CHAPTER THREE

MATRICES AND DETERMINANT

3.1. Definition of a Matrix
Definition 3.1.1: A matrix is any rectangular array of real numbers or variables of the for

[ ]

The numbers or the variables in the matrix are called entries or elements of the matrix. If a matrix has
rows and columns then we way that its size is by matrix. An matrix is called
a square matrix or a matrix of order n. A matrix is simply a real number. Matrices will be
denoted by capital bold-faced letters , etc, or by ( ) or ( ). For instance if

[ ] [ ]

is matrix & is matrix

Definition (Submatrix). Let A be an m × n matrix. A submatrix of matrix A is any matrix of size
r × s with r ≤ m and s ≤ n, which is obtained by deleting any collection of rows and/or columns of
matrix A
Definition (Zero Matrix). An m × n matrix A = [aij ] is said to be the zero matrix if aij = 0 for all i,j.
3.2. Types of matrices
In matrix theory there are many special kinds of matrices that are important because they posses
certain properties. The following is a list of some of these matrices.
i. Zero matrix: Matrix that consists of all zero entries is called a zero matrix and is denoted by 0
or .

For example [ ]

ii. Square matrix: any matrix is called square matrix if . The order of square matrix is
or simply .

Example: [ ]

iii. Diagonal matrix: A matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its entries except the
main diagonal are zeros. In terms of the symbolically . is a diagonal matrix if
for The matrix thus is given by

[ ]

iv. Row matrix (row vector): [ ] it is matrix.

v. Column matrix (column vector): It is a matrix.

( )

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 vi. Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal entries are equal is called a scalar
matrix.

Example 3.2.1: * +, * + and * + are all scalar matrices.

vii. Identity matrix (unit matrix): is a diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are 1. (
for
Notation:

Example 3.2.2 [ ]

viii. Triangular matrix: A matrix is said to be a triangular matrix if all its entries below
the main diagonal are zeros or if all its entries above the main diagonal are zero, [in other words a
square matrix is triangular if for or for j.] More specially, in the
first case the matrix is called upper triangular and in the second case the matrix is called lower
triangular. The following are triangular matrices. Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix
Example 3.2.3

Example 3.2.4: [ ] [ ]

A is lower triangular matrix B is upper triangular matrix

Note:
a. The transpose of a lower triangular matrix is upper triangular, and the transpose of an upper
triangular matrix is lower triangular.
b. The product of lower triangular matrices is lower triangular, and the product of upper
triangular matrices is upper triangular
3.3. Algebra of matrices
Definition 3.3.1: Equality of Matrices
Two matrices and are equal if for each and In other words, two matrices are
equal if and only if they have the same size and their corresponding entries are equal.
Matrix Addition
When two matrices A and B are of the same size we can add them by adding their corresponding
entries.
Definition 3.3.2: If and are matrices, then their sum is

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Example: 3.3.1 * + * +, then find

Solution: * + +* + * +
Definition 3.3.3: scalar multiplication of a matrix.
If is a real numbers, then the scalar multiple of a matrix A is

[ ]

[ ]

Example 3.3.2: * + [ ]. Find

Solution: * + [ ]

Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Suppose A, B, and C are m × n matrices and α and β are scalars. Then
i. (Commutative law of addition)
ii. (Associative law of addition)
iii. (Existence of additive identity)
iv. A+(-A)=(-A)+A=0(Existence of additive inverse)
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

Product of Matrices and Some Algebraic Properties, Transpose

Let the entry of the product is obtained by summing the products of the elements in the
row of with corresponding elements in the column of .

If A has rows , and B has columns , then the product AB can be given
by the formula

[ ]

That is, the entry of AB is .

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Definition 3.3.4: Let the number of columns in matrix be the same as the number of rows in matrix
, then the matrix product exists and the element in row and column of is obtained by
multiplying the corresponding elements of row of and column of and adding the product.
In other words if matrix and , then
Where

Note: The product of two matrices and is defined only if the number of columns in and the
number of rows in are equal.

Example 3.3.3: ample: * + [ ]. Find

* +[ ] * + * +

We note here that the size of is and the size of is consequently the size of is .
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
In defining the properties of matrix multiplication below, the matrix A, B, and C are assumed to be of
compatible dimensions for the operations in which they appear.
a) Matrix multiplication is, in general, not commutative. That is AB ≠ BA.
Observe that in Example 1 of this section BA is not even defined because the first matrix in this case B
does not have the same number of columns as the number of rows of the second matrix A.
b) From , it does not follow that either or . Here ’s are null matrices of
appropriate order
Example 3.3.4: For the matrix and given by

* + * +

We have * + a null matrix even though A or B is not a null matrix. The relation
does not imply that . The cancellation law does not hold in general as in a
real numbers.
Example 3.3.5: For the matrices

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] But

a) Matrix multiplication is associative. That is .

b) The multiplication of matrices is distributive with respect to addition i.e.
.
c) does not imply or

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Generally Properties of Matrix Multiplication is given below
Assume all products and additions are defined. Let A, B, C be Matrices. Then

i. and

ii. , where α is a scalar.

iii.

iv. iv. , where, =zero matrix

Example 3.3.6: If * + * + and * +

a) Verify that
b)
Solution (a): A (BC) = * +* + * +

=* +* + * +

A (BC) * +=

(b) * +* + =* +

AB+AC=* + +* +=* +

Transpose of a Matrix

Definition 3.3.5: The transpose of a matrix , denoted , is the matrix whose columns are
the rows of the given matrix
Symbolically the transpose of an matrix is an matrix.
i.e.

Example 3.3.7: [ ] then [ ]

Theorem 3.3.1: Suppose and are matrices and a scalar. Then

i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)

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Definition 3.3.6: A matrix ) is said to be:
a. Symmetric if ) for all and that is if .
b. Skew-symmetric if for all i and j, that is –

[ ] [ ]

is symmetric matrix is skew symmetric matrix

Theorem 3.3.1: Let A be any square matrix. Then

(i) is symmetric (
(ii) is skew-symmetric ((
(iii) A can be written as a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.

Exercise 3.3.1:

1. Let * + and * +. Find

, (b)
2. Find all values of for which is symmetric

( )

3. Find all values of for which is skew-symmetric.

( )

Definition 3.3.7: If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A, denoted by is defined to be the
sum of the entries on the main diagonal of A. The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix.

[ ]

Note:
1. If A is a square matrix of order n, then the power of A are given by:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
2. For any n-square matrix and for any polynomial,
where for are scalars, we define .If
then is a zero /root of the polynomial.
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Example 3.3.8: Let * + then compute:
i.
ii.
Solution:
* +* + * +

* +* + * +

Solution ( ii) * +* + * + * +

* +* + * +

Then * + * + * + * +

3.4. Elementary row and column operations and echelon forms

A matrix A is said to be row equivalent to matrix B, written A if matrix B is obtained from A by a

sequence of elementary row operations. These elementary row operations are:
i. Interchanging the row by the row (i.e )
ii. Multiplying the row by a none zero scalar (i.e ).
iii. Replacing the row by k times the row plus row (i.e )

Example 3.4.1: [ ]

Interchanging row one row three of (i.e )

[ ]

Multiply the second row of by two (i.e. ).

[ ]

Replacing the second row by 2 times the third row plus the second row of matrix
(i.e. )

[ ]

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Definition 3.4.1: a matrix A is called row equivalent to matrix B written . If B can be obtained from
A by finite sequence of elementary row operations.

Example 3.4.2: Let [ ].

Find a matrix B which is row equivalent to A with

Solution:
Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ] the required matrix.

In order to find the rank, or to compute the inverse of a matrix, or to solve a linear system, we
usually write the matrix either in its row echelon form or reduced row echelon form.
Definition 3.4.2 A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a leading 1 in the
reduced row echelon form of A. A pivot column is a column of A that contains a pivot position. A
pivot element is a nonzero number in a pivot position that is used as needed to create zeros via row
operations.

Definition 3.4.3: An matrix is said to be in echelon form (or row echelon form) if the following
conditions are satisfied:
1. All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.

2. Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above it.
(A leading entry refers to the left most nonzero entry in a nonzero row)
3. All entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros.

If a matrix in row echelon form satisfies the following additional conditions, then it is in reduced
echelon form (or reduced row echelon form)
4. The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1.
5. Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.

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A matrix in row echelon form is said to be in reduced row echelon when every column that has a
leading 1 has zeros in every position above and below the leading entry.

Example 3.4.3:

[ ] Both RREF & REF

The matrix [ ]

is not in reduced row echelon form but in row echelon form since the matrix has the first 3 properties
and all the other entries above the leading 1 in the third column are not 0.

The matrix [ ]

are not in row echelon form (also not in reduced row echelon form) since the leading 1 in the second
row is not in the left of the leading 1 in the third row and all the other entries above the leading 1 in the
third column are not 0. Any non-zero matrix can be reduced to echelon form by applying some
elementary row operations on the given matrix.

Example 3.4.4: The given matrices A, B, C, D are in row echelon form

* +, * +, [ ] , * +

and the following are in reduced row echelon form.

* +, * +, [ ] , * +

Example 3.4.5: Let [ ].find the REF of A

Solution:
Appling we get

[ ]

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Appling we get

[ ]

Appling ⁄ we get

[ ⁄ ]

Appling we get

[ ⁄ ]
⁄
Appling ⁄ we get

[ ⁄ ]

Appling ⁄ we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

Appling and we get

[ ] which is reduced echelon form

3.5.Inverse of a matrix and its properties

We motivate the idea of the inverse of a matrix by looking at the multiplicative inverse of a real number. If
number b is the inverse of a, then
and
These are the ideas we extend to matrices.
Definition 3.5.1: An matrix is said to be nonsingular or invertible if there exists a matrix
such that .The matrix B is said to be the multiplicative inverse of A.
Note: If B and C are both multiplicative inverses of A, then

Thus an invertible matrix has a unique inverse.

Example: Show that the matrix is the inverse of matrix if

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 * + And * +

* +* + * + * +* +
Thus , which shows matrix is the inverse of .
NB:
a) Inverse of a matrix is only defined for square matrices.
b) A matrix may not be invertible even if it is square matrix.
Definition 3.5.2: An matrix is said to be singular if it does not have a multiplicative inverse.
Notation: Let be an invertible matrix. We denote its inverse by .
Gauss-Jordan Elimination for finding the inverse of a matrix
Let be an matrix.
1. Adjoin the identity matrix to to form the augmented matrix
2. Compute the reduced echelon form of If the reduced echelon form is of the
type then is the inverse of . If the reduced echelon form is not of the type
(In: B), in that the first sub matrix is not , then has no inverse.
Example 3.5.1: Determine the inverse of the matrix

[ ]

Solution: applying the method of Gauss-Jordan Elimination we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ] Thus [ ]

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Exercise: Determine the inverse of the matrix below, if it exists.

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Properties of Inverse Matrices

Let and be invertible matrices with the same size and a nonzero scalar. Then
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
3.6.Rank of matrix
Definition 3.6.1:
i. The maximum number of linearly*- independent row vectors of a matrix A is called the row
rank of A.
ii. The maximum number of linearly independent column vectors of a matrix A is called the
Column rank of A.
 It can be shown that the column rank of A and the row rank of A are equal.
We denote the rank of A rank (A) or r(A).
Definition 3.62 (Rank of Matrix): Rank of an matrix A, denoted by , is the number of
nonzero rows of the reduced row echelon form of A or row echelon form of A.
Remark:
i. The rank of A is the dimension of the row space of A.
ii. If A is m x n matrix, then
a)
b) If , we say that A has full row rank.
c) If , we say that A has full column rank.
iii. If r(A) = 0 , then A is the null matrix. and conversely, if A is the null matrix, .
iv.
v.
vi. if B is square of full rank.
vii) .

Example 3.6.1: Let [ ]. Find rank

Solution:
Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

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Hence rank =2.
Exercise: Find rank

[ ] [ ]

3.7. Definition of Determinant and its Properties

3.7.1 Definition of Determinant
Definition: 3.7.1.1 The determinant of a matrix A=⌈ ⌉ is the real number and it is usually
denoted by detA or| |.
2. The determinant of a 2 2 matrix * + is given by

Det | |

Example 3.7.1.1: compute the determinant of * +.

Solution: det | |

Definition 3.7.1.2 (Determinant of Matrix): Let [ ] be a matrix, and

th th
(for ) be the submatrix of obtained by deleting the -row and the -column
of . Then determinant of A is denoted by or| |, and is defined as:

| | | | | | | |

| | | | | |

Example 3.7.1.2: let [ ]. Find | |.

Solution: | | | | | | | |
=

2. The determinant of a 4 square matrix [ ]

| |- | | | | | |

3.7.2. Properties of determinant

Let be two matrices
1. The determinant of a matrix and its transpose are equal
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 2. If two rows or two columns of a square matrix are identical, then det
3. If a row or a column of a matrix is zero ,then the det
4. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of the diagonal element (i.e
det )
5. The determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to the product of the diagonal element
(i.e. det )
6. The determinant of a product of two matrices and is given by det det det in
particular det
Example: Consider the matrices then show that det det det

7. If B is a matrix obtained from A by interchanging two rows or columns of A, then det

8. If I is the identity matrix, det

9. det
10. if a matrix B is obtained from matrix A by multiplying the elements of one of the
rows or columns by scalar k, then det
11. If B is a matrix obtained from A by adding a scalar multiple of a row/ a column to another
row/column, then det
12. If matrix A & B are equal, then they have equal determinant
13. If a matrix A is multiplied by scalar k, then det
Example 3.7.2.1: if detA=4 and A is 2x2 matrix, then find
i. | |
ii. | |
iii. | |
Solution: i. | | | |
ii. | |
| | | |
| |
Example 3.7.2.2: If detA=3 and A is 3x3 matrix, then det(2A) =24

Solution: [ ]. Then 2A=[ ]

det(2A)= [ ] [ ] [ ]

Example 3.7.2.3: Let [ ].and .then find

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 a. [ ]. b. [ ] c. [ ].

Solution :

a. | | | | | |

b. | | | | | |

c. | | | |

| |

| |

| |

Exercise:
1. Matrix A has m rows and m-8 columns. Matrix B has n rows and 26-n columns. Find the value of
m and n such that the products AB and BA exist. Ans. and
2. Let A be 4x6 matrix, B be 5x2n matrix. If the product exist, then find the value of n.
ans.
3. Let A,B be 2x2 non-singular matrices such that . Then , find the det(2A ).
Ans. 2500
Definition 3.7.2.1 (Definition of rank using Determinant). Let A be an matrix. Then
rank , where is the largest number such that some submatrix of A has a nonzero
determinant.
Example 3.7.2.4 Compute the the rank of matrix * + using determinants.
Solution: Observe that, the largest possible size of any square submatrix of A is 2 × 2. We have (say)
a submatrix * + (which is obtained by deleting the last two columns of A) with

| |
Therefore, rank(A) = 2.
Definition 3.7.2.2: Let A be a squar matrix. Then A is said to be
i. Non-singular matrix if det
ii. Singular matrix if det

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Exercise: Find the value of x for which the matrix [ ] is singular.

3.8. Adjoint and inverse of a matrix

Definition 3.8.1: Let and be the matrix obtained from by deleting
the row and column containing .
i. The det ( ) is called the minor of .
ii. det ( ) is the cofactor
iii. Then matrix formed by the cofactor is called cofactor matrix.
iv. The transpose of the matrix C is called adjoint of A and denoted by
Example 3.8.1: Determine the minors and cofactors of the elements and of the following
matrix .

[ ]

Solution: minor of

Det ( [ ] by deleting the row and column | |

Cofactors of the elements

Det (
Minor of

Det ( [ ] by deleting the row and column | |

Cofactors of the elements

Det (

Example 3.8.4: Compute the matrix of cofactors for the given matrix.

a) * + b) [ ]

Solution: (a) The minors of are

, ,
and cofactors are

Thus, the matrix of cofactors for A is [ ] * +

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 b) The minors of B are

| | , | | | |

| | , | | | |

| | , | | | |

and cofactors are

,

Thus, the matrix of cofactors for B is [ ] [ ]

Example 3.8.5: Find adj if [ ]

Solution: | |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

[ ] Adj [ ] [ ]

Definition 3.8.2: a square matrix is invertible, if and only if | | if is invertible then

| |

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Example 3.8.5: Find the inverse of if

a). [ ] [ ]

Solution:
a). | |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

[ ] adj [ ] [ ]

| | | | | | | | | |

⁄
[ ] ⁄ ⁄ ⁄
| |
[ ⁄ ]

b). We have, | |

[ ] [ ], and [ ]

Therefore, by the above Theorem, we have

[ ] [ ] [ ]

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Exercise:
4. Find the inverse of a matrix if exist

[ ] [ ] [ ]

5. Find the values of for which the matrix [ ]is invertible. And compute .

Definition 3.8.3: the matrix * + is invertible if in which case the inverse is

given by the formula.
* +

Example 3.8.6: Find the inverse of if * +

Solution: | | since A is invertible

* + * +

3.9. Solving systems of linear equations

Definition 3.9.1: an equation where & b are
constants and are variables is called a linear equation. If the linear equation is
said to be homogeneous.
A linear system m linear equations in n unknowns (variables) is a set of equations of
the form

The above system of equation is equivalent to where

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Matrix A is called the coefficient matrix of the system and the matrix

[ ] is called the augmented matrix for the system.

Remark: If then the system is called homogenous system of equations;

otherwise it is non-homogenous system.
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Solution of system of Linear equations: There are three possibilities for the size of the solution set of
system of linear equations:

1) It admits a unique Solution: There is one and only one vector that
satisfies all the -equations simultaneously (the system is consistent).

2) It has infinitely Many Solutions: There are infinitely many different values of that satisfy all
the -equations simultaneously (the system is said to be consistent).

3) Has no Solution: There is no vector that satisfies all equations simultaneously, or the solution
set is empty (the system is said to be inconsistent).

Remark: For Homogenous system of equation , is called the trivial solution. Any other
solution of a homogeneous system is called a nontrivial solution.

Theorem 4.4.1.1: Consider the system of linear equations {

If and are the matrices of coefficients and the column vector of numbers, respectively
(i.e. ). Then the following statements are true.
i. If | = number of unknowns, then the linear system has only one
solution.
ii. If | number of unknowns, then the linear system has infinitely many
solutions.
iii. If | , then the linear system has no solution.
Remark:
a) From the Theorem above, we observe that the linear system has no solution if an echelon form of
the augmented matrix has a row of the form with nonzero.
b) A linear system has unique solution when there are no free variable, and it has infinitely many
solutions when there is at least one free variable.
The two methods for finding the complete solution set for a given linear system are Gaussian
elimination and the Cramer’s rule.
3.9.2. Cramer’s rule
Consider a system of linear equations in three variables

Let [ ] elements of A arranged in the same order as they occur as coefficient in the

equations.

[ ] is obtained by replacing first column of A by [ ]

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 [ ] is obtained by replacing 2nd column of A by [ ]

[ ] is obtained by replacing 3rd column of A by [ ]

Now, | | | | | | | |

The following cases are arise in Cramer’s rule

i. If | | the system has unique solution which is given by Cramer’s rule

ii. If | | , and at least one of the determinant , & is non zero, then the system is in
consistent.( i.e. it has no solution.)
iii. If | | and determinant = ,then the system has infinite many solution.

Example 3.9.1.1: use Cramer’s rule to solve the following system of linear equations

Solution: [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

| | | | | |
Thus | | | |
and | |

Example 3.9.1.2: by using Cramer’s Rule solve the system of a linear equations
{

Solution: The matrix of coefficient is * + and * +

* +, * + and
| | , | | and | |
| | | |
| |
And | |

( ) ( )

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 3.9.2. Gaussian elimination Method

A finite set of linear equations in the variables is called linear system of equations.
An arbitrary system of m linear equations in n unknown can be written as:

Where, are the unknowns and the subscripted a's and b's denote constants. In the above
linear system of equations the matrix

[ ] is called the coefficient matrix. And

[ ] is called the augmented matrix for the system.

For example, the augmented matrix for the system of equations

Definition 3.9.2.1: the process of using row operations to transfer an augmented matrix of linear system
in to one whose augmented matrix is in row echelon form is called Gaussian elimination. The main
advantage of this method is that it is applicable to any system of equations.

Or

Gaussian elimination, also known as row reduction, is used for solving a system of linear equations.
The Gaussian Elimination method involves the following steps:
1) Write down the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.(A/B)
2) Find an echelon form of the augmented matrix using elementary row operations.

3) From a new equation using and solve the variables using back substitution.
Example 3.9.2.1: Solve the system of linear equations using Gaussian elimination method.

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 {

Solution: first find the augmented matrix such that

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

Appling we get

[ ]

U C
Now apply back- substitution to obtain the solution

[ ]( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Hence the solutions are

Exercise 3.9.2.1: Use Gaussian elimination Method to solve

a. {

b. {

3.9.3 Gaussian- Jordan elimination method

The process of solving system of linear equations first by changing the augmented matrix of the
system in to RREF and then solving for variables is knows as Gaussian- Jordan elimination method.

Exercise 3.9.3.1: Solve the system of linear equations using Gaussian- Jordan elimination method.

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 3.9.4 Inverse matrix method

Theorem 3.9.3.1: if is invertible matrix, then for each matrix , the systems has
exactly one solution.
Proof: exercise
Namely
Example 3.9.3.2: Find the solution of the system of linear equations using inverse matrix method

Solution: in matrix form the system can be written as

[ ] * + [ ]

First we find the inverse of using Cramer’s rule

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

| |

[ ] adj [ ] [ ]

| | | | | | | | | |

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 | |
[ ] [ ]

Then by the above theorem we have

[ ][ ] [ ]

Therefore are solutions

Exercise 3.9.3.1: solve the system of linear equations by inverse matrix method

WORK SHEET

1. Let * + and * +. Find

(a) , (b) , , ,
2. (a) Find and if ( )=( ) +( )

(b) Let =( ). If =6 , find matrix

3. Find matrix such that where * + and * +

4. a. Let . Find if * +.

b. find and w if 3( ) ( ) ( )

c. Find matrix D such that DA=B where ( ) and ( )

5. If ( )& ( ) find the value of

6. let A and B be matrices with and find

. , . . , iv.
7. Let A be a scalar matrix of size 3x3 with det(2A)=216. Find matrix A.

8. Let | | Then find

i. | | ii. | | iii. | |

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9. Let ( ) Then find

i. Determinant of A
ii. All minors and all cofactors of A
iii. The cofactors of A
iv. The adjoint of A
v. The inverse of A

10. Let ( ) find the set of values of t for which the homogeneous system of linear

equation has nontrivial solution

11. For what values of will the following system of equation

Has a) i) no solution
ii) Exactly one solution
iii) In finite many solution
b). In case the system has a solution determine the solution.
12. Solve the following system of equation using either Gauss’s method or Cramer’s rule,

A. { B. { C. {

D. { E. {

13. Solve the following systems by inverse matrix method.

i. { ii. {

14. Using Cramer’s rule, find the value of for which the following systems has a unique, many or
no solutions.

i. { ii. {

15. If A is matrix with and Find det .

16. Let A be 4x4 matrix with Find det(A).
√
17. Let ( ), and then show that ( )&
18. Find the rank and inverse, if possible, of the following matrices.

a. ( ) b. ( )

19. Given that ( )A( ) , find det

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Set by Abebaye Assefa