Stimulated Emission Devices:

LASERS - L8

1
 4.1 Simulated Emission and Photon Amplification

2
  Theodore Harold Maiman was born in 1927 in
Los Angeles, son of an electrical engineer. He
studied engineering physics at Colorado
University, while repairing electrical appliances to
http://www.llnl.gov/nif/library/aboutlasers/how.html
pay for college, and then obtained a Ph.D. from
Stanford. Theodore Maiman constructed this first
laser in 1960 while working at Hughes Research
Laboratories (T.H. Maiman, "Stimulated optical
radiation in ruby lasers", Nature, 187, 493, 1960).
There is a vertical chromium ion doped ruby rod
in the center of a helical xenon flash tube. The
ruby rod has mirrored ends. The xenon flash
provides optical pumping of the chromium ions in
the ruby rod. The output is a pulse of red laser
light. (Courtesy of HRL Laboratories, LLC,
Malibu, California.)

3
 less than 1 mW - Consumer laser pointers
5 mW – CD-ROM drive
5–10 mW – DVD player or DVD-ROM drive
100 mW – High-speed CD-RW burner
250 mW – Consumer DVD-R burner
1 W – green laser in current Holographic Versatile Disc prototype development
1–20 W – output of the majority of commercially available solid-state lasers used for
micro machining
30–100 W – typical sealed CO2 surgical lasers
100–3000 W (peak output 1.5 kW) – typical sealed CO2 lasers used in industrial
laser cutting
1 kW – Output power expected to be achieved by a prototype 1 cm diode laser bar
The power emitted by sun is:
At sun, the power density is 62MW/m2
At earth, power density is 1353W/m2

If the average spot size of a laser beam is 1mm x 1mm, the power
density for a 1KW laser with 0.1% efficiency would be 1MW/m2 . It
is close to optical power when you are near the surface of the sun!
4
5
6
Absorption process (atomic scale)
When the incident photon energy is equal to E  E2  E1  h
And the lower states has electron sitting there, the absorption process will occur
dN photon
The absorption rate can be expressed as R12  B12 N1  h   
dt
B12  absorption rate (Einstein coefficient)
N1 : electron density at E1 level
 h  : number of photons per unit volume with an energy h
(photon energy density per unit frequency)
E2 e E2

e e
7 E1 E1
Spontaneous emission: When the photon density is zero,
1. random direction the electron still will transit from
2. E1 is empty higher state to lower state if it is
3. As if e- is oscillating in freq. v empty. This process is called
spontaneous emission. (Like LED
h  E2  E1 cases)

e
E2 The spontaneous emission
rate can be expressed as

dN photon
R21   A21 N 2
dt
E1 A21 : Einstein Coefficients
The spontaneous emission has no
Spontaneous Emission correlation to the existing photon.

8
Stimulated emission:
Incoming e- couples to the e- in E2
Induced two photons are in phase,
same direction, same polarization,
Basis for photon amplification
same, energy. Re-absorbed?
=> population inversion
, not in two level systems

dN photon
e
E2 R21   B21 N 2  h 
dt
N 2 : electron density at level 2

E1
Stimulated emission:
9
Thermal equilibrium:
No changes in time in the populations at E1 and E2

When the system is under thermal equilibrium, the carrier distribution will
follow the Boltzmann statistics.
N2  E2  E1 
Boltzmann statistics R12  R21  exp 
N1  k B T 

N2 e e e
E2 E

R12 R21

N1 e e e e e e E1 N
 Photon density under thermal equilibrium
Photon is Boson, the photon density in a black body can be expressed by
8h 3
Plank’s black body  eq h  
  h  
radiation distribution law c 3 exp   1
1   k BT  

  h  
exp
  k BT
  1
 
 3



A useful LASER medium must have a higher efficiency of
stimulated emission compared with spontaneous emission
11 and absorption. 11
 Upward transition rate Ni : atoms / unit volume at Ei
R12  B12 N1 h  B12 B21, A21 : Einstein Coefficients
  h  : photon energy density / freq.
Downward transition rate # photons / volume at hv

R21  A21 N 2  B21 N 2  h 

spontaneous stimulated
Thermal equilibrium: no change with time in the populations at E1 and E2

N2  E  E1 
R12  R21 Boltzmann statistics  exp 2 
N1  k B T 
8h 3
(only) in thermal equilibrium, by  eq h  
Plank’s black body radiation   h  
c exp
3
  1
distribution law
  k BT  
( is much larger in laser operation)

12
 Under thermal equilibrium, if the transition rate is the same, it means

R21  A21 N 2  B21 N 2  h   B12 N1 h   R12

N2  h 
 exp   h  
N1  B 
k T
 
A21   B12 exp  
  B21   h 
  k BT  
8h 3   h   8h  3
 eq h     B12 exp   B21 
  h      h  
c exp
3
  1   k BT   c 3 exp   1
 
  k BT     k BT  

If B12  B21

A21 8h 3
Then 
B21 c3
13
 Ratio of stimulated to spontaneous emission

R21 (stim) B21 N 2  h  B21 h  c3

    h  ~ 1012
 1015
 h 
R21 ( spon) A21 N 2 A21 8h 3

Visible light ranges in MKS unit

Ratio of stimulated emission to absorption
But it still depends on 

R21 (stim) N
 2 Optical Cavity feedback
R12 (absorp) N1 high optical intensity

Only when N2 > N1 (population inversion),

the net photons will increase in the cavity
R21(stim) > R12 (absorp) =>
Stim. emission >> spon. emission => large photon concentration
achieved by optical cavity
Under thermal equilibrium, N2 will never be larger than N1
Population inversion => depart from thermal equilibrium (negative abs. temp.)
The laser principle is based on non-thermal equilibrium.
14
 TWO LEVEL SYSTEM If we don’t consider spontaneous emission,
under thermal equilibrium, N1>N2
N2 e e e
E2
R21 (stim) N2
 1
R12 (absorp) N1
R12 R21
When we pump light into the cavity, the
absorption rate is much larger than emission
N1 e e e e e e E1
rate. The population of N2 will increase

When N2 = N1 and R21 = R12, the population

N2 e e e e of N2 will not increase anymore since the
E2
speeds of emission and absorption are equally
the same. Therefore, it is hard to get
R12 R21 population inversion by optical pumping.

(Note: the spontaneous emission is

N1 e e e e E1 neglected. If it is considered, when
R12=R21, N2<N1)
15
 Three level system
LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
e.g. ruby laser: chromium ions Cr3+ in Al2O3 crystal (See p.6)
Pumping
(optical)
Feedback: silvered mirror and partially silvered mirror
(Note: usually, more efficient in four level systems )
h32
E3 E3 E3 E3

h13 (long-
E2 E2 lived state)
E2 E2
Me ta sta ble IN OUT
sta te
h21 h21

E1 Cohe r ent photons

E1 E1 E1

(a) (b) Fig. 4.2 (c) (d)

The principle of the LASER. (a) Atoms in the ground state are pumped up to the energy level E3 by
incoming photons of energy h13 = E3 –E1 . (b) Atoms at E3 rapidly decay to the metastable state at
energy level E2 by emitting photons or emitting lattice vibrations; h32 = E3 –E2 . (c) As the states at E2
are long-lived, they quickly become populated and there is a population inversion between E2 and E 1 .
(d) A random photon (from a spontaneous decay) of energy h21 = E2 –E1 can initiate stimulated
emission. P hotons from this stimulated emission can themselves further stimulate emissions leading to an
16
avalanche of stimulated emissions and coherent photons being emitted.
 4 LEVEL SYSTEM

N4 e
Fast decay R >>R
43 41

h 41 e e e e e N3 Meta stable state

h 32 R32<<R21
N1  N 4 h 32
R14  R41 N2
e e
Fast decay R21  R12  0
e e e e e e
N1

The four level system can provide stronger emission since it is easier to
make N2 become very small compared to 3 level system.
17
 4.3 Optical Fiber Amplifiers

Long haul communication suffers attenuation.

Regenerate signal by Optical-Electrical-Optical
Amplify optical signal directly => optical amplifier

EDFA: erbium (Er3+) doped fiber amplifier

Other dopants: e.g. Nd3+
Splicing: fibers are fused together

18
 Erbium (Er3+) atom Optical Gain:
1240 (eV  nm)
E  hv = Gop  K N2  N1 
 (nm)
K: dep. on pumping intensity
Energy of the Er 3 + ion
in the glass fiber

1.54 eV E 3
1.27 eV E3 E2: long-lived ~ 10ms
Non-radiative decay
980 nm Pump 0.80 eV E2
1550 nm 1550 nm

Out
In
Fig. 4.3 0 E1

Energy diagram for the Er 3 + ion in the glass fiber medium and light amplification
by stimulated emission from E 2 to E1. Dashed arrows indicate radiationless
19
transitions (energy emission by lattice vibrations)
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Er3+-doped
fiber (10 - 20 m)
Optical Wavelength-selective Optical
isolator coupler isolator
Signal in Splice Splice Signal out

 = 1550 nm  = 1550 nm

Pump laser diode Termination

Fig. 4.4  = 980 nm

A simplified schematic illustration of an EDFA (op tical amp lifier). The

erbium-ion doped fiber is pumped by feeding the light from a laser pump
diode, through a coupler, into the erbium ion dop ed fiber.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
E’3 at 810 nm is less efficient.
Photodetector: monitor the pumping level
Closely spaced collection of several levels:
1525-1565 nm (40nm) used in WDM system
gain flattening to overcome non-uniform gain
Pumping at 1480 nm is also used
Gain efficiency: 8-10 dB/mW e.g. 103 gain by a few mW
20
 • Ali Javan and his associates
William Bennett Jr. and
Donald Herriott at Bell Labs
were first to successfully
demonstrate a continuous
wave (cw) helium-neon
laser operation (1960-1962).

21
 4.4 Gas LASERS: The He-Ne LASER

He-Ne laser @632.8nm (red) from Ne atoms, He used to excite Ne

Ne: 1s22s22p6 or 2p6 He: 1s2

excited Ne: 2p55s1 Excited He: 1s12s1

22
 Flat mirror (Reflectivity = 0.999) Concave mirror (Reflectivity = 0.985)

Very thin tube

Laser beam
He-Ne gas mixture

Fig. 4.5 Current regulated HV power supply

A schematic illustration of the He-Ne laser

?1999 S.O. Kas ap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Using dc or RF high voltage:

He atoms to become excited by collisions with drifting electrons
He  e   He *  e 
Excited He*: 1s12s1 parallel spin, metastable,
not allowed to simply decay back to ground state,
Excited He collides with a Ne atom
23 He *  Ne  He  Ne* => population inversion of Ne
 He Ne
(1s 1 2s1 )
Collisions (2p5 5s1 )
20.61 eV 20.66 eV 632.8 nm
Lasing emission

(2p5 3p1 )
Fast spontaneous decay
~600 nm

(2p5 3s1 )
Electron impact

Collisions with the walls

0 (1s 2 ) (2p6 )
Fig. 4.6 Ground states

The principle of operation of the He-Ne laser. He-Ne laser energy levels
24
(for 632.8 nm emission).
?1999 S.O. Kas ap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 He Ne
Lasing emissions
(1s12s1) (2p55s1)
20.6 eV 3.39 m
Collisions
(2p54p1)
(1s12s1) (2p54s1)632.8 nm red
19.8 eV 543.5 nm
1523 nm
1152 nm green
1118 nm

(2p53p1)

Electron impact
Fast spontaneous decay
~600 nm
5 1
(2p 3s ) (metastable, requiring spin flip to
return to 2p6)
Collisions with the walls

2
(1s ) (2p6)
0
Ground states

25 Various lasing transitions in the He-Ne laser

?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Ne(2p55s1): 4 closely spaced energy levels
Red: 632.8 nm
Ne(2p53p1): 10 closely spaced energy levels Green: 543 nm

Also energy level -- Ne(2p54p1) IR: 3.39 m

prevented by freq. selective mirrors
Ne(2p53s1) is a metastable level,
to ground state by colliding with the walls of laser tube
=> narrow tube is better
Typ. He-Ne laser
He: Ne = 5:1 several torrs longer and narrower tube is better
99.9% flat reflecting mirror, and 99% concave reflecting mirror, convergent lens
diameter: 0.5-1 mm divergence: 1 mrad few milliwatts
polarized light by Brewster angle

Laser rad iatio n Gaussian beam

r
 4
2 
Laser tu be L   2wo 

26
Example 4.4.1 Efficiency of the He-Ne laser
Typical low-power He-Ne laser tube:
power = 5mW
operating dc voltage = 2000V
current = 7 mA
What is the efficiency?

output light power

Efficiency 
total input electric power
5 103W
 3
 0.036%
7 10 A  (2000V )

Although the efficiency is very lower, but the output power density is very
high. The light is in phase coherent. For 1mmx1mm spot size. The power
density would be 6.4KWm-2
27
 Example 4.4.2 Laser beam divergence
Typical He-Ne laser:
output beam diameter = 1 mm
divergence = 1 mrad
What is the diameter of the beam at a distance of 10m?

 r
L


The divergence is 2=10 -3rad.
r
L

 tan   tan 0.5 103 
r  5 103 m  5mm
The total diameter is 11mm
28
 4.5 The Output Spectrum of a Gas Laser
In an ideal condition, the stimulated emitted light wave length should be the
same as the input light wave length. There should be only single wave length
in the system.
He
Doppler effect: Ne

 vx   vx 
moving
v1  v0 1   moving
v2  v0 1  
away  c  toward  c 
29
 Average kinetic energy of molecules: (3/2)kBT
Doppler effect:
moving  vx  moving  vx 
v1  v0 1   v2  v0 1  
away  c  toward  c 
Doppler broadened linewidth: v approx. v2-v1

Optical gain lineshape around 0= c/v0

v = 2-5GHz for many gas lasers, He-Ne laser ~0.02 Å

Full width at half maximum

linewidth (FWHM)
v
2k BT ln( 2)
v1/ 2  2v0
Mc2
30 v0
 Stationary or standing EM waves - Cavity design

m( )  L m  1, 2,3... (1)

Cavity mode:
Relative intensity
M1 M2 m= 1
A 1 f R ~ 0.8
m= 2 R ~ 0.4
 m
B
L m= 8 
m - 1 m m + 1
(a) (b) (c)

Schematic illustration of the Fabry-Perot op tical cavity and its properties. (a) Reflected
waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed
in the cavity . (c) Intensity vs. frequency for various modes.R is mirror reflectance and
lower R means higher loss from the cavity.

31
?1999 S.O. Kasap,
Introduction Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
of optoelectronics
Fabry-Perot optical resonator
c
vm  m( )  mv f ; v f  c / 2L (2)
2L
Lowest frequency = ?

Free spectral range = ?

A  B  A  Ar 2 exp( j 2kL)

Ecavity  A  B  ...
 A  Ar 2 exp( j 2kL)  Ar 4 exp( j 4kL)  Ar 6 exp( j 6kL)  ...
A
Ecavity 
1  r 2 exp(  j 2kL)
Introduction of optoelectronics 32
 A
Ecavity 
1  r 2 exp(  j 2kL)
Io
I cavity  (3)
(1  R ) 2  4 R sin 2 (kL)
Io
I max  ; km L  m (4)
(1  R) 2

Spectral width (FWHM) Finesse

vf  R1/ 2
 vm  ; F (5)
F 1 R

Finesse: the ratio of mode separation tof spectral width m

33 Introduction of optoelectronics
 (1  R)2
I transmitted  Iincident (6)
(1  R)2  4 R sin 2 (kL)

Partially reflecting plates

Transmitted light

Input light Output light

L 
m - 1 m
Fabry-P erot et alon

Transmitted light through a Fabry-Perot optical cavity.

?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

34 Introduction of optoelectronics
 Cavity Mode
In the chapter 1, we have studied the fabry-Perot optical cavity
Relative intensity
M1 M2 m= 1
A 1 f R ~ 0.8
m= 2 R ~ 0.4
 m
B
L m= 8 
m - 1 m m + 1
(a) (b) (c)

 vf  R1/ 2
m( ) illustration
Schematic L mof  2,3...  vopmtical
1,Fabry-Perot
the  cavity 
; and itsFproperties. (a) Reflected
 F 1  R
waves interfere. (b) Only standing EM waves, modes, of certain wavelengths are allowed
inFor
the example,
cavity . (c) if the =1500nm,
Intensity R=99.5%
vs. frequency L=10cm
for various modes.R is mirror reflectance and
lower R means higher loss from the cavity.
 R c 1.5GHz
F  627
?1999 S.O. Kasap,  f  (Prentice
Optoelectronics  1.5Hall)
109
1 R 2L
1.5 109
 m   2.39 106 Hz 
627
35
 Finite width due to NL of cavities
acoustic and thermal fluctuations of L
nonideal end mirror (R<100%)

Typ. ~1Mhz for He-Ne

Stabilized gas laser as low
Optical Gain Relative intensityas 1kHz

(a) Doppler (c)

broadening


 
 m
axial (longitudinal) modes

Allowed Oscillations (Cavity Modes)

Fig. 4.8 m(/2) = L L
(b)
 Stationary EM oscillations
 m Mirror Mirror

36
(a) Op tical gain vs. wavelength characteristics (called the op tical gain curve) of th
 
cavity mode m   L axial (or longitudinal) modes
m: mode number 2 Gaussian beam

Typ. freq. width of an individual spike in He-Ne laser is ~1MHz ( low ~1kHz)

Example 4.5.1
Optical gain between
FWHM points Cavity modes
m
Fig. 4.9
Number of laser modes
(a) 5 modes depends on how the
cavity modes intersect
the optical gain curve.
In this case we are
looking at modes
4 modes within the linewidth
(b)
.


37
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Example 4.5.1 Doppler broadened linewidth
Calculate the Doppler broadened linewidths in frequency and wavelength for the
He-Ne laser transition for  = 632.8nm if the gas discharge temperature is about
127C. The atomic mass of Ne is 20.2 g/mol. The laser tube length is 40 cm.
Find: (a) the linewidth in the output wavelength spectrum
(b) the mode number m of the central wavelength
(c) the separation between two consecutive modes
(d) number of modes within the lindwidth 1/2

 vx   vx  2v0 vx
(a) vrms  v0 1    v0 1   
 c  c c
1 2 k BT
vx  v 
2
 v x  405.8(m / s)
3 M
 0   4.74 1014 Hz 
c
0
 rms ~ 2 0vx / c ~ 1.282GHz
2k BT ln 2
 1/ 2  2 0 2
 1.51GHz  which is 18% wider
38 Mc
 
 is obtain, we know that   c/ -  d  c / d   d
2


1/ 2  1/ 2   / ~ 0.002nm
(b) The mode number of the central wavelength can be obtained by
2L 2  0.4m
m0    1264222.5
0 632.8 10 9

(c) The separation of two modes is   2 L  2 L ~ 2 L ~ 0.501 pm


m 2
Optical gain between
m m 1 m
FWHM points Cavity modes
m

Number of laser modes

(a) 5 modes depends on how the
cavity modes intersect
the optical gain curve.
In this case we are
looking at modes
4 modes within the linewidth
(b)
.

39 
4.6 LASER Oscillation Conditions
A. Optical Gain Coefficient g
exp(-ax) a: absorption coefficient P proportional to Nph
(concentration of coherent
exp(gx) g: optical gain coefficient photons)
1 P 1 N ph 1 N ph
g   (optical gain coefficient)
P x N ph x N ph ncr t

E2 N ph : photon numbers
h
E1 n : refractiveindex
Optical Gain
r
Laser medium
g( o)

x g( )

P P+ P


40 x
 lineshape function:
Optical Gain spectral shape of the gain curve

g(  o)

x g( )

Fig. 4.10



dN ph (b)
 Net rate of stimulated photon emission
dt
N B  h gain
(b) The optical 2   N Bcurve
21  h  of (stimulated
1 the
21
– absorption)
medium. The
 
n in the text.
N  N B 2 h  1 21
(considering directional wave
=> spon. emission is neglected)
41
 1 N ph nr N ph
g 
N ph nr t cN ph t
c

dN ph
 Net rate of stimulated photon emission
dt
 N 2 B21  h   N1 B21  h 
cN ph
 N 2  N1 B21 h   g
nr
Radiation energy density
per unit freq. at hv0
N ph h 0 dN ph N ph h 0 cN ph
 h 0    N 2  N1 B21 g
 dt v nr

General optical gain coefficient at v0

nr h 0 A21 8h 3
g  N 2  N1 B21 B12  B21 
cv B21 c3
42
 B. Optical Threshold Gain gth
Steady state conditions, no optical power loss in the round trip
=> net round-trip optical gain Gop = 1.

Pf Losses: R1, R2,

Gop  1 absorption (e.g. by impurities, free carriers)
Pi scattering (defects and inhomogenities)
others
Reflect ing Pf Pi Reflect ing
surface Ef surface
Ei

2 St eady stat e EM oscillat ions 1 Cavity axis x

R2 R1
L

g  2L  exp   2L 

i 1 R2 exp 
Pf  PR

43 Fig. 4.11
Optic al cavity resonator
 g  2L  exp   2L 
i 1 R2 exp 
Pf  PR
B21nhν0
Threshold optical gain g  ν0    N 2  N1 
c
1  1 
gth    ln  
Threshold population inversion
2 L  R1 R2  c
 N2  N1 th  gth
B21nhν0
(N2 N1) and Po
N2 N1 Po = Lasin g out put power

(N2 N1)th Threshold populat ion

Pf inversio n
Gop  1
Pi
 N2  N1   pumping
Pump rate
Threshold pump rate
Fig. 4.12

Simplified description of a laser oscillator. ( N2 N1) and

coherent output power ( Po) vs. pump rate under continuous
44 wave steady state operation.
 C. Phase condition and Laser modes
Ef = Ei in Fig. 4.11 Phase condition for laser oscillations
round-trip  m2 
Neglect  changes nkm  2L   m  2 
at mirrors

Approx. laser  m 
m   L longitudinal (axial) modes
cavity modes
 2n 
Ideally, infinitely wide mirrors plane waves are assumed
Practically, finite size mirrors Gaussian beams are the solutions
A mode with a certain field pattern at a reflector can propagate to the other
reflector and back again and return the same field pattern.
Off-axis modes can exist and replicate themselves
=> transverse modes or transverse electric and magnetic (TEM) modes
Each transverse mode with a given p,q has a set of longitudinal modes.
Usu. m is very large ~ 106 in gas lasers
45
 Transverse modes depend on: optical cavity dimensions, reflector sizes,..
Cartesian (rectangular) or polar (circular) symmetry about the cavity axis
(Brewster angle)
TEMpqm
highly desirable TEM00:
lowest mode, radially symmetric, lowest divergence
TEM00 TEM10 TEM00 TEM10
Optical cavity

(a)

Spherical
mirror

(b)

TEM01 TEM11 TEM01 TEM11

Wave fronts
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.13

Laser Modes (a) An off-axis transverse mode is able to self-replicate after one round
trip. (b) Wavefronts in a self-replicating wave (c) Four low order transverse cavity
modes and their fields. (d) Intensity patterns in the modes of (c).
46
Example 4.6.1 Threshold population inversion for the He-Ne laser
Show that the threshold population inversion Nth = (N2-N1)th :

8n 2v02 sp v
Nth  gth
c2
where 0 = peak emission frequency
n = refractive index
sp = 1/A21 = mean time for spontaneous transition
 = optical gain bandwidth (frequency linewidth of optical gain lineshape)

A21 8h 3

B21 c3

c c 8n 2v02 sp v

Nth  gth  gth 
B21nr h 0 c 3
c2
A21 n h 0
8h 3 r

47
Ex: He-Ne laser:
operation wavelength = 623.8 nm
tube length L = 50 cm
tube diameter = 1.5 mm
mirror reflectances: 100% and 90%
linewidth  = 1.5 GHz
loss coefficient   0.05 m-1
spontaneous decay time constant sp = 1/A21  300 ns
n1
What is the threshold population inversion?

1  1  1  1 
g th    
ln    0.05m 1
 ln    0.155m 1

2 L  R1 R2  2  0.5  0.9 

8n 2v02 sp v
Nth  gth  4.4 1015 m3
c2

48
 4.7 Principle of the Laser Diode
p+ Junction n+
Ec EF= eV > Eg
Eg p+ n+
eV o Ec EF n
In v ers io n
reg io n Ec
Ev Eg
EF p Ho les in V B EF n eV
Electro ns Electro ns in C B
Ec
EF p

Ev
(a) (b)

degenerate doping
V
n > Nc, p>Nv
The energy band diagram of a degenerately doped p-n with no bias. (b) Band
diagram with a sufficiently large forward bias to cause population inversion and
49
hence stimulated emission.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 E. Degenerate and Non-degenerate Semiconductors
Non-degenerate semiconductor: n  N c and p  N v
The electron statistics ~the Boltzmann statistics (4)
Pauli exclusion principle can be neglected.

Degenerate semiconductor: n  N c or p  N v
The electron statistics ~the Fermi-Dirac statistics (1)
Pauli exclusion principle becomes important.
More metal-like than semiconductor-like.

E
CB
CB EFn
Impurities Ec Ec
forming a band
g(E) Ev Ev
EFp
Bands overlap with CB or VB.
EFn is within CB or above Ec VB
(a) (b)
EFp is within VB or below Ev
(a) Degenerate n-type semiconductor. Large number of donors form a
50 band that overlaps the CB. (b) Degenerate p-type semiconductor.
A semiconductor diode is a 2 level system. But it does have the properties of
four level system
When we optically pump with light energy Except optical pump, we can
much larger than Eg, the carrier will decay apply electrical pumping to
to lower energy state very fast. directly make the population
inversion of semiconductor
diode.
Conduction E
band

Decay time ~ps,

V
0-
e V e e e e e e e e
e e eee e e e
Emit time ~ns
+V

k
h h h h h
h h h h h h h
h h
h h h h h h
h

Valence
51 band
 How to make the stimulated emission?
As mentioned the solid state laser, we need to make the device to get
population inversion
fe(E)
Population
inversion

Emission :  fe  fh
Absorption :  (1  f e )  (1  f h )

fh(E)
Population
inversion
region
, When E  E f f E f   1 / 2
1
f (E) 
 E  Ef 
1  exp  f=1/2
 k BT 
gain :  f e  f h  (1  f e )  (1  f h )  f e  f h  1
52
When fe and fh = ½ , the gain will be larger than 0, Population inversion !
 Injection pumping: pumping by the forward diode current
Energy

Optical gain EF n  EF p
CB
EF n
Electrons
Ec in CB
eV 0 h
Eg
Ev Holes in VB
= Empty states At T > 0
EF p
VB At T = 0
Optical absorption
Density of states
(a) (b)

(a) The density of states and energy distribution of electrons and holes in
the conduction and valence bands respectively at T  0 in the SCL
under forward bias such that E Fn  E Fp > E g . Holes in the VB are empty
states. (b) Gain vs. photon energy.
53
 Optical Cavity feedback - high optical intensity
Current
 
m m   L Cleaved surface mirror
 2n 

Resonant frequency L
Mode Electrode
p+ GaAs
L

n+ GaAs
Electrode

Active region
(stimulated emission region)

A schematic illustration of a GaAs homojunction laser

54
diode. The cleaved surfaces act as reflecting mirrors.
 Optical P ower Laser
I > Ith => coherent
Optical P ower

Optical P ower LED

Stimulated
emission 
Optical P ower Laser
Spontaneous
 emission

I
0
Ith

Transparency current: stimulated emission = absorption
Threshold current Ith: optical gain in the medium can overcome (typ. 32% reflecting)
(g=gth) the photon losses from the cavity
Ty pical output optical power vs. diode current I)
( characteristics and the corresponding
output Problems
spectrumofofhomojunction
a laser diode.
LD:
?1999 S.O.threshold
Kasap, Optoelectronics
current density J(Prentice Hall)
th is too high for practical use
~500 A/mm2 for GaAs, can only be operated at very low temperature
Jth can be reduced by orders of magnitude by using heterojunction LD
55
 Problems of homojunction LD:
threshold current density Jth is too high for practical use
~500 A/mm2 for GaAs, can only be operated at very low temperature
Jth can be reduced by orders of magnitude by using heterojunction LD

V0-V

e e e e e e e e e
e e e e e e e e

+V

h h h h h
h h h h h h h
h h
h h h h h h
h

Carrier will diffuse very easily in the homojunction LED, Therefore, it

is very hard to get high carrier concentration in the active region.
Low temperature
Room temperature
f=1/2 f=1/2

56
 Steady State Semiconductor Rate Equation
w
Consider a LD L
Under steady state operation
Rate of electron inject by current d
= Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

I n
  CnN ph n: injected electron concentration
edLW  sp
C: constant dep. on B21
Nph: coherent photon encouraged
by the optical cavity (mode)
Steady state:
Rate of the coherent photon loss = Rate of stimulated emission

N ph
 CnN ph ph: due to trans. thru end-faces, scattering, absorption
 ph
57
 Threshold: simulated emission just overcomes
the spontaneous emission + total loss mechanisms in ph
N ph 1
From  CnN ph At threshold nth 
 ph C ph
Stimulated emission just balanced by all loss + spontaneous emission
nth edLW
Nph = 0 I  Ith  Smaller Ith: heterostructure
 sp and stripe geometry
Smaller active junction thickness,
smaller threshold current.

I  I th  ph
Above threshold  Cnth N ph J=I/WL => N ph  J  J th 
edLW ed
1 
O/P optical  N ph Cavity Volume Photon energy
P0    1  R  t=nL/c
2
power Δt

 hc 2 phW 1  R  
=> Laser diode equation P0     J  J th 
 2en 
58
 n Po

nth Threshold p opulation

n inversion

Po = Lasing outp ut power  Nph

I
Fig. 4.25 Ith

Simplified and idealized description of a semiconductor laser

diode based on rate equations. Injected electron concentration
n and coherent radiation output power Po vs. diode current I.
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

59
 4.8 Heterostructure Laser Diodes

Reduction of the threshold current by improving

A. Rate of stimulated emission
=> carrier confinement
B. Efficiency of the optical cavity
=> photon confinement by waveguide

Both can be achieved by heterostructured devices

LEDs vs LDs: stimulated emission > spontaneous emission (require good cavity)

60
Fig. 4.18 (a) A double
n p p heterostructure diode has
two junctions which are
(a) AlGaAs GaAs AlGaAs between two different
bandgap semiconductors
(~0.1 m) (GaAs and AlGaAs).
Electrons in CB Ec
Ec (b) Simplified energy
Ec
2 eV
band diagram under a
2 eV
1.4 eV large forward bias.
Lasing recombination
(b) Ev takes place in the p-
Ev GaAs layer, the
active layer
Holes in VB

Refract ive (c) Higher bandgap

index materials have a
(c) Active n ~ 5% lower refractive
region index
Phot on
densit y
(d) AlGaAs layers
provide lateral optical
(d) confinement.
61
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 p-GaAs: 870-900 nm
Stripe contact: define current density
gain guided Cleaved reflecting surface
=> reduce Ith, better coupling to fiber W

W: few m, Ith: tens mA

L
Stripe electrode

Oxide insulator
p-GaAs (Contacting layer)
p-Al xGa1-xAs (Confining layer)
p-GaAs (Active lay er)
n-Al xGa1-xAs (Confining layer) 2 1 3
Current Substrate
n-GaAs (Substrate)
Substrate
paths
small lattice mismatch Electrode
negligible strain induced
interfacial defects Ellipt ical Cleaved reflecting surface
less nonradiative recomb. laser
Active region where J > Jth.
beam
(Emission region)
Fig. 4.19
Schematic illustration of the the structure of a double heterojunction stripe
62 contact laser diode
?1999 S.O. Kas ap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Efficiency can be improved by higher reflection in the facet => dielectric mirror
=> reduce threshold current Ith

Stripe geometry => poor optical confinement in lateral direction

Buried double heterostructure

Index guided: better lateral optical confinement
can be single mode by small V number

Electrode
Oxide insulation
p+-AlGaAs (Contacting lay er)
p-AlGaAs (Confining lay er)
n-AlGaAs
p-GaAs (Active layer)
n-AlGaAs (Confining lay er)
n-GaAs (Substrate)

63
 Example 4.8.1 Modes in a laser and the optical cavity length
AlGaAs based heterostructure laser diode
optical cavity length = 200 m
peak radiation: 870 nm
refractive index of GaAs = 3.7
FWHM wavelength width (gain vs. wavelength) = 6 nm
(a) What is the mode integer m of the peak radiation?
 2nL 2(3.7)( 200 10 6 )
m L m   1644 .4
2n  900 10 9

(b) What is the separation between the modes of the cavity?

2nL 2nL 2nL 2
 m   ~ 2   5.47 nm
m m 1 m 2nL
(c) How many modes are there within the bandwidth?

64
(d) How many modes are there if cavity length = 20 m?
 Finite width due to NL of cavities
acoustic and thermal fluctuations of L
nonideal end mirror (R<100%)
Optical Gain Relative intensity
Typ. ~1Mhz for He-Ne
Stabilized gas laser as low
(a) Dopp ler (c) as 1kHz
broadening


 
m
axial (longitudinal) modes
Allowed Oscillations (Cavity M odes)
m(/2) = L L
(b)
 Stationary EM oscillations
m M irror M irror
Fig. 4.8
(a) Optical gain vs. wavelength characteristics (called the optical gain curve) of the
lasing medium. (b) Allowed modes and their wavelengths due to stationary EM waves
within the optical cavity. (c) The output spectrum (relative intensity vs. wavelength) is
determined by satisfying (a) and (b) simultaneously, assuming no cavity losses.
65
?1999 S.O. Kas ap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall)
 4.9 Elementary Laser Diode
Characteristics
Output Spectrum dep. on

A. Optical Resonator
L: longitudinal mode separation
W, H: lateral modes
small W, H => single mode, TEM00
divergence: smaller aperture => larger diffraction
(e.g. H in Fig. 4.21)

B. Optical Gain Curve

66
 Dielectric mirror

Fabry-Perot cavity

Length, L
Height, H Width W Diffraction
limited laser
beam

The laser cavity definitions and the output laser beam

characteristics.
67 ?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Relative opt ical power Index guided
may become single mode at high I
Gain guided
P o = 5 mW still multimode even at high I

Red shift:
temperature-induced gain shifting
due to heating
P o = 3 mW

P o = 1 mW
 (nm)
778 780 782

Output spectra of lasing emission from an index guided LD.

At sufficiently high diode currents corresponding to high
optical power, the operation becomes single mode. (Note:
Relative power scale applies to each spectrum individually and
not between spectra)
68
 P o (mW) Slope efficiency
P0
10 0 C 50 C slope 
I  I th
8 25 C

4 Conversion efficiency
may be as high as 30-40%
2

0 I (mA)
0 20 40 60 80

Outp ut optical power vs. diode current as three different temperatures. The
threshold current shifts to higher temp eratures.
?1999Fig.
S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
4.23

69
 4.12 Single Frequency Solid State Lasers
Distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) laser
B B: Bragg wavelength
q  2 q: diffraction order
n
Distributed Bragg 
reflector
A q(B /2n) = 
B

Active layer Corrugated

(a) dielectric structure (b)

(a) Distributed Bragg reflection (DBR) laser principle. (b) Partially reflected waves
at the corrugations can only constitute a reflected wave when the wavelength
satisfies the Bragg condition. Reflected waves A and B interfere constructive when
q(B/2n) = .
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
70 4.27
Fig.
 Distributed feedback (DFB) laser
Right and left traveling waves are coupled
set up a standing wave if they are coherently coupled
(round-trip phase change =2) B2
m  B   m  1
2nL
m=0 dominates
because relative threshold gain of higher modes is higher
Ideally, perfectly symmetric (b)
Practically, asymmetry induced on purpose (c)
L>>m~B Commercially available .55m ~0.1nm

Ideal las ing emi ss i on Opt ical power


Corrugat ed grat ing
Gui ding l ayer
0.1 nm
Acti ve layer
  (nm)
(a) (b) B (c)

71
(a) Dist ribut ed feedback (DFB) laser st ructure. (b) Ideal lasing emission outp ut . (c)
Typ ical out put sp ect rum from a DFB laser.
 Cleaved-coupled-cavity (C3) laser

Two lasers are pumped by different currents

Only those waves that can exist as modes in both cavities are allowed

Wide separation between the modes => single mode operation

Cavity Modes
In L

Active
layer In D

L D
In both
L and D 
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.29 Cleaved-coupled-cavity (C 3) laser
?1999 S.O. Kas ap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
72
 Example 4.12.1 DFB Laser
DFB laser has: corrugation period  = 0.22 m
grating length = 400 m
effective refractive index of the medium = 3.5
For a first order grating, calculate:
(a )Bragg wavelength (b) mode wavelength ( c ) mode separation

2n 20.22 m 3.5

B    1.540 m
q 1
The symmetric mode wavelengths are
2B (1.54m) 2
m  B  m  1  1.54  0  1
2nL 2  3.5  400m
0  1.5392 or 1.5408 m
The two mode are separated by 0.0016m
73
 4.13 Quantum Well Devices
Fig. 4.30
Ultra thin, typ. < 50nm, narrow bandgap semiconductor devices
Lattice match is required
d << Dx, Dy: d
One dimensional PE well in x-direction and as if free in yz-plane
hn 2 2
h 2 n y2
h 2 nz2
E  Ec  * 2  * 2  * 2
8me d 8me Dy 8me Dz
Step density of states
a large concentration of electrons (holes) can easily occur at E1 ( E’1 )
population inversion occurs quickly without a large current
Advantages
Ith is markedly reduced (eg. 0.5-1mA in SQW, 10-50mA in DH laser)
linewidth is substantially narrower because e- (h+) near E1 (E’1)
74
 E
QW Bulk
Dy
Ec d
E3
E ²E c n = 2 E2
d n= 1 E1
Eg2 h2n2 h 2 n y2 h 2 nz2
D z Al GaAs Al GaAs z E  Ec  *Eg12  * 2  * 2
y 8me d 8me Dy 8me Dz QW
Bulk
²E v
x Ev
GaAs Dens it y of s t at e

(a) E (b) (c)

A quantum well (QW) device. (a) Schematic illustration of a quantum
QW well (QW) structure in which
thin layer of EGaAs is sandwicheddbetween two wider bandgap semiconductorsBulk (AlGaAs). (b) T he
c
conduction electrons in the GaAs layer areE3confined (by ? Ec) in the x-direction to a small length d
that their Eenergy is quantized.
²E c n = 2 (c) The density
E2 of states of a two-dimensional QW. The density of st
is constant at each quantized
n = 1energy level.E1
Eg2
z ?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics
Eg1 (Prentice Hall)
y QW
Bulk
²E v
x Ev g(E)
Dens it y of s t at es
75
(b) (c)
 Ec
E
E1
h = E1 ? E1

E1
Ev

Fig. 4.31

In single quantum well (SQW) lasers electrons are

injected by the forward current into the thin GaAs
layer which serves as the active layer. Population
inversion between E1 and E 1 is reached even with a
small forward current which results in stimulated
emissions.

?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (P rentice Hall)

76
 Multiple quantum well (MQW) laser

Larger volume

Active layer Barrier layer

Ec
E

Ev

Fig. 4.32
A multiple quantum well (M QW) structure. A 1550 nm MQW-DFB InGaAsP
Electrons are injected by the forward current laser diode pigtail-coupled to a
into active layers which are quantum wells. fiber. (Courtesy of Alcatel.)

77
?1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Example 4.13.1 A GaAs quantum well
Electron effective mass: 0.07me (me: electron mass in vacuum)
Hole effective mass: 0.5me
Quantum well thickness = 10 nm
Find: (a) first two electron energy levels
(b) hole first subband energy (below Ev)
(c) change in the emission wavelength w.r.t. bulk GaAs
(energy gap of bulk GaAs = 1.42 eV)

h2n2
Ecn  * 2
 0.0537eV
8me d
h2n2
Ehn  * 2
 0.0075eV
8mh d
E g ,effective  1.42  0.0075  0.0537  1.4812eV

78
 4.14 Vertical Cavity Surface
Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

See Fig. 4.33 1

Dielectric mirrors n1d1  n2 d 2  
2
(DBR structure)
High reflectance end mirrors are needed due to short cavity length
20-30 or so layers to obtain the required reflectance (99%)

Active layer: very thin <0.1m, likely MQW

e.g. 980 nm InGaAs in GaAs substrate
Circular cross-section
Height: several microns => single mode longitudinally (maybe not laterally)
Spectral width 0.5nm

79
 VCSEL
Contact

1
n1d1  n2 d 2   /4n 2 Dielectric mirror
2
/4n 1

Active layer

Dielectric mirror

Substrate

Contact
Fig. 4.33
80
Surface emission