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§ The growth and reproduction of all organisms depend on the division and enlargement of cells.
§ The mechanisms of division and multiplication of cells together constitute cell reproduction.

CELL CYCLE
- It is the life period of a cell during which a cell synthesizes a. G1 phase (Gap 1 or Antephase): First growth phase. It is
DNA (replication), grows & divides into 2 daughter cells. the interval between mitosis and DNA replication.
- Cell growth (cytoplasmic increase) is a continuous process Main events:
but DNA synthesis occurs only at a specific stage. • Continuous growth of cell.
- Duration of cell cycle varies in each organism and each cell • Cell becomes metabolically active.
type. E.g. Duration of a typical eukaryotic cell cycle (e.g. • Prepares machinery for the DNA replication.
human cell) is about 24 hrs. In Yeasts, it is 90 minutes. • Synthesizes RNA and proteins.
Phases of Cell Cycle b. S (Synthetic) phase:
• In this, DNA replication takes place.
Cell cycle includes 2 basic phases: Interphase & M Phase.
• Amount of DNA per cell doubles. But chromosome
number is not increased.
• In animal cells, replication begins in the nucleus, and
the centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm.
c. G2 phase (Gap 2):
• Second growth phase. Cell growth continues.
• Synthesis of RNA and proteins continues.
• Cell is prepared for mitosis.
2. M Phase (Mitosis phase)
- It represents the actual cell division (mitosis).
- In human cell cycle, it lasts for only about an hour.
- M Phase includes karyokinesis (nuclear division) and
cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm).
- Some cells do not show division. E.g. heart cells.
- Many other cells divide only occasionally to replace
1. Interphase (resting phase) damaged or dead cells.
- It is the phase between two successive M phases. - The cells that do not divide further exit G1 phase and enter
- It includes cell growth and DNA synthesis. an inactive stage called quiescent stage (G0). Such cells
- It lasts more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle. remain metabolically active but do not proliferate.
Interphase has 3 phases:

MITOSIS
- It is the cell division occurring in somatic cells. o Centrosomes begin to move towards opposite poles of
- It is also called as equational division as the number of the cell. Each centrosome radiates out microtubules
chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is same. called asters. The two asters together with spindle
- Mitosis is generally seen in diploid cells. It also occurs in fibres forms mitotic apparatus.
haploid cells of some lower plants and some social insects. • Cells at the end of prophase do not show Golgi complexes,
- It involves major reorganization of all cell components. endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus & nuclear envelope.
The karyokinesis of mitosis has 4 stages: Prophase, 2. Metaphase
Metaphase, Anaphase & Telophase. • The nuclear envelope completely disintegrates. Hence the
1. Prophase chromosomes spread through the cytoplasm of the cell.
• Chromosome condensation is completed. They can be
• It is the longest phase in mitosis.
• It follows the S and G2 phases of interphase. observed and studied easily under the microscope. They
will have two sister chromatids.
• In the S & G2 phases, DNA molecules are intertwined.
• Chromosomes come to lie at the equator. The plane of
• Characteristic events:
alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is called the
o Chromosomal materials (chromatin fibres) are untangled
metaphase plate.
and condensed to form mitotic chromosomes. They are
seen to be composed of two chromatids attached • The spindle fibres from both poles are connected to
together at the centromere. chromatids by their kinetochores in the centromere.

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3. Anaphase starts when telophase is in progress.

• It is the shortest phase in the mitosis. - Cytokinesis in animal cell: Here, a cleavage furrow is
• Centromere of each chromosome divides longitudinally appeared in the plasma membrane. It gradually deepens
resulting in the formation of two daughter chromatids and joins in the centre dividing the cytoplasm into two.
(chromosomes of the future daughter nuclei). - Cytokinesis in plant cell: It is different from the
• As the spindle fibres contract, the chromatids move from cytokinesis in animal cells due to the presence of cell wall.
the equator to the opposite poles. In plant cells, the vesicles formed from Golgi bodies
accumulate at the equator. It grows outward and meets the
4. Telophase
lateral walls. They fuse together to form the cell-plate. It
• Chromosomes cluster at opposite poles and uncoil into separates the 2 daughter cells. Later, the cell plate becomes
chromatin fibres. the middle lamella.
• Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome - During cytokinesis, organelles like mitochondria and
clusters at each pole. Thus 2 daughter nuclei are formed. plastids get distributed between the daughter cells.
• Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reappear. - In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by
• The spindle fibres disappear. cytokinesis. As a result, multinucleate condition
Cytokinesis (syncytium) arises. E.g. liquid endosperm in coconut.
- It is the division of cytoplasm to form 2 daughter cells. It

Significance of Mitosis
• It produces diploid daughter cells with identical
genome.
• It helps to retain the same chromosome number in
all somatic cells.
• It helps in the body growth of multicellular
organisms. Mitosis in the meristematic tissues
helps in a continuous growth of plants throughout
the life.
• It restores the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio that
disturbed due to cell growth.
• It helps in cell repair & replacement. E.g. cells of
the upper layer of the epidermis, lining of the gut
& blood cells.

MEIOSIS
- It is the division of diploid germ cells that reduces the - It includes 5 phases based on chromosomal behaviour:
chromosome number by half forming haploid daughter Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene & Diakinesis.
cells (gametes). It occurs during gametogenesis. § Leptotene (Leptonema): Chromatin fibres become long
- It leads to the haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually slender chromosomes. Nucleus enlarges.
reproducing organisms. Fertilisation restores diploid phase. § Zygotene (Zygonema): Chromosomes become more
Key features of meiosis condensed. Similar chromosomes start pairing together
• It involves two cycles (meiosis I & meiosis II) but only a (synapsis) with the help of a complex structure called
single cycle of DNA replication. synaptonemal complex. The paired chromosomes are
• It involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and called homologous chromosomes. Each pair of
recombination between their non-sister chromatids. homologous chromosomes is called a bivalent.
• Meiosis I begins after replication of parental chromosomes § Pachytene (Pachynema): Comparatively longer phase.
to form identical sister chromatids at the S phase. Bivalent chromosomes split into similar chromatids. This
• 4 haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II. stage is called tetrads. During this, recombination
Meiosis I Meiosis II nodules appear at which crossing over occurs. It leads to
Prophase I Prophase II genetic recombination on homologous chromosomes.
Metaphase I Metaphase II Crossing over: The exchange of genetic material between
Anaphase I Anaphase II non-sister chromatids of two homologous chromosomes in
Telophase I Telophase II presence of an enzyme, recombinase.
Meiosis I Recombination is completed by the end of pachytene.
Prophase I: § Diplotene (Diplonema): Dissolution of the synaptonemal
- It is typically longer and more complex. complex occurs. The recombined homologous

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chromosomes of the bivalents separate from each other Meiosis II

except at the sites of crossovers. These X-shaped structures It resembles the mitosis. It has the following phases:
are called chiasmata. In oocytes of some vertebrates, Prophase II:
diplotene lasts for months or years. It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis. The
§ Diakinesis: Terminalisation of chiasmata. Chromosomes chromosomes again become compact.
are fully condensed. The meiotic spindle fibres originate Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear in both nuclei.
from the poles to prepare the homologous chromosomes Metaphase II:
for separation. Nucleolus & nuclear envelope disappear. The chromosomes align at the equator and the microtubules
Metaphase I: from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the
Spindle formation is completed. The chromosomes align on kinetochores of sister chromatids.
the equatorial plate. The microtubules from the spindle attach Anaphase II:
to the pair of homologous chromosomes. It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of
Anaphase I: each chromosome (which was holding sister chromatids
The homologous chromosomes separate, while sister together). Thus they move toward opposite poles of the cell
chromatids remain associated at their centromeres. by shortening of microtubules attached to kinetochores.
Telophase I: Telophase II:
- The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and 2 The two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by
haploid daughter nuclei are formed. This is called diad. a nuclear envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the
- After this, cytokinesis may or may not occur. formation of tetrad of cells i.e., 4 haploid daughter cells.
- After a short interphase, it is followed by meiosis II. Significance of meiosis
- This short stage between the two meiotic divisions is § It conserves the chromosome number of each species.
called interkinesis. DNA replication does not occur in this
§ It causes genetic variation (due to crossing over) in the
phase. population of organisms. It is important for evolution.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
1. In a vegetative cell and reproductive cell, chromosomes get separated during Anaphase. Write the difference in the two
cells during this stage.
2. Life cycle of a cell is called cell cycle. It consists of four stages such as G1, S, G2 and M.
a. Construct a pie diagram showing different stages indicated above
b. State the major events occurring in G1, S and G2 phases.
3. Identify the stage of mitosis.
• Four chromosomes arranged on the equatorial plane.
• Spindle fibres attached to the centromeres of chromosomes.
a. How many daughter cells will produce from mitosis?
b. Write the number of chromosomes in each daughter cell
c. Compare this stage of mitosis with the same stage in meiosis
4. Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes.
a. In which stage of meiosis, this phenomenon is seen? b. Give its significance.
5. Interphase lasts for more than 95% of the duration of cell cycle. Justify this statement
6. Cytokinesis differ in plant and animal cell, comment on this statement.
7. Match the following
A B
Zygotene - Chiasmata
Pachytene - Terminalisation
Diplotene - Recombination Nodules
Diakinesis - Bivaent
8. The given diagram is a stage of mitosis

(a) Identify the stage of mitosis (b) Write any one feature of this stage