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Strength and Conditioning for Skeleton

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DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0000000000000101

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Strength and
Conditioning for Skeleton
Tim Mosey, MExSci
Brisbane Boys’ College, Queensland, Australia

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ABSTRACT velocity before loading at around the training recommendations to improve

30-m mark (29). Ideally, the athlete will athletic performance.
SKELETON IS A WINTER SPORT
load by diving onto the sled with
WHERE ATHLETES SLIDE A
a velocity equal to or greater than the ANALYSIS OF SKELETON
BOBSLEIGH TRACK HEAD FIRST actual sled, resulting in—if possible—an PUSH START
ON A SLED. THE AIM OF THIS increase in sled velocity (15). The PS A skeleton race consists of 2 heats or
ARTICLE WAS TO IDENTIFY THE has a technical component in which “runs” where the athlete has 2 chances
KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS the competitor must run bent over to slide on the track. The accumulated
TO OPTIMAL SKELETON PERFOR- while maintaining their sled in a straight time of both runs is the athlete’s final
MANCE. ONCE THESE ARE ES- line, within ice grooves, down the track time. A strength and conditioning
TABLISHED, THE STRENGTH AND (Figure 1). Once loaded, the athlete (S&C) intervention aimed at improving
CONDITIONING PROFESSIONAL “drives” the sled down the track with the physical qualities during the PS
CAN INTRODUCE TRAINING IN- the aim of completing the track in the may be optimal because the ability to
TERVENTIONS AND TESTING quickest possible time. accelerate the sled to maximum veloc-
BATTERIES TO IMPROVE AND Early evidence suggested that the PS ity before loading lays the foundation
QUANTIFY OPTIMAL ATHLETIC time was an important factor in deter- to build momentum down the track.
PERFORMANCE. METHODS THAT mining overall performance (29); how- Bullock et al. (4) analyzed start veloc-
TARGET IMPROVEMENTS IN ever, further research suggested that ities and emphasized the finding that
STRENGTH, POWER, AND ACCEL- push times may not correlate with fin- a fast acceleration over the first 15 m
ERATION SHOULD BE CONSID- ish times and may only correlate with was essential to attaining fast 15 m and
ERED WHEN CRAFTING times over the first third of the track 45 m velocities, which held very large
STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING (4). Further research into enhancing correlations with split times over the
PROGRAMS FOR SKELETON the PS has looked at basic kinematics first third of the track. Therefore, speed
ATHLETES. FOR A VIDEO (14) and optimal warm-up methods and acceleration seem to be important
ABSTRACT OF THIS ARTICLE, (6). Sands et al. (22) identified correla- qualities in maximizing start perfor-
SEE SUPPLEMENTAL DIGITAL tions between stronger, more powerful mance. In support of this finding, Sands
CONTENT 1 (SEE VIDEO, HTTP:// athletes (as measured with loaded et al. (22) showed that international
skeleton athletes were able to reach
LINKS.LWW.COM/SCJ/A152). countermovement jump) and sprint
75 and 85% of their upright sprint times
and push time. They noted that sprint
during a dry land push at the 15- and
and push times tended to be faster in
INTRODUCTION 30-m marks, respectively. This knowl-
the athletes who produced higher
keleton is a Winter Olympic edge gives the S&C coach a platform

S sport in which athletes slide head

first down a bobsleigh track on
a sled (the skeleton). Athletes com-
power outputs in the loaded counter-
movement jump and subsequently con-
cluded that athletes should consider
undertaking strength and power train-
from which to launch a training
intervention.
One article was found that analyzed
plete the push start (PS) by accelerat- the PS from a kinematic perspective
ing their sled away from the start block ing to enhance their ability to sprint and
before loading the sled with a forward related actions involved in the PS.
KEY WORDS:
diving motion. The PS requires a com- The purpose of this article is to strength and conditioning; training
bination of speed and power so that review the research on skeleton and interventions; strength; power; speed
the athlete can accelerate to maximum subsequently provide evidence-based

62 VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2014 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
 energy gained depletes (16). The inten-
tion of the athlete outside of steer-
ing requirements needs to be that
of complete stillness and relaxation—
compared with rigid and stiff body
positions. When steering is neces-
sary, the athlete needs to make subtle
adjustments—particularly with their
trunk—to place force at the appropri-
ate location on the sled. Away from
actual sliding, this component of the
race can be directly addressed in an
S&C program (Figure 2). Neck
strengthening and specific endurance
is necessary to withstand the applied
gravitational force through corners
and throughout the duration of the
Figure 1. Skeleton push start. race (Figure 3).

KINEMATICS OF SPRINTING
(14). Kivi et al. (14) showed that there SKELETON “ON-SLED” During the stance phase of maximal
are similarities between the initial start- KINEMATICS velocity sprinting (MVS) to produce
ing position and that of a track athlete A skeleton competitor may feel the propulsion in the forward direction,
from blocks. Their results highlighted effect of gravitational forces between the primary catalyst is the gluteus
that single- and double-foot take offs 5 and 6 times applied to them travel- maximus (24,27). During the stance
were equally as good in attaining fast ling through corners at speeds over phase, the knee extensors—particularly
start times. The athlete never raises 135 km/h (16). The ability of the ath- the vastus medialis—are responsible for
their torso during the PS—unlike a typ- lete to maintain control of their sled stabilizing the knee joint throughout
ical sprinter—therefore trunk angle does during these periods of the race is contact time. The gluteus medius and
not change. Angles at the knee and thigh important. However, if athletes apply the oblique abdominals are responsible
remain similar until the athlete loads forces through adjustments on the sled, for stabilizing the trunk and pelvis (17).
onto the sled (14). The trunk angle re- steering with shoulders or toes, or Wiemann and Tidow report that from
mains the same, which is a consideration making adjustments to directly control toe off contact through to the flight
the S&C coach needs to make when the direction of the sled, the momentum phase, the primary movers are the knee
thinking about exercise selection. built is potentially lost and potential flexors (semitendinosus, semimembra-
nosus, and biceps femoris) (24). The
authors found that the knee extensors,
in particular, the vastus medialis, could
not be considered muscles that pro-
duced forward acceleration in upright
sprinting. The main propulsion for for-
ward acceleration in upright sprinting
during contact comes from a combina-
tion of the gluteus maximus and adduc-
tor magnus, which combine to control
outward rotation and abduction of the
pelvis. The hamstring muscle group,
being knee flexors, has a hip extension
function and knee extension function
in the support phase (24). Frick et al.
(10) found that knee extensor activity
was very high in sprint acceleration
(AS) compared with MVS and there-
fore suggested that the knee extensors
were more important in AS than MVS
Figure 2. Prone stability ball stabilization.
(Table 1) (10,28).

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 63

Skeleton S&C

identify the key performance indicators

relevant to the sport or individual they
are working with and subsequently
come up with valid and reliable tests
to assess these indicators (13). Because
the qualities of strength, power, and
speed are key indicators related to
PS performance, a testing battery
can be developed to measure these
qualities. If equipment and facility
access were extensive and a testing
laboratory available, the S&C profes-
sional may use methods to determine
power outputs through a direct
measure, such as a force platform
(Table 3).

Figure 3. Elastic band neck extension.

TRAINING INTERVENTIONS
After assessing the athlete’s needs and
analyzing the kinematics of the sport,
Table 1 methods to improve the physical qual-
Contribution of muscle groups in sprint acceleration and sprint maximum ities of performance can be recommen-
velocity (10,28)
ded. Trunk and leg angles over the
Muscles used Sprint (acceleration) Sprint (max velocity) initial strides in the PS are similar to
those in the acceleration phase of
Quadriceps group High Medium sprinting. It is therefore suggested that
Gluteals High Medium skeleton athletes undertake strength
and acceleration training programs
Hamstring group Medium High
directed primarily toward developing
Gastrocnemius/soleus Low Medium strength, power and their rate of force
development (RFD) in the weight
Hip flexor Low High
room, and acceleration and speed on
the track. For direct training applica-
COMPARISON BETWEEN between the AS and PS are closer tion and applied specificity of speed
SPRINTING AND PUSH START than between the MVS and PS generation, the athlete can perform
Similarities and differences can be seen (Table 2) (14). These similarities bent over sprinting in conjunction with
between the kinematic variables in the and differences can then be used in upright sprinting, to gain some ancil-
AS, MVS, and PS (Table 2). Kivi et al. a rationale for training methods in lary speed adaptation in a sport-
(14) showed there to be similarities skeleton athletes. specific position. This can be achieved
between the different PS options on a dry land sled away from the actual
(1 and 2 foot take off ), in maximum TESTING BATTERY race venue.
trunk flexion, stance time, flight time, When looking to adopt a testing Strength and power programs may be
and stride length. The similarities battery, the S&C professional can designed for internal physiological
adaptations, coupled with external
Table 2 movement quality improvements.
Kinematic variables between push start, sprint acceleration, and sprint Strength training exercises to improve
maximum velocity (14) the specific phases of sprinting
(Table 4) have been recommended in
Variables Push start Sprint AS Sprint MVS
the literature (27). The exercises rec-
Stride frequency (per s) 4 Submaximal 4 Submaximal 5 Maximal ommended by Young et al. (27) have
been suggested because of the differing
Stride length (m) 1.29 Shorter 1.14 Shorter 1.93 Longer
qualities displayed between accelera-
Contact time (s) 0.17 Longer 0.18 Longer 0.12 Shorter tion and MVS. Exercise selection
that targets movement improvement
AS 5 sprint acceleration; MVS 5 sprint maximum velocity.
(1,8,25) combined with loading varying

64 VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2014

 Table 3 2–6) can be implemented within a pro-
Lab-based strength, power, and speed testing protocol example gram. Exercises, performed at high
velocities with loads of #30% of
Speed Power Strength (1RM) have been suggested to be effec-
0- to 15-m split Bodyweight CMJ 1RM back squat tive in improving explosive power and
RFD (23). The results of studies vary
0- to 30-m split Mean power (W) when recommending which loads to
15- to 45-m flying split Mean relative power (W/kg) use for maximal gains in explosive
power (3,8,9). Comparisons are diffi-
Reactive strength index cult to draw between studies, with var-
Loaded CMJ profile iations in subject population and
methodology. Training programs,
0, 20, 40, 60 kg which address a range of loads across
CMJ 5 countermovement jump; 1RM 5 1 repetition maximum the force-velocity spectrum, are rec-
ommended at different stages of the
yearly program (Tables 5, 6). The
S&C professional can therefore make
plyometric exercises across the force- (i.e., the acceleration equivalent of educated judgments based on the
velocity spectrum (8,12,19,20,25,27) sprinting). evidence.
have shown correlations with accel-
When considering program planning
eration improvement and speed PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
methods and combining strength
measures, such as RFD. Considering A resistance training program that ad-
training with speed and acceleration
these exercise recommendations dresses the development of power, the
work, it has been suggested that com-
(27), and the relationship between athlete’s RFD, and their reactive
bining high-intensity (% of 1RM)
strength, power, and speed shown strength is recommended. Exercises
strength training methods with sprint
by previous researchers (1,18,25,26), that address developments in the phys-
resistance training programs for skel- speed training methods may be more
iological qualities associated with opti-
eton athletes may be best directed at beneficial compared with just strength
mal sprint performance combined with
developing the needs of the PS or speed training methods alone in
“sport-specific” type exercises (Figures
experienced athletes (2). Speed and
acceleration training methods seem
Table 4 optimal when developing overall ath-
Resistance training and plyometric exercises and their specificity letic qualities of high-velocity, explo-
to sprinting (27) sive athletes. Speed and acceleration
training (5), resisted acceleration train-
Specific exercises ing (17), uphill sprinting (21), and
General exercises Sprint (AS) Sprint (MVS) weighted vest sprinting (11) have all
been postulated to improve speed
Squats (parallel, back) Squats (half, back) Squats (quarter, back) and acceleration. Weighted vests, how-
Deadlifts Single-leg squat Hip flexion mach—high speed ever, may benefit the maximal velocity
phase of sprinting more because of the
Machine hip extension/ Lunges Romanian deadlift
greater loading in the eccentric braking
flexion
component at the beginning of the
Bench press Power clean Single-leg squat stance phase. Because braking forces
Trunk stability exercises Power snatch Lunges are more significant in MVS, weighted
vest sprinting may be more applicable
Push press Hang power clean in training for maximum velocity (7). A
Bench press throws Hang power snatch weighted vest could be implemented as
a way of varying stimulus and exercise
Drop jump selection. When considering a skeleton
Hurdle jump athlete’s physical development pro-
gram, these methods (Table 7) may
Bounding
be used to illicit improvements in speed
Bench press throws and acceleration. As alluded to earlier,
these methods may be supple-
AS 5 sprint acceleration; MVS 5 sprint maximum velocity.
mented with a sport-specific bent over

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 65

Skeleton S&C

Table 5
Sample resistance training program—General preparation phase (off season)

Day Order Exercise Tempo Rest Intensity (% 1RM) Wk 1 Wk 2 Wk 3 Wk 4 Wk 5

(min)

Mon 1a Squat 301 1 60–75 over cycle 3 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6

6 4
b DB bench press 301 60–75 over cycle 3 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6
6 4
2a Lat pulldown 301 1 60–75 1RM chin over 3 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6
cycle 6 4
b RDL 301 60–75 over cycle 3 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6
6 4
3a OH Lunge 101 1 3 3 12 3 3 12 3 3 10 338 236
b Front DB raise 201 3 3 10 3 3 10 338 338 236
Wed 1a OH squat 201 1 40 1RM squat 4 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6
6 4
b Bench press 301 60–75 over cycle 4 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6
6 4
2a Close grip chin-up 201 1 70–80 1RM chin over 4 3 10 438 4 3 8, 8, 6, 4 3 6, 6, 5, 2 3 6
cycle 6 4
b SL RDL 301 4 3 10 4 3 10 4 3 8 ea 4 3 8 ea 236
ea ea
3a SL box squat 201 1 3 3 10 3 3 10 3 3 10 ea 3 3 10 ea 2 3 6
ea ea ea
b Bench pull 301 60–75 over cycle 3 3 10 3 3 10 3 3 10 3 3 10 236
c Lateral DB raise 201 3 3 10 3 3 10 338 336 236
Fri 1a Front squat 301 1 80–95 over cycle 433 436 432 435 236
b MB push-up 201 Bodyweight 4 3 12 4 3 12 4 3 12 4 3 15 236
2a Deadlift 001 1 80–95 over cycle 433 436 432 435 236
b Prone chin-up 201 80–95 over cycle 433 336 432 435 236
3a BB step up + knee 201 1 40 of 1RM squat 336 336 3 3 5 ea 3 3 5 ea 236
drive ea ea ea
b Eccentric box Ctrl Bodyweight 338 338 338 338 236
drops
c BB shrugs 201 3 3 12 3 3 12 338 338 236
Trunk, 1 MB twisting crunch 0.5 3 3 20 3 3 20 3 3 30 3 3 30 2 3 30
neck
2 Double 0.5 + kg plate on back 3 3 60 3 3 70 3 3 80 s 3 3 90 s 2 3 90
stabilization s s s
3 SA push-up hold 0.5 3 3 30 3 3 30 3 3 40 s 3 3 40 s 2 3 40
s s s
4 Supine neck hold 0.5 3 3 30 3 3 30 3 3 45 s 3 3 60 s 2 3 60
s s s
BB 5 barbell; DB 5 dumbbell; MB 5 medicine ball; OH 5 overhead; RDL 5 Romanian deadlift; 1RM 5 1 repetition maximum; SA 5 single arm;
SL 5 single leg.

66 VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2014

 Table 6
Sample resistance training program–specific preparation period (in season)

Day Order Exercise Tempo Rest (min) Intensity (% 1RM) Wk 1 Wk 2 Wk 3 Wk 4 Wk 5

Mon 1 Power clean X 3 85–90 over cycle 533 533 533 533 233
2a Squat 10X 3 85–90 over cycle 436 435 434 433 235
b Bench press 10X 85–90 over cycle 436 435 434 433 235
3a Chin-up 10X 2.5 85–90 over cycle 335 335 334 333 235
b Deadlift 101 336 336 335 335 235
4a SL bent over 201 1 3 3 6 ea 3 3 10 3 3 5 ea 3 3 8 ea 2 3 5
squat ea
b Neck band Static 4 3 60 s 4 3 60 s 4 3 60 s 4 3 60 s 2 3 60 s
extension hold hold hold hold hold
Wed 1 Power snatch X 3 20–30 1RM clean 435 435 435 435 235
over cycle
2 Power clean X 3 65–70 over cycle 435 435 435 435 235
3a Loaded jump X 3 40–50 1RM squat 536 536 536 536 235
squat over cycle
b Clap push-up X BW 536 536 536 536 236
Fri 1 Power clean X 3 70–80 over cycle 436 433 436 433 235
2a OH squat 101 3 438 438 436 436 235
b Bench pull 10X 438 438 436 436 235
3a SL Borzov jump X 3 3 3 5 ea 3 3 5 ea 3 3 5 ea 3 3 5 ea 2 3 5 ea
b Front DB raise 201 338 338 336 336 235
c Neck band Static 3 3 10+ 3 3 10+ 3 3 10+ 3 3 10+ 2 3 10+
extension hold hold hold hold hold
Trunk, 1 MB twisting 0.5 3 3 20 3 3 20 3 3 30 3 3 30 2 3 30
neck crunch
2 Swiss pike 0.5 3 3 12 3 3 12 3 3 15 3 3 15 2 3 15
3 SA push-up hold 0.5 3 3 30 s 3 3 30 s 3 3 40 s 3 3 40 s 2 3 40 s
4 Lateral neck cable 0.5 3 3 8 ea 3 3 6 ea 3 3 5 ea 3 3 4 ea 3 3 4 ea
flexion
5 Prone band neck 0.5 3 3 30 s 3 3 30 s 3 3 45 s 3 3 60 s 2 3 60 s
extension
BB 5 barbell; DB 5 dumbbell; MB 5 medicine ball; OH 5 overhead; RDL 5 Romanian deadlift; SA 5 single arm; SL 5 single leg.

sprinting option to make the move- When considering using exercises balance on tandem stability balls
ment more sport specific. The S&C that may be considered “sport spe- by engaging their gluteal muscles
professional should ensure that this cific,” the following are some novel and anterior core. They attempt to
sport-specific method is not overdone options that may develop strength balance by reacting to the unstable
in consequence of losing valuable train- and endurance in skeleton speci- environment beneath their body.
ing time directed at specific methodol- fic positions. During the prone The athlete makes subtle adjustments
ogies to develop acceleration and stability ball stabilization exercise to the stability balls movement to
maximal velocity qualities. (Figure 2), the athlete attempts to maintain stability.

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 67

Skeleton S&C

Table 7
Example weekly speed session
Day Order Exercise Notes Intensity (%) Recovery Wk 1

Both Warm-up tech A skip Tall, hips stable 50 Walk 3 3 10 m

drills
Alternate high knee R Every third step quick Walk 3 3 20 m
Alternate high knee L Every third step quick Walk 3 3 20 m
High knee run Quick feet, high knees Walk 3 3 20 m
Butt kicks Heel to butt with knee drive Walk 3 3 20 m
Build ups Speed up to 90% 60–90 Walk 4 3 40 m
Tues 1 30-m resisted sprints Sled pulls with tow sled, 10 kg 100 3 min between sets 2 3 5
2 30-m accelerate Accelerate, 30 m; 3-point start 100 3 min between sets 1 3 6
3 20-m accelerate Accelerate, 20 m; 3-point start 100 3 min between sets 1 3 6
Thurs 1 Dry sled pushes Sled push over 50 m 100 3 min 233
2 60 m speed Max speed over 60 m 100 4+ min 134
3 70 m speed Max speed over 70 m 100 4+ min 134

Prone neck strengthening (Figure 3) re- anchored to a bench or box. They The supine neck stabilization exercise
quires the athlete to place an elastic place their torso in a similar position (Figure 5) involves the athlete placing
band over their head and attempt to to where they would be at the start of a stability ball on a box so they can
maintain a neutral head position. The a race or practice run. The athlete maintain a 458 angle to the floor. In
weight plate offers an anchor point for then does a single-leg squat flexing a supine position, they place their head
the band—not a movable resistance. At- the knee, with the hip joint angle re- on the ball and raise their hips so they
tempting to keep the chin up is also an maining fairly constant because of form a straight line between shoulder
alternative to a neutral head position. the initial trunk flexion. The chest is and knee. The athlete then manages
In the single-leg bent over squat lowered to the knee by flexing the knee. the movement of the ball by applying
(Figure 4), the athlete assumes a bent The athlete then returns to the initial subtle balancing movements with their
over Borzov position with back leg start position by extending the knee. neck to maintain the still position of
the ball. Placing space between the ball
and the wall increases the ability of the
ball to move and raises the difficulty of
the exercise.
Supine twisting crunch (Figure 6) is
performed with the athlete supine on
the ground, knees bent to 908. The ath-
lete then raises their torso from the
ground and twists a shoulder toward
the opposite knee. This is performed
in a controlled manner with a small
torso raise from the floor compared
with a full crunch.

CONCLUSION
The PS in skeleton seems to be an
important factor for skeleton perfor-
mance. There are similarities between
Figure 4. Single-leg bent over squat.
AS and the PS. Athletes should incor-
porate strength, power, and speed

68 VOLUME 36 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2014

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