Programme- B.

Sc (Agriculture)

Course - Principles and Methods of Soil and Water

Conservation
Course Code- BSCAG-214

Semester - IIIrd

Year- 2020-21

Unit- 5

Topic- Soil Erosion and its Types

Sub-Topic- Introduction, Principles of Soil Erosion,

Wind erosion- Type, Factor affecting
Water erosion- Type, Factor affecting
Mechanism of Soil erosion
Effect of Soil erosion

Faculty- Mr. Sharwan Kumar

E-mail- [email protected]

Soil Erosion and its Types

Introduction
Soil erosion is the process by which soil is removed from the Earth's surface by exogenetic
processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations.
In general, soil erosion implies the physical removal of topsoil by various agents, including
rain, water flowing over and through the soil profile, wind, glaciers or gravitational pull.
Land and water are the most precious natural resources that support and sustain the
anthropogenic activities. In India particularly, about 65% of the population depend on
agriculture, the only sector which generates half of the employment and maintain ecological
balance.

Soil erosion in India is amongst the leading areas of concern as it affects cultivation and
farming in the country in adverse and unfavourable ways. Soil erosion leads to deprivation of
physical characteristics of soils and damages plant and crops. In India almost 130 million
hectares of land, i.e., 45 % of total geographical surface area, is affected by serious soil
erosion through gorge and gully, shifting cultivation, cultivated wastelands, sandy areas,
deserts and water logging. Soil erosion by rain and transportation of soil particles through
rivulets that takes place in hilly areas causes severe landslides and floods. The anthropogenic
activities including cutting trees for agricultural implements, firewood and timber; grazing by
a large number of livestock over and above the carrying capacity of grass lands, traditional
agricultural practices, construction of roads, indiscriminate quarrying and other activities,
have all led to the opening of top surfaces to extreme soil erosion. In Indian condition, the
control of soil erosion is a challenging task in the sense that the onset of monsoon often
coincides with the kharif sowing and transplanting. In this stage of kharif crop when canopy
cover is minimal, major part of the land is exposed to the rainfall let the land prone to soil
erosion. It is prudent to check soil erosion from agricultural lands since it affects majority of
people.

Principles of Soil Erosion

 Causes of Soil Erosion
No single unique cause can be held responsible for soil erosion or assumed as the main cause
for this problem. There are many underlying factors responsible for this process, some
induced by nature and others by human being. The main causes of soil erosion can be
enumerated as:
Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by
 Indiscriminate cutting of trees,
 Overgrazing of the vegetative cover and
 Forest fires.
Improper Use of the Land
 Keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,
 Growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,
 Removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,
 Cultivation along the land slope, and
 Faulty methods of irrigation.
Types of Soil Erosion:
According to Origin: Soil erosion can broadly be categorized into two types i.e. geologic
erosion and accelerated erosion.
Geological Erosion: Under natural undisturbed conditions an equilibrium is established
between the climate of a place and the vegetative cover that protects the soil layer. Vegetative
covers like trees and forests retard the transportation of soil material and act as a check
against excessive erosion. A certain amount of erosion, however, does take place even under
the natural cover. This erosion, called geologic erosion, is a slow process and is compensated
by the formation of soil under the natural weathering process. Its effect are not of much
consequence so far as agricultural lands are concerned.
Accelerated Erosion: When land is put under cultivation, the natural balance existing
between the soil, its vegetation cover and climate is disturbed. Under such condition, the
removal of surface soil due to natural agencies takes places at faster rate than it can be built
by the soil formation process. Erosion occurring under these condition is referred to as
accelerated erosion. Its rates are higher than geological erosion. Accelerated erosion depletes
soil fertility in agricultural land.
According to Erosion Agents: Soil erosion is broadly categorized into different types
depending on the agent which triggers the erosion activity. Mentioned below are the four
main types of soil erosion.
(1) Water Erosion: Water erosion is seen in many parts of the world. In fact, running water
is the most common agent of soil erosion. This includes rivers which erode the river basin,
rainwater which erodes various landforms, and the sea waves which erode the coastal areas.
Water erodes and transports soil particles from higher altitude and deposits them in low lying
areas. Water erosion may further be classified, based on different actions of water responsible
for erosion, as : (i) raindrop erosion, (ii) sheet erosion, (iii) rill erosion, (iv) gully erosion, (v)
stream bank erosion, and (vi) slip erosion.
(2) Wind Erosion:: Wind erosion is most often witnessed in dry areas wherein strong winds
brush against various landforms,
rms, cutting through them and loosening the soil particles, which
are lifted and transported towards the direction in which the wind blows. The best example of
wind erosion are sand dunes and mushroom rocks structures, typically found in deserts.
(3) Glacial Erosion:: Glacial erosion, also referred to as ice erosion, is common in cold
regions at high altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving glaciers, it sticks to
the base of these glaciers. This is eventually transported with the glaciers, and as they start
melting it is deposited in the course of the moving chunks of ice.
(4) Gravitational Erosion:: Although gravitational erosion is not as common a phenomenon
as water erosion, it can cause huge damage to natural, as well as man-made
man made structures. It is
basically
asically the mass movement of soil due to gravitational force. The best examples of this are
Agents of Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the detachment of soil from its original location and transportation to a new
location. Mainly water is responsible for this erosion although in many locations wind,
glaciers are also the agents causing soil erosion. Water in the form of rain, flood and runoff
badly affects the soil. Soil is in fact a composite of sand, silt and clay. When the rain falls
along the mountains and bare soil, the water detaches the soil particles, and takes away the
silt and clay particles along with the flowing water. Similarly, when wind blows in the form
of storms, its speed becomes too high to lift off the entire soil upper layer and causes soil
erosion.
Other factors responsible for soil erosion are human and animal activities. Vegetation is the
natural cover of soil. When the animals continuously graze in the pastures, the vegetation is
removed due to their walking and grazing. Bare lands left behind are easily affected by soil
erosion. Activities of human like forest cutting, increased agriculture, and clearing of land for
different purposes are the other agents that cause erosion of the soil. The soil erosion agent
can be classified and summarized as shown in Fig.

Broadly, soil erosion can be divided into three categories depending on the eroding agents
namely water erosion, wind erosion and chemical or geological erosion. Soil erosion due to
the agents like water and wind is mostly prevalent and tangible. The erosion
erosi caused through
chemical and geological agents is a slow process and continues to years and often it is non
non-
tangible. Water erosion is further subdivided into classes depending on the effect of water
erosion. These include sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully erosion, land slide or slip erosion and
stream bank erosion.

Geologic Erosion
Geologic erosion sometimes referred to as natural or normal erosion; represent erosion under
the cover of vegetation. It includes soil as well as soil eroding processes that maintain the soil
in favourable balance, suitable for the growth of most plants. The rate of erosion is so slow
that the loss of soil is compensated by the formation of new soil under natural weathering
processes. The various topographical features such as existing of streams, valleys, etc. are the
results of geologic erosion.
Wind Erosion
Wind erosion is the detachment, transportation and redeposition of soil particles by wind. A
sparse or absent vegetative cover, a loose, dry and smooth soil surface, large fields and strong
winds all increase the risk of wind erosion. Air movement must attain a certain velocity (with
enough speed to generate visible movement of particles at the soil level) before it can
generate deflation and transport of particles. Winds with velocities of less than 12-19 km/hr
seldom impart sufficient energy at the soil surface to dislodge and put into motion sand-sized
particles. Drifting of highly erosive soil usually starts when the wind attains a forward
velocity of 25-30 km/hr. Wind erosion tends to occur mostly in low rainfall areas when soil
moisture content is at wilting point or below, but all drought-stricken soils are at risk. Often
the only evidence of wind erosion is an atmospheric haze of dust comprising fine mineral and
organic soil particles that contain most of the soil nutrients. Actions to minimize wind erosion
include improving soil structure so wind cannot lift the heavier soil aggregates; retaining
vegetative cover to reduce wind speed at the ground surface; and planting windbreaks to
reduce wind speed. Also, be ready for severe wind erosion seasons which tend to be the
summers following dry autumns and winters. The most familiar result of wind erosion is the
loss of topsoil and nutrients, which reduces the soil's ability to produce crops. Topsoil loss
can be seen as rocky or gravelly knolls, thin soils mixed with lighter coloured subsoil, or the
presence of calcium carbonate in surface soils.
Soil productivity is affected by wind erosion in various ways. Areas of erosion and deposition
within a field increase the variation in soil characteristics, requiring more costly and less
efficient soil management practices. Wind removes the smaller clay particles and organic
matter from the soil while coarser materials are left behind. The continued loss of fine
particles reduces soil quality. In shallow soils and soils with a hardpan layer, wind erosion
also results in decreased root zone depth and water-holding capacity. Such changes may
occur slowly and go unnoticed for many years especially if mixing by tillage masks the
effects of wind erosion.
 Process of Wind Erosion
The process of wind erosion comprises of three basic stages namely saltation, suspension and
surface creep. Fig. 2
 Fig.2 Process of wind erosion
 Saltation: Saltation occurs when the wind lifts larger particles off the ground for short
distances, leading to sand drifts. Fine and medium sand-sized particles are lifted a
short distance into the air, dislodging more soil as they fall back to the ground.
 Suspension: Suspension occurs when the wind lifts finer particles into the air leading
to dust storms. Very fine soil particles are lifted from the surface by the impact of
saltation and carried high into the air, remaining suspended in air for long distances.
 Surface Creep: The movement of large soil particles along the surface of the soil
after being loosened by the impact of saltating particles.
 Extent of Wind Erosion
Several factors, other than the wind velocity itself, contribute to wind erosion. These fall into
two main groups of closely interrelated elements: those inherent in the properties of the soil
per se and those associated with soil cover. A rough soil structure, especially at the surface,
effectively reduces the movement of soil particles. Arid regions, however, are dominated by
smooth, pulverized and structure less top soils. Soil texture also influences soil erodibility;
soils of fine texture are, for example, particularly susceptible to wind erosion.
Measurements of dust in the air up to three metres above the soil surface at Jodhpur,
India, showed that on a stormy day the amount of dust blowing varied between 50 and 420
kg/ha. In the Jaisalmer region of India, where wind speeds generally are higher, average soil
loss of 511 kg/ha was recorded.
Water Erosion
The soil erosion caused by water as an agent is called water erosion. In water erosion,
the water acts as an agent to dislodge and transport the eroded soil particle from one location
to another.
 Fig. 4 Process of water erosion
 Extent of Water Erosion
The extent of water erosion in Indian subcontinent are presented in Table 1.2. In India, 32.8
Mha area in India is affected by water erosion which accounts for 18% of the land. However,
the water erosion extent estimated by different sources varies from 87 to 111 Mha in India.
Table 6 Extent of erosion in India unit- (1000 ha)
S. No. Name of the States Water Erosion Wind Erosion
1 Andhra Pradesh 11518 0
2 Arunachal Pradesh 2372 0
3 Assam 688 0
4 Bihar+ Jharkhand 3024 0
5 Goa 60 0
6 Gujarat 5207 443
7 Haryana 315 536
8 Himachal Pradesh 2718 0
9 Jammu & Kashmir 5460 1360
10 Karnataka 5810 0
11 Kerala 76 0
12 Madhya Pradesh + Chhattisgarh 17883 0
13 Maharastra 11179 0
14 Manipur 133 0
15 Mizoram 137 0
16 Meghalaya 137 0
17 Nagaland 390 0
18 Orissa 5028 0
19 Punjab 372 282
20 Rajasthan 3137 6650
21 Sikkim 158 0
22 Tamil Nadu 4926 0
23 Tripura 121 0
24 Uttar Pradesh + Uttarakhand 11392 212
25 West Bengal 1197 0
26 Delhi 55 0
27 Union Territories 187 0
Grand Total 93680 9483
Grand Total(Million ha) 93.68 9.48

Forms of Water Erosion:

The impact of rainfall causes splash erosion. Runoff water causes scraping and transport of
soil particles leading to sheet, rill and gully erosion. Water waves cause erosion of bank sides
of reservoirs, lakes and oceans. The subsurface runoff causes soil erosion in the form of pipe
erosion, which is also called tunnel erosion. The glacial erosion causes heavy landsides. In
India, glacial erosions are mainly confined to Himalayan regions. The various forms of water
erosion are given below.

Hydraulic Action: The hydraulic action takes place when water runs over the soil surface
compressing the soil, as a result of which the air present in the voids exerts a pressure on the
soil particles and this leads to the soil detachment. The pressure exerted by the air voids is
called hydraulic pressure. The soil particles so detached from their places, are scoured by the
running water. The hydraulic action is more effective when the soil is in loose condition.
Abrasion: Soil particles mixed with the running water create an abrasive power in the water
which increases the capacity of flowing water to scour more soil particles. Due to this effect,
larger soil particles are eroded by the flowing water.
Attrition: This form includes mechanical breakdown of loads running along the moving
water due to collision of particles with each other. The broken particles are moved along with
the flow velocity, which generate abrasion effect on the bottom and banks of the water
course. This effect pronounces the water erosion.
Solution: This form is associated with the chemical action between running water and soil or
country rocks. This type condition is observed in areas where existing rocks or soils are easily
dissolved in the running water.
Transportation: The process of soil transportation by running water is completed under the
following forms:
Saltation: the water soluble contents present in the water are transported by the water in
solution form.
Suspension: it involves the transportation of finer soil particles, which are present in
suspension form in the flowing water.
Surface Creep: it involves transportation of medium size soil particles that are not able to
stand in suspension form, but are mixed in water and flow over the stream bed in the form of
mud. The surface creep action is responsible for transporting the coarser soil particles.
Types of Water Erosion
The different types of water erosion are described in the following section.
 Splash Erosion
This type of soil erosion is because of the action of raindrop. The kinetic energy of
falling raindrop dislodges the soil particle and the resultant runoff transports soil particles.
Splash erosion is the first stage of soil erosion by water. It occurs when raindrops hit bare
soil. The explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil particles are
‘splashed’ onto the soil surface. The splashed particles can rise as high 0.60 meter above the
ground and move up to 1.5 meter from the point of impact. The particles block the spaces
between soil aggregates, so that the soil forms a crust that reduces infiltration and increases
runoff.
  Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is the removal of soil in thin layers by raindrop impact and shallow
surface flow. This action called skimming and is prevalent in the agricultural land. It results
in loss of the finest soil particles that contain most of the available nutrients and organic
matter in the soil. Soil loss is so gradual that the erosion usually
usually goes unnoticed, but the
cumulative impact accounts for large soil losses. This type of soil erosion is mainly
responsible for loss of soil productivities. Soils most vulnerable to sheet erosion are
overgrazed and cultivated soils where there is little vegetation
vegetation to protect and hold the soil.
Early signs of sheet erosion include bare areas, water puddling as soon as rain falls, visible
grass roots, exposed tree roots, and exposed subsoil or stony soils. Soil deposits on the high
side of obstructions such as fences may indicate active sheet erosion.
Vegetation cover is vital to prevent sheet erosion because it protects the soil, impedes
water flow and encourages water to infiltrate into the soil. The surface water flows that cause
sheet erosion rarely flow for more than a few meters before concentrating into rills.

 Rill Erosion
Rills formation is the intermittent process of transforming to gully erosion. The
advance form of the rill is initial stage of gully formation. The rills are shallow drainage lines
less than 30cm deep and 50 cm wide. They develop when surface water concentrates concent in
depressions or low points through paddocks and erodes the soil. Rill erosion is common in
bare agricultural land, particularly overgrazed land, and in freshly tilled soil where the soil
structure has been loosened. The rills can usually be removed with farm machinery. Rill
erosion is mostly occurs in alluvial soil and is quite frequent in Chambal river valley in India.
 Fig.7. Rill Erosion
 Gully Erosion
The advance stage of rills is transformed into initial stage of gully. Gully formation
are initiated when the depth and width of the rill is more than 50 cm. Gullies (Fig. 1.6) are
deeper channels that cannot be removed by normal cultivation. Hillsides are more prone to
gullying when they cleared of vegetation, through deforestation, over-grazing or other means.
The eroded soil is easily carried by the flowing water after being dislodged from the ground,
normally when rainfall falls during short, intense storms. Depending upon the depth and
width, the gullies further divided into 4 classes namely G1, G2, G3 and G4. Gullies reduce
the productivity of farmland where they incise into the land, and produce sediment that may
clog downstream water bodies. Because of this, much effort are required to invested into the
study of gullies within the scope of geomorphology, in the prevention of gully erosion, and in
restoration of gullied landscapes. The total soil loss from gully formation and subsequent
downstream river sedimentation can be sizable.

Fig. 8 Gully Erosion

 Table: Classification of Gully

Description of symbols of Gully

Particulars
G1 G2 G3 G4

Depth (m) Up to 1.0 1.0-3.0 3.0-9.0 >9.0

Width (m) <18.0 <18.0 18 >18.0

Side slope (%) <6.0 <6.0 6.0-12.0 >12.0

 Tunnel Erosion
Tunnel erosion occurs when surface water moves into and through dispersive sub
soils. Dispersive soils are poorly structured so they erode easily when wet. The tunnel starts
when surface water moves into the soil along cracks or channels or through rabbit burrows
and old tree root cavities. Dispersive clays are the first to be removed by the water flow. As
the space enlarges, more water can pour in and further erode the soil. As the tunnel expands,
parts of the tunnel roof collapse leading to potholes and gullies. Indications of tunnel erosion
include water seepage at the foot of a slope and fine sediment fans downhill of a tunnel
outlet. This type of erosion is more frequent in foothills where elevation is between 500-750
meter.

Fig.9. Tunnel Erosion

  Stream Bank Erosion
Stream bank erosion occurs where streams begin cutting deeper and wider channels as
a consequence of increased peak flows or the removal of local protective vegetation. Stream
bank erosion is common along rivers, streams and drains where banks have been eroded,
sloughed or undercut. This is quite preva
prevalent
lent in alluvial river and streams. Generally, stream
bank erosion becomes a problem where development has limited the meandering nature of
streams, where streams have been channelized, or where stream bank structures (like bridges,
culverts, etc.) are located
ated in places where they can actually cause damage to downstream
areas. Stabilizing these areas can help protect watercourses from continued sedimentation,
damage to adjacent land uses, control unwanted meander, and improvement of habitat for fish
and wildlife.

(a) (b)

Fig10. Stream Bank Erosion

 Coastal erosion
The waves, geology and geomorphology are the three major factors that affect the
coastal erosion. Waves are the cause of coastal erosion. Wave energy is the result the speed
of the wind blowing over the surface of the sea, the length of fetch and the wind blowing
time. The geology of the coastline also affects the rate of erosion. If the coast is made of a
more resistant type of rock (say, granite), the erosion rate will be lolower
wer than if the coast is
made of a less resistant type of rock (say, boulder clay). The geomorphology (or shape) of the
coastline further affects the rate of erosion. Headlands cause wave refraction, making waves
converge and combining their energy. Wider, shallower bays, meanwhile, allow waves to
diverge, losing energy due to friction with the sea bed. A wider beach cause more wave
energy to be lost due to friction before the waves can break. A narrower beach will mean that
the breaking point of the waves is closer to the coastline, and less energy will have been lost
due to friction before they break. Similarly, shingle and pebbles will allow more water to
infiltrate and cause more wave energy to be lost due to friction, while sandy beaches allow
less infiltration
ltration and cause less friction and so allow for a higher rate of erosion. If the beach
gradient is steep, this will encourage steeper, higher
higher-energy
energy waves. Paradoxically, though,
because shingle and pebble beaches leave less energy for backwash, material tends to be
moved upwards, making the beach steeper. The coastal erosion is a major concern for India
as about 40% of the Indian coasts are subjected to severe erosion that has the potential
pote to
change the coast line.

Mechanics of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is initiated by detachment of soil particles due to action of rain. The detached
particles are transported by erosion agents from one place to another and finally get settled at
some place leading to soil erosion process.
p Different soil erosion processes are shown in Fig.

Fig. Process of water erosion by the impact of raindrops.

Mechanics of soil erosion due to water and wind is discussed below.

Mechanics of Water Erosion
There are three steps for accelerated erosion by water:
 Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by flowing water, freezing and
thawing of the top soil, and/or the impact of falling raindrops,
 Transportation of soil particles by floating, rolling, dragging, and/or splashing
spla and
 Deposition of transported particles at some places of lower elevation.
Rain enhances the translocation of soil through the process of splashing as shown in Fig.2.2.
Individual raindrops detach soil aggregates and redeposit them as particles. The T dispersed
particles may then plug soil pores, reducing water intake (infiltration). Once the soil dries,
these particles develop into a crust at the soil surface and runoff is further increased.
increased.\
Mechanics of Wind Erosion::
Wind erosion occurs where soil is exposed to the dislodging force of wind. The intensity of
wind erosion varies with surface roughness, slope and types of cover on the soil surface and
wind velocity, duration and angle of incidence. Fine soil particles can be carried to great
heights
ts and for (may be) hundreds of kilometers. The overall occurrence of wind erosion
could be described in three different phases. These are initiation of movement, transportation
and deposition.
Initiation of Movement: The initiation of the movement of soil particles is caused by several
factors acting separately in combination. In the course of collision of grains rolling and
 bumping on the surface, some particles may be bounced up. It occurs when the wind force or
the impact of moving particles is strong enough to dislodge stationary soil particles.
Transportation: The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged take place in
three ways:
 Saltation – In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10-0.15 mm diameter) are
carried by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are caused by the direct
pressure of the wind on soil particles.
 Surface Creep – Saltation also encourages surface creep (rolling or sliding) along the
surface of the particles (0.5-1.0 mm diameter). The bouncing particles carried by
saltation strike the large aggregates and speed up their movement along the surface.
 Suspension – When the particles of soil are very small (less than 0.1 mm) they are
carried over long distances. Finer suspended particles are moved parallel to the
ground surface and upward.
Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is greater than the
forces holding the particles in air. Deposition could occur when the wind velocity is
decreased due to surface obstructions or other natural causes.
 Effects of Soil Erosion
The soil erosion adversely affects the livelihood of the people in one way or other. The major
losses and problem occurs due to the soil erosion from various agents are listed below.
 Siltation of rivers.
 Siltation of irrigation channels and reservoirs.
 Problems in crop irrigation and consequent need of conserving the water.
 Damage to sea coast and formation of sand dunes.
 Disease and public health hazards.
 Soils eroded by water get deposited on river beds, thus increasing their level and
causing floods. These floods sometime have various extreme effects, such as killing
human and animals and damaging various buildings.
 Soil erosion decreases the moisture supply by soil to the plants for their growth. It
also affects the activity of soil micro-organisms thus deteriorating the crop yield.
 Top layer of soil contains most of the organic matter and nutrients, loss of this soil
reducing soil fertility and affecting its structure badly.
 Wind erosion is very selective, carrying the finest particles - particularly organic
matter, clay and loam for many kilometres. There the wind erosion causes losses of
fertile soils from highly productive farming areas.
 The most spectacular forms are dunes - mounds of more or less sterile sand - which
move as the wind takes them, even burying oases and ancient cities.
 Sheets of sand travelling close to the ground (30 to 50 metres) can degrade crops.
 Wind erosion reduces the capacity of the soil to store nutrients and water, thus making
the environment drier.

Reference Books

1. Soil and water conservation Engineering. Suresh, R.

2. Principles of Agricultural Engineering Ojha, T.P. and A.M.Michae
3. Agricultural Engineering Singhal, O.P.