from the center line to the
intersections of the side slopes with the original surface
h1, h2 = the side heights. These are the vertical distances from subgrade to the
intersections of the side slopes with the original surface
w = formation width of excavation in side-hill section
A = the sectional area

13.4.1 level section


Refer to Fig. 13.2.
b
d = d1 = __ + sh,
2
1
__
A = [b + (b + 2sh)] h = (b + sh) h
2
546 Surveying

s:1

s:1

d d1
Measurement of Volumes 547

13.4.2 two-level section


Refer to Fig. 13.3.

E
n:1
D

h2
h s:1
h1
s:1

G A F B H
b/2 b/2

d d1

Area ABEDC = Area ACF + Area CDF + Area DEF + Area FEB
1 b
2 2( b
= __ __ h1 + hd + hd1 + __ h2
2 )
= __ ( __ (h + h ) + h (d + d ) )
1 b
1 2 1
2 2
b h
A = __ (h1 + h2) + __ (d + d1)
4 2
Now, GA = GF – FA
b
or sh1 = d – __ (13.1)
2
b
or sh1 = (h – h1) n – __ (since d = (h – h1) n)
2

or
b
h1 (s + n) = n h – ___
2n ( )
or
n b
h1 = _____ h – ___
s+n 2n ( )
From Eq. (13.1)
b
d = __ + sh1
2

or
b
2 n+s
sn b
d = __ + _____ h – ___
2n ( )
Similarly,
n
h2 = _____
b
___
n – s h + 2n ( )
548 Surveying

and
b sn
d1 = __ + _____
2 n–s ( b
h + ___
2n )
Substituting the values of d1, h1 and h2 in Eq. (13.1) and simplifying,
s(b/2)2 + n2 (bh + sh2)
A = ____________________
(n2 – s2)
13.4.3 three-level section
Refer to Fig. 13.4.

Expressions for d, d1, h1 and h2 can be derived as was done for a two-level
section:

( ) ( _____
b
d = h + __
2s
ns
n + s)
ns
d = ( h + __ ) ( ______
2s n – s )
b 1
1
1

Area ABCDE = Area ACF + Area FCD + Area FDE + Area FEB
1 b
2 2 [ b
= __ __ h1 + hd + hd1 + __ h2
2 ]
b h
A = __ (h1 + h2) + __ (d + d1)
4 2
13.4.4 side-hill two-level section
Refer to Fig. 13.5.

b
w = __ + nh; d = (h2 – h)n
2

( b
h2 = h + ___
2n ) ( _____
ns
n – s );
b
(
ns ___
d = __ + _____
2 n – s 2n
b
+h )
Measurement of Volumes 549

n:1
h2

s:1
h

h1 w1 w

b/2
d1 d

Area in excavation,
wh 2 w2
b
__
2
+ nh
A = ____ = _______ = ________
2
( )
2 2(n – s) 2(n – s)

w1 = b – w

(
b
) ( _____
h1 = ___ + h
2n
ns
n – s); d 1
b ns ___
= __ + _____
2 n – s 2n
b
(–h )
( – nh )
b 2
__
w h 2
A = ____ = ________
1 1
Area in embankment, 1
2 2(n – s)

13.4.5 Multilevel section


The best way to find the area of a multilevel section (Fig. 13.6) is by the
coordinate method. The origin is assumed to be at the middle of the base width.
The coordinates of points A, B, C, , H can be obtained from the field notes.
The coordinates of points to the right and above the origin are assumed to be
positive. The usual form of the recorded notes for points C, D, E, , H is as
shown below.
h1 ___
___ h2 h3 ___
___ h4
w1 , w2 , 0, w3 , w4
With the proper sign of the coordinates and including the base points A and B
these may be rewritten as
0
_______ h1 h2 h3
h ______ h4 0
, ______ , ______ , __ , , ______ , _______ (13.2)
– b/2 + – w1 + – w2 + 0 + w3 – + w4 – + b/2 –
One of the methods to calculate area from the above notes is as follows:
1. Place the opposite algebraic sign on the opposite side of each lower term
as shown in the expression (13.2) above.
550 Surveying

F
H
G
D E

h2 h h3 h4
h1 s:1 s:1

A B
b
w2 w4

w1 w3

2. Multiply each upper term by the algebraic sum of the two adjacent lower
terms using the signs facing the upper term.
3. Half the algebraic sum of these products will be the required area.
1
[ ( b
)
A = __ h1 + __ – w2 + h2 (+ w1 + 0) + h (+ w2 + w3) + h3 (+ 0 + w4)
2 2

( b
+ h4 – w3 + __
2 )]
13.5 VoluMe forMulae
The volume of earthwork may be calculated either by the end area formula or
the prismoidal formula. The prismoidal formula usually yields a volume less than
that obtained by the end area formula. An exception occurs when at one of the
sections the centre height is large, with a narrow base, and at the other consecutive
section the centre height is small with a large base. The difference between the
volume obtained by the two formulae is known as prismoidal correction. In rock
excavations and concrete work the prismoidal formula is normally unjustified. This
is because of the low precision of the field data. In such cases, it is preferable to
compute volume by the end area method to which when a prismoidal correction is
added, gives the prismoidal volume. The end area formula is not exact when the
end areas of the prismoids are unequal. The greater the difference in the end areas,
the greater will be the error in the volume computed by the end area formula. The
maximum value of this error can be 16.66% when one of the end areas is zero,
e.g., when a cut changes to a fill on a side hill. The error in volume computation
by the end area formula is usually less than even 2%. Though approximate, its
precision is usually consistent with the field method used in determining the end
areas, and since it involves less computations, it is preferred over the prismoidal
formula. Use of the prismoidal formula is justified only when there is a large
difference between the end areas of a prismoid, when the cross sections are spaced
at short intervals, and when the surface irregularities have been measured in the
Measurement of Volumes 551

field. Usually the end area formula is used for preliminary estimates, whereas
prismoidal formula is used for final estimates.

13.5.1 end area formula


This is also known as trapezoidal formula. The volume is assumed to be equal
to the average of the areas of the two ends multiplied by the distance between
them.
Volume between first two sections,
(A1 + A2)
V1 = ________ L
2
Volume between next two sections,
(A2 + A3)
V2 = ________ L
2
and so on
Total volume, V = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn

or [
A1 + An
V = _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An – 1 L
2 ]
where A1, A2, A3, , An are the end consecutive areas and L is the distance
between them.

13.5.2 prismoidal formula


This is also known as Simpson’s rule for volumes. The meanings of the various
symbols used in this formula and its derivation, as given here, are listed below.
L = length of prismoid (the distance between two end areas)
A1, A2 = the two end areas A1B1C1D1A1 and A2B2C2D2A2 as shown in
Fig. 13.7
An = mid-area EFGHE (the area of the cross section midway between the
end areas)
h = perpendicular distance of EF from O
Select a point O in the plane of the mid cross section and join it to the vertices
of the end cross sections. The prismoid is thus divided into a number of pyramids
with O as the apex and the bases as side and end faces of the prismoid.
A1 L
1 L
()
Volume of pyramid OA1B1C1D1 = __ __ A1 = ____
3 2 6
A2 L
= __ ( __ ) A
1 L
Volume of pyramid OA2B2C2D2 2 = ____
3 3 6
1
Volume of pyramid OA1B1A2B2 = __ h (L EF)
3
1
= __ L (h EF
3
552 Surveying

D2

A2 End area

B2
C2

H
Mid-area
E O

F
G

A1 D1

End area

B1
C1

1
= __ L (2 area EFO)
3
2
= __ L (area EFO)
3
Similarly,
2
Volume of pyramid OC1D1C2D2 = __ L (area GHO)
3
2
Volume of pyramid OA1D1A2D2 = __ L (area EHO)
3
2
Volume of pyramid OB1C1B2C2 = __ L (area FGO)
3
1 1 2
Total volume = __ A1L + __ A2L + __ L (area EFO)
6 6 3
2 2
+ __ L (area GHO) + __ L (area EHO)
3 3
2
+ __ L (area FGO)
3
1 1 2
= __ A1L + __ A2L + __ L (area EFGH)
6 6 3
1 1 2
= __ A1L + __ A2L + __ AnL
6 6 3
1
= __ (A1 + A2 + 4An)
6
Measurement of Volumes 553

Let A1, A2, , An be the areas of various cross sections spaced at a uniform
interval L.
Volume between first three sections constituting the first prismoid,
2L L
V1 = ___ (A1 + 4A2 + A3) = __ (A1 + 4A2 + A3)
6 3
L
Volume of next prismoid = __ (A3 + 4A4 + A5) and so on
3
Total volume,
L
V = __ (A1 + 4A2 + A3 + A3 + 4A4 + A5 + A5 +
3
+ An – 2 + An – 2 + 4An – 1 + An )
L
or V = __ (A1 + 4A2 + 2A3 + 4A4 + 2A5 +
3
+ 2An – 2 + 4An – 1 + An )
L
or V = __ [(A1 + An) + 4 (A2 + A4 + An – 1)
3
+ 2 (A3 + A5 + + An – 2)]
It is necessary to have an odd number of cross sections to use this formula. In
case of even number of cross sections, the end strip is treated separately and the
volume of the remaining strips is calculated by the prismoidal formula. The volume of the
last strip is calculated either by the end area or prismoidal rule. In case if the latter is to
be applied, the area half way between the sections is interpolated by averaging the
dimensions of the end sections and not by averaging the end areas.

13.6 prisMoiDal CorreCtion (Cp)


As defined before, it is the difference between the volume computed by the end
area formula and the prismoidal formula. If the area is calculated by the end area
formula, the prismoidal correction is subtracted to obtain the exact volume. The
value of the correction for various cases is as follows.
Ls
Level section, Cp = ___ (h – h )2
6
L
Two-level section, Cp = __ (d – d ) (d1 – d 1 )
6s
Side-hill two-level section,
L
Cp = ___ (d – d )
12s [( ) (
b
__
2
b
+ nh – __ + n h
2 )] for cut

L b
[( ) (
Cp = ___ (d1 – d 1 ) __ – nh –
12s 2
b
__
2
– n h )]
for hill

d
Three-level section, Cp = ___ (h – h ) [(d + d1) – (d + d1 )]
12
where d, d1, h and n refer to the cross section at one end and d , d1 , h and n
refer to the same at the other end.
554 Surveying

13.7 CurVature CorreCtion (CC)


In all the formulae stated above, it was assumed that the c/ l of the cutting or
embankment is a straight line. In practise, however, often the c/l is curved. In
such cases the volume of earthwork is calculated by assuming the c/l to be straight
and the effect of curvature is accounted for in the final estimates. The effect of
curvature may be appreciable in cases such as road widening and hill side sections.
The curved volumes are calculated with the help of Pappu’s theorem which states
that the volume swept by a constant area rotating about a fixed axis is equal to the
product of that area and the length of the path traced by the centroid of the area.
No correction is required, since the area is symmetrical about
the centre axis.

L b
Cc = ± ___ (d 2 – d 21 ) h + __
6R 2s ( )
where R is the radius of the curve and Cc is the curvature correction for a length
of L in meters.
Plus (minus) sign indicates that the centroid is on the opposite (same) side of
the centre line as is the centre of curvature.

The curvature correction to the area


Ae
___
Cc = per unit length
R
dd1(d + d1)
where e = __________
3 An

Ae
___
Cc = per unit length
R
1
( b
where e = __ d + __ – nh ,
3 2 ) for large area

and e = __ ( d
1
3 1
b
+ __ + nh ,
2 ) form small area

13.8 VoluMe froM spot leVels


This method of estimating the earthwork quantities is also known as the unit area
method. In this method the area is divided into regular figures such as squares,
rectangles (Fig. 13.8 (a)) or triangles (Fig. 13.8 (b)) and the levels of corners of
the figures are measured before and after the construction. Thus the depth of the
cut or fill at each corner is a known parameter. The corners of the figures may be
at different elevations but lie in the same plane. The surface of the ground within
the figure, therefore lies in an inclined plane. If it is desired to grade down to a
level surface at a certain distance below the lowest corner of the figure, say abcd,
the earth to be moved will be a right truncated prism. If the depth of the cuts
Measurement of Volumes 555

are a1, b1, c1 and d1, respectively, and A is the area of the figure abcd, then the
volume is given by
a1 + b1 + c1 + d1
V = _______________ A
4

a b b
a1 b1 a c
1 2 1

d d1 c1 c e
d f
(a) 2 4 2
f i j
f1 g k
2 4 3 1
g1 k1
g k 1 2 2 1
(b)
l m n o
(c)
b
a c
1 3
2
7 e 3
d f
3

i j
g k
3 6 5
3
2 4
2 1
l m n o
(d)

Similarly, volume of the figure fgk is


f1 + g1 + k1
V = __________ A
3
Usually, the piece of land under consideration is divided into a number of
squares or rectangles, all having the same area. It may be seen from Fig. 13.8 (c)
that the heights of cut and fill are measured several times depending on the number
of figures joining the corners. Then, if h1, h2, h3 and h4 are the sum of
heights used once, twice, thrice and four times, respectively; the total volume is
given by
(1 h1 + 2 h2 + 3 h3 + 4 h4)
V = ____________________________
4
when the piece of land is divided into a number of triangles (Fig. 13.8 (d)) having
the same area, the height of cut all fill are measured several times for the reason
556 Surveying

stated above. Then, if h1, h2, , and so on are the sum of heights used once,
twice, ... and so on, respectively; the total volume is given by
(1 h1 + 2 h2 + 3 h3 + 4 h4 + ...)
V = _________________________________
3

13.9 VoluMe froM Contour Map


There are four methods for estimating volumes from contour map.

13.9.1 By Cross sections


The cross sections of the existing ground surface can be drawn. On this the grade
line of the proposed work is drawn. The area of the cross section is estimated by
any of the methods discussed in Chapter 12.
Figure 13.9 (a) shows the contour map of an area, and the corresponding ground
profile is shown in Fig. 13.9 (b). The straight line ab is the line obtained after
grading. The area of cut and that of fill for various cross sections can be found
as described in Section 13.4. The depths of fill or cut at various cross sections
1, 2, 3, etc., can be measured from the longitudinal section (Fig. 13.9 (b)). The
volume of earthwork between the adjacent cross sections may be calculated either
by the average end area formula or by the prismoidal formula.

13.9.2 By equal Depth Contours


In this method, the contours of the graded surface are drawn on the contour map.
The contour interval is kept same for both of them. The depth of cut or fill is
Measurement of Volumes 557

obtained for every point of intersection of the contours of the graded surface
and those of the existing surface; subtract the difference in elevation of the two
intersecting contours. By joining the points of equal cut or fill, a set of lines are
obtained shown by thick lines in Fig. 13.10. The thin lines in Fig. 13.10 represent
the existing contour lines and the graded surface contours are represented by
broken lines.
The irregular area bounded by the thick lines can be obtained by the use of a
planimeter. Then the volume between any two successive areas can be determined
by multiplying the average of the two areas with the depth between them or by
the prismoidal formula.
The contour map shown in Fig. 13.10 depicts the area entirely in cutting. The
contour interval is 1 m. The thick lines are the lines of 1, 2, 3, and 4 m cutting.
Let A1, A2, , An be the areas enclosed between successive thick lines, h be
the contour interval and V the total volume. Then,
h
__
V= (A + A2) (Trapezoidal formula)
2 1
h
__
= (A + 4A2 + A3) (Prismoidal formula)
3 1
1

3
4 4 1
93 4 2
4
4
3 4
3
94 3 1
3 99 4
2 2
2 4
1 98 100
95 3
97 98
2
1
1 1
96 95 1
94
96

97 98 99 100

13.9.3 By horizontal planes


The volumes of earth to be moved between the horizontal planes marked by
successive contours can be estimated by this method.
Figure 13.11 shows existing ground contour lines (shown by continuous lines)
at 1 m interval and the graded surface lines, straight, parallel and at the same
interval (shown by broken lines). The points in which the ground contours intersect
558 Surveying

the grade contours of equal 91


values are represented by 94 94
points ‘a’. The line joining 92
95 95 93
the ‘a’ points (shown by
a thick line) is the line in 93 a
which the proposed surface 96 97
a
cuts the ground. Along the 94 a
‘a’ lines, no earthwork is
required. The area lying 95 a a
within the ‘a’ line (say 98
m) and the corresponding 96 a a
98
ground contour line (98 m) 99
is the area in cutting (shown 97 a a
100
by hatching). The area
between the outside of the 98 a
a
‘a’ line (98 m) and within
the contour line (98 m) is 99
96
the area is filling. Areas 95
are marked in this way on 100
the contour map and can be
measured by the use of a
planimeter. The volume can
then be calculated by using the end area formula.

13.9.4 Capacity of reservoirs


This has already been discussed in Section 9.11.

13.10 Mass DiagraM


The execution of earthwork comprises of four operations, viz. cutting, loading,
hauling, and filling. Except hauling, the cost of the remaining three operations
depend upon the character of the material. The haulage cost is a function of the
weight of the material as well as the distance from the place of excavation to
the place of fill. Since overhaul is an added cost and as it affects the economy
considerably, it is desirable to deal with the problem carefully. This may be
accomplished graphically by means of a distribution diagram known as the mass
diagram or mass curve. It is a diagram, usually regular, whose abscissae represent
distances and ordinates the volume of earthwork.

13.10.1 Construction
A mass diagram is a curve plotted on a distance base with the ordinate at any
point on the curve representing the algebraic sum of the volume of earthwork
up to that point. The sign convention used for cuts is plus and that for fills is
minus. Thus, the positive total volumes are plotted above the distance base and
the negative volumes below it. The ends of the ordinates are joined by a smooth
curve. The resulting mass curve, therefore, consists of positive and negative peaks.
Since the slope of the mass curve for earthwork can be positive and negative, it
Measurement of Volumes 559

can be used to advantage in earthworks. For example, a mass curve has been
plotted in Fig. 13.12 at regular intervals of 20 m for the volumes of earthwork
listed in Table 13.1

Distance Volume (m3) Total volume


(m) Cut (+) Fill (–) (m3)

0 — — 0
20 16 + 16
40 30 + 46
60 19 + 27
80 24 +3
100 30 – 27
120 28 – 55
140 27 – 28
160 22 –6

13.10.2 Characteristics
1. Upward slope of the curve indicates excavations and downward slope
indicates a fill.
2. The peak occurring at the end of an excavation is known as maxima point,
whereas the peak occurring at the end of an embankment is known as
minima point.
3. The vertical distance between a maxima point and the next minima point
represents the total volume of cutting.
560 Surveying

4. The vertical distance between two points, on the curve, which have no
maxima or minima points between them represents the volume of earthwork
between their chainages.
5. The algebraic difference between the ordinates at adjacent maxima and
minima points represents the haulage between the two points.
6. A horizontal (base) line drawn to intercept the mass diagram cuts it in
two points, between which the cut exactly balances the fill. For example
in Fig. 13.12, a and c are projected to A and C respectively, and the
earthwork is balanced between A and C, i.e., the earth excavated from AB
will be sufficient to fill BC.
7. The length of the base line intercepted by a loop of the mass diagram
represents the maximum haul distance in that section.
8. The area bounded by a loop of the mass diagram and the base line
measures the haul in that section.
9. The haul is minimum when the base line is so selected that the sum of
all areas cut off by it, without regard to sign, is a minimum.

13.10.3 uses
In using a mass diagram, the selection of the base line plays an important role in the
economy of the project. Different base lines are assumed, each of which provides
possible methods of distributing the excavated material. The one which gives the
economical scheme is selected and the overhaul and haulage is computed.
Mass diagram finds its applications in the following activities.
There is a close link between the mass haul diagram and the formation
level. If several formation levels are tried and a mass haul diagram constructed
for each, that formation, which gives the most economical result and maintains
any stipulated standards, for example, gradient restrictions in vertical curve design,
can be used.
Once the formation level has been designed the mass haul diagram
can be used to indicate the most economical method of moving the earth around
the project and a good estimate of the overall cost of the earth moving can be
calculated.
The required volumes of material are known before construction
begins, enabling suitable plant and machinery to be chosen, sites for spoil heaps
and borrow pits to be located and directions of haul to be established.
The mass haul diagram can be used to indicate the effect
that other engineering works, for example tunnels and bridges, within the overall
project will have on the earth moving. Such construction upset the pattern of the
mass haul diagram by restricting the directions of haul but, since the volumes and
hence the quantities of any waste and borrow will be known, suitable areas for
spoil heaps and borrow pits can be located in advance of construction, enabling
work to proceed smoothly.
Measurement of Volumes 561

13.11 sourCes of error


Some of the common sources of errors are:
1. Approximating the end areas.
2. Failing to apply prismoidal and curvature corrections.
3. Computing the areas of cross sections beyond the limit justified by the
field data.
4. Computing the volumes beyond the nearest cubic metre.

13.12 Mistakes
Some of the typical mistakes are:
1. Errors in arithmetic.
2. Using the prismoidal formula when end area volumes are sufficiently
accurate.
3. Mixing cut and fill quantities.
4. Failing to consider transition sections when passing from cut to fill, or
from fill to cut.

e xample 13.1 Find the volume of an underground tank which is excavated


from level ground to a depth of 4.0 m. The top, which is rectangular in shape;
has an area of 24 m × 8 m while the bottom is 10 m × 1 m.
s olution Applying prismoidal rule:
2L = 4 m, L = 2 m
A1 = 24 × 8 = 192 m2
and A2 = 10 × 1 = 10 m2

(
24 + 10
2 ) (
8+1
)
Am = _______ × _____ = 76.5 m2
2
L
V = __ (A1 + 4Am + A2)
3
2
__
= × (192 + 4 × 76.5 + 10) = 338.66 m3
3
e xample 13.2 Calculate the volume of earthwork in an embankment for
which the cross-sectional areas at 20 m interval are as follows:

Distance (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120


2
Cross-sectional area (m ) 42 64 72 16 18 26 11

s olution
L
V = __ [(A1 + An) + 4 (A2 + A4 + A6) + 2 (A3 + A5)]
3
20
V = ___ × [(42 + 11) + 4 (64 + 16 + 26) + 2 (72 + 18)]
3
= 4380 m3
562 Surveying

e xample 13.3 A railway embankment is 12 m wide. The ground is level in a


direction transverse to the centre line. Calculate the volume contained in a 100 m
length by trapezoidal rule and prismoidal rule, if the side slope is 1.5:1. The centre
heights at 20 m interval are 3.7 m, 2.6 m, 4.0 m, 3.4 m, 2.8 m, 3.0 m, 2.2 m.
s olution For a level section, A = (b + sh) h
slope = 1.5:1, hence s = 1.5
b = 12 m
Let the area at different sections be A1, A2, ....
A1 = (12 + 1.5 × 3.7) × 3.7 = 64.935 m2
A2 = (12 + 1.5 × 2.6) × 2.6 = 41.34 m2
A3 = (12 + 1.5 × 4.0) × 4.0 = 72.00 m2
A4 = (12 + 1.5 × 3.4) × 3.4 = 58.14 m2
A5 = (12 + 1.5 × 2.8) × 2.8 = 45.36 m2
A6 = (12 + 1.5 × 3.0) × 3.0 = 49.50 m2
A7 = (12 + 1.5 × 2.2) × 2.2 = 33.66 m2
Trapezoidal rule

[
A1 + An
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An–1
2 ]
[
64.935 + 33.66
= 20 × _____________ + 41.34 + 72.00 + 58.14 + 45.36 + 49.50
2 ]
= 6312.75 m3
Prismoidal rule
L
V = __ [(A1 + A7) + 4 (A2 + A4 + A6) + 2 (A3 + A5)]
3
20
= ___ × [(64.935 + 33.66) + 4 (41.34 + 58.14 + 49.50) + 2 (72.00 + 45.36)]
3
= 6194.9 m3

e xample 13.4 A road embankment is 8 m wide and 200 m in length, at


the formation level, with a side slope of 1.5:1. The embankment has a rising
gradient of 1 in 100 m. The ground levels at every 50 m along the centre line
arc as follows:
Distance (m) 0 50 100 150 200
R.L. (m) 164.5 165.2 166.8 167.0 167.2
The formation level of zero chainage is 166.0 m. Calculate the volume of
earthwork.
Measurement of Volumes 563

s olution Rising gradient is 1 in 100 m.


Formation level increases by 0.5 m for every 50 m distance.
Distance 0 50 100 150 200
R.L. (m) 164.5 165.2 166.8 167.0 167.2
Formation level (m) 166.0 166.5 167.0 167.5 168.0
Depth of filling, h (m) 1.5 1.3 0.2 0.5 0.8

We known that the area of a cross section is given by


A = (b + sh) h
Hence,
A1 = (8 + 1.5 × 1.5) × 1.5 = 15.375 m2
A2 = (8 + 1.5 × 1.3) × 1.3 = 12.935 m2
A3 = (8 + 1.5 × 0.2) × 0.2 = 1.66 m2
A4 = (8 + 1.5 × 0.5) × 0.5 = 4.375 m2
A5 = (8 + 1.5 × 0.8) × 0.8 = 7.360 m2
Interval L = 50 m
Trapezoidal rule

[
A1 + A5
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + A4
2 ]
[
15.375 + 7.360
= 50 × _____________ + 12.935 + 1.66 + 4.375 = 1516.875 m3
2 ]
Prismoidal rule
L
V = __ [(A1 + A5) + 4 (A2 + A4) + 2A3]
3
50
= ___ × [(15.375 + 7.360) + 4 × (12.935 + 4.375) + (2 × 1.66)]
3
= 1588.25 m3

e xample 13.5 A road at the formation level is 6 m wide and has a side slope
of 2:1. The road is to have a constant R.L. of 200 m. The ground is level across
the centre line of the road. The following observations were made:
Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100
Surface level along c/l of 204.6 203.0 200.8 201.6 202.0 200.2
road
Estimate the volume of earthwork.
s olution The road is to have a constant R.L. of 200 m. From the data available
it is observed that since the surface levels are more than 200 m, ground is in
cutting. The depth of cutting can be found by subtracting the formation from the
respective ground levels.
564 Surveying

Chainage (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100


Surface levels (m) 204.6 203.0 200.8 201.6 202.0 200.2
Depth of cutting (m) 4.6 3.0 0.8 1.6 2.0 0.2

We known that the area of cross section is given by


A = (b + sh) h
Hence,
A1 = (6 + 2 × 4.6) × 4.6 = 69.92 m2
A2 = (6 + 2 × 3.0) × 3.0 = 36.00 m2
A3 = (6 + 2 × 0.8) × 0.8 = 6.08 m2
A4 = (6 + 2 × 1.6) × 1.6 = 14.72 m2
A5 = (6 + 2 × 2.0) × 2.0 = 20.00 m2
A6 = (6 + 2 × 0.2) × 0.2 = 1.28 m2
Interval, d = 20 m
Trapezoidal rule
L = 20 m

Volume, [
A1 + A6
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5
2 ]
[
69.92 + 1.28
= 20 × ___________ + 36.00 + 6.08 + 14.72 + 20.00 = 2248 m2
2 ]
Prismoidal rule
Since there are even number of sections (6), the prismoidal rule cannot be applied
directly. Hence, by applying prismoidal rule between first five sections and then
applying Trapezoidal rule between the 5th and 6th sections, the total volume can
be found.
L
V1 = __ [(A1 + A5) + 4 (A2 + A4) + 2A3]
3
20
= ___ × [(69.92 + 20.00) + 4 (36.00 + 6.08) + (2 × 14.72)]
3
= 1917.86 m3

[
A5 + A6
] [
20.00 + 1.280
V2 = L _______ = 20 × ____________ = 212.80 m3
2 2 ]
3
Volume, V = 1917.86 + 212.80 = 2130.66 m

e xample 13.6 A road embankment is 12 m wide at the formation level with


side slopes of 2:1. The average height of the embankment is 4.0 m with an average
gradient of 1 in 30 from a 210 m contour to 330 m contour. Find the length of
the road and the quantity of earthwork.
s olution Difference of level between the ends of the road = 330 – 210 =
120 m
Measurement of Volumes 565

Gradient is 1 in 30.
Length of the road = 120 × 30 = 3600 m = 3.6 km
Area of cross section = (b + sh) h = (12 + 2 × 4) × 4 = 80 m2
Volume of earthwork, V = 80 × 3600 = 288 000 m3

e xample 13.7 For a 10 m wide formation level and 100 m long railway
cutting, the side slope is 1:1. The surface of the ground has a uniform side slope
of 7:1. Find the volume of earthwork from the following notes:
Chainage (m) 0 50 100
Depth of cutting, h(m) 2.0 3.0 4.0

s olution Refer to Fig. 13.13.

7:1

1
1:

10 m

For a two-level section, the area is given by,


s(b/2)2 + n2(bh + sh2)
A = ___________________
(n2 – s2)
s = 1, b = 10 m, n = 7, h = 2, 3, 4 m and d = 50 m
1 × (10/2)2 + (7)2 [10 × 2 + 1 × (2)2]
A1 = _________________________________
2 2
= 25.02 m2
[(7) – (1) ]
1 × (10/2)2 + (7)2 [10 × 3 + 1 × (3)2]
A2 = _________________________________ = 40.33 m2
[(7)2 – (1)2]
1 × (10/2)2 + (7)2 [10 × 4 + 1 × (4)2]
A3 = _________________________________ = 57.68 m2
[(7)2 – (1)2]
50
V = ___ × [25.02 + 4 × 40.33 + 2 × 57.68] = 5028.33 m3
3

e xample 13.8 A 30 m length of earthwork volume for a proposed road has


a constant cross section of cut and fill, in which the cut area equals the fill area.
The level formation is 10 m wide. The transverse ground slope is 20° and the side
slope in cut is 0.5 horizontal to 1 vertical. Calculate the volume of excavation in
30 m length.
566 Surveying

s olution Let the width of formation to be filled be y (Fig. 13.14).

From cut
2x
___________ = tan 20°
(10 – b + x)
or 2x = (10 – b + x) 0.3639
or 2x – 0.3639 x = (10 – b) 0.3639
0.3639
or x = ______ × (10 – b)
1.636
1
Area of cut A1 = __ (10 – b) 2x
2
1 0.3639
= __ (10 – b) × 2 × ______ (10 – b) = 0.222 (10 – b)2
2 1.636
From fill
y
_______ = tan 20°
(b + y)
or y = (b + y) × 0.3639
or y – 0.3639 y = 0.3639 b
0.3639
or y = ______ b
0.6361
or y = 0.5720 b
1 1
Area of fill, A2 = __ by = __ b × 0.5720 b = 0.286 b2
2 2
Since, area of cut is equal to area of fill
A1 = A2
Measurement of Volumes 567

or 0.222 (10 – b)2 = 0.286 b2


or 10 – b = 1.135 b
or b = 4.683 m
Area of cut, = 0.222 × (10 – b)2
= 0.222 × (10 – 4.683)2 = 6.276 m2
Area of fill, = 0.286 b2 = 0.286 × (4.683)2 = 6.272 m2
Since these areas should be equal, take the average of these areas to obtain
6.276 + 6.272
A = ____________ = 6.274 m2
2
Volume of excavation in 30 m length = 6.274 × 30 = 188.22 m3

e xample 13.9 Following notes had been recorded by a surveyor for an


irregular cross section:
2.52 ____
____ 3.42 ___ 5.2 ___
4.1 ____ 5.8
5.52 3 0 4.68 8.8
The formation width is 6.0 m and the side slope is 1:1. Calculate the area of
cross section.
s olution The coordinates of the formation points will be __0 each.
3
The coordinates can then be written as
0
____ 2.52
_______ 3.42 ___
____ 5.2
4.1 _______ 5.8
______ 0
____
– 3 + – 5.52 + – 3 + 0 + 4.68 – + 8.8 – + 3 –
1
A = __ × [2.52 (3 – 3) + 3.42 (5.52 – 0) + 4.1 (3 + 4.68)
2
+ 5.2 (0 + 8.8) + 5.8 (– 4.68 + 3)]
1
= __ × [0 + 18.878 + 31.488 + 45.76 – 9.744] = 43.191 m2
2

e xample 13.10 An embankment is made on a ground having a transverse


slope of 1 in 10. The width of the bank at the formation level is 10 m. The side
slope of the embankment is 2 horizontal to 1 vertical. The heights of the bank
at the centre of the formation level are 3 m, 3.5 m and 4 m at three consecutive
sections spaced 15 m apart. Find:
(i) The side widths.
(ii) The cross-sectional areas.
(iii) The volume of earthwork assuming c/ l to be straight.
(iv) The volume of earthwork if the c/ l is a circle of 150 m radius.
s olution The problem is of a two-level section with b = 10 m, n = 10, s =
2.
(i) Side widths
Downhill side:
b sn
d1 = __ + _____
2 n–s ( b
h + ___
2n )
568 Surveying

h = 3 m, 3.5 m and 4 m

Section 1:
10 2 × 10
( 10
)
d1 = ___ + ______ × 3 + ______ = 13.75 m
2 10 – 2 2 × 10

= ___ + ______ × ( 3.5 + ______ ) = 15.00 m


10 2 × 10 10
Section 2: d1
2 10 – 2 2 × 10

= ___ + ______ × ( 4.0 + ______ ) = 16.25 m


10 2 × 10 10
Section 3: d1
2 10 – 2 2 × 10

Uphill side:
b
2 n+s
sn
( b
d = __ + _____ h – ___
2n )
Section 1:
10 2 × 10
( 10
)
d = ___ + ______ × 3 – ______ = 9.166 m
2 10 + 2 2 × 10

d = ___ + ______ × ( 3.5 – ______ ) = 10.00 m


10 2 × 10 10
Section 2:
2 10 + 2 2 × 10

d = ___ + ______ × ( 4 – ______ ) = 10.833 m


10 2 × 10 10
Section 3:
2 10 + 2 2 × 10
(ii) Cross-sectional areas
s(b/2)2 + n2 (bh + sh2)
A = ____________________
n2 – s2
2
2 × (10/2) + (10)2 × (10 × 3 + 2 × (3)2]
Section 1: A = _____________________________________
2 2
= 50.52 m2
(10) – (2)
2 × (10/2)2 + (10)2 × (10 × 3.5 + 2 × (3.5)2]
Section 2: A = ______________________________________ = 62.5 m2
(10)2 – (2)2
2 × (10/2)2 + (10)2 × (10 × 4.0 + 2 × (4.0)2]
Section 3: A = ______________________________________ = 75.52 m2
(10)2 – (2)2
(iii) Volume of embankment for straight c/ l
Prismoidal rule
L = 15 + 15 = 30 m
L
V = __ (A1 + 4A2 + A3)
6
30
= ___ × (50.52 + 4 × 62.50 + 75.52) = 1880.2 m3
6
Trapezoidal rule

(
L A1 + A3
V = __ _______ + A2
2 2 )
30
2 (
50.52 + 75.52
)
= ___ × ____________ + 62.50 = 1882.80 m3
2
Measurement of Volumes 569

(iv) Volume of earthwork for curved c/ l


dd1(d + d1)
The eccentricity, e = __________
nA
9.166 13.75 × (9.166 + 13.75)
Section 1: e = ___________________________ = 1.905 m
3 10 50.52
10.00 15.00 × (10.00 + 15.00)
Section 2: e = ___________________________ = 2.00 m
3 10 62.50
10.833 16.25 × (10.833 + 16.25)
Section 3: e = _____________________________ = 2.104 m
3 10 75.52
Radius = 150 m
The correction to be applied using prismoidal formula:
30
6 (
Vc = ___ × 50.52
1.905
_____
150
+4 62.50
2.00 75.52
____
150
2.104
+ ____________
150 )
= 25.17 m3
The correction to be applied using trapezoidal formula:

(
50.52
Vc = 30 × _____
2
1.905 _____
_____
150
+
75.52
2
2.104 _____
_____
150
+
62.50
2
2.00
____
150 )
= 38.01 m3
The correction so found is added or subtracted from the volumes found for straight
c/ l if the centre of curve lies on the uphill side or downhill side of the embankment,
respectively.

e xample 13.11 From the contour map of a reservoir, the following contour
areas were planimetered:

Contour (m) 200 195 190 185 180


2
Area (m ) 3850 3450 2600 800 450

The top water level is 200 m and the lowest point in the reservoir is 180 m.
Find the quantity of water intake.
s olution Contour interval, L = 5 m
Trapezoidal rule
Volume of water between 180 and 200 m contours

(
A1 + An
V = L _______ + A2 + A3 + ... + An–1
2 )
(
3850 + 450
= __________ + 3450 + 2600 + 800 = 45 000 m3
2 )
Prismoidal rule
L
V = __ [(A1 + An) + 4 (A2 + A4 + ) + 2 (A3 + A5 + )]
3
570 Surveying

5
= __ × [(3850 + 450) + 4 × (3450 + 800) + 2 × 2600]
3
= 44 166.66 m3

Summary
Measurement of volume of earthwork is one of the main application of surveying
measurements made for new projects. The earthwork volumes are generally computed from
cross sections. But, these may also be calculated from contour maps and spot levels. The
areas of various types of cross sections are computed and then using the end area formula
or prismoidal formula the volume is calculated. While using the latter formula prismoidal
correction to be applied is described.
In the calculation of volumes, it is assumed that the c/l of the cutting or embankment
is a straight line. However, in practise it is not so and the curvature correction to be
applied is discussed. Methods of calculating volumes from spot levels and contour maps
are described.
Mass haul diagram which is the key for economy of the earth volume movement is
discussed in detail. One of the most important application of measurements of volumes, the
estimation of water stored in reservoirs for various purposes, e.g., for hydroelectric power
projects, is described.

Exercises
13.1 Define the following:
prism, prismoid, grade elevation, haulage.
13.2 Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
(a) Overhaul and free haul (b) Over break and under break
(c) Shrinkage and swell
13.3 Define a prismoid. Derive the prismoidal formula and state its validity.
13.4 Derive an expression for the trapezoidal formula for volumes.
13.5 Derive expressions for side widths and areas of
(a) a level section (b) a two-level section
(c) a three-level section
13.6 Explain the procedure to find out the (a) capacity of a reservoir and (b) the volume
of a borrow pit.
13.7 Define the term prismoidal correction and obtain an expression for it.
13.8 Explain the method of obtaining the volumes of curves.
13.9 Explain in detail the mass curve. How is it helpful in estimation of earthwork
quantities?
13.10 A railway embankment is made level for 180 m. The ground has a uniform slope
of 1 in 12. The formation width is 9 m and the side slope is 2:1. The ground is
level across the c/ l of the embankment. Determine the volume of the embankment
if the high end terminates vertically. (Take 10 intervals). [Ans. 39 123 m3]
13.11 A road embankment is 6.0 m wide at the formation level. The average height of
the embankment is 2.4 m at an average gradient of 1 in 50 from the 85 m contour
to the 229 m contour. If the side slopes are 2:1, find the length of the road and the
volume of the embankment. [Ans. 7200 m, 186 624 m3]
13.12 In a railway cutting, the side slopes are 1.5:1 and the surface of the ground has a
uniform side slope of 1 in 10. The width at the formation level is 4.0 m. Determine
the volume of excavation between two points 50 m apart on the c/l with the depth
Measurement of Volumes 571

of cutting at the first point being 6.0 m and at the second point being 8.0 m, while
at a point halfway between them the depth is 6.5 m. If the points at which the depth
of cutting is measured lie on a curve of radius 300 m, what will be the correction
to be applied? [Ans. 4806.75 m3, 20.46 m3]
13.13 Levels were taken at every 40 m along a piece of ground. The following observations
were recorded:
Distance (m) 0 40 80 120 160 200
R.L. (m) 105.0 114.2 123.6 128.0 130.2 125.6

A cutting is to be made for a line of uniform gradient through the first and the last
point. Determine its gradient. Calculate the volume of excavation if the formation
width is 8.0 m, with side slopes in cutting being 1.5:1, and the natural ground slope
being 10:1. The ground across the c/ l is level. [Ans. 1 in 9.7, 30 478.7 m3]
13.14 A railway embankment 400 m long is 12 m wide at the formation level. The side
slope of the embankment is 2:1. The formation level at zero chainage is 107.00.
The embankment has a rising gradient of 1 in 100. The ground is level across the
c/ l. Calculate the volume of earthwork using the prismoidal rule with the following
observations:
Distance (m) 0 100 200 300 400
R.L. (m) 104.8 106.2 107.5 107.2 108.3
[Ans. 14 583 m3]
13.15 At a station, a trench was measured and found to be 1 m wide and 1.25 m deep.
At the next station, 10 m away from the first one, it was 1.1 m wide 2.8 m deep.
Determine the volume of earthwork between the two stations using the prismoidal
formula. [Ans. 21.39 m3]
13.16 From the following set of notes, estimate the cross-sectional area:
3.0
_____ 1.5
____ 4.0 1.5 2.4
+ ___ ____ ___
–10.0 –4.0 0.0 +6.0 8.0 [Ans. 36.5 m2]
Width of formation = 12 m; side slope = 1.1
13.17 For a piece of borrow pit shown in Fig. 13.15 estimate the volume of earth removed.
At each corner, the data mentioned is the amount of mean cut in metres.
2.60 9m 2.80 1.42
1.32

9m
1.4 1.6 1.75 1.3

2.2 1.7 1.8 1.5 1.4

1.4 1.72 1.85 1.60 1.2

[Ans. 1437.76 m3]


572 Surveying

13.18 An excavation is to be made for a rectangular reservoir 18 m long and 13 m wide


at the bottom, having sides of excavation at 1.5:1. Calculate the volume of the
earthwork for a depth of 4.5 m. The ground surface is level before excavation.
[Ans. 2268 m3)]
13.19 An embankment of 9 m formation width has side slopes of 2:1. It is to be formed
on a curve of 10 chain radius. If the original ground surface slopes at 5:1 downwards
towards the concave side, calculate the curvature correction for a 30 m station when
the centre height of the bank is 2.5 m. Assume the chain length to be 30 m.
[Ans. 16.19 m3]
13.20 The area between the consecutive contours measured with the help of a planimeter
were as follows:
Contour Area (m2)
425 705 000
420 642 700
415 508 300
410 341 200
405 157 300
400 80 600
395 11 500
390 3 000
Estimate the capacity of the reservoir taking 390 m as the datum level. Use the
Prismoidal formula. [Ans. 10 545 750 m3]
13.21 A 100 m long earthwork volume for a proposed highway has a constant cross section
of cut and fill in which the cut area equals the fill area. The formation width is
8 m and the transverse ground slope is 18°. Side slopes in cut and fill are 1.5:1 and
1:1, respectively. Calculate the volume of excavation. [Ans. 441.07 m3]
13.22 The c/ l of a highway cutting is on a 90 m radius curve. The original ground surface
is level. The cutting is to be widened by increasing the formation width from 6 to
9 m with excavation to be on the inside of the curve, retaining the existing slope
of 1.5:1. If the depth of formation increases uniformly from 2.5 m at chainage
200 m to 5 m at chainage 347.55 m, calculate the volume of earthwork between
these two stations. [Ans. 4841.65 m3]
13.23 For a proposed new road, the cross-sectional areas at different sections are as
follows:
Chainage (m) 1000 1020 1040 1060 1080 1100 1120
Area (m2) 18.4 29.6 38.4 37.6 25.5 15.0 9.7
Calculate the volume enclosed between chainage 1000 m and 1120 m by the
prismoidal and end area formulae. [Ans. 3231 m3, 3203 m3]
13.24 A vertical sided rectangular tank ABCD is to be constructed such that sides AB and
AD have lengths 60 m and 30 m, respectively. The formation level is to change
uniformly from 82 m above datum along AD to 80 m above datum along BC.
Readings were taken with a level in the following order:
Measurement of Volumes 573

Staff reading (m) Staff station


B.S. 1.085 B.M. near A R.L. 87.64 m
I.S. 2.230 G.L. at A
I.S. 2.580 G.L. at D
F.S. 1.755 G.L. at E (The intersection of AC and BD)
B.S. 1.595 G.L. at E
I.S. 0.995 G.L. at B
F.S. 1.145 G.L. at C
Estimate the amount of excavation required in the construction of the tank.
[Ans. 10 671 m3]
13.25 It is desired to run a road up a plane slope of 1 in 8 at a gradient of 1 in 15. If
the formation is to be 8.0 m wide and the road is to be entirely in cut, calculate
the quantity of excavation per 100.0 m of road. The side slope of road cutting is
1 in 2. (Take 5 intervals) [Ans. 59 51.5 m3]

Objective-type Questions
13.1 What is the volume of a 6 m deep tank having rectangular shaped top 6 m 4 m
and bottom 4 m 2 m (computed through the use of prismoidal formula)?
(a) 96 m3 (b) 94 m3 (c) 92 m3 (d) 90 m3
13.2 In the volume computations by trapezoidal formula, the prismoidal correction is
(a) subtractive (b) additive
(c) may be subtractive or additive (d) not applicable
13.3 Volume of earthwork can be calculated by
(a) mid-ordinates (b) average ordinates
(c) prismoidal rule (d) Hund’s rule
13.4 Because of irregular boundaries, if the computed area of a cross section works out
to be less than the actual one, it is known as
(a) under break (b) over break (c) free haul (d) overhaul
13.5 Which of the following formulae is unjustified in rock excavations?
(a) Trapezoidal (b) Prismoidal (c) Simpson’s (d) Hund’s
13.6 The curvature correction in the earthwork computation is
(a) always positive
(b) always negative
(c) positive if the centroid and centre of curvature are to the opposite side of the
centre line
(d) positive if the centroid and centre of curvature are to the same side of the
centre line.
13.7 Choose the correct statement.
(a) The downward slope of the curve of a mass diagram in the direction of
increasing abscissa indicates a fill.
(b) The algebraic difference between a maximum ordinate and the next forward
minimum ordinate represents the total volume of the embankment.
(c) The vertical distance between a minima ordinate and the next forward maxima
ordinate represents the whole volume of cutting.
(d) All of the above.
574 Surveying

13.8 The earthwork problems are best dealt with by


(a) moller diagram
(b) mass diagram
(c) haulage diagram
(d) cross-sectional area versus time diagram
13.9 Which one of the following is measured by the area between the balancing line and
the mass haul curve?
(a) Haul between the balancing points
(b) Earthwork accumulated upto that point
(c) Excess of excavation
(d) Excess of filling
13.10 Prismoidal formula yields better results when
(a) there is a large difference between the two end areas of a prismoid
(b) the cross sections are spaced closely
(c) the surface irregularities have been measured in the field
(d) all of the above

Answers to Objective-type Questions


13.1 (c) 13.2 (a) 13.3 (c) 13.4 (b) 13.5 (a) 13.6 (c)
13.7 (d) 13.8 (b) 13.9 (c) 13.10 (d)
14 Setting Out
WOrkS

Introduction
Setting out is a survey undertaken in order to transfer onto the site the plans
prepared as a result of some previous survey. Setting out, in a sense, is the
reverse of the conventional surveying. Here, instead of using data from the site
to prepare plans, the plans and designs prepared by the designer are transferred
accurately onto the actual site using the instruments and techniques described in
the previous chapters. It may be described as the fixing of well-defined points
in the field showing the horizontal and vertical positions required by the plans.
As such task of the surveyor (the site engineer) is very important and consists of
horizontal control—to ensure that the new structure is in correct place; vertical
control—to ensure that the levels of its various important points are correct and;
vertical alignment—to ensure that the construction is plumb.
To build according to the plan, a contractor must have reference lines and points
established in the field. This involves placing of pegs or marks to define the lines
and levels of work whereafter, the construction proceeds according to these marks.
Some factors to be considered during setting out works are:
1. The reference lines and points should be well defined, not easily perishable,
close to the work yet out of the way or actual construction operations.
2. A very high degree of accuracy should be maintained and only extremely
low tolerances should be allowed. In order to achieve this, frequent and
independent checking should be done. Further, it is important that the
surveyor is aware of the accuracy achievable with the equipment at his
disposal and that the technique appropriate is used.
3. The instruments used should be checked frequently and discrepancies, if
any, should be removed.
In most of the setting out works, the principle is very simple, but in practise,
difficulties like skew plans, obstructions, etc., are encountered which often
necessitate the use of indirect methods. The use of surveying methods provide
the tool for layout or setting out works as well as the control which makes the
proper layout possible.
The contemporary construction scenario encompasses a wide variety of
structures. As such, it will be impossible to cover every conceivable setting
576 Surveying

out problem in this book. Instead, a few more common and important ones are
discussed herein.

14.1 DefinitiOnS
The information on the plan of the proposed structure should be transferred to
the ground in a format that can be understood by the workforce of the survey
team on site. Following are some control points which are established so as to
accomplish the task.
These are the stations on the control traverse
or control triangulation system. The station should be of permanent type, clearly
marked and protected so as not to get disturbed by the construction traffic, and
should have sufficient space for the instrument to be set up and freely accessed.
These are the stations established close to the
points of detail on the site, and are referenced by measurements from the primary
points. They must be robust and rigid enough to survive the construction period.
These are points used to mark the location of the features of
interest such as the column center or building corner. Generally square timber pegs
of 50 mm square are used as markers.
These are used for vertical control to provide a
bench mark close to the site. The bench mark should be rigid.

Some terms which are used frequently in setting out works are defined below.
The term stake refers to any type of keel which is driven into the ground
so as to act as a permanent identification mark. Stakes may be made to timber,
steel, copper, etc. Generally, these are pointed at the end to facilitate their anchoring
into the ground. Depending upon
the purpose it serves, it is termed
as guard, grade, or line stake.
In the setting out ng
ildi
works, post is used to refer to any Bu
circular or square pole, generally
wooden, which is used for various
purposes, e.g., acting as a peg to Wires
support horizontal members like
sight rails.
Batter
This is also board
known as a slope rail. In setting
out works of large magnitudes, Stake
where absolute accuracy is
required, batter-boards are used
in conjunction with the wooden
stakes or pins (Fig. 14.1 (a, b)).
A batter-board is generally a flat,
Setting Out Works 577

square, wooden board which is


forced on top of a pin anchored
in ground. Nails are driven in this
board to indicate the direction of
various lines that may give the
boundary of building, mark of
an excavation, etc., Strings or
wires can be stretched between
two batter-boards using the nails
driven in them. The use of batter-
boards is illustrated in Figs. 14.1
and 14.2.

A cross-head consists of two vertical posts 1–1.5 m high, firmly


embedded in ground, on each side of the trench with a horizontal rail nailed to
the posts across the trench.
The horizontal member of the cross-head, i.e., the timber beam
nailed to the posts is referred to as a sight rail. A sight rail is in itself a kind of
batter-board. The upper edge of the cross-piece is set to a convenient height above
the required plane of the structure and should be at a convenient height above the
ground so that a surveyor may align his eye with the upper edge. A single sight
rail (Fig. 14.3 (a)) is used for road works, footings, etc., whereas two sight rails
at right angles (Fig. 14.3 (b)) are used for building corners. For tranches and large
diameter pipes, sight rail (Fig. 14.3 (c)) is used. Sight rail shown in Fig. 14.3 (d))
is used for highly undulating and steep grounds.
578 Surveying

It is a T-shaped wooden rod as shown in Fig. 14.4. The top piece


is generally 10 cm × 40 cm and is 3 cm thick. This is nailed to an upright pole.
It is generally used in the layout of trenches for sewers, pipe lines, etc. The length
of a boning rod for each trench section is kept the same. The use of a boning rod
is illustrated in Fig. 14.5.
Setting Out Works 579

A travelling rod is a special Traveller


type of boning rod in which the horizontal piece,
called traveller, can be moved along a graduated
vertical staff (Fig. 14.6) and can be conveniently
clamped at any desired height.
Screw
14.2 Setting Out Of StructureS
Some of the important setting out projects are Graduations
discussed below.

14.2.1 Setting Out of Buildings


Setting out of a building involves the transfer of the
architect’s plan from paper onto the actual site. The
object of setting out a building is to provide the Steel shoe
builder with clearly defined outlines for excavations.
Two methods are generally used for setting out a
building.
Since stakes cannot be set at the exact
corner points of a building (if set so, these will be lost during excavations), these
are fixed at the corner of a bigger rectangle circumscribing the actual building.
Any suitable distance of the outer rectangle from the building can be chosen, but a
distance of usually 2–4 m is considered to be ideal. The actual procedure consists
of the following steps:
(a) Preparation of the foundation trench plan showing the width of the
foundations for various walls.
(b) Temporary pegs are driven at the actual corner points of the building.
(c) Then using these pegs as reference, a parallel line, say AB (Fig. 14.7 (a))
of required length is set out at an arbitrarily selected distance (say 2 m)
from the actual centre line.
(d) A chord is stretched between the pegs A and B. At A, a line is set out
perpendicular to AB (with a tape using 3, 4, 5 method). On this line, the
position D is marked by setting a peg.

D C
2m

2m 2m

2m
A B
580 Surveying

(e) Step (d) is repeated at point B so as to obtain point C.


(f) Having now set out the reference rectangle ABCD, the actual corners can
be marked using the sides of the reference rectangle ABCD.
(g) Once all the points are staked, a chord is passed around the periphery of
the rectangle and the actual excavation lines are marked using lime.

(i) In steps (d) and (e), after marking points D and C, respectively, the
diagonals BD and AC should be measured. These lengths should correspond
to the distances on the plan.
(ii) After setting out the point C, the length CD should be measured and should
be exactly same as that of AB.

In this method, the rectangle formed by the centre lines


of the outer walls of the building is used. The steps involved are:
(a) The temporary stakes are fixed at the points that represent the corners of
the centre line rectangle. The procedure is similar to the one used in the
first method while plotting the circumscribed rectangle.
(b) Since these pegs are not permanent and will be lost during excavation,
the sides of the rectangle are produced on both the sides and permanent
stakes are fixed on each of the prolongations, at a fixed distance, say 2 m,
as shown in Fig. 14.7 (b).

2m

D C
2m

A B

(c) By using these stakes, the position of any point can be obtained by plotting
its coordinates using the reference stakes.
Setting Out Works 581

14.2.2 Setting Out of culverts


This involves locating the corners of the abutments and the wing walls with respect
to the respective centre lines of a road or a railway, and the drainage nullah, stream,
etc., which is to be crossed over.
While designing the culvert, the
designer uses these centre lines Corner Easting Northing
as the axes of coordinates and
a O1 1a
their point of intersection is taken
as the origin. A detailed tracing b O2 2b
of the plan shows the coordinates c O4 4c
of the corners, abutments and the d O3 3d
wing walls in a tabular form
(Table 14.1). e O1 1e
Having all this information, f O2 2f
one can now proceed to set out g O4 4g
the culvert as described below: h O3 3h
1. The origin O (Fig. 14.8),
is located and a peg is B
fixed there. b1 b
2. A theodolite is set at point c
c1
C.L. or stream

O, and after bisecting the a1 a


point B, line-in appropriate
number of points on d1 d
the line AOB. Only few
points are required in case
of level ground. These C D
numbers increase with the O 1 3 2 4
C.L. of road
degree of unevenness of
the ground.
3. Perforated pegs are fixed h1 h
at these points and a e1 e
chord is struck through g1
g
them giving the line AB.
f1 f
4. The line CD is set out A
perpendicular to AB and
appropriate number of
points are marked to
define it. A chord is then stretched through these points giving the line CD.
5. The distances O1, O2, O3, etc., are set off along CD on either side of O
and 1a, 2b, 3d, etc., along AB on either side of O. Perforated pins are
fixed at these points.
6. Two tapes are taken and their rings are put together. Now the other ends of
the respective tapes are held at pins 1 on CD and a1 on AB with readings
O1 and 1a, respectively. When the common end is stretched so that there
is no slackness in either tape, the particular position of the common end
gives the position of the corner a. This is marked by a peg.
582 Surveying

7. The other corners of the wing walls and the abutments are marked in a
similar way.
8. The final outline of each abutment is marked by stretching a chord around
the periphery passing through the marked points. In case of curved wing
walls, the points on the curve can be set out using the method of offsets
to the chord.

14.2.3 Setting Out of Bridges


Unlike the case of culverts, bridges usually have more than one span and also the
water body to be crossed, e.g., stream, river, etc., which is generally perennial.
Due to these reasons, the setting out cannot be carried out from the centre of the
bridge. It involves determining the accurate length of the centre line and locating
the central points for piers of the bridge.
The length of the centre
line of a short bridge can be measured with
a standard tape and the necessary Base line
measurements made. However, the length is
usually determined by triangulation. Let A
B C
and B be the end points on the centre line
on either bank of the river and it is required
to determine the length AB.
Center line
Refer to Fig. 14.9. The steps of bridge
River
involved are:
1. A line AD is set out perpendicular
to AB and measure AD accurately.
2. With the theodolite at point D and A D
using the method of repetition,
measure the angle ADB. Then AB
= AD tan ; ADB =
3. To check the length AB, set out a line BC perpendicular to AB at
point B.
4. The length BC and the angle BCA
Base line
are measured. Then, B C
3 4
AB = BC tan ; BCA = 2 5

If the two distances are almost equal,


the mean of the two is taken as the length
of the centre line, otherwise the procedure
River
is repeated to obtain the accurate length.
The steps involved are:
1. All the eight angles of the geodetic
quadrilateral ABCD (Fig. 14.10)
1
are measured and necessary 8 Base line 6
A 7
adjustments are made. D
2. The base lines AD and BC are
measured accurately.
Setting Out Works 583

3. The length of the base line AD is calculated using the measured length of
base line BC and the corrected angles.
4. The calculated length is then compared with the measured length. If the
difference is less than 1 in 5000, the length of centre line AB is calculated
from these corrected angles and thereafter the length of the base line,
otherwise, the operation is repeated until the desired degree of accuracy
is obtained.
Two methods are used for location
of piers.
The steps involved are:
1. After accurately measuring the length
of the centre line AB (Fig. 14.11),
base lines are laid out on each bank,
perpendicular to the centre line. Let
it be required to fix the position of
piers P1 and P2.
2. On each base line, and on both the
sides of the centre line AB, points P1,
P 1 and P2, P 2 are marked such that
AP1 = AP 1 = AP 1 and AP2 = AP2 =
AP 2 or BP1 = BP1 = BP 1 and BP2 = BP2 = BP 2.
3. The intersecting lines P 1 – P 1, P 2 – P 1 and P 2 – P 2, P 2 – P 2 make
angles of 45° with the base lines on the opposite bank as well as with the
center line.
4. The centre point P1 (on the centre line) is located by simultaneous sighting
at the intersection of two lines P 1 – P 1 and P 1 – P 1. The second point
P2 can be located in a similar way.
The advantage of this method lies in the fact that the intersection lines can be
established from a point on one bank to the corresponding point on the opposite
bank. The only problem encountered is that of the difficulty in establishing truly perpendicular
base lines.

The steps involved are:


1. After accurately measuring the length
of the centre line AB, the position of B C
Piers P1 and P2 is fixed accurately on
the plan.
2. The values of angles ADP1, ADP2,
P2
BCP1 and BCP2, (Fig. 14.12) are
obtained by applying the sine formula River
to triangle ADP1, ADP2, BCP1 and P1
BCP2.
3. Transists are set up at A and D.
4. The instrument at D is directed A D
towards A, and an angle ADP1 is set so
that the telescope points towards P1.
584 Surveying

5. The instrument at A is directed towards D, and angle DAP1 (90°) is set so


that the telescope points towards P1. Thus, by simultaneous observation,
the position of P1 is located.
6. Then, the pier P2 is located in the same way.
7. Reference points are established on the banks in line with DP1, DP2 and
CP1, CP2 for later reference.
A theodolite is set up at point C facing B and an angle BCP1 is set. If
the position of Pier P1 has been fixed correctly the line of sight will pass through
P1.

14.2.4 Setting Out of Pipelines and Sewers


For the proper laying of pipelines and sewers, it is essential that a proper grade
is maintained throughout the length of the pipeline or the sewer. This is done is
two major steps: setting the grade stakes, and setting the inverts.
This involves driving pegs at a given grade so
that the amount of cut or fill required at that particular place becomes known.
The steps involved are:
(a) The longitudinal section of the centre line of the work is obtained and
plotted.
(b) The stakes are then driven in two ways. In some cases the pegs are so
fixed that each stake is at a fixed grade. In the other cases, the stakes are
so driven that the top of the stake is a whole number of metres, feet or
inches below or above the required ground level.
The reduced level of the bottom of the inner
surface of a sewer pipe is called invert. The inverts of pipelines and sewers are
set to their proper grades by means of sight rails and boning rods (Fig. 14.13).
The steps involved are:
(a) A line is set parallel to the centre line of the proposed sewer or pipeline
at some distance on one side of the centre line so that it may not get
disturbed during excavation.
(b) Sewer trenches of desired width and depth are excavated.
(c) Cross-heads (Fig. 14.13 (a)) are erected, generally 30 m apart, at each
change of gradient or direction.
Setting Out Works 585

(d) The top edge of each sight rail is set truly horizontal with the help of a
spirit level.
(e) Using a level, the top of each rail is set at a whole number of metres
above the invert of the sewer.
(f) A boning rod (Fig. 14.13 (b)) of the same length is prepared.
(g) A nail is driven in the top edge of the sight rail, at the exact centre, to
define the centre line of the sewer.
(h) The gradient of the invert of the sewer is given by the gradient of a line
joining the top edges of two consecutive sight rails.
(i) The depth of the excavations at the intermediate sections can be obtained
by stretching a chord between these rails and using the boning rod.

14.2.5 Setting Out of tunnels


A very detailed and intensive study of the topography of the area is necessary
in order to select a proper alignment of the tunnel. Once the alignment has been
selected, it is transferred onto the actual site for laying out the tunnel, as it is
commonly called, should be done with utmost care, since a slight inaccuracy
in tunnel orientation results in big distortion which will consume a lot of extra
labour and add to the already high cost of tunnelling. The setting out of a tunnel
comprises of the following operations:
Steps involved are:
1. Obtaining the alignment of the centre line of the tunnel using the
conventional methods.
2. Determination of the exact length of the tunnel.
3. Establishing permanent stations marking the centre line.
This is the most difficult as well
as the most important operation in setting out a tunnel. It consists of:
1. Fixing two timber beams, C and D as shown in Fig. 14.14, across the top
of the shaft near it edges, perpendicular to the direction of the tunnel.
2. A theodolite is set up at a predetermined station on the centre line marked
on the ground surface and an another station is sighted, again on the centre
line itself.
3. The centre line is then carefully C D
set up on the beams by repetitive
observing and averaging.
4. From these points, wires are
suspended with heavy plumb bobs, c
and d attached to their lower ends.
5. At the bottom, these plumb bobs are
immersed in pails of water, oil, etc., E
to eliminate oscillations.
6. The theodolite is transferred to the c d e
bottom of the shaft, and through a
c d
number of trials it is set exactly in
line with the two suspended wires.
586 Surveying

7. Now, the alignment is marked on markers driven into the holes, e.g., E,
drilled in the roof.
Levelling
on the surface is done in the usual way and the levels are transferred underground
at the ends of the tunnel by levelling from the nearest reference or benchmark. In
case of transfer of levels underground at the shaft, the steps involved are:
1. A steel wire loaded with a weight of
50–150 N is passed over a pulley at the
top of the shaft and is then lowered into
the shaft (Fig. 14.15).
2. Two fine wires AA and BB are stretched
at the top and bottom of the shaft
respectively.
3. The steel wire lowered into the shaft is
so adjusted that it is in contact with both
the wires AA and BB.
4. The points of contact are marked on the
steel wire by a chalk or by some other
marker.
5. The wire is withdrawn from the shaft and is stretched on the ground.
6. The distance between the two marks, on the wire, is measured using a
measuring tape and this gives the level of the bottom of the shaft.

Summary
After the survey field work and office work are over, the project for which survey was
conducted is set out. The instruments and procedures for setting out works are same as
those used for making measurements but with a difference that in setting out, the points
on the plan are transferred to the actual site.
The horizontal and vertical control points are established to accomplish the task. For
small structures, permanent features nearby may be used as control points, but for important
structures these are fixed from the triangulation points. Procedure for setting out of buildings,
culverts, bridges, tunnels, pipe lines and sewer lines are described.

Exercises
14.1 Describe the methods for setting out of a building.
14.2 Describe the methods used for setting out of culverts. Also state as to why these
cannot be used in the case of setting out of bridges.
14.3 Describe the procedure of setting out of pipelines and sewers.
14.4 It is desired to set out a rectangular building 40 m × 36 m with 15 cm thick walls.
The width of the foundation is 1 m. The building is divided into three equal parts.
The internal walls are 10 cm thick and the foundation width is 75 cm. Draw a
detailed plan showing all the pegs required for setting out this building.
14.5 Discuss in details the steps involved in setting the centre line of bridges.
14.6 Discuss the steps involved in setting out the positions of piers of a bridge.
Setting Out Works 587

Objective-type Questions
14.1 Setting out is done
(a) prior to the preparation of plans
(b) along with the preparation of plans
(c) after the preparation of plans
(d) if obstructions are present
14.2 Which of the following is associated with the setting out of sewers and pipe
lines?
(a) Batter-board (b) Cross-staff
(c) Cross-head (d) optical square
14.3 Pegs or stakes are not generally fixed at the exact corner of the buildings because
(a) it is difficult to set them there
(b) they might be lost during the excavations
(c) they are not required at corners
(d) they are made of wood and may rot
14.4 The setting out of culverts involves locating the corners of abutments and wing
walls, with respect to the
(a) centre line of the water body (b) centre line of the road
(c) Both of the above (d) None of these
14.5 In designing of culverts, the centre lines of the water body and road, and the point
of their intersection are considered analogous to
(a) the axes of coordinates and the origin
(b) the base lines and the origin
(c) the axes and the critical point
(d) None of the above
14.6 Bridges cannot be set out from the centre because
(a) they generally consist of more than one span
(b) the water body involved is generally a perennial one
(c) both of the above
(d) the width of the bridge is quite small
14.7 Setting out of bridges involves
(a) determination of the length of centre line and the height of piers
(b) determination of the direction of centre line and the height of piers
(c) determination of the length of centre line and the position of piers
(d) None of the above
14.8 Invert is defined as
(a) the R.L. of the inverted pipeline
(b) the R.L. of the top of the sewer
(c) the R.L. of the bottom of the inner surface of sewer or pipe
(d) the R.L. determined with staff inverted
14.9 Cross-heads are generally erected at
(a) 30 m intervals (b) change of grades
(c) change of direction (d) All of these
14.10 The length of a boning rod for a section of the sewer is
(a) kept constant
(b) changed frequently
(c) changed at the alternate intermediate sections
(d) changed at every section
588 Surveying

14.11 Absolute accuracy in setting out of tunnels is stressed because


(a) a slight error can lead to the collapse of the tunnel
(b) tunnels are strategically very important
(c) even a small error costs a lot to rectify
(d) are provided in hills
14.12 Setting out is sometimes referred to as the reverse of surveying because
(a) all instruments are set in a reverse manner
(b) it nullifies all the work done by surveying
(c) it transfers data from plans and drawings onto the site
(d) it is to be done from both the sides
14.13 Which of the following is not matched correctly?
(a) Stake permanent identification mark
(b) Post type of travelling rod
(c) Sight rail a kind of batter board
(d) Boning rod for layout of trenches
14.14 Vertical control in setting out is achieved by
(i) traveller
(ii) batter-boards
(iii) offset pegs
(iv) coordinates
Of these
(a) Only (i) and (ii) are correct (b) Only (ii) and (iv) are correct
(c) Only (i) and (iii) are correct (d) (i), (ii) and (iii) are correct
14.15 Consider the followings with regard to setting out the foundation of a small building.
The reference line(s) marked is (are)
(i) longest outer wall
(ii) shortest outer wall
(iii) longest diagonal dimension
(iv) shortest diagonal dimension
Of these
(a) Only (i) is correct (b) Only (iii) is correct
(c) Only (i) and (ii) are correct (d) Only (ii) and (iv) are correct

Answers to Objective-type Questions


14.1 (c) 14.2 (c) 14.3 (b) 14.4 (c) 14.5 (a) 14.6 (c)
14.7 (c) 14.8 (c) 14.9 (d) 14.10 (a) 14.11 (c) 14.12 (c)
14.13 (b) 14.14 (a) 14.15 (a)
appenDIces

I. RefeRence of Maps
The system of reference and numbering map sheets is the reference of a map. To
facilitate the use of a map consisting of many sheets the convention is to give each
map sheet its own designation. The arrangement of the map sheets is indicated in
what is called a reference sheet.

caRte InteRnatIonale Du MonDe (cIM) seRIes


These sheets are also known as 1/M sheets or one-in-million maps. To keep
the international agreement, the Survey of India has published maps of India in
sheets on the International Projection. In this series, each sheet extends over 4° of
latitude and 6° of longitude. The elevation is shown in metres. The scale used is
1 : 1 000 000 (1 : 1 M).

aRRangeMent of sheets on Maps of InDIa


Maps of India and the adjacent series are the basis of numbering topo-sheets in
India. The original sheet bears numbers starting from 1 up to 136, each denoting
a sheet in the series on a scale of 1 : 1 000 000 (one-in-million) and covering
an area within 4° of latitude and 4° of longitude. The one-in-million sheet has
been further subdivided into 16 equal sheets, each of 1° dimension as shown in
Fig. A.1 (a). Each such sheet is known as degree sheet as it represents only one
degree (1°) extent. The 16 degree sheets have been alloted alphabets from A to P.
These are known as Index Numbers.
Sheet No. P 54 denotes P-sheet of the one-in-million map No. 54. They are
also sometimes called quarter-inch maps as they show a scale of 4 miles to an
inch. In general, the contour interval is 250 ft.
The degree sheets have been again subdivide into 16 equal sheets, each
representing an extent of 15 minutes (Fig. A.1 (b)). These smaller sheets show
a scale of 1 inch to a mile and are known as one-inch maps. Sheets showing an
extent of 30 minutes are known as half-inch maps representing a scale of half
inch to one mile. An example of one-inch map is 54 K/1, 54 K/2, etc., while that
590 Surveying

of half-inch map is 54 K/SE, 54 K/SW (denoting the directions from the centre
of the 54 K sheet).
60 64 96 100
68 72 76 80 84 88 92

28 89
32 37 80
42 51 60 69 75
36 N

29 90
33 38 81
43 52 61 70 76
32

30
34 39 91
44 77 82
53 62 71
28

A E I M
31 92
35 40 B F J N 83
45 54 63 72 78
24 C G K O
D H L P

36 93
41 79 84
46 55 64 73
20

94
47 85
16 56 65 74

1 95
5 9 13 48 57 66
86

2 6 10 14 12
K
3 7 11 15 96
49 87
58 67
4 8 12 8
16
0 200 97
400 88
50 59 68
km 4

(b) (a)

Maps of the suRvey of InDIa


The survey of India since its inception in 1767 has published maps in a number
of series as follows:

south asia (sa) series


These are the maps of South Asia comprising of whole or part of the countries:
Iran, Afghanistan, Arabia, China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Indo-China, Thailand and Singapore. The scale of these maps is 1 : 2 000 000
(1 : 2 M). Each sheet covers 8° of latitude and 12° of longitude.
Appendices 591

India (I) and adjacent countries (ac) series


Maps of India and adjacent countries mapped on a scale of 1 : 1 000 000 (1 : 1 M)
fall in this series. Each sheet covers 4° of latitude and 4° of longitude. The whole
country is thus divided into 4° × 4° sheets, each being numbered as, e.g., 36, 39,
40, 41, etc. Sometimes the sheet is named after the most important town of the
area covered by the sheet. For example, sheet no. 53 is also known as Delhi sheet.
The colours used in these sheets for topographical features is black for lettering,
blue for water, brown for contours, and red for roads and towns. These sheets have
been published in two editions: political edition, with administrative boundaries (in
colour); and layered edition, with graduated layers of colours to show altitudes.
However, the publication of this series is obsolete now and has been stopped and
replaced by International Series.

II. foRM foR MeasuReMent of DIstances


Date: Party Members ... 1
Scale: 2
Chain Survey 3
4
III. foRM foR MeasuReMent of BeaRIngs
592

Date: Types of Compass ...


Weather: Party Members ... 1
Compass Survey: 2
3
4
Line Observed Difference Included Theoretical Error Correct Correct Bearing Remarks
F.B. B.B. F.B. – B.B. angle sum of included F.B. B.B.
included angle angle
Surveying
Iv. foRM foR MeasuReMent of hoRIzontal angles—RepetItIon MethoD
Date: Instrument No. ...
Weather: Party Members ...
Theodolite Traversing:

FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal horizontal
angle
Remarks

a B angle a B angle

Sighted to
° ° ° ° ° ° °

Instrument at
nos. of Repetition
nos. of Repetition
Appendices
593
v. MeasuReMent of hoRIzontal angles—ReIteRatIon MethoD
594

Date: Instrument No. ...


Weather: Party Members ...
Theodolite Traversing:

FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal Vernier Vernier MEan horizontal horizontal
a B angle a B angle angle

Sighted to
Correction

Instrument at
° ° ° ° ° ° °
Corrected Included angle
Surveying
vI. foRM foR MeasuReMent of BeaRIng ReIteRatIon MethoD
Date: Instrument No. ...
Weather: Party Members ...
Theodolite Traversing:

FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan Magnetic Vernier Vernier MEan Magnetic Magnetic
Bearing
Remarks

a B Bearing a B Bearing

Sighted to
° ° ° ° ° ° °

Instrument at
Appendices
595
vII. foRM foR MeasuReMent of veRtIcal angles
596

Date: Instrument No. ...


Weather: Party Members ...
Theodolite:

FaCE LEFT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) FaCE RIghT SwIng RIghT (LEFT) average
Vernier Vernier MEan Vertical Vernier Vernier MEan Vertical Vertical
angle
Remarks

C D angle C D angle

Sighted to
° ° ° ° ° ° °

Instrument at
Surveying
vIII. foRM foR MeasuReMent of veRtIcal DIstances—heIght of
InstRuMent MethoD
Date: Instrument No. ...
Weather: Type of Instrument ...
Levelling Instrument Man ...
Staff Man ...

Station Back sight Intermediate sight Fore sight height of instrument R.L. Remarks
(B.S.) (I.S.) (F.S.) (h.I.)
Appendices

Arithmetical B.S. = B.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L. =

Check B.S. – F.S. =


597
IX. foRM foR MeasuReMent of veRtIcal DIstances—RIse anD fall MethoD
598

Date: Instrument No. ...


Weather: Type of Instrument ...
Levelling Instrument Man ...
Staff Man ...

Station Distance Back sight Intermediate Fore sight Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
(B.S.) sight (I.S.) (F.S.)
Surveying

Arithmetical Check B.S. = F.S. = Rise = Fall =

B.S. – F.S. = Rise – Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L. =


X. foRM foR DeteRMInatIon of tacheoMetRIc constants
Date: Instrument No. ...
Weather: Instrument Man ...
Tacheometry Staff Man ...

Vertical angle Staff reading Staff


Instrument at Staff at Distance (m) Vernier C Vernier D Mean vertical Upper hair Middle hair Lower hair Intercept
angle
Appendices
599
600 Surveying

XI. the pRojectIon systeMs


Large scale maps are generally plotted by means of a system of rectanglular
coordinates, but it is usual to use geographical coordinates for plotting small scale
works. One must appreciate the difficulty of representing a large area of curved
surface — the surface of the earth — on a flat one, leading to distortion of shape
and variation of scale. Exactly the same thing occurs when we proceed to work
on a small scale. For the projections of the features of the earth surface on a
flat surface there are more than 200 projections in use and can be categorised in
different groups, i.e., perspective, zenethal, conic, and cylindrical, and are described
as follows. It is to be remembered that it is impossible to represent correctly
any considerable portion of earth’s surface on a plane and as such none of the
projection system is perfect.
Perspective projections are the ones in which the portion of the earth’s surface
is drawn as it would be seen from the definite point.
The zenithal, also called azimuthal, projections (Fig. A.2) make use of great
circles of arcs to represent the shortest distance between two points. As the globe
is viewed from a point vertically above it, these are called zenithal projections.
They are also called azimuthal because the bearings are all true from the central
point where the plane is tangent to the sphere. The direction of all the points from
the centre of the map projection remains constant. Depending upon the position
of view point on the diameter of the globe, three cases arise which are shown in
Fig. A.2 (a). Depending upon the position of the plane, the projection systems are
shown in Fig. A.2 (b).

Gnomonic Stereographic Orthographic


The viewpoint on The viewpoint at the The viewpoint
the centre of globe opposite end of the diameter situated at infinity

The conic projection is based on the principle that a piece of paper can be
rolled into the shape of a cone. In the normal conic projection system (Fig. A.3),
the apex of the cone lies vertically above the pole on the earth’s axis produced,
and the surface of the cone will be tangent to the sphere along some parallel of
latitude. This is also known as lambert conformal conic projection.
Appendices 601

Polar Equatorial Oblique


The plane of projection The plane of projection is The plane of projection
touches the globe at poles tangent to the equator touches any other point

Standard parallel

Central meridian

For this purpose, the parallel which is selected is the one along which the cone
is tangential. The selected parallel is called the standard parallel. This becomes
an arc of a circle after the cone is unfolded along a plane. The axis along which
the cone is flattened, forms the central meridian of the map. Other meridians are
straight lines radiating from the vertex of the cone at equal intervals, dividing
the standard parallels into equal arcs. Other parallels will be concentric with the
standard parallels.
In cylindrical projection (Fig. A.4), the graticule is prepared by imagining the
surface of a globe projected on the surface of a hollow cylinder. When the cylinder
is unfolded into a flat surface, it gives a rectangular surface to the globe in which
the meridians and parallels are represented as straight lines, intersecting each other
at right angles. The cylindrical and zenithal projections are special cases of conic
projection: when the pole itself becomes the selected parallel, the angle at the
apex will be 180° — the surface of the cone will become similar to the tangent
plane of zenithal projection. When the selected parallel is the equator, the vertex
will be at an infinite distance and the cone will become a cylinder. This is also
known as Mercator projection.
In India, the topographic maps produced by the survey of India use polyconic
projection. In principle it represents the piling up of as many hollow cones as
the circles of latitude to which they closely correspond. Thus, all the cones are
tangent to the sphere along the corresponding parallels of latitudes, all of which
subsequently become standard parallels. But these are not concentric circles as in
the case of conic projection. In this projection, the scale is true only along the
602 Surveying

Normal Transverse Oblique

central meridian and parallels. The projection is, however, suitable for the topo-
graphic survey sheets prepared with their independent meridians. Under this system
while conic projection is used, the whole sheet is divided into four segments or
adjacent sheets. This enables to show surface features in more details. Though
the maps do not exactly fit in along their common edges, they provide a good
assemblage of the mosaic of a particular area represented on the maps. The
polyconic projection system is shown in Fig. A.5.
Y

N
80
70

60
50
40

30

20
180 10
W
150 30
120 60
90

XII. InstRuMents foR enlaRgIng, ReDucIng oR


RepRoDuctIon of plans
pentagRaph
construction
It consists of four tubular brass arms square in section. Two of these are long
(AB and AC) and are pivoted at one end A (Fig. A.6). The other two (DE and
Appendices 603

DF) are short and are hinged together at end D, and are connected to long arms
at E and F, having equal sides in all the positions of the instrument. A weight
W, known as fulcrum, is attached to long arm AB to fix the frame in a desired
position and the instrument moves about this. The instrument is fixed on small
rollers to allow free movement on the plan.
A E C

F
D
G

B
W

Arms AB and DF are provided with graduations 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc. to give
a corresponding enlargement or reduction. Arm AB carries a standing tubular
frame with an index line and a vertical axis of rotation which slides on the arm.
The arm DF also carries a frame with an index line and a sliding pencil. Both
these frames can be clamped at any division with the respective clamping screw.
In Fig. A.6 points C and G are the tracing point and pencil point, respectively.
The instrument in this position is used for reduction. These two points are
interchangeable. When G is used as tracing point and C as pencil point, the
instrument can be used for enlargement. The arm AC, carrying a tracing point
at C, when moved over the boundary of the plan with the pencil fixed at G,
produces the desired reduced scale copy.
The instrument is very suitable for reductions but for enlargements the results
are not satisfactory.

principle
The working of the pentagraph is based on the principle of similar triangles.
Let AB and AC be two straight arms hinged at A. E and F are two points on
the respective arms equidistant from A (Fig. A.7). AFDE is a parallelogram. Let
AC be hinged at J and the end B moved. The movement of points G and J will
be in the ratio of their distances from F and E, respectively.
ADEF is a parallelogram. Hence, FG is parallel to AE.
Also GFB = BAC
WGF and WJA are similar triangles.
604 Surveying

A
G

F
W
B

WG
____ FW
Hence, = ____
WJ AW
Any displacement of J will give a corresponding displacement of G through
FW/AW and hence the plan placed at J will be reduced.

eIDogRaph
The eidograph is also used for the same purposes as the pentagraph. The
pentagraph requires four supports on the paper and has numerous joints; its
action is apt to be unsteady. In contrast, eidograph has only one support upon which
the entire instrument moves steadily and regularly. All the joints of the eidograph
consist of fulcrums fitting in accurately ground bearings, the motion around these
fulcrums being capable of adjustment for regularity as well as accuracy. Further,
an eidograph may be set to form a reduced copy bearing any required proportion
to the original, while a pentagraph can be set for only few proportions specifically
marked on it.

construction
Figure A.8 shows the constructional details of an eidograph. The heavy weight
(H) of the eidograph is formed by lead with brass covering. It has three or four
needle-points to keep it steady on the paper. The pin, forming the fulcrum upon
which the whole instrument moves, projects from the centre of this weight on its
upper side, and fits into a socket attached to sliding box (K ). The centre beam
(C) fits into and slides through the box, and can be adjusted to any desired
position with respect to the fulcrum. It can be fixed by a clamping screw
attached to the box. The centre pins of the pulley-wheels (J) are fitted into the
deep sockets attached to each end of the centre beam. The pulley wheels have
two steel bands (I ) attached to their circumference, so that they can move only
simultaneously, and to exactly the same amount. By means of screw adjustments
these bands can have their lengths regulated so as to bring the arms of the instrument
into exact parallelism and, at the same time, to bring them to such a degree of
tension so as to provide the motions of the arms with the required steadiness,
Appendices 605

E J

K
C H B

R
G

which forms one of the advantages of the instrument over the pentagraph. The
arms, A and B, of the instrument pass through sliding boxes upon the under side
of the pulley wheels; these boxes, like that for the centre beam, being fitted with
clamping screws, by which the arms can be fixed in any desired position. At the
end of one of the arms is fixed a socket with clamping screw, to carry a tracing-
point, G, and at the end of the other is a socket for a loaded pencil, D, which
606 Surveying

may be raised when required by a lever, F F, attached to a cord which passes


over the centre of the instrument to the tracing point. The centre beam, C, and
the arms, A and B, are made of square brass tubes, divided exactly alike into 200
equal parts, and figured so as to read 100 each way from their centres. The boxes
through which they slide have verniers, by means of which these divisions may be
subdivided into 10, so that with their help, the arms and beam may be set to any
reading containing not more than three places of figures. A loose leaden weight
is supplied with the instrument to fit on any part of the centre beam, and keep it
in even balance when set with unequal lengths of the centre beam on each side
of the fulcrum.

principle
The pulleys being of exactly equal size, when the steel bands are adjusted so as
to bring the arms of the instrument into exact parallelism, they will remain
parallel throughout all the movements of the pulleys in their sockets, and thus
will always make equal angles with the centre beam. If, then, the two arms and
the centre beam are all set so that the readings of their divisions are the same, a
line drawn from the end of one arm across the fulcrum to the end of the other
arm will form, with the beam and arms, two triangles having their sides about equal
angles proportionals, and being, therefore, similar. Hence any motion communi-
cated to the end of one arm will produce a similar motion at the end of the other,
so that the tracing point being moved over any figure whatever, an exactly similar
figure will be described by the pencil.
Suppose it is required to set the instrument so that the proportion of the copy
to the original be a : b. Let x be the reading to which the instrument should be
set, then the centre beam and arms are each divided at their fulcrums into
portions whose lengths are 100 – x and 100 + x, respectively consequently,
(100 – x)/(100 + x) = a/b
x = 100 (b – a)/(b + a)
Thus, if the proportions are 1 : 2, we have x = 100 (2 – 1)/(2 + 1) = 33.3
The instrument must be set with the third divisions of the verniers beyond the
indices and the third divisions of the instrument beyond the 33rd. The readings
to which the instrument must be set for given proportions is given in Table 1.

Proportions 1:2 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:6 2:3 2:5 3:4 3:5
Readings 33.3 50 60 66.7 71.4 20 42.9 14.3 25

When the copy is to be reduced, the centre beam is to be set to the reading
found, as above, on the side of the zero next to the arm carrying the pencil point,
and this arm is also to be set to the same reading on the side of its centre or
zero nearest to the pencil end, while the tracer arm is to be set with the reading
farthest from the tracer. When the copy is to be enlarged, these arrangements must
of course be reversed.
Appendices 607

Figure A.9 represents the setting which makes the linear dimensions
get reduced to one-fourth (Fig. A.9 (a)) and get enlarged to four times
(Fig. A.9 (b)). For proportion 1 : 4, the reading to be set is 60. P represents the
position of the pencil point, T that of the tracer, and F the place of the fulcrum.

P P
60
60 60
F

60
60 60
F
T T

(a) Reduction (b) Enlargement


608 Surveying

XIII. tacheoMetRIc taBles

Minutes 0° 1° 2° 3°
hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 100.00 0.00 99.97 1.74 99.88 03.49 99.73 5.23
2 100.00 0.06 99.97 1.80 99.87 3.55 99.72 5.28
4 100.00 0.12 99.97 1.86 99.87 3.60 99.71 5.34
6 100.00 0.17 99.96 1.92 99.87 3.66 99.71 5.40
8 100.00 0.23 99.96 1.98 99.86 3.72 99.70 5.46
10 100.00 0.29 99.96 2.04 99.86 3.78 99.69 5.52
12 100.00 0.35 99.96 2.09 99.85 3.84 99.69 5.57
14 100.00 0.41 99.95 2.15 99.85 3.89 99.68 5.63
16 100.00 0.47 99.95 2.21 99.84 3.95 99.68 5.69
18 100.00 0.52 99.95 2.27 99.84 4.01 99.67 5.75
20 100.00 0.58 99.95 2.33 99.83 4.07 99.66 5.80
22 100.00 0.64 99.94 2.38 99.83 4.13 99.66 5.86
24 100.00 0.70 99.94 2.44 99.82 4.18 99.65 5.92
26 99.99 0.76 99.94 2.50 99.82 4.24 99.64 5.98
28 99.99 0.81 99.93 2.56 99.81 4.30 99.63 6.04
30 99.99 0.87 99.93 2.62 99.81 4.36 99.63 6.09
32 99.99 0.93 99.93 2.67 99.80 4.42 99.62 6.15
34 99.99 0.99 99.93 2.73 99.80 4.47 99.61 6.21
36 99.99 1.05 99.92 2.79 99.79 4.53 99.61 6.27
38 99.99 1.11 99.92 2.85 99.79 4.59 99.60 6.32
40 99.99 1.16 99.92 2.91 99.78 4.65 99.59 6.38
42 99.99 1.22 99.91 2.97 99.78 4.71 99.58 6.44
44 99.98 1.28 99.91 3.02 99.77 4.76 99.58 6.50
46 99.98 1.34 99.90 3.08 99.77 4.82 99.57 6.56
48 99.98 1.40 99.90 3.14 99.76 4.88 99.56 6.61
50 99.98 1.45 99.90 3.20 99.76 4.94 99.55 6.67
52 99.98 1.51 99.89 3.26 99.75 4.99 99.55 6.73
54 99.98 1.57 99.89 3.31 99.74 5.05 99.54 6.79
56 99.97 1.63 99.89 3.37 99.74 5.11 99.53 6.84
58 99.97 1.69 99.88 3.43 99.73 5.17 99.52 6.90
60 99.97 1.74 99.88 3.49 99.73 5.23 99.51 6.96
C = 0.2 m 0.20 0.00 0.20 0.01 0.20 0.01 0.20 0.01
C = 0.3 m 0.30 0.00 0.30 0.01 0.30 0.01 0.30 0.02
C = 0.4 m 0.40 0.00 0.40 0.01 0.40 0.02 0.40 0.02
Appendices 609

Minutes 4° 5° 6° 7°
hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 99.51 6.96 99.24 8.68 98.91 10.40 98.51 12.10
2 99.51 7.02 99.23 8.74 98.90 10.45 98.50 12.15
4 99.50 7.07 99.22 8.80 98.88 10.51 98.49 12.21
6 99.49 7.13 99.21 8.85 98.87 10.57 98.47 12.27
8 99.48 7.19 99.20 8.91 98.86 10.62 98.46 12.32
10 99.47 7.25 99.19 8.97 98.85 10.68 98.44 12.38
12 99.46 7.30 99.18 9.03 98.83 10.74 98.43 12.43
14 99.46 7.36 99.17 9.08 98.82 10.79 98.41 12.49
16 99.45 7.42 99.16 9.14 98.81 10.85 98.40 12.55
18 99.44 7.48 99.15 9.20 98.80 10.91 98.39 12.60
20 99.43 7.53 99.14 9.25 98.78 10.96 98.37 12.66
22 99.42 7.59 99.13 9.31 98.77 11.02 98.36 12.72
24 99.41 7.65 99.11 9.37 98.76 11.08 98.34 12.77
26 99.40 7.71 99.10 9.43 98.74 11.13 98.33 12.83
28 99.39 7.76 99.09 9.48 98.73 11.19 98.31 12.88
30 99.38 7.82 99.08 9.54 98.72 11.25 98.30 12.94
32 99.38 7.88 99.07 9.60 98.71 11.30 98.28 13.00
34 99.37 7.94 99.06 9.65 98.69 11.36 98.27 13.05
36 99.36 7.99 99.05 9.71 98.68 11.42 98.25 13.11
38 99.35 8.05 99.04 9.77 98.67 11.47 98.24 13.17
40 99.34 8.11 99.03 9.83 98.65 11.53 98.22 13.22
42 99.33 8.17 99.01 9.88 98.64 11.59 98.20 13.28
44 99.32 8.22 99.00 9.94 98.63 11.64 98.19 13.33
46 99.31 8.28 98.99 10.00 98.61 11.70 98.17 13.39
48 99.30 8.34 98.98 10.05 98.60 11.76 98.16 13.45
50 99.29 8.40 98.97 10.11 98.58 11.81 98.14 13.50
52 99.28 8.45 98.96 10.17 98.57 11.87 98.13 13.56
54 99.27 8.51 98.94 10.22 98.56 11.93 98.11 13.61
56 99.26 8.57 98.93 10.28 98.54 11.98 98.10 13.67
58 99.25 8.63 98.92 10.34 98.53 12.04 98.08 13.73
60 99.24 8.68 98.91 10.40 98.51 12.10 98.06 13.78
C = 0.2 m 0.20 0.02 0.2 0.02 0.19 0.02 0.19 0.03
C = 0.3 m 0.30 0.02 0.3 0.03 0.29 0.03 0.29 0.04
C = 0.4 m 0.40 0.03 0.4 0.04 0.39 0.04 0.39 0.05
610 Surveying

Minutes 8° 9° 10° 11°


hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 98.06 13.78 97.55 15.45 96.98 17.10 96.36 18.73
2 98.05 13.84 97.53 15.51 96.96 17.16 96.34 18.78
4 98.03 13.89 97.52 15.56 96.94 17.21 96.32 18.84
6 98.01 13.95 97.50 15.62 96.92 17.26 96.29 18.89
8 98.00 14.01 97.48 15.67 96.90 17.32 96.27 18.95
10 97.98 14.06 97.46 15.73 96.88 17.37 96.25 19.00
12 97.97 14.12 97.44 15.78 96.86 17.43 96.23 19.05
14 97.95 14.17 97.43 15.84 96.84 17.48 96.21 19.11
16 97.93 14.23 97.41 15.89 96.82 17.54 96.18 19.16
18 97.92 14.28 97.39 15.95 96.80 17.59 96.16 19.21
20 97.90 14.34 97.37 16.00 96.78 17.65 96.14 19.27
22 97.88 14.40 97.35 16.06 96.76 17.70 96.12 19.32
24 97.87 14.45 97.33 16.11 96.74 17.76 96.09 19.38
26 97.85 14.51 97.31 16.17 96.72 17.81 96.07 19.43
28 97.83 14.56 97.29 16.22 96.70 17.86 96.05 19.48
30 97.82 14.62 97.28 16.28 96.68 17.92 96.03 19.54
32 97.80 14.67 97.26 16.33 96.66 17.97 96.00 19.59
34 97.78 14.73 97.24 16.39 96.64 18.03 95.98 19.64
36 97.76 14.79 97.22 16.44 96.62 18.08 95.96 19.70
38 97.75 14.84 97.20 16.50 96.60 18.14 95.93 19.75
40 97.73 14.90 97.18 16.55 96.57 18.19 95.91 19.80
42 97.71 14.95 97.16 16.61 96.55 18.24 95.89 19.86
44 97.69 15.01 97.14 16.66 96.53 18.30 95.86 19.91
46 97.68 15.06 97.12 16.72 96.51 18.35 95.84 19.96
48 97.66 15.12 97.10 16.77 96.49 18.41 95.82 20.02
50 97.64 15.17 97.08 16.83 96.47 18.46 95.79 20.07
52 97.62 15.23 97.06 16.88 96.45 18.51 95.77 20.12
54 97.61 15.28 97.04 16.94 96.42 18.57 95.75 20.18
56 97.59 15.34 97.02 16.99 96.40 18.62 95.72 20.23
58 97.57 15.40 97.00 17.05 96.38 18.68 95.70 20.28
60 97.55 15.45 96.98 17.10 96.36 18.73 95.68 20.34
C = 0.2 m 0.19 0.03 0.19 0.03 0.19 0.04 0.19 0.04
C = 0.3 m 0.29 0.05 0.29 0.05 0.29 0.05 0.29 0.06
C = 0.4 m 0.39 0.06 0.39 0.07 0.39 0.07 0.39 0.08
Appendices 611

Minutes 12° 13° 14° 15°


hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 95.68 20.34 94.94 21.92 94.15 23.47 93.30 25.00
2 95.65 20.39 94.91 21.97 94.12 23.52 93.27 25.05
4 95.63 20.44 94.89 22.02 94.09 23.58 93.24 25.10
6 95.61 20.50 94.86 22.08 94.07 23.63 93.21 25.15
8 95.58 20.55 94.84 22.13 94.04 23.68 93.18 25.20
10 95.56 20.60 94.81 22.18 94.01 23.73 93.16 25.25
12 95.53 20.66 94.79 22.23 93.98 23.78 93.13 25.30
14 95.51 20.71 94.76 22.28 93.95 23.83 93.10 25.35
16 95.49 20.76 94.73 22.34 93.93 23.88 93.07 25.40
18 95.46 20.81 94.71 22.39 93.90 23.93 93.04 25.45
20 95.44 20.87 94.68 22.44 93.87 23.99 93.01 25.50
22 95.41 20.92 94.66 22.49 93.84 24.04 92.98 25.55
24 95.39 20.97 94.63 22.54 93.82 25.09 92.95 25.60
26 95.36 21.03 94.60 22.60 93.79 24.14 92.92 25.65
28 95.34 21.08 94.58 22.65 93.76 24.19 92.89 25.70
30 95.32 21.13 94.55 22.70 93.73 24.24 92.86 25.75
32 95.29 21.18 94.52 22.75 93.70 24.29 92.83 25.80
34 95.27 21.24 94.50 22.80 93.67 24.34 92.80 25.85
36 95.24 21.29 94.47 22.85 93.65 24.39 92.77 25.90
38 95.22 21.34 94.44 22.91 93.62 24.44 92.74 25.95
40 95.19 21.39 94.42 22.96 93.59 24.49 92.71 26.00
42 95.17 21.45 94.39 23.01 93.56 24.55 92.68 26.05
44 95.14 21.50 94.36 23.06 93.53 24.60 92.65 26.10
46 95.12 21.55 94.34 23.11 93.50 24.65 92.62 26.15
48 95.09 21.60 94.31 23.16 93.47 24.70 92.59 26.20
50 95.07 21.66 94.28 23.22 93.45 24.75 92.56 26.25
52 95.04 21.71 94.26 23.27 93.42 24.80 92.53 26.30
54 95.02 21.76 94.23 23.32 93.39 24.85 92.49 26.35
56 94.99 21.81 94.20 23.37 93.36 24.90 92.46 26.40
58 94.97 21.87 94.17 23.42 93.33 24.95 92.43 26.45
60 94.94 21.92 94.15 23.47 93.30 25.00 92.40 26.50
C = 0.2 m 0.19 0.04 0.19 0.05 0.19 0.05 0.19 0.05
C = 0.3 m 0.29 0.07 0.29 0.07 0.29 0.08 0.29 0.08
C = 0.4 m 0.39 0.09 0.39 0.09 0.39 0.10 0.39 0.11
612 Surveying

Minutes 16° 17° 18° 19°


hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 92.40 26.50 91.45 27.96 90.45 29.39 89.40 30.78
2 92.37 26.55 91.42 28.01 90.42 29.44 89.36 30.83
4 92.34 26.59 91.39 28.06 90.38 29.48 89.33 30.87
6 92.31 26.64 31.35 28.10 90.35 29.53 89.29 30.92
8 92.28 26.69 91.32 28.15 90.31 29.58 89.26 30.97
10 92.25 26.74 91.29 28.20 90.28 29.62 89.22 31.01
12 92.22 26.79 91.26 28.25 90.24 29.67 89.18 31.06
14 92.19 26.84 91.22 28.30 90.21 29.72 98.15 31.10
16 92.15 26.89 91.19 28.34 90.18 29.76 89.11 31.15
18 92.12 26.94 91.16 28.39 90.14 29.81 89.08 31.19
20 92.09 26.99 91.12 28.44 90.11 29.86 89.04 31.24
22 92.06 27.04 91.09 28.49 90.07 29.90 89.00 31.28
24 92.03 27.09 91.06 28.54 90.04 29.95 88.97 31.33
26 92.00 27.13 91.02 28.58 90.00 30.00 88.93 31.38
28 91.97 27.18 90.99 28.63 89.97 30.04 88.89 31.42
30 91.93 27.23 90.96 28.68 89.93 30.09 88.86 31.47
32 91.90 27.28 90.92 28.73 89.90 30.14 88.82 31.51
34 91.87 27.33 90.89 28.77 89.86 30.18 88.78 31.56
36 91.84 27.38 90.86 28.82 89.83 30.23 88.75 31.60
38 91.81 27.43 90.82 28.87 89.79 30.28 88.71 31.65
40 91.77 27.48 90.79 28.92 89.76 30.32 88.67 31.69
42 91.74 27.52 90.76 28.96 89.72 30.37 88.64 31.74
44 91.71 27.57 90.72 29.01 89.69 30.41 88.60 31.78
46 91.68 27.62 90.69 29.06 89.65 30.46 88.56 31.83
48 91.65 27.67 90.66 29.11 89.61 30.51 88.53 31.87
50 91.61 27.72 90.62 29.15 89.58 30.55 88.49 31.92
52 91.58 27.77 90.59 29.20 89.54 30.60 88.45 31.96
54 91.55 27.81 90.55 29.25 89.51 30.65 88.41 32.01
56 91.52 27.86 90.52 29.30 89.47 30.69 88.38 32.05
58 91.48 27.91 90.49 29.34 89.44 30.74 88.34 32.09
60 91.45 27.96 90.45 29.39 89.40 30.78 88.30 32.14
C = 0.2 m 0.19 0.06 0.19 0.06 0.19 0.06 0.19 0.07
C = 0.3 m 0.29 0.08 0.29 0.09 0.29 0.10 0.28 0.10
C = 0.4 m 0.38 0.11 0.38 0.12 0.38 0.13 0.38 0.13
Appendices 613

Minutes 20° 21° 22° 23°


hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 88.30 32.14 87.16 33.46 85.97 34.73 84.73 35.97
2 88.26 32.18 87.12 33.50 85.93 34.77 84.69 36.01
4 88.23 32.23 87.08 33.54 85.89 34.82 84.65 36.05
6 88.19 32.27 87.04 33.59 85.85 34.86 84.61 36.09
8 88.15 32.32 87.00 33.63 85.80 34.90 84.57 36.13
10 88.11 32.36 86.96 33.67 85.76 34.94 84.52 36.17
12 88.08 32.41 86.92 33.72 85.72 34.98 84.48 36.21
14 88.04 32.45 86.88 33.76 85.68 35.02 84.44 36.25
16 88.00 32.49 86.84 33.80 85.64 35.07 84.40 36.29
18 87.96 32.54 86.80 33.84 85.60 35.11 84.35 36.33
20 87.93 32.58 86.77 33.89 85.56 35.15 84.31 36.37
22 87.89 32.63 86.73 33.93 85.52 35.19 84.27 36.41
24 87.85 32.67 86.69 33.97 85.48 35.23 84.23 36.45
26 87.81 32.72 86.65 34.01 85.44 35.27 84.18 36.49
28 87.77 32.76 86.61 34.06 85.40 35.31 84.14 36.53
30 87.74 32.80 86.57 34.10 85.36 35.36 84.10 36.57
32 87.70 32.85 86.53 34.14 85.31 35.40 84.06 36.61
34 87.66 32.89 86.49 34.18 85.27 35.44 84.01 36.65
36 87.62 32.93 86.45 34.23 85.23 35.48 83.97 36.69
38 87.58 32.98 86.41 34.27 85.19 35.52 83.93 36.73
40 87.54 33.02 86.37 34.31 85.15 35.56 83.89 36.77
42 87.51 33.07 86.33 34.35 85.11 35.60 83.84 36.80
44 87.47 33.11 86.29 34.40 85.07 35.64 83.80 36.84
46 87.43 33.15 86.25 34.44 85.02 35.68 83.76 36.88
48 87.39 33.20 86.21 34.48 84.98 35.72 83.72 36.92
50 87.35 33.24 86.17 34.52 84.94 35.76 83.67 36.96
52 87.31 33.28 86.13 34.57 84.90 35.80 83.63 37.00
54 87.27 33.33 86.09 34.61 84.86 35.85 83.59 37.04
56 87.24 33.37 86.05 34.65 84.82 35.89 83.54 37.08
58 87.20 33.41 86.01 34.69 84.77 35.93 83.50 37.12
60 87.16 33.46 85.97 34.73 84.73 35.97 83.46 37.16
C = 0.2 m 0.19 0.07 0.19 0.07 0.19 0.08 0.19 0.08
C = 0.3 m 0.28 0.11 0.28 0.11 0.28 0.11 0.28 0.12
C = 0.4 m 0.38 0.14 0.37 0.15 0.37 0.15 0.37 0.16
614 Surveying

Minutes 24° 25° 26° 27°


hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 83.46 37.16 82.14 38.30 80.78 39.40 79.39 40.45
2 83.41 37.20 82.09 38.34 80.74 39.44 79.34 40.49
4 83.37 37.23 82.05 38.38 80.69 39.47 79.30 40.52
6 83.33 37.27 82.01 38.41 80.65 39.51 79.25 40.55
8 83.28 37.31 81.96 38.45 80.60 39.54 79.20 40.59
10 83.24 37.35 81.92 38.49 80.55 39.58 79.15 40.62
12 83.20 37.39 81.87 38.53 80.51 39.61 79.11 40.66
14 83.15 37.43 81.83 38.56 80.46 39.65 79.06 40.69
16 83.11 37.47 81.78 38.60 80.41 39.69 79.01 40.72
18 83.07 37.51 81.74 38.64 80.37 39.72 78.96 40.76
20 83.02 37.54 81.69 38.67 80.32 39.76 78.92 40.79
22 82.98 37.58 81.65 38.71 80.28 39.79 78.87 40.82
24 82.93 37.62 81.60 38.75 80.23 39.83 78.82 40.86
26 82.89 37.66 81.56 38.78 80.18 39.86 78.77 40.89
28 82.85 37.70 81.51 38.82 80.14 39.90 78.73 40.92
30 82.80 37.74 81.47 38.86 80.09 39.93 78.68 40.96
32 82.76 37.77 81.42 38.89 80.04 39.97 78.63 40.99
34 82.72 37.81 81.38 38.93 80.00 40.00 78.58 41.02
36 82.67 37.85 81.33 38.97 79.95 40.04 78.54 41.06
38 82.63 37.89 81.28 39.00 79.90 40.07 78.49 41.09
40 82.58 37.93 81.24 39.04 79.86 40.11 78.44 41.12
42 82.54 37.96 81.19 39.08 79.81 40.14 78.39 41.16
44 82.49 38.00 81.15 39.11 79.76 40.18 78.34 41.19
46 82.45 38.04 81.10 39.15 79.72 40.21 78.30 41.22
48 82.41 38.08 81.06 39.18 79.67 40.24 78.25 41.26
50 82.36 38.11 81.01 39.22 79.62 40.28 78.20 41.29
52 82.32 38.15 80.97 39.26 79.58 40.31 78.15 41.32
54 82.27 38.19 80.92 39.29 79.53 40.35 78.10 41.35
56 82.23 38.23 80.87 39.33 79.48 40.38 78.06 41.39
58 82.18 38.26 80.83 39.36 79.44 40.42 78.01 41.42
60 82.14 38.30 80.78 39.40 79.39 40.45 77.96 41.45
C = 0.2 m 0.18 0.08 0.18 0.09 0.18 0.09 0.18 0.09
C = 0.3 m 0.27 0.12 0.27 0.13 0.27 0.14 0.27 0.14
C = 0.4 m 0.36 0.16 0.36 0.17 0.36 0.18 0.36 0.18
Appendices 615

Minutes 28° 29° 30°


hor. Diff. hor. Diff. hor. Diff.
Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev. Corr. Elev.
0 77.96 41.45 76.50 42.40 75.00 43.30
2 77.91 41.48 76.45 42.43 74.95 43.33
4 77.86 41.52 76.40 42.46 74.90 43.36
6 77.81 41.55 76.35 42.49 74.85 43.39
8 77.77 41.58 76.30 42.53 74.80 43.42
10 77.72 41.61 76.25 42.56 74.75 43.45
12 77.67 41.65 76.20 42.59 74.70 43.47
14 77.62 41.68 76.15 42.62 74.65 43.50
16 77.57 41.71 76.10 42.65 74.60 43.53
18 77.52 41.74 76.05 42.68 74.55 43.56
20 77.48 41.77 76.00 42.71 74.49 43.59
22 77.42 41.81 75.95 42.74 74.44 43.62
24 77.38 41.84 75.90 42.77 74.39 43.65
26 77.33 41.87 75.85 42.80 74.34 43.67
28 77.28 41.90 75.80 42.83 74.29 43.70
30 77.23 41.93 75.75 42.86 74.24 43.73
32 77.18 41.97 75.70 42.89 74.19 43.76
34 77.13 42.00 75.65 42.92 74.14 43.79
36 77.09 42.03 75.60 42.95 74.09 43.82
38 77.04 42.06 75.55 42.98 74.04 43.84
40 76.99 42.09 75.50 43.01 73.99 43.87
42 76.94 42.12 75.45 43.04 73.93 43.90
44 76.89 42.15 75.40 43.07 73.88 43.93
46 76.84 42.19 75.35 43.10 73.83 43.95
48 76.79 42.22 75.30 43.13 73.78 43.98
50 76.74 42.25 75.25 43.16 73.73 44.01
52 76.69 42.28 75.20 43.18 73.68 44.04
54 76.64 42.31 75.15 43.21 73.63 44.07
56 76.59 42.34 75.10 43.24 73.58 44.09
58 76.55 42.37 75.05 43.27 73.52 44.12
60 76.50 42.40 75.00 43.30 73.47 44.15
C = 0.2 m 0.17 0.10 0.17 0.10 0.17 0.10
C = 0.3 m 0.26 0.14 0.26 0.15 0.25 0.15
C = 0.4 m 0.34 0.19 0.35 0.20 0.34 0.20
616 Surveying

XIv. tacheoMetRIc ReDuctIon DIagRaMs


1. Reduction Diagram for Horizontal Correction

To construct the diagram (Fig. A.10), the scale of distance reading up to 300
metres is set out vertically. On the horizontal line at 30 m reading, the values of
horizontal correction (= Ks sin2 = 300 sin2 ) is marked off for vertical angle
increasing by a suitable interval at every 5 or 10 . These points are joined to
the origin to get various radial lines. Since the horizontal correction is directly
proportional to the distance reading for a given angle, these radial lines give
horizontal correction for other distance readings on the scale.
2. Reduction Diagram for Vertical Component
1
To construct the reduction diagram for the vertical component (V = Ks __ sin 2 ), the
2
distance reading (Ks) is set off on the horizontal scale and the vertical component
Appendices 617

up to a maximum value of 30 metres on the vertical scale as shown in Fig. A.11.


Up to = 5°46 , the values of V are calculated when the distance reading is 300
m. These calculated values of V are marked off on the vertical scale and joined to
the origin by straight lines. Beyond = 5°46 , the values of horizontal correction
to give V = 30 m are calculated for various angles. The calculated values of
distance reading are marked off on the top horizontal line and joined to the origin
by straight lines. The radial lines may be drawn for angles at interval of every 5
or 10 , depending upon the size of diagram.
INDEX

A B
Abney hand level 230 Back bearing 97
Accuracy 21, 79, 279, 340, 387, 527 Back ray method 357
Aclinic lines 108 Back sight 216
Agonic lines 104 Back and fore sight distances 241
Additive constant 305 Balancing
Alidade 350 a traverse 192
Alidade assembly 127 in 133
Altimeter 278 Barometer 278
Altitude bubble 129 Barometric levelling 278
Anallactic lens 309 accuracy of 279
Apex distance 418 Barr and Stroud Range Finder 332
Arbitrary bearing 90 Baseline 9, 31
Arbitrary meridian 90 Bathymetric curves 369
Archaeological Survey 6 Beaman stadia arc 333
Area Bearing 89
by coordinate squares 522 adjustment 202
by geometrical figures 512 arbitrary 90
by longitude 519 back 97
from coordinates 202, 518 fore 97
from measurement by meridian forward 97
distance 519 grid 89, 90
from measurement by planimeter 520 magnetic 89, 90
from offsets 514 quadrantal 89, 96
subdivision 532 reduced 89, 97
Arrows 35 reverse 83
Assumptions on vertical curve 487 true 90
Astigmatisers 333 whole circle 89, 96
Automatic level 225 Bench mark 217
Autoreduction tacheometer 337 arbitrary 217
Average ordinate rule 514 great trigonometric survey 217
Axis correction method 195 permanent 217
Axis of temporary 217
level tube 133, 216 Bernoulli’s lemniscate curve 461
telescope 216 Bessel’s solution 359
Azimuth 90 Boning rod 578
Index 619

Bowditch rule 192 Compensator 158


Bubble tube 220 dual-axis 160
single-axis 159
C Compound curve 415
Cadastral survey 7 elements 445
Cant 457 setting out 446
Cant deficiency 458 Continuous levelling 242
Canyons 375 Contour 4, 369
Cartographic surveying 349 gradient 370
Cartography 13 interval 369
Centrifugal ratio 458 map 556
Centring 95, 134, 353, 403 Contouring 368
Chain 31 comparison of the methods 380
folding 33 direct methods 378
testing 33 indirect methods 378
unfolding 33 methods 377
Chainage 31, 58 Contour lines 368, 376
Chaining 34, 51 characteristics 376
accessories 34 Contours 369
errors 48 interpolation 380
obstacles 64 Control survey 7
Change point 217 Conventional signs 17
Changing face 192 Coordinates
Check levelling 268 consecutive 176
Check line 31 independent 176
Circular curve 415 negative 176
designation of 419 plotting by 175
elements of 417 Correction 254
setting out 422 Corrections tape 53
City survey 7 sag 54
Clamp screws 127, 130 slope 53
Classification standard length 53
of EDM instruments 69 temperature 54
of survey 5 tension 54
Cliff 376 Crag 373
Clinometer 36, 352 Cross head 577
Closed traverse 171, 190 Cross-hair ring test 138
area computation 202 Cross-sectioning 260
Closing error 191 Cross-staff 37
graphical adjustment 194 setting out right angles 38
Clothoid 461, 468 taking offsets 38
Coincidence bubble tube 265 Cubic parabola 461
Col 375 Cubic spiral 461
Collimation in azimuth test 138 Curvature correction 253
Collimation method 244 levelling 254
Compass 88 volume 553
prismatic 91 Curve 415
surveyor 93 broken-back 416
temporary adjustments 95 combined 416
trough 91, 351 compound 415
tubular 91
620 Index

easement 416 natural 19, 285


horizontal 415 personal 20, 285
lemniscate 470 sources 19, 340, 362, 501, 537, 561
reverse 416 systematic 20
simple circular 415 theodolite 148
serpentine 416 types 20
transition 416 vertical axis 148
vertical 417 vertical collimation 152
Escrapment 376
D External focussing telescope 218
Datum 214 Eyepiece 219
Declination 104
Defence survey 6 F
Degree of curve 419 Face
Departure 175 changing 133
Diagonal eyepiece 155 left 133
Diaphragm ring 219 right 133
Differential levelling 240 Fast needle method 172
Digital level 228 Fathoms 369
Digital planimeter 529 Features
Dip 107 digital planimeter 532
Dip of horizon 255 electronic theodolite 158
Double image tacheometer 338 range finder 330
Direct ranging 41 total station 394
Direct reading tacheometer 336 Fergusson’s percentage unit system 334
Distribution of angular error 202 Field book 12, 62
Diurnal variation 105 Fixed hair method 302
Distance equation 304 Flag poles 35
Dumpy level 224 Focussing
eyepiece 136
E objective 136
Earth surface 2 prism 95
Eidograph 16, 604 Froude’s transition curve 465
Electromagnetic distance measurements 9, Fore bearing 97
29, 69 Fore sight 217
Electronic data recording 408 Free needle method 172
Electronic theodolite 156, 393 Fudicial edge 342
features 158 Full chord 418
Elevation 4, 216
End area formula 551 G
Equilibrium cant 458 Gale’s traverse table 196
Error 19, 148, 284, 545 Geodimeter 76
accidental 20 Geodetic survey 6
chaining 48 Geographical survey 6
closing 191 Geological survey 6
compensating 48 Ghat tracer 372
cumulative 20, 48 Gorge 375
due to inaccurate centring 362 Grade 4, 544
horizontal axis 151 Grade contours 371
instrumental 20, 284 Gradienter 335
lateral collimation 150 Graphical adjustment of closing error 194
Index 621

Graphical method of plane tabling 359 abney hand 230


Great circle 2 automatic 225
Grid bearing 90 cooke’s reversible 224
Grid meridian 90 cushing’s 224
Guard stake 577 digital 228
dumpy 224
H hand 230
Hammer and Fennel tacheometer 337 surface 216
Hand level 230 tilting 227
Hand signals tube 129
chaining 41 types 224
leveling 243 wye 224
Hands off velocity 459 line 3, 216
Height of instrument 216, 244 Levelling 8
Height of instrument method 244 approximate 95, 234, 404
Horizon barometric 278
dip of 255 borrow pit 259
distance to visible 255 check 268
glass 331 checks in 257
mirror 39 differential 240
Horizontal base subtence method 324 difficulties 282
Horizontal circle assembly 129 errors 284
Horizontal curve 415 fly 267
Horizontal equivalent 370 for grading 258
Horizontal stave 301 head assembly 129
Hydrographic survey 7 longitudinal 259
Hypotenusal allowance 46 precise 265
Hypsometry 215 principles 239
I profile 259
Ideal transition curve 461 reciprocal 261
Independent coordinates 176 simple 239
Index mirror 39 staff 231
Indian clinometer 352 trigonometric 269
Intermediate sight 217 Levelling head 220
Intersection method 356 Levelling head assembly 129
Intrinsic equation 462 Levelling staff 231
Inverted staff 252 invar precision 233
Isoclinic lines 108 self-reading 231
Isogonic lines 104 sopwith 233
target 233
J Levelling up 95, 134, 234
Jeffcott tacheometer 336 Level surface 2, 216
Level tube 129, 220
L sensitivity of 221
Land features 372
Level vial 220
Latitude 3, 175
Line
Legends 16
base 9, 31
Lehmann’s method 360
check 31
Lemniscate curve 470
isoclinic 108
Length of curve 418
isogonic 104
Level 218
ranger 36
622 Index

of sight 216 oblique 58


of telescope 133, 216 perpendicular 58
subsidiary 30 swing 60
tie 30 taking of 60
Line stake 576 Offset rod 35
Lining in 133 Omitted measurements 203
Lining rods 35 Omnimeter 339
Local attraction 108 Optical
detection 108 plummet 155
elimination 108 square 38
Longitude 3 theodolite 153
Long chord 418 Orientation 354, 405
Loose needle method 172 by back ray 357
by three points 359
M of total station 403, 405
Magnetic by two points 358
anamolies 108 Overhanging cliff 376
declination 104
dip 107 P
meridian 90 Pappu’s theorem 554
Main survey line 30 Parallactic angle 303
Mass diagram 558 Parallax 217, 235, 329
Maps of India 589 elimination 235
Mean sea level 2 Parallel plate micrometer 227
Mekenomter 78 Pass 375
Mekometer 331 Pegs 34
Meridian 2, 89 Pentagraph 16, 602
arbitrary 90 Permanent adjustments 136, 236
convergence 90 order of 137
grid 90 Plane table 348
magnetic 90 description 349
true 89 Plane tabling 8
Micrometer microscope 152 methods 354
Mid-ordinate 421 Planimeter 523
Mid-ordinate rule 514 adjustments of 526
Mistake 20, 340, 501, 537, 561 constant of 526
Movable hair method 322 construction of 523
Multiplier constant 525 digital 529
Multiplying constant 304 theory of 524
working of 525
N Plateau 374
Non-transit theodolite 128 Plate level test 137
Normal tension 56 Plotting traverse survey 173
O Plumb bob 36, 129
Objective Plumbing fork 351
focussing 136 Plumb line 3
Obstacles Point of curve 418
to chaining 64 Point of tangency 418
to laying curves 420 Precision 21
Offset 31, 58 Prismatic compass 91
limiting length of 59 Prismoid 544
Index 623

Prismoidal correction 553 grade stakes 584


Prismoidal formula 551 inverts 584
Prism square 40 pipelines and sewers 584
Projection systems 600 tunnels 585
Pull correction 54 Setting up 134, 234, 403
Shifting centre 129
Q Shrinkage
Quadrantal bearing 96 factor 14
R ratio 14
Radiation method 355 Sight distance 492
Radius of curve 420 Sight rail 577
Range finder 329 Sight rule 350
barr and stroud 332 Simple circular curve 415
Range finding 302 elements of 417
Ranging setting out of 422
direct 41 Simpson’s one-third rule 515
indirect 42 Slope correction 53
rod 35 Sopwith telescopic staff 233
Rankines method 427 Spherical excess 4
Ravine 374 Spherical triangle 4
Reciprocal Spire test 139
levelling 261 Spirit level 220, 351
ranging 42 Spot levels 253
Reconnaissance 31,243 Spur 376
Reduced bearing 96 Stadia
Reduction to mean sea level 55 diaphragm 298
Reference sheet 589 interval 301
Refraction 253 interval factor 304
Relief depiction 386 method 301
Representative fraction 13 rod 299
Resection 357,407 Stake 576
suitability of 361 Standards 128
Retroreflector 402 Station
Reverse curve 416, 449 main 30
elements of 450 in levelling 217
Ridge line 375 subsidiary 30
Rise and fall method 245 tie 30
Route survey 7 Strength of fix 361
Sub-chord 418
S Subtense
Saddle 375 bar 301
Sag correction 54 horizontal base 322
Scale 13 Subtense method
Scrap 373 horizontal base 322, 324
Sectioning 259 vertical base 312
Self reducing tacheometer 337 Subtense theodolite 299
Sensitivity of bubble tube 221 Superelevation 457
Setting out of 575 Survey
bridges 582 aerial 7
buildings 579 archaeological 6
culverts 581
624 Index

cadastral 4 linen 34
city 7 metallic 34
classification of 4 steel 34
control 7 Tape corrections 53
defence 6 Target staff 233
EDM 9 Telemeter 331
engineering 6 Telescope 131, 218
geodetic 5 external focussing 218
geographical 6 internal focussing 218
geological 7 inverted 133
hydrographic 7 normal 133
location 7 swinging 133
mine 6 Telescopic alidade 349
plane 5 Telluro meter 77
preliminary 7 Temperature correction 54
reconnaissance 7 Temporary adjustments 95, 134, 234, 353
topographical 7 Theodolite
total station 9 care 147
underground 7 electronic 156
Surveying 4 Three point problem 350
chain 8,30 Tie line 30
character of work 10 Tie station 30
measurements 5 Tilting level 227
classification 11 Topographic
practice 9 map 4, 341
principles 22 survey 7
Survey line Total-station 393
main 30 capabilities of 410
tie 30 characteristics of 409
Surveyor compass 93 with enhanced capabilities 412
Swinging telescope 133 features of 394
Systematic errors 20 Transit 126, 132
Szepessy direct reading technometer 337 Transit theodolite 127
Transit rule 132, 192
T Transition curve 416, 455
Table land 374 elements of 466
Tacheometer 298 equation 463
auto-reduction 337 froude’s 465
direct reading 336 ideal 461
double image 338 length 459
jeffcott direct reading 336 requirements 456
reduction diagrams 616 setting out 468
tables 608 types of 471
szepessy direct reading 337 Trapezoidal formula 551
Tacheometry methods 8, 301 Trapezoidal rule 514
Tally 32 Travelling rod 563
Tangent correction 491 Traverse
Tangential method 302, 326 closed 171, 190
Tangent screws 130 open 172, 190
Tape 34 plotting of 173
invar 34
Index 625

Traversing 171, 355 Vertical


methods of 172 arc test 141
Trial-and-error method 360 base substense method 322
Triangle of error 360 circle index test 140
Triangulation 9 Vertical curve 417, 484
Tribrach 220 assumptions 487
Tripod 350 length 486
Trough compass 91, 351 setting out 488
True bearing 90 types of 485
error 19 Vertical line 4, 216
meridian 89 Vertical stave 299
spiral 468 Volume 543
Tubular compass 91 from contour map 556
Turning point 217 from cross sections 545
Two-peg test 237 from spot levels 554
Two point problem 358 formulae 550
Two theodolite method 427
W
U Watershed line 375
U-frame 128 Whole circle bearing 96
Unit area method 554 Wye-level 224

V Z
Valley line 375 Zero circle 525
Vernier theodolite 126 Zero correction 74
5

12
7

8
10

6 9

You might also like