This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 3
Lenses

Objectives
Information in this chapter will enable you to:
• List two simple rules of light and optics.
• Define transmitted light and tell why it is
important to photography.
• Describe the types of lenses and how each
transmits light.
• Explain focal length, aperture, and f-numbers.
• Describe different types of lens mounts.
• Describe the proper method of cleaning a lens.
• Describe how to change lenses while
minimizing the amount of dust getting in the
camera.

Technical Terms
aberrations incident light
angle of view lens
bayonet lens mount lens aperture
compound lens lens mount
convergent lens magnification
crop factor negative lens
divergent lens normal lens
element optics
fast lens positive lens
f-number refraction
f-stop screw mount lens
focal length single-touch zoom lens
focal plane stopping down
focus two-touch zoom lens
image point zoom lens
image size

31
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

32 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 33

A lens is a transparent material that has Simple Rules of Light and Light rays as it passes through an object is known as
at least one curved surface. See Figure 3-1. refraction. The principle of refraction makes
When light enters the camera, it passes Optics it possible to design lenses that can make an
through a lens. The lens collects and bends To understand how a lens works, some object appear larger or smaller.
Light source
light rays. The rays are bent so they form a basic rules of optics, the physics of light, must
sharp image on the film or digital sensor. be known. Light usually travels in straight The Pinhole Camera
See Figure 3-2. A lens can be made of special lines, called rays. See Figure 3-3. If there is A simple pinhole camera can make pho-
optical glass or plastic. nothing in the path of a light ray, it will con- Figure 3-3. Light rays usually travel in straight lines, tographs without a lens. See Figure 3-5. Light
tinue in the same direction. Light rays can but they are not always traveling parallel to one reflected from the subject enters through
be transmitted, absorbed, and reflected. The another. the pinhole. It travels through the empty
shape and properties of a material will deter- space inside the camera to form an image on
mine what happens to the light ray after it Incident light the film. The tiny pinhole allows light rays
contacts the material. See Figure 3-4. to travel in a straight line from the subject
In the study of camera lenses, we are Reflected being photographed to the film. An inverted
mostly concerned with transmitted light. rays (upside-down) image strikes the film. See
This is the light that passes through the lens. Figure 3-6.
Absorbed If the pinhole is made larger it admits
Transmitted Light rays more light, but rays passing through the pin-
Light rays can travel through a trans- hole scatter. The resulting image is not very
Transmitted
Figure 3-1. A lens is a transparent glass or plastic parent or clear material such as water, glass, rays
sharp. Figure 3-7 shows photographs taken
disc with at least one curved surface. Light passes and plastic. The light rays, however, are bent with a pinhole camera.
through it. Figure 3-4. Light rays can be transmitted, absorbed,
as they pass through. The bending of light and reflected.
Such cameras are not very practical for
general photography. The results are poor,

Light from the sun

or an artificial source
lights the subject

The reflected light is

gathered by the lens which
focuses it on the film or digital
sensor to make the exposure

Light is reflected
from the subject

Figure 3-2. The lens collects and bends light rays so they form a sharp image on the film or digital sensor.

Figure 3-5. These pinhole cameras can make photographs without using a lens.
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

34 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 35

requirements for good photographs. Several

Plate glass lenses that refract light differently may be
necessary to correct defects.

Ray bent The Compound Lens

Light ray inside glass
A compound lens is made up of two or
more simple lenses, as shown in Figure 3-13.
Figure 3-8. A simple lens is more practical than a Each simple lens in a compound lens is called
pinhole. The lens allows more light to strike the film. Ray parallel
to original path an element.
Individual lenses are classified into two
Figure 3-6. A pinhole camera produces an upside- The shutter is placed in or behind the lens,
major groups:
down image on the film. and can be opened for carefully measured
lengths of time. Light falling on the film or • A positive lens, also known as a
especially if there is any movement. Exposure digital sensor can be controlled to fractions Figure 3-9. Light rays passing through a sheet of convergent lens is thicker at the center and
times are long. But, the pinhole camera dem- of a second. glass bend, but exit traveling parallel to the incident gathers light. See Figure 3-14. Convergent
onstrates how simple photography can be. Light striking the surface of an object is light. means it bends the light inward.
called incident light. See Figure 3-4. A light • A negative lens, also known as a
Web site
ray passing through a sheet of glass changes divergent lens is thicker at the edges and
www.pinholeday.org
its path as it enters the glass. However, the Ray emerging spreads light. See Figure 3-15. It is called
On the last Sunday of April each year light ray will exit, traveling in the same direc- from other divergent because it bends light outward.
photographers take pictures with a pinhole tion as when it entered. See Figure 3-9. surface
camera. You can post one of these photos to This only happens when the glass sur-
Incident ray
Lens Aberrations
the website to share with visitors all over the striking one
faces are parallel. If the surfaces are not par- surface Defects or flaws in a lens are called
world. Worldwide Pinhole Photography Day allel, as in a prism, the rays will be refracted
was created to promote and celebrate the art aberrations. These defects are not, in most
or bent at each surface. See Figure 3-10. cases, the result of a manufacturer’s careless-
of pinhole photography. Most inexpensive cameras have simple Figure 3-10. Light rays passing through a prism are
bent at each surface. ness. They are caused by the behavior of light.
lenses. The simple lens can he compared to two A lens maker can correct for most aberrations
Kinds of Lenses prisms placed base-to-base. See Figure 3-11. by using many elements.
Notice how the light rays pass through the
The pinhole can be replaced with a simple prisms. The rays do not converge (come
lens. See Figure 3-8. Since more light can enter Coated Lenses
together) at the same point.
the camera, exposure time is reduced. However, However, by rounding the prisms, the Modern lenses are also coated to protect
a shutter is now needed to control the light. rays passing through the lens are made to against stray light. A thin layer of a chemical
substance, usually magnesium fluoride, may
eliminate all but about one percent of these
reflections. The amber, blue, or magenta tints
seen on a lens indicates the presence of this
coating.

Figure 3-11. A simple lens acts like two prisms Lens Quality
placed base-to-base. Lens quality depends upon the char-
acteristics of the optical glass used and the
converge or focus at the same spot. This com- lens design. Making one batch of glass often
mon spot is called the image point. The film requires weeks. Even with rigid controls, most
or sensor in the camera is at this point. See of the batch cannot be used to make quality
Figure 3-12. lenses. The glass that can be used is remelted
A simple lens is made of a single piece and cast in molds. The rough glass casting is
Exposure using a small opening Exposure after pinhole has been enlarged
of glass or plastic. It may not meet all of the ground and polished into the finished product.
Figure 3-7. Pictures made with a pinhole camera.
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

36 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 37

Models of lenses are drawn on computers Wide angle

and evaluated before they are manufactured.
Lens 14 mm
In the past, the calculations were made by
hand. It often took years to design a lens. 20 mm
Finished lens elements are precisely fit- 24 mm
Image point
ted into the lens barrel. The lens barrel is 28 mm
carefully fitted to the camera body. 35 mm
50 mm
Focal Length of a Lens 85 mm
All lenses have a focal length. The focal 100 mm
length of a lens is the distance between the 135 mm
lens and the focal plane when the lens is set
200 mm
to infinity. See Figure 3-16. The film or sen-
300 mm
sor surface is called the focal plane. Usually,
focal length is described in millimeters (mm), 400 mm
Shaded area is Film or but some lenses use centimeters (cm) and 500 mm
cross-section of lens digital sensor
inches. See Figure 3-17 for a list of some com- 600 mm
mon focal lengths. The focal length or range 800 mm
of focal lengths, of a zoom lens, is marked on Telephoto
Figure 3-12. When a lens is properly designed, light rays passing through will converge, or focus, at the same the lens. You can find the markings on the
spot. Film or a digital sensor is placed at this spot called the image point.
front of the lens, side of the lens, or multiple Figure 3-17. This is a list of common lenses,
places. See Figure 3-18. organized by focal lengths.

The area the camera lens

sees when focused on 35 mm film.
Film image size is 36 mm × 24 mm.

Doublet Dialyte Triplet

Figure 3-13. A compound lens consists of two or Double Plano- Convexo-
more simple lenses. Each simple lens is called an concave concave concave
element. Figure 3-15. A negative or divergent lens is thicker at
the edges and spreads light. Infinity
∞
With modern technology, low-cost lenses
can be molded from plastic. Plastic lenses are
used mainly in inexpensive cameras.
Film surface
Lens Formulas 50 mm or digital sensor
A lens is made from a design or formula.
The formula gives:
Double Plano- Concavo- • The type of glass
convex convex convex • Curvature
Figure 3-14. A positive or convergent lens is thicker Figure 3-16. Focal length is the distance between the lens and focal point, film, or sensor surface when the
• Placement and spacing of the elements
at the center and bends light inward. lens is set to infinity.
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

38 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 39

Full frame (24 × 36 mm)

Figure 3-18. The focal length or range of focal lengths is marked on each lens body at least once.

Focal length affected by digital sensor size To determine which lens is a normal lens
The focal length marked on the lens for a particular camera, find the diagonal dis-
may not be the focal length exhibited by tance of the film frame or the sensor. This is APS-C (18 × 24 mm)
your digital camera. The size of the sensor approximately equal to the focal length of the Figure 3-19. If the digital camera you use has a sensor that is smaller than a 35 mm frame, then there is a
affects the focal length, typically extending camera’s normal lens. See Figure 3-22. The crop factor for that camera.
the focal length. The crop factor is the ratio frame size of a 35 mm camera is 24 mm ×
of the diagonal length of a camera’s sensor 36 mm. The diagonal of the frame is 43 mm.
to the diagonal length of a 35 mm frame. See A lens with a focal length in the range of Full frame (35mm)
Figure 3-19. To find the focal length of a lens 40 mm to 55 mm is considered normal for a
that is attached to a camera, multiply the focal 35 mm camera. The 50 mm is a popular nor-
APS-H (Canon) 1.3X
length printed on the camera by the crop fac- mal lens for a 35 mm camera, but there are a
tor. For example, a 50 mm lens mounted on a few manufacturers making a 43 mm lens. See
camera with a crop factor of 1.6 will extend Figure 3-23.
the lens to 80 mm. See Figure 3-20. A 2¼″ × 2¼″ (6 cm × 6 cm) camera has
a frame diagonal of 85 mm. Any lens in the
Lens Angle of View range of 75 mm to 85 mm is considered the Four thirds 2.0X
The focal length indicates the angle of normal lens for this camera.
view of the lens and the image size that will A digital camera with a 24 × 16 mm sen-
appear on the film or sensor. Angle of view sor has a sensor diagonal of about 34 mm. A
is the largest angle of light rays that will 35 mm lens is the normal lens for this camera. APS-C (Nikon DX, Pentax, Sony) 1.5X
pass through the lens and form an image of APS-C (Canon) 1.6X
acceptable quality on the film or sensor. See Image Size Foveon (Sigma) 1.7X
Figure 3-21. Image size is the size of the subject pro- Figure 3-20. Multiply the crop factor by the focal length of the lens to find the true focal length of your lens and
duced on the film or digital sensor. The image camera combination.
Selecting a Normal Lens size can be changed by moving either the
A normal lens produces an image about camera or subject, or by using a lens of a dif-
the same, as it would appear to the human ferent focal length. A longer focal length will
eye. The angle of view is almost the same as increase the image size and narrow the angle
is seen by the eye. of view. A shorter focal length will decrease
the image size and expand the angle of view.
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

40 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 41

See Figure 3-24. A 100 mm lens will produce

an image twice the size of a 50 mm lens.

Aperture Control
Angle of view
Maximum The lens aperture is a circular open-
coverage of lens ing in a diaphragm that is usually located
between the lens elements. See Figure 3-25.
Lens On a camera, the diaphragm is a cover made
Coverage of lens on up of metal. Its openings control the amount
focal plane (film surface of light that can pass through the lens to the
or digital sensor)
film or sensor. A large aperture (opening)
will admit more light than a small aperture.
Aperture size is specified by f-stops. The
Focal plane
f-stops are shown as f-numbers on the lens
(film surface or barrel. See Figure 3-26. Some lenses made just
digital sensor) for digital cameras may not have any external
Figure 3-23. A standard or normal lens gives about
the same perspective as the human eye. A 43 mm adjustable f-stop ring. See Figure 3-27. Inter-
lens, such as this one, is the perfect focal length for nal motors control the adjustment of the aper-
a normal lens, but most manufacturers round this up ture on these lenses.
to 50 mm. (Pentax)

Focal plane
Lens

Figure 3-21. The angle of view is the largest angle of light rays that will form an image on the film or digital
sensor.
Image as it
50 mm appears at
focal length focal plane

Lens with a short focal length reduces the image size.

63.9648

43.27 Focal plane

33.53
Lens

Medium format Full frame (35 mm) APS-H (Canon)

65 mm 43 - 50 mm 35 mm

28.35 26.68 24.86 21.64

Image as it
100 mm appears at
APS-C (Nikon DX, Pentax, Sony) APS-C (Canon) Foveon (Sigma) Four thirds focal length focal plane
28 - 35 mm 24 - 28 mm 24 mm 22 mm
Figure 3-22. The focal length of a normal lens for a particular camera is about the same as the length of the Lens with a long focal length increases the image size.
film’s or digital sensor’s diagonal distance. Figure 3-24. The focal length of the lens affects the image size.
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

42 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 43

Aperture
Figure 3-25. The aperture of a lens is changed with
a diaphragm-like device between the lens elements.
The amount of light passing through the lens to the Figure 3-28. A large f-number indicates a small aperture. Stopping down means reducing the size of the aperture.
film or sensor is controlled by making the aperture
larger or smaller.
Lens Scales
Figure 3-27. Many lenses made for digital cameras
Adjustable lenses usually have three
lack a mechanical aperture ring. The aperture is
controlled by internal motors. (Sigma) scales printed on them:
• Distance scale. This tells the operator how
pass through to the film or sensor. This per- far away the subject is when the subject is
mits satisfactory photographs to be taken in in focus.
dim light. • Depth of field scale. It indicates the
Closing the lens aperture by one f-stop nearest and farthest distances the subjects
(f/2 to f/2.8, for example) reduces the light in the picture are in sharp focus.
reaching the film or sensor by one-half, as
shown in Figure 3-28. Reducing the size of
the aperture is called stopping down. The Figure 3-29. Screw type lens mounts were once
very popular.
same f-number on any lens of the same focal
length will allow the same amount of light to
reach the film. in the camera body. These are found mainly
in older cameras. Caution: Do not force a screw-
Mounting Lenses on a mounted lens if it does not turn easily in the cam-
Figure 3-26. Aperture size is specified by f-stops. era body. Forcing may damage both the lens and
They appear as f-numbers on the lens barrel. Camera camera body, thus resulting in costly repairs.
The lens mount attaches the lens to the The bayonet lens mount fits into a mount-
The “f” stands for fraction. A larger f-num- camera body. This feature permits the pho- ing flange on the camera body. A twist of 90°
ber has a smaller aperture opening. For exam- tographer to change lenses rapidly. There are or less locks the lens into place. Nearly all
ple, an f/8 (1/8) aperture is smaller than an two main types of mounts: screw mount and major manufacturers of cameras with lenses
f/4 (1/4) aperture. bayonet mount. that can be changed use this mount. See Figure 3-30. Bayonet type lens mount. Modern SLR
A lens with a maximum f-number aper- A screw mount lens uses threads to Figure 3-30. cameras use this type.
ture opening of f/2.8 is considered a fast lens. attach it to a camera body. See Figure 3-29.
A fast lens allows a large amount of light to Several revolutions are needed to seat the lens
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

44 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 45

• Aperture scale. This indicates the f-stop at shorter focal length. Wide-angle lenses are 28 mm
which the aperture is set. used to photograph landscapes, buildings, Wide-angle lens
Proper use of the scales is explained in and groups of people. See Figure 3-34.
50 mm
greater detail in the chapter Using a Camera. A Normal lens
typical lens scale system is displayed on the
lens barrel shown in Figure 3-31.

Lens Selection
A 50 mm lens is standard or normal for
most 35 mm film cameras. This lens usually
has a large aperture for low light conditions
or fast shutter speeds. The nifty fifty, as it is
sometimes called, is an all-purpose lens when
only one lens is available. See Figure 3-32.
As discussed earlier, the 50 mm lens on a
35 mm camera creates pictures with an angle Figure 3-32. The 50 mm lens is a great all-purpose
of view close to the human eye. lens that typically has a large aperture.

Wide-Angle Lens Focal length Figure 3-34. A wide-angle lens has a greater angle
A wide-angle lens has a shorter focal of view than a normal lens. A larger area can be
length than a normal lens. See Figure 3-33. At 50 mm photographed from the same distance.
any distance it will take in a larger area than
a normal lens. Telephoto Lens Figure 3-35. A telephoto lens does for the camera
A short focal length gives a greater angle A telephoto lens acts like a telescope what a telescope does for the eye. (Sigma)
of view. Depth of field also increases with a and makes distant objects appear closer. See
Focal point Sensor Figure 3-35. A larger focal length gives a by a factor of 1.4 or 2X. Thus, a 200 mm lens
larger magnification. Magnification is mak- becomes equivalent to a 400 mm lens. These
ing things appear bigger than they really are as reduce the maximum aperture of the lens by
seen by the eye. Telephoto lenses are useful for one or two f-stops. Caution: Only use a telecon-
Normal lens (50 mm) verter recommended by the lens manufacturer.
nature photography, sports photography, and
Distance for taking candid photographs. Figure 3-36 Teleconverters usually do not work well with
scale compares wide-angle, normal, and telephoto wide-angle or zoom lenses., because of the large
Focal length lenses. number of elements in these lenses.
A large focal length lens can be quite
17 mm
large and heavy. A compact telephoto lens is Zoom Lens
Depth of a mirror lens. See Figure 3-37. The light path A zoom lens is like many different lenses
field scale
is folded by a mirror in the lens, making the in one, because the focal length is adjust-
overall physical length much shorter. able. See Figure 3-39. Such lenses are found
Aperture scale in many different focal length ranges. There
Sensor Teleconverter Lenses are wide-angle zooms, telephoto zooms, and
A teleconverter lens is sometimes also wide angle to telephoto zooms. Most zoom
Figure 3-31. Several scales are printed on the Focal point
called an extender. See Figure 3-38. This is a lenses have smaller maximum apertures than
barrels of adjustable lenses. They help the operator fixed focal length lenses. This means that a
in judging distance, finding the aperture, and compact set of lenses that fits between the
determining which objects will be in focus. The
Wide-angle lens (17 mm) camera body and main lens. These are a way slower shutter speed is needed. Focusing may
distance scale also aids the operator using a flash Figure 3-33. A wide-angle lens has a short focal length. to extend the focal length of a lens, usually also be more difficult without autofocus.
unit in determining flash-to-subject distance for A lens with a focal length of 35 mm or less is considered
properly exposed photos. a wide-angle on a 35 mm film camera. (Zeiss)
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

46 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 47

Manual-focusing zoom lenses are either by twisting a ring to focus and pushing or
single-touch or two-touch. With a single- pulling the ring to change focal length, or
touch zoom lens, focusing is accomplished zoom. A two-touch zoom lens has two rings,
one for adjusting focus and the second for
changing the focal length.

Care of Lenses
Never clean a lens with facial or toilet tis-
sue, silicon eyeglass cleaning tissues, handker-
chiefs, fingers, or water. For best results, use
the following procedure to clean a camera
Figure 3-38. A teleconverter can increase the focal lens thoroughly and safely.
28 mm wide-angle lens 50 mm normal lens length of a lens by a factor usually of 1.4X or 2X.
(Sigma)

100 mm telephoto lens 300 mm telephoto lens

Figure 3-36. This set of photos compares wide-angle, normal, and telephoto lenses. (Jack Klasey) A B

Lens elements Focal

Mirror plane

C
Mirror

Figure 3-39. A zoom lens can take the place of a number of fixed angle lenses. A. This autofocus lens covers
Path of light rays the wide angle range of 12–24 mm. (Sigma) B. This autofocus lens covers a wide angle to telephoto range of
18–200 mm. (Nikon) C. This large telephoto lens covers the telephotos ranges of 200–400 mm. (Nikon). When
Figure 3-37. A mirror lens is lighter and more compact than a long lens because the mirror folds the light path. used with a digital camera having an equivalency factor of 1.5X, what are the actual ranges compared to a
(Sigma) 35 mm camera?
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

48 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 49

Any dust on the sensor of a DSLR prob-

Cleaning a Lens 3. Put one or two drops of lens cleaning fluid
ably entered the camera during the chang-
1. Avoid having to clean the lens by on a tissue made for cleaning lenses.
ing of lenses. This dust will show up as spots
permanently installing a UV filter. Only the on an image. Use the following procedure to
filter will need to be cleaned. minimize the chance of dust on the sensor.

Changing Lenses
1. Place the new lens on a table or securely
in a camera bag with the back of the lens
pointing up.

4. Remove the old lens and place it next to the

new lens.

2. Loosen the rear lens cap, but do not remove it.

4. Wipe the lens by pulling the tissue from the
2. Use a bulb blower to blow off the dirt and dust. outside toward the center of the lens. Pull
the tissue away from the lens during the
wiping motion.

5. Move the cap that you loosened earlier to

the old lens.

3. Hold the camera so the old lens is pointing

down. Keep the camera in this position
throughout the lens change to prevent dust
from falling in the camera.
(continued)

(continued) (continued)
5. Check the lens for any streaking or missed
dirt. Repeat steps 2 to 4 if needed.
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

50 Exploring Photography Chapter 3 Lenses 51

Protect the camera and lens from temper- Test Your Knowledge
6. Install the new lens.
ature extremes. Avoid salt spray and mois-
ture at the beach. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Please do not write in this book.
If a lens and camera has been acciden- 1. List two basic principles of light related to how a lens works.
tally dropped in water do not try to disas- 2. A _____ camera does not need a lens to make a photo.
semble the camera and lens to dry them out. 3. A lens composed of two or more simple lenses is known as a _____ lens. Each of these
Immediately take the battery out of the cam- simple lenses is called a(n) _____.
era. Bring the equipment immediately to an
approved camera and lens repair shop. The 4. The angle of view of a lens is determined by the _____.
shop should be able to dry them out with a 5. True or False? A dimly lit subject would be photographed with a fast lens.
minimum of damage. The camera repair- 6. Check the f-stop best suited to take the picture in No. 5. _____ f/2 or _____ f/16
person will also be able to check camera and 7. Depth of field is controlled by _____.
lens operation to ensure that they operate as
A. focal length of lens
designed.
When not in use, both ends of the lens B. f-stop of lens
should be protected with lens caps. See C. type of lens mount used
Figure 3-40. The lens should then be stored D. All of the above.
in a lens case. E. None of the above.
8. List three uses for a wide angle lens.
7. Secure the cap on the old lens and move 9. When should a telephoto lens be used?
the lens to a safe area. 10. How does a zoom lens differ from other types of lenses?
11. Which of the following items are recommended to safely clean a lens?
A. Soft brush
B. Silicon eyeglass tissue
C. Clean handkerchief
D. All of the above.
E. None of the above.
Figure 3-40. When a lens is not mounted on the For Questions 12–31, match each of the terms with the definition on the right.
camera, lens caps should be used on each end 12. Lens a. Does not need a lens to take a picture
for protection. A body cap should be used on the
13. Pinholec amera b. Made of a single piece of glass or plastic
camera, as shown.
14. Transmittedl ight c. Made from transparent material with at least one
15. Refractedl ight curved surface
16. Simple lens d. Light rays that are bent
17. Convergent lens e. Light that passes through transparent material
18. Divergentl ens f. Size of subject produced on the negative
19. Aberrations g. Flaws or defects in the lens
20. Stopping down h. Lens that bends light rays inward
21. Images ize i. Lens that bends light rays outward
j. Reducing size of lens aperture
This sample chapter is for review purposes only. Copyright © The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc. All rights reserved.

52 Exploring Photography

Things to Do
1. Make a pinhole camera with the back removed. Cover the back with thin tissue. In a
darkened room, point the camera toward a lighted bulb or candle. Observe the image
formed on the tissue.
2. Make a series of photographs using a pinhole camera. Prepare a report on the result.
3. Collect 10 photographs from magazines. (Do not remove them from library copies.) Pass them
around during a group discussion. Discuss the possible aperture setting and lens focal
length used for each photo.
4. Collect lens advertisements. (They can be secured from local camera dealers, lens
manufacturers, and from discarded photo magazines.) Secure a cutaway illustration of a
lens. Count the elements. List the number of convergent and divergent lens elements in
the cutaway. Discuss the differences among the various types of lenses.
5. Most photo magazines evaluate lenses. Study several of these evaluations and explain to
the class how the lenses are tested.
6. Secure a camera with an adjustable lens. Take a series of photos at different aperture
settings and note how the depth of field changes. Prepare a table showing the depth of
field at different aperture settings.
7. Secure a simple camera with a fixed aperture but adjustable focus. Photograph a subject
at various distances while changing the focus. Note how the depth of field changes. How
do pictures made with this camera and lens compare with photos made with the camera
in Activity No. 6?