A Thyristor (silicon controlled rectifier or SCR) is a little like a transistor.

When a small
current flows into the GATE (G), this allows a larger current to flow from the ANODE
(A) to the CATHODE (C). Even when the current into the gate stops the thyristor
continues to allow current to flow from anode to cathode. It latches on.

they are particularly useful for controlling power circuits. As such these electronics
components are often used for applications such as light dimmers, and there may be
thyristor circuits used in many power supply applications. Thyristors are simple to use
and cheap to buy and often thyristor circuits are easy to build and use. All these reasons
make thyristors ideal components to consider for many applications.

The idea for the thyristor is not new. The idea for the device was first put forward in 1950
by William Shockley, one of the inventors of the transistor. Although some later
investigation of the device was undertaken by others a couple of years later, it was not
until the early 1960s when they became available. After the introduction of the thyristor,
they soon became popular for power supply circuits.

How does a thyristor work?

The way in which a thyristor operates is different to other devices. Normally no current
flows across the device. However if a supply is connected across the device, and a small
amount of current is injected into the gate, then the device will "fire" and conduct. It will
remain in the conducting state until the supply is removed.

To see how the thyristor operates, it is worth looking at a thyristor equivalent circuit. For
the sake of an explanation, the thyristor circuit can be considered as two back to back
transistors. The first transistor with its emitter connected to the cathode of the thyristor is
an n-p-n device, whereas a second transistor with its emitter connected to the anode of the
thyristor, SCR is a p-n-p variety. The gate is connected to the base of the n-p-n transistor
as shown below.
 Thyristor equivalent circuit

When a voltage is applied across a thyristor no current flows because neither transistor is
conducting. As a result there is no complete path across the device. If a small current is
passed through the gate electrode, this will turn "on" the transistor TR2. When this occurs
it will cause the collector of TR2 to fall towards the voltage on the emitter, i.e. the
cathode of the whole device. When this occurs it will cause current to flow through the
base of TR1 and turn this transistor "on". Again this will now try to pull the voltage on
the collector of TR1 towards its emitter voltage. This will cause current to flow in the
emitter of TR2, causing its "on" state to be maintained. In this way it only requires a
small trigger pulse on the gate to turn the thyristor on. Once switched on, the thyristor can
only be turned off by removing the supply voltage.

It can be seen that current will only flow in one direction through the thyristor. If a
reverse voltage is applied, then no current will flow, even if some gate current is applied.
In this way for thyristor circuits used for AC, operation only occurs over one half of the
AC waveform. For the other half of the cycle the device remains inoperative and no
current can flow.

Triac

Triacs are widely used in AC power control applications. They are able to switch high
voltages and high levels of current, and over both parts of an AC waveform. This makes
triac circuits ideal for use in a variety of applications where power switching is needed.
One particular use of triac circuits is in light dimmers for domestic lighting, and they are
also used in many other power control situations including motor control.

The triac is a development of the thyristor. While the thyristor can only control current
over one half of the cycle, the triac controls it over two halves of an AC waveform. As
such the triac can be considered as a pair of parallel but opposite thyristors with the two
gates connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of the
other, etc..

How does a triac work?

Before looking at how a triac works, it helps to have an understanding of haow a thyristor
works. In this way the basic concepts can be grasped for the simpler device and then
applied to a triac which is more complicated. The operation of the thyristor is covered in
the article in this section and accessible through the "Related Articles" box on the left of
the page and below the main menu.

For the operation of the triac, it can be imagined from the circuit symbol that the triac
consists of two thyristors in parallel but around different ways. The operation of the triac
can be looked on in this fashion, although the actual operation at the semiconductor level
is rather more complicated.

Equivalent circuit of a triac

When the voltage on the MT1 is positive with regard to MT2 and a positive gate voltage
is applied, one of the thyristors conducts. When the voltage is reversed and a negative
voltage is applied to the gate, the other thyristor conducts. This is provided that there is
sufficient voltage across the device to enable a minimum holding current to flow.

Using triacs
there are a number of points to note when using triacs. Although these devices operate
very well, to get the best performance out of them it is necessary to understand a few
hints on tips on using triacs.

It is found that because of their internal construction and the slight differences between
the two halves, triacs do not fire symmetrically. This results in harmonics being
generated: the less symmetrical the triac fires, the greater the level of harmonics that are
produced. It is not normally desirable to have high levels of harmonics in a power system
and as a result triacs are not favoured for high power systems. Instead for these systems
two thyristors may be used as it is easier to control their firing.

To help in overcoming the problem non-symmetrical firing ad the resulting harmonics, a

device known as a diac (diode AC switch) is often placed in series with the gate of the
triac. The inclusion of this device helps make the switching more even for both halves of
the cycle. This results from the fact that the diac switching characteristic is far more even
than that of the triac. Since the diac prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger
voltage has reached a certain voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the
triac more even in both directions.

Diac

A diac is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both

forward and reverse polarities. The name diac comes from the words Diode AC switch.
The diac is an electronics component that is widely used to assist even triggering of a
triac when used in AC switches and as a result they are often found in light dimmers such
as those used in domestic lighting. These electronic components are also widely used in
starter circuits for fluorescent lamps.

Although the term is not often seen, they may also be called symmetrical trigger diodes -
a term resulting from the symmetry of their characteristic curve.

Diac operation
Diac circuits use the fact that a diac only conducts current only after a certain breakdown
voltage has been exceeded. The actual breakdown voltage will depend upon the
specification for the particular component type.

When the diac breakdown voltage occurs, the resistance of the component decreases
abruptly and this leads to a sharp decrease in the voltage drop across the diac, and a
corresponding increase in current. The diac will remain in its conducing state until the
current flow through it drops below a particular value known as the holding current.
When the current falls below the holding current, the diac switches back to its high
resistance, or non-conducting state.

Diacs are widely used in AC applications and it is found that the device is "reset" to its
non-conducting state, each time the voltage on the cycle falls so that the current falls
below the holding current. As the behaviour of the device is approximately equal in both
directions, it can provide a method of providing equal switching for both halves of an AC
cycle, e.g for triacs.

Most diacs have a breakdown voltage of around 30 volts, although the exact
specifications will depend upon the particular type of device.. Interestingly their
behaviour is somewhat similar to that of a neon lamp, although they offer a far more
precise switch on voltage and thereby provide a far better degree of switching
equalisation.

Diac applications
One of the major uses of diacs within triac circuits. The diac is placed in series with the
gate of a triac to provide a more symmetrical switching characteristic. It is found that
triacs do not fire symmetrically as a result of slight differences between the two halves of
the device. This results in harmonics being generated, and the less symmetrical the device
fires, the greater the level of harmonics produced. It is generally undesirable to have high
levels of harmonics in a power system.

To help in overcoming this problem, a diac is often placed in series with the gate. This
device helps make the switching more even for both halves of the cycle. This results from
the fact that the diac switching characteristic is far more even than that of the triac. Since
the diac prevents any gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a certain
voltage in either direction, this makes the firing point of the triac more even in both
directions. In view of their usefulness, diacs may often be built into the gate terminal of a
triac.

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Advantages of using a thyristor switch in place of a mechanical switch

1. A thyristor switch takes less time to operate as it does not contain any moving parts.
Therefore, a thyristor switch is capable of operating speeder than a typical mechanical
switch.
2. Thyristors consume very low power when compared with a mechanical switch.
Mechanical switches produce heat due to its internal coil resistances, which also causes
considerable power loss.
3. Consider about the switching frequency of an application, thyristors can be applied to
larger switching frequency applications where normal mechanical switch cannot operate.
4. Comparing the power handling capacity with the size of the device, a thyristor is smaller in
size but has a greater power handling capacity.
5. If the switching task is done by means of a mechanical switch there would be an arc
generated via the two poles of the switch during the switching. But the thyristor will not
produce such arc, thus providing safety.
6. Because thyristor ON/OFF operation is governed by electricity (Voltage) it is much easier
to use thyristor switches over mechanical switches when an electrically controlled system is
available such as most modern control systems.
7. The operating behavior of thyristors can easily be determined by means of manufacture’s
data sheets, whereas normal mechanical switches do not have characteristics that can be used
to obtain transfer functions of the device.
8. It is much reliable to use thyristors over electro-mechanical relays or switches because of
the robust operation of the thyristor for a longer period time with minimum possibility of
errors.
9. Maintenance cost of a thyristor is less when compared to a mechanical switch. A switch
often requires rust removing and lubricating.
Applications where the thyristor is preferred over mechanical switches
1. Three phase inverter-switching circuits are constructed using thyristors. The switching
frequency employed is larger, which mechanical switches cannot achieve.
2. Stepper motor control circuits are built using thyristors where high precision movements
are required.
3. Fluorescent lamp ballast designs are done using thyristors where normal inductive ballast
are replaced.

4. Automatic night lamp designs can be implemented by means of thyristors and Triacs since
it involves low voltage components such as LDRs as well as normal 230V bulbs.
5. When automatic power flow control is required in cases like dam gate operation with
electric motors or barrier controlling of car parks, thyristors are used in designing such
control systems since it can handle larger capacities of power as well as can be easily
controlled.
6. In aircraft power systems, modern automobiles, and power generation, rectification is
carried out using thyristor based electronics. Surface mounting package type thyristors are
available on the market and enable more compact circuit designs.
7. Thyristors are also used in electronic fan regulators that are more economical power saving
wise, and compact in size compared to traditional transformer based regulator.

Triacs and Diacs

The Triac
Figure 1. Triac Circuit Symbol

The triac is similar in operation to two thyristors connected in reverse parallel but using a
common gate connection. This gives the triac the ability to be triggered into conduction
while having a voltage of either polarity across it. In fact it acts rather like a "full wave"
thyristor. Either positive or negative gate pulses may be used. The circuit symbol for the
triac is shown in Figure 1.

Triacs are mainly used in power control to give full wave control. This enables the
voltage to be controlled between zero and full power. With simple "half wave" thyristor
circuits the controlled voltage may only be varied between zero and half power as the
thyristor only conducts during one half cycle. The triac provides a wider range of control
in AC circuits without the need for additional components, e.g. bridge rectifiers or a
second thyristor, needed to achieve full wave control with thyristors. The triggering of
the triac is also simpler than that required by thyristors in AC circuits, and can normally
be achieved using a simple DIAC circuit. A simplified triac control circuit is shown in
Figure 2. The operation will be explained after introducing the Diac.

Figure 2. Simplified AC Power Control Circuit using a Triac

The Diac
This is a bi-directional trigger diode used mainly in firing Triacs and Thyristors in AC
control circuits. Its circuit symbol (shown in figure 3a) is similar to that of a Triac, but
without the gate terminal, in fact it is a simpler device and consists of a PNP structure
(like a transistor without a base) and acts basically as two diodes connected cathode to
cathode as shown in figure 3b.

Figure 3. The Diac Circuit symbol and an equivalent diagram using

diodes.

The DIAC is designed to have a particular break over voltage, typically about 30 volts,
and when a voltage less than this is applied in either polarity, the device remains in a high
resistance state with only a small leakage current flowing.

Once the break over voltage is reached however, in either polarity, the device exhibits a
negative resistance as can be seen from the characteristic curve in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Typical Diac Characteristics.

When the voltage across the diac exceeds about 30 volts (a typical break-over voltage)
current flows and an increase in current is accompanied by a drop in the voltage across
the Diac. Normally, Ohm's law states that an increase in current through a component
causes an increase in voltage across that component; however the opposite effect is
happening here, therefore the Diac exhibits negative resistance at break-over.

In the simple power control circuit in Figure 2 the Diac is used to trigger a Triac by the
"Phase Control" method. The AC mains waveform is phase shifted by the RC circuit so
that a reduced amplitude, phase delayed version of the mains waveform appears across C.
As this wave reaches the break over voltage of the Diac, it conducts and discharges C
into the gate of the Triac, so triggering the Triac into conduction. The Triac then conducts
for the remainder of the mains half cycle, and when the mains voltage passes through
zero it turns off. Some time into the next (negative) half cycle, the voltage on C reaches
break over voltage in the other polarity and the Diac again conducts, providing an
appropriate trigger pulse to turn on the Triac.

By making R a variable value, the amount of phase delay of the waveform across C can
be varied, allowing the time during each half cycle at which the Triac fires to be
controlled. In this way, the amount of power delivered to the load can be varied.

Note that in practical control circuits using Thyristors, Triacs and Diacs, large voltages
are switched very rapidly. This can give rise to serious RF interference, and steps must be
taken in circuit design to minimise this. Also as Mains is present in the circuit there must
be some form of safe isolation between the low voltage control components (e.g. the Diac
and phase shift circuits) and the mains "live" components, e.g. the Triac and load. This
can easily be achieved by "Opto-coupling" the low voltage control circuit to the high
voltage power control (Triac or SCR) part of the circuit.
Figure 5. The Opto Triac

The materials used in the manufacture of Triacs and SCRs, like any semiconductor
device, are light sensitive. Their conduction is changed by the presence of light; that's
why they are normally packaged in little chunks of black plastic. However, if an LED is
included within the package, it can turn on the high voltage device output in response to a
very small input current through the LED. This is the principle used in Opto-Triacs and
Opto-SCRs, which are readily available in integrated circuit (IC) form and do not need
very complex circuitry to make them work. Simply provide a small pulse at the right time
and the power is switched on. The main advantage of these optically activated devices is
the excellent insulation between the low power and high power circuits, (typically several
thousand volts). This provides safe isolation between the low voltage input and high
voltage output.

Testing Thyristors, Triacs and Diacs.

Resistance tests on these devices are of limited use; SCRs and Triacs often operate at
mains voltage and when they fail the results can be dramatic. At least the violent blowing
of a fuse will be the usual result of a short circuit. Such a fault can be confirmed by
measuring the resistance between the two main current carrying terminals of a SCR or
Triac. A short circuit in both directions means a faulty component. It is quite possible
however, for these devices to be faulty and not show any fault symptoms on an ohmmeter
test. They may seem OK at the low voltages used in such meters, but still fail under
mains voltage conditions.

The normal method of testing would be the checking of voltages and waveforms if the
circuit was operating, or substitution of a suspect part when damage (e.g. blown fuses) is
apparent. In many cases these components will be designated "safety critical
components" and must only be replaced using manufacturers recommended methods and
components. It is common for manufacturers to supply complete "service kits" of several
semiconductor devices and possibly other associated components, all of which must be
replaced, since the failure of one power control device can easily damage other
components in a way that is not always obvious at the time of repair.

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