Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 1

Scope of Networks

The scope of a network refers to its geographical size. A network can range in size from just a few computers in one
office to thousands of computers linked together over great distances.

Network scope is determined by the size of the organization or the distance between users on the network. The
scope determines how the network is designed and what physical components are used in its construction.

There are two general types of network scope;

 Local Area Networks

 Wide Area Networks

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) connects computers that are located near eachother.

For example, two computers connected together in an office or two buildings connected together by a high-speed
wire can be considered a LAN. A corporate network that includes several adjacent buildings can also be considered a
LAN.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) connects a number of computers located at a greater distance from one another.

For example, two or more computers connecting opposite sides of the world is considered a WAN. A WAN can be
made up of a number of interconnected LANs. For example, the Internet is really a WAN.

Basic Connectivity Components

 Network Adapters
 Network Cables
 Wireless Communication Devices

The basic connectivity components of a network include the cables, network adapters, and wireless devices that
connect the computers in the network.

These components enable data to be sent to each computer on the network, thereby permitting the computers to
communicate with each other.

Common connectivity components of a network are:

 Network adapters.
 Network cables.
 Wireless communication devices.

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 2

Network Adapters

Network adapters constitute the physical interface between the computer and the network cable. Network adapters,
also known as network interface cards, are installed into an expansion slot in each computer and server on the
network. After the network adapter is installed, the network cable is attached to the adapter's port to physically
connect the computer to the network.

As the data passes through the cable to the network adapter, it is formatted into packets. A packet is a logical
grouping of information that includes a header, which contains location information and user data. The header
contains address fields that include information about the data's origin and destination. The network adapter reads the
destination address to determine if the packet is to be delivered to this computer. If it is, the network adapter then
passes the packet on to the operating system for processing. If not, the network adapter discards the packet

Each network adapter has a unique address that is incorporated into chips on the card. This address is called the
physical, or media access control (MAC), address.

The network adapter performs the following functions:

 Receives data from the computer's operating system and converts it into electrical signals that are transmitted
onto the cable

 Receives electrical signals from the cable and translates them into data that the computer's operating system
can understand

 Determines whether data received from the cable is intended for the computer

 Controls the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system

To ensure compatibility between the computer and the network, the network adapter must meet the following criteria:

 Fit in the computer's expansion slot

 Use the correct type of cable connector for the cabling

 Be supported by the computer's operating system

Network Cables

You connect computers together in a network by using cables to carry signals between computers. A cable that
connects two computers or network components is called a segment. Cables differ in their capabilities and are
categorized according to their ability to transmit data at varying speeds, with different error rates. The three major
categories of cables that connect most networks are:

 Twisted-pair
 Coaxial
 Fiber-optic

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Twisted-Pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable (lObaseT) consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each other. There are
two types of twisted-pair cable: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP). These are the most
common cables used in networks and can carry signals for 100 meters (about 328 feet).

 UTP cable is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is the most popular LAN cable.

 STP cable uses a woven copper-braid Jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality than the jacket
used by UTP. STP also uses a foil wraparound each of the wire pairs. This gives STP excellent shielding that
protects the transmitted data from outside interference, which in turn allows STP to support higher
transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.

Twisted-pair cabling uses Registered Jack 45 (RJ-45) connectors to connect to a computer. These are similar to
Registered Jack 11 (RJ-11) connectors.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable consists of a copper wire core surrounded by insulation, a braided metal shielding, and an outer cover.
The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data. This wire core can be either solid or
stranded. There are two types of coaxial cable: ThinNet coaxial cable (10Base2) and ThickNet coaxial cable
(10Base5). Coaxial cabling is a good choice when transmitting data over long distances and for reliably supporting
higher data rates when using less sophisticated equipment.

Coaxial cable must be terminated at each end.

 ThinNet coaxial cable can carry a signal for approximately 185 meters
(about 607 feet).

 ThickNet coaxial cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1,640 feet).

Both ThinNet and ThickNet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC connector, to make the connections
between the cable and the computers.

Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable uses optical fibers to carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of light. Because
fiber-optic cable carries no electrical impulses, the signal cannot be tapped and its data cannot be stolen. Fiber-optic
cable is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data transmission because the signal is transmitted very quickly and
with very little interference.

A disadvantage of fiber-optic cable is that it breaks easily if you are not careful during installation. It is more difficult to
cut than other cables and requires special equipment to cut it.

Selecting Cables

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 4

The following table lists considerations for use of the three categories of network cables.

Cable categories Use if Do not use if

Twisted-pair You want a relatively easy installation Your LAN requires a high level
in which computer connections are of signal shielding to protect it
simple. from electromagnetic waves that may
interfere with the electrical signal
carried in the cable.

You must transmit data over long

distances at high speeds.

Coaxial You need to transmit data for greater You need to change the network
distances than is possible with less cables frequently due to relocations.
expensive cabling.

Fiber-optic You need to transmit secure You have a small budget.

data at very high speeds over long
distances. You do not have the expertise to
properly install it and connect devices
to it.

Wireless Communication Devices

You use wireless components to connect networks over distances for which standard network adapters and cable
options are not technically or economically feasible. Wireless networks consist of wireless components
communicating with LANs.

Except for the fact that a cable does not connect the computers, a typical wireless network operates almost like a
cabled network: a wireless network adapter with a transceiver (a device that both transmits and receives analog and
digital signals) is installed in each computer. Users communicate with the network as if they were using cabled
computers.

There are two common techniques for wireless transmission in a LAN: infrared transmission and narrowband radio
transmission.

 Infrared transmission

Operates by using an infrared light beam to carry the data between devices. There must be a clear line of
sight between the transmitting and receiving devices; anything that blocks the infrared signal prevents
communication.
These systems must generate very strong signals because weak transmission signals are susceptible to
interference from light sources, such as windows.

 Narrowband radio transmission

The user tunes both the transmitter and the receiver to a certain frequency. Narrowband radio does not
require line-of-sight focusing because it uses radio waves. However, narrowband radio transmission is
subject to interference from steel and load-bearing walls. Narrowband radio is a subscription service. Users
pay a fee for radio transmission.

Network Topologies

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 5

A network topology is the arrangement of computers, cables, and other components on a network. It is a map of the
physical network. The type of topology you use affects the type and capabilities of the network's hardware, its
management, and possibilities for future expansion.

Topology is both physical and logical;

 Physical topology describes how the physical components on a network are connected.
 Logical topology describes the way network data flows through the physical components.

There are five basic topologies:

 Bus. Computers are connected to a common, shared cable.

 Star. Computers are connected to cable segments that branch out from a central location, or hub.

 Ring. Computers are connected to a cable that forms a loop around a central location,

 Mesh. Computers on the network are connected to every other computer by cable.

 Hybrid. Two or more topologies are used together.

Bus Topology

In a bus topology, all of the computers in a network are attached to a continuous cable, or segment, that connects
them in a straight line. In this straight-line topology, a packet is transmitted to all network adapters on that segment.

Because of the way electrical signals are transmitted over this cable, the ends of the cable must be terminated by
hardware devices called terminators, which act as the boundaries for the signal and define the segment. If there is a
break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back and forth across the network and
all communication will stop.

The number of computers attached to a bus also affects network performance. The more computers there are on the
bus, the greater the backup of computers waiting to put data on the bus, and consequently, the slower the network. In
addition, because of the way computers communicate in a bus topology, there may be a lot of noise. Noise is the
traffic generated on the network when computers attempt to communicate with each other simultaneously. An
increase in the number of computers results in an increase in noise and a corresponding decrease in network
efficiency.

Star Topology

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In a star topology, cable segments from each computer on the network are connected to a central component, or hub.
A hub is a device that connects several computers together. In a star topology, signals are transmitted from the
computer, through the hub, to all computers on the network. On a larger scale, multiple LANs can be connected to
each other in a star topology.

An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails, only the failed computer is unable
to send or receive data. The remainder of the network functions normally.

The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to a hub, if the hub fails, the
entire network fails. In addition, noise is created on the network in a star topology.

Ring Topology

In a ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there are no
terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which acts as
a repeater to boost the signal and send it to the next computer. On a larger scale, multiple
LANs can be connected to each other in a ring topology by using ThickNet coaxial or fiber-optic cable.

The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal and sending it on
to the next computer, thereby preserving signal strength.

Token Passing

The method of transmitting data around the ring is called token passing. A token is a special series of bits that
contains control information. Possession of the token allows a network device to transmit data to the network. Each
network has only one token.

The sending computer removes the token from the ring and sends the requested data around the ring. Each
computer passes along the data until the packet finds the computer that matches the address on the data. The
receiving computer then returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has been received. After
verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it to the network.

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The advantage of a ring topology is that it can handle high-traffic environments better than bus networks. In addition,
the impact of noise is reduced in the ring topology.

The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data on a single token ring. Also,
ring topologies are usually more expensive than bus technologies.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable. This configuration
provides redundant paths through the network so that if one cable fails, another carries the traffic and the network
continues to function. On a larger scale, multiple LANs can be connected to each other in a mesh topology by using
leased telephone lines, ThickNet coaxial cable, or fiber-optic cable.

An advantage of a mesh topology is its back-up capabilities by providing multiple paths through the network. Because
redundant paths require more cable than is needed in other topologies, a mesh topology can be expensive.

Hybrid Topologies

In a hybrid topology, two or more topologies are combined to form a complete network design. Networks are rarely
designed using only one type of topology. For example, you may want to combine a star with a bus topology to
benefit from the advantages of each.

Two types of hybrid topologies are commonly in use: star-bus topology and star-ring topology.

Star-Bus

In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked to a bus connection. After a star configuration is full,
you can add a second star and use a bus connection to connect the two star topologies.

In a star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. However, if the central
component, or hub, that attaches all computers in a star fails, all computers attached to that component fail and are
unable to communicate.

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 8

Star-Ring

In the star-ring topology, the computers are connected to a central component as in a star network. These
components, however, are wired to form a ring network.

Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. By using token passing,
each computer in a star-ring topology has an equal chance of communicating. This allows for greater network traffic
between segments than in a star-bus topology.

Network Technologies

You use different network technologies to communicate between computers within LANs and WANs. You may use a
combination of technologies to get the best cost-benefit and maximum efficiency from your network design.

Many network technologies are available, including:

 Ethernet.
 Token ring.
 Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).
 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
 Frame relay.

One of the ways in which these technologies differ is the set of rules that each uses to place data onto the network
cable and to remove data from the cable. This is called access method. When data moves on the network, these
various access methods regulate the flow of network traffic.

Ethernet

Ethernet is a popular LAN technology that uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
between clients over a variety of cable types. Ethernet is passive, which means it requires no power source of its
own, and thus does not fail unless the cable is physically cut or improperly terminated. Ethernet is connected by using
a bus topology, in which the cable is terminated at both ends,

Ethernet uses multiple communication protocols and can connect mixed computing environments, including Netware,
UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
Access Method

The network access method used for Ethernet is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
CSMA/CD is a set of rules that determines how network devices respond when two devices attempt to send data on
the network simultaneously. Transmission of data by multiple computers simultaneously over the network causes a
collision. Each computer on the network, including clients and servers, checks the cable for network traffic. Only when
a computer detects that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable does it send data. After the computer
has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the original data has reached its
destination and the cable is again free.

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 9

After detecting a collision, a device waits a random delay time and then attempts to retransmit the message. If the
device detects a collision again, it waits twice as long before trying to retransmit the message.

Transfer Speed

Standard Ethernet, called 10BaseT, supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps over a wide range of cabling. Faster
versions of Ethernet are also available. Fast Ethernet (100BaseT) supports data transfer rates of 100 Mbps, and
Gigabit Ethernet supports data rates of 1 Gbps (gigabits per second) or 1,000 Mbps.

Token Ring

Token ring networks are implemented in a ring topology. The physical topology of a token ring network is the star
topology, in which all computers on the network are physically connected to a hub. The physical ring is wired through
a hub called a multistation access unit (MSAU). The logical topology represents the token's path between computers,
which is similar to a ring.

Access Method

The access method used in a token ring network is token passing. A token is a special series of bits that travels
around a token ring network. A computer cannot transmit unless it has possession of the token; while the token is in
use by a computer, no other computer can transmit data.

When the first computer on the token ring comes online, the network generates a token. The token travels around the
ring to each computer until one of the computers takes control of the token.

When a computer takes control of the token, it sends a data frame out on the network. The frame proceeds around
the ring until it reaches the computer with the address that matches the destination address in the frame. The
destination computer copies the frame into its memory and marks the frame in the frame status field to indicate that
the information was received.

The frame continues around the ring until it arrives at the sending computer, where the transmission is acknowledged
as successful. The sending computer then removes the frame from the ring and transmits a new token back on the
ring.

Transfer Speed

The transfer speed in a token ring network is between 4 and 16 Mbps.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

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Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a packet-switching network that sends fixed-length packets over LANs or
WANs, instead of the variable-length packets used in other technologies. Fixed-length packets, or cells, are data
packets that contain only basic path information, allowing switching devices to route the packet quickly.
Communication occurs over a point-to-point system that provides a permanent and virtual data path between each
station.

Using ATM, you can send data from a main office to a remote location. The data travels from a LAN over a digital
leased line to an ATM switch and into the ATM network. It passes through the ATM network and arrives at another
ATM switch in the destination LAN.

Because of its expanded bandwidth, ATM can accommodate:

 Voice.
 Real-time video.
 CD-quality audio.
 Imaging data, such as real-time radiology.
 Megabit data transmission.

Access Method

An ATM network uses the point-to-point access method. This access method transfers fixed-length packets from one
computer to another through ATM switching equipment The result is a technology that transmits a small, compact
data packet at a high speed.

Transfer Speed

The transfer speed in an ATM network is between 155 and 622 Mbps.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface

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A Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) network provides high-speed connections for various types of networks.
FDDI was designed for use with computers that required speeds greater than the 10 Mbps available from
Ethernet or the 4 Mbps available from existing token ring architectures. An FDDI network can support several low-
capacity LANs that require a high-speed backbone,

An FDDI network consists of two similar streams of data flowing in opposite directions around two rings. One ring is
called the primary ring and the other is called the secondary ring. If there is a problem with the primary ring, such as a
ring failure or a cable break, the ring reconfigures itself by transferring data to the secondary ring, which continues
transmitting.

Access Method

The access method used in an FDDI network is token passing. A computer on an FDDI network can transmit as many
packets as it can produce within a predetermined time before releasing the token. As soon as a computer has
finished transmitting or after a predetermined transmittal time is up, the computer releases the token.

Because a computer releases the token when it finishes transmitting, several packets can circulate on the ring at the
same lime. This method of token passing is more efficient than that on a standard token ring network, which allows
only one frame at a time to circulate. This method of token passing also provides greater data throughput at the same
transmission rate.

Transfer Speed

The transfer speed in an FDDI network is between 155 and 622 Mbps.

Frame relay

Frame relay is a packet-switching network thai sends variable-length packets over LANs or WANs. Variable length
packets, or frames, are data packets that contain additional addressing and error handling information necessary for
delivery.
Communication occurs over a network that provides a permanent and virtual data path between each station. This
type of network uses wide area digital or fiber-optic links and gives you quick access to data transfer that you pay for
only as you need it.

Packet switching is a method used to send data over a WAN by dividing a large package of data into smaller pieces
(packets). These pieces are sent through a packet switch, which sends the individual packets across the WAN using

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 12

the best route currently available. Although these packets may trave! along different paths, the receiving computer
can reassemble the pieces into the original data frame.

However, you could have a permanent virtual circuit (PVC) established, which would use the same path for all of the
packets. This allows for a faster transmission than by normal frame relay networks and eliminates the need for packet
disassembly and reassembly.

Access Method

Frame relay uses the point-to-point access method. This access method transfers variable-sized packets from one
computer directly to another, instead of between several computers and peripherals.

Transfer Speed

Frame relay allows for data transfer that is as fast as the provider can supply over digital leased lines.

Expanding the Network

To cater to the growing networking needs of an organization, you need to expand the size or improve the
performance of a network. You cannot make networks larger just by adding new computers and more cable. Each
network topology or architecture has limits. You can, however, install components to increase the size of the network
within its existing environment,

Components that enable you to expand the network include:

 Repeaters and Hubs

Repeaters and hubs retransmit an electrical signal received on one connection point (port) to all ports in order
to maintain the integrity of the signal.

 Bridges

Bridges enable data to be passed between LANs.

 Switches

Switches enable high-speed passing of data to LANs.

 Routers

Routers enable passing of data through LANs or WANs, depending on the destination network of the data.

 Gateways

Gateways enable passing of data through LANs or WANs and function so that computers using different
protocols can communicate with each other.

You can also expand a network by allowing users to connect to the network from a remote location. To establish a
remote connection, the three components required are a remote access client, a remote access server, and physical
connectivity.

 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).

 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
 X.25.
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL).
Repeaters and Hubs

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You can use repeaters and hubs to expand a network by adding two or more segments of cabling. These commonly
used devices are inexpensive and easy to set up.

Repeaters

Repeaters receive signals and retransmit them al their original strength and definition. This increases the practical
length of a cable. (If a cable is very long, the signal weakens and becomes unrecognizable.) Installing a repeater
between cable segments enables signals to travel farther.

Repeaters do not translate or filter signals. For a repeater to work, both segments connected to the repeater must use
the same access method. For example, a repeater cannot translate an Ethernet packet into a token ring packet,

Repeaters do not act as filters to restrict the flow of problem traffic. Repeaters send every bit of data from one cable
segment to another, even if the data consists of malformed packets or packets not destined for a computer on
another segment.

Use a repeater to:

 Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar cabling.

 Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.
 Transmit all traffic in both directions.
 Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.

Hubs

Hubs are connectivity devices that connect computers in a star topology. Hubs contain multiple ports for connecting to
network components. If you use a hub, a break in the network does not affect the entire network; only the segment
and the computer attached to that segment fail. A single data packet sent through a hub goes to all connected
computers.

There are two types of hubs:

 Passive Hubs. Send the incoming signal directly through their ports without any signal processing. These
hubs are usually wiring panels.

 Active Hubs. Sometimes called multipart repeaters, receive incoming signals, process the signals, and
retransmit them at their original strengths and definitions to the connected computers or components.

Use a hub to:

 Easily change and expand wiring systems.

 Use different ports to accommodate a variety of
cable types.
 Enable central monitoring of network
activity and traffic,
Bridge

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A bridge is a device that passes data packets between multiple network segments that use the same communications
protocol. A bridge passes one signal at a time. If a packet is destined for a computer within the sender's own network
segment, the bridge retains the packet within that segment. If the packet is destined for another segment, it passes
the packet to that segment.

MAC Addresses

As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the sending computers' MAC addresses is stored in the
bridge's memory. The bridge uses this information to build a table based on these addresses. As more data is sent,
the bridge develops a bridging table that identifies each computer and its location on network segments. When the
bridge receives a packet, the source address is compared to the source address listed in the table. If the source
address is not present in the table, it is added to the table. The bridge then compares the destination address with the
destination address listed in the table. If a bridge recognizes the location of the destination address, it forwards the
packet to this address. If it does not recognize the destination address, it forwards the packet to all segments.

Use a bridge to:

 Expand the length of a segment.

 Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
 Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached computers.
 Split an overloaded network into two separate networks, thereby reducing the amount of traffic on each
segment and making each network more efficient.
 Link dissimilar physical cables, such as twisted-pair and coaxial Ethernet cables.

Switches

Switches are similar to bridges but offer a more direct network connection between the source and destination
computers. When a switch receives a data packet, it creates a separate internal connection, or segment, between any
two of its ports and forwards the data packet to the appropriate port of the destination computer only, based on
information in each packet's header. This insulates the connection from the other ports and gives the source and
destination computers access to the full bandwidth of a network.

Unlike a hub, switches are comparable to a telephone system with private lines. In such a system, if one person calls
someone, the operator or telephone switch connects them on a dedicated line. This allows more conversations to
take place at any one time.

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 15

Use a switch to:

 Send a packet directly from the source computer to the destination computer.
 Provide for a greater rate of data transmission.

Router

A router is a device that acts like a bridge or switch but provides more functionality. In moving data between different
network segments, routers examine a packet header to determine the best path for the packet to travel. A router
knows the path to all of the segments on the network by accessing information stored in the routing table. Routers
enable all users in a network to share a single connection to the Internet or a WAN.

Use a router to:

 Send packets directly to a destination computer on another networks or segment.

Routers use a more complete packet address than do bridges, for example, to determine which router or
client should next receive each packet. Routers ensure that packets travel the most efficient paths to their
destinations. If a link between two routers fails, the sending router can determine an alternate route to keep
traffic moving.

 Reduce stress on the network.

Routers read addressed network packets only and pass information only if the network address is known.
Therefore, they do not pass corrupted data. This ability to control the data passing through the router reduces
the amount of traffic between networks and enables routers to use these links more efficiently than bridges
can.

Gateways

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Gateways enable communication between different network architectures. A gateway takes the data from one
network and repackages it, so that each network can understand the other network's data.

A gateway is like an interpreter. For example, if two groups of people can physically talk to each other but speak
different languages, they need an interpreter to communicate. Similarly, two networks can have a physical connection
but need a gateway to translate network communication.

Use a gateway to link two systems that do not use the same:

 Architecture.
 Set of communication rules and regulations.
 Data-formatting structures.

Remote Access Connectivity Types

Windows 2000 enables users to connect to a network from a remote location through a variety of hardware, such as
modems. A modem enables a computer to communicate over telephone lines. The remote access client connects to
the remote access server, which acts as a router, or a gateway, for the client to the remote network. A telephone line
commonly provides the physical connectivity between the client and server. The remote access server runs the
Routing and Remote Access feature in Windows 2000 to support remote connections and to provide interoperability
with other remote access solutions.

The two types of remote access connectivity provided in Windows 2000 are dial-up remote access and virtual private
network (VPN),

Dial-up Remote Access

Windows 2000 Server provides dial-up remote access to users who dial corporate intranets. Dial-up equipment
installed on a remote access server running Windows 2000 answers incoming connection requests from dial-up
networking clients. The dial-up equipment answers the call, verifies the caller's identity, and transfers data between
the dial-up networking client and the corporate intranet.

Virtual Private Network

A virtual private network (VPN) uses encryption technology to provide security and other features formerly available
only in private networks. VPNs provide this security through a process called tunneling. Tunneling is a method of
using an internetwork infrastructure to securely transfer data from one network to another network. A VPN enables
telecommuters and employees at remote locations to establish a secure connection to a corporate server that is

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Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 17

connected to both the corporate LAN and a public internetwork, such as the Internet. From the user's perspective, the
VPN provides a point-to-point connection between the user's computer and a corporate server. The intermediate
internetwork is transparent to the user because it appears as if the remote access client is connected directly to the
corporate LAN/remote access server.

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) refers to the international telephone standard based on using copper
wires for transmitting analog voice data. This standard was designed to carry only the minimal frequencies necessary
to distinguish human voices. Because PSTN was not designed for data transmissions, there are limits to the
maximum data transmission rate of a PSTN connection. In addition, analog communication is susceptible to line noise
that causes a reduction in the data transmission rate.

A key advantage of PSTN is its worldwide availability and low-cost hardware due to mass-production.

Analog Modem

Dial-up remote access equipment consists of an analog modem for the remote access client and another for the
remote access server. An analog modem is a device that enables a computer to transmit information over a standard
telephone line. Because a computer is digital and a telephone line is analog, analog modems are needed to convert
digital to analog and vice versa. For large organizations, the remote access server is attached to a modem bank
containing hundreds of modems. With analog modems at both the remote access server and the remote access
client, the maximum bit rate supported by PSTN connections is 56,000 bits per second, or 56 kilobits per second.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Vocational Training Center – Dehiwala Course note prepared by: Kanishka Weeramunda
Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 18

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is an international communications standard for sending voice, video, and
data over digital telephone lines and standard telephone wires. ISDN has the ability to simultaneously deliver two
connections over a single pair of telephone lines. The two connections may be in any combination of data, voice,
video, or fax. The single line uses an ISDN subscriber service, which is called Basic Rate Interface (BRI). BRI has two
channels, called B channels, at 64 Kbps each, which carry the data, and one data channel at 16 Kbps for control
information. The two B channels can be combined to form a single 128 Kbps connection.

The other ISDN transmission rate service. Primary Rate Interface (PRI), has 23 B channels and one 64 Kbps D
channel and uses more wire pairs. PRI is much more expensive to run than BRI and is not commonly selected by
individual remote access users. In most cases, BRI is preferred when using ISDN for remote access.

Digital Transmission

ISDN is a digital transmission, as opposed to the analog transmission of PSTN. ISDN lines must be used at both the
server and remote site. In addition, you must install an ISDN modem in both the server and the remote client.

Extends over Local Telephone Exchange

ISDN is not simply a point-to-point connection as a leased line. ISDN networks extend from the local telephone
exchange to the remote user and include all of the telecommunications and switching equipment lying between them.

ISDN Modem

Dial-up remote access equipment consists of an ISDN modem each for the remote access client and the remote
access server. ISDN offers much faster communication than PSTN, communicating at speeds of 64 Kbps or faster.

X.25

In an X.25 network, data is transmitted using packet switching. X.25 utilizes data communications equipment to
create an elaborate, worldwide network of packet-forwarding nodes that deliver an X.25 packet to its designated
address.

X.25 Packet Assembler / Disassembler (PAD)

Dial-up remote access clients can directly access an X.25 network by using an X.25 packet assembler/disassembler
(PAD). A PAD allows the use of terminals and modem connections without necessitating expensive client hardware
and connectivity to talk directly to X.25. Dial-up PADs are a practical choice for remote access clients because they
do not require that you plug an X.25 line into the back of the computer. The only requirement for a dial-up PAD is the
telephone number of the PAD service for the carrier.

In Windows 2000, Routing and Remote Access provides access to the X.25 network in one of two configurations
shown in the following table.

Vocational Training Center – Dehiwala Course note prepared by: Kanishka Weeramunda
Network Engineering – Introduction to network architecture 19

Dial-up configuration Direct configuration

You can make a dial-up connection to the You can make a direct connection to the
X.25 network by using asynchronous X.25 network through an X.25 smart card.
PADS. The PAD converts serially An X.25 smart card is a hardware card
transmitted data into X.25 packets. When with a PAD embedded in it. The smart
the PAD receives a packet from an X.25 card acts like a modem. To the personal
network, it puts the packet out on a serial computer, a smart card looks like several
line, making communication possible communication ports attached to PADs.
between the client and the X.25 network.

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) is a technology that allows more data to be sent over existing copper
telephone lines. ADSL accomplishes this by using the portion of a telephone line's bandwidth not utilized by voice,
thereby allowing for simultaneous voice and data transmission,

Typical remote access users receive much more information than they send. The asymmetric nature of the ADSL
connection fits well with most Internet and remote business use. When receiving data, ADSL supports data rates from
1.5 to 9 Mbps. When sending data, ADSL supports data rates from 16 to 640 Kbps. Although ADSL provides higher
data transmission rates than do PSTN and ISDN connections, the client computer can receive data at a faster rate
than it can send data LAN Interface or Dial-up Interface

ADSL equipment can appear to Windows 2000 as either a LAN interface or a dial-up interface. When an ADSL
adapter appears as a LAN interface, the ADSL connection operates in the same way as a LAN connection to the
Internet. When an ADSL adapter appears as dial-up interface, ADSL provides a physical connection and the
individual packets are sent using asynchronous transfer mode (ATM). An ATM adapter with an ADSL port is installed
in both the remote access client and remote access server.

Vocational Training Center – Dehiwala Course note prepared by: Kanishka Weeramunda