Journal of Literature and Art Studies, July 2016, Vol. 6, No.

7, 736-743
doi: 10.17265/2159-5836/2016.07.003
D DAVID PUBLISHING

Cultural Transference of Plant and Animal Images in

Shijing Translation

ZHENG Jing-jing
Shanghai Art and Design Academy, Shanghai, China
BI Hui-xue
Zhejing University of Media and Communication, Hangzhou, China
ZHENG Da-hua
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China


As one of the Confucian classics, Shijing (诗经) occupies a pivotal position in the development of Chinese culture.
This paper makes a comparative study on the English translation of plant and animal images in Shijing, trying to
reveal the cultural connotations in them and to suggest some translation strategies for the correct transference of
cultural implications in plant and animal images in the poems of this ancient book.

Keywords: Shijing translation, cultural transference, plant images, animal images

Introduction
Translation is not only a simple transferrence on language level but also on the cultural level beween two
differnt countries. As the world cultural exchange is diversified, the focus on translation study also gradually
turns to the exploration of cultural factors. Shijing has rich cultual images and connotations, carrying a large
amount of cultural information. Particularly, as the ancient Chinese working people had a close touch with
plants and animals, whose images appearing in Shijing have a profound influence on the later cultural
development. So the translation of these images is of a considerable significance to the spread of the ancient
Chinese culture.
Because of cultural disparities, different nations may hold different interperatations on the same plant or
animal image. When dealing with images which carry Chinese culture but do not express the same implication in
the target language, a translator should probe further into the depth of Chinese culture and transfer sufficient
cultural information. Consequently, on one hand, it preserves the vividness and authenticity of these cultural
images. On the other hand, it gives the target readers a sense of exoticness, and provides them with a chance of
comprehending the ancient Chinese culture.


Acknowledgements: This research is sponsored by Philosophy and Social Science Program of Zhejiang, Project Number:
12JCWW17YB, and the research is also sponsored by “Chenguang Program” supported by Shanghai Education Development
Foundation and Shanghai Municipal Education Commission, Project Number: 15CGB16.
ZHENG Jing-jing, M.A., Teaching Assistant at Shanghai Art and Design Academy.
BI Hui-xue, M.A., Researcher Associate at Zhejing University of Media and Communication.
ZHENG Da-hua (correspondent author), Professor at School of International Studies, Zhejiang University.
 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION 737

How to transfer correctly the Chinese culture, especially the implications of images in Chinese classical
works like Shijing is a question worth thinking of by contemporary translators. A translator is required to
accurately transfer the cultural meaning in the original text. He has a duty to carry on the value of the
tranditional Chinese culture. Hence, during the process of translation, the purpose of cultural trnasference ought
to be highlighted, and some methods such as annotation, cultural explanation and transliteration are applied.

The Importance of Translating Plant and Animal Images in Shijing

The cultural study is becoming more and more important in an age of globalization. Early in the 1960s,
translation studies started to break the restraints of the traditional linguistics-oriented study and turned into a
cultural research. Cultural translation refers to the practice of translation, which involves cultural differences.
Cultural translation can also be defined as a practice whose aim is to present another culture via translation. We
know that many culture-specific words and images have unique cultural meanings and connotations deeply
rooted in a certain nation, and it is well noticed that some words in Shijing are quite culture-specific, reflecting the
profound traditional Chinese cultural meanings and connotations. “Only does one come to the level of cultural
thinking, can he fully and accurately transfer the cultural images in the source text” (LIU, 2008, p. 277).
Shijing is the first collection of Chinese poems and also the fountainhead of Chinese poetry. The Chinese
ancients thought highly of Shijing and ranked it in the first place of The Five Classics (五经). Shijing is also one
of the classical canons of Confucianism, which has been dominating Chinese ideology in her long history, and
still wins large popularity in contemporary society. “Shijing embraces various disciplines such as literature,
linguistics, history, philosophy, religious studies, art, archaeology, sociology, ethnology, pedagogy, astronomy
and agronomy” (HOU & YANG, 2010, p. 11). This ancient book comprehensively displays Chinese social life
during the Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC), and faithfully reflects the historical appearance of Chinese slave
society. In Shijing there are totally 305 poems, the contents of which are very abundant, including labor, love
affairs, marriage, hardships of the vulnerable groups and the exposure of war and tyranny. Shijing boasts very
rich cultural values, and many scholars and translators have shown great interests in it. Interpretation on cultural
contexts is the key to translation, and the transfer of cultural meanings is a great concern in translating classical
works with traditional values. We think that Shijing translation is largely a matter of cultural transmission. And in
the context of globalization, a translator should have a good knowledge of Chinese and English cultures and
values. Therefore, “it is hardly surprising that the meeting between cultural studies and translation studies, when
it finally happened, would be a productive one” (Bassnett, 2004, p. 12). During the process of translating the
classic works, the purpose of the cultural transmission should be a priority. The culture in ST (source text) will
hardly be perceived or understood by TT (target text) readers, if a translator has not been aware of the cultural
transmission when doing his work.
Chinese ancient poems are in natural connection with plants and animals. Plant and animal images appear
quite frequently in the book of Shijing. “According to statistics, there are 250 poems directly concerning various
plants and animals, accounting for 82% of the whole book” (LV, 2010, p. 33). As images are backbones of
poems, correct translation of images loaded with cultural connotations plays an important role in conveying
Chinese ancient cultural elements.
Due to cultural disparities, different nations may hold different interpretations on the same plant or animal
738 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION

image. When dealing with images which carry Chinese culture but do not express the same implication in the
target language, a translator should probe further into the depth of Chinese culture and transfer sufficient cultural
information. Consequently, on one hand, it preserves the vividness and authenticity of these cultural images. On
the other hand, it gives the target readers a sense of exoticness, and provides them with a chance of
comprehending the ancient Chinese culture.

Plant Images in Shijing and Their Cultural Transference

Now let’s come to the plant images. According to statistics, “there are totally 135 poems which are related to
plants in Shijing, including 106 species of plants. This is rare among ancient Chinese books” (WANG, 2006, p.
112). In this paper, due to the lack of space we just take two examples of plants, tang (唐) and fusu (扶苏), in
Shijing for analysis from cultural perspective.

[Example 1]
[ST] [TT1]
国风·鄘风·桑中 Guofeng·Yongfeng·Sangzhong

爰采唐矣？沫之乡矣。 I am going to gather the dodder,

1
云谁之思？美孟姜矣。 —In the fields near the town Mei.
Who is the girl of my heart?
—The pretty one from the family of the Jiangs. (Legge, 2011, p. 109)

[TT2]
Where to gather soy sponger?
Outside the City of Mei.
Whom am I missing?
The pretty maiden of the Mengs. (Chia, 2010, p. 105)

In Shijing, “the love poems are among the most appealing in the freshness and frankness of their language
for this was a time when girls were not yet restricted by etiquette from expressing their wishes to be married or
their longing for a sweetheart” (Conrad, 1991, p. 22). Guofeng·Yongfeng·Sangzhong is a poem depicting an
appointment between a pair of lovers. The plant image tang (唐) in the beginning of the line has profound
implications and indicates the main idea of this poem. It expresses a man’s prospect of an eternal love and good
marriage with his beloved girl.
“Plants clinging to each other is a typical image of love and marriage in Shijing” (WANG, 2010, p. 106). In
China, tang is one kind of parasitic creeping weed. The meaning of tang is suggestive, reflecting plentiful love
associations between a man and a woman. The hero expects that his love would be like tang, firmly twining round
his lover’s heart. It is recommendable that James Legge specifically translated tang into “dodder” rather than
simply translating it into plant or weed. It properly describes the lovers’ clinging emotion, and also correctly
transfers the cultural image of tang which stands for the “lingering” love. In other words, “dodder” is the high
praise for a wonderful and unchangeable love. In Chinese culture, deep love between a couple is often compared

1
See TANG (1998), p. 103.
 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION 739

to the lingering relationship between dodder and tree. The translation of tang into dodder successfully realizes the
function of the cultural transfer.
But in Fu-shiang Chia’s version, he translates tang into “soy sponger”, which may be a biologically correct
term for tang, but we know “sponger” is largely used as a pejorative term for a person who sponges off other
people. In English speaking countries it often stands for a disparaging cultural image that completely leans on
others for existence. Though the “sponger” describes the natural attribute of tang, its meaning is quite different
from the “lingering love” in this context. The image of “sponger” is in contradiction with tang’s Chinese
meaning.
Thus, we can see that “sponger” fails to express the beauty of love. It is just the opposite of the original
intention.
[Example 2]
[ST] [TT1]
国风· 郑风· 山有扶苏 Guofeng·Zhengfeng· Shan Yew Foo-soo

山有扶苏， On the mountains is the mulberry tree.

隰有荷华。 In the marshes is the lotus flower.
不见子都， I do not see Tsze-too,
乃见狂且。2 But I see this mad fellow. (Legge, 2011, p. 201)

[TT2]
Guofeng·Zhengfeng ·Shanyou Fusu
Luxuriant Leaves
Luxuriant leaves and branches shade hill,
Lotus flowers are reflecting sun in swamp.
I don’t see handsome man called Zi Du,
I just encounter a mad and foolish man. (WANG, 2010, p. 183)

Shanyou Fusu is the tenth poem of Zhengfeng. As a very nifty love poem, it describes an unmarried woman
who was flirting with her beloved man. The first line starts with fusu (扶苏), serving to introduce the mood and
enunciate the theme. Fusu is a kind of mulberry tree with luxuriant leaves and branches. This tree has a unique
cultural connotation in ancient China. It is said that the eldest son of the first emperor of Qin (259-210 BC) was
named after fusu by his mother, because she hoped that her son grew up sturdily and healthily like fusu. And in
this poem, mulberry’s luxuriant foliage refers to a handsome man.
James Legge simply translates fusu into “mulberry tree”. Though mulberry is a precise English word for
fusu and reveals some features of the plant, it does not point out the specific name of the tree. In short, his version
does not convey fusu’s Chinese cultural connotation. Though Wang Fanglu’s translation reveals some features of
the mulberry tree, neither does it give the specific name of the tree. After all, many species are featured with
luxuriant foliage. So we felt that Wang’s dealing with fusu is somehow ill-conceived for it weakens the original
image in some measure.

2
See TANG (1998), p. 179.
740 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION

We think that the transliterated word fusu with a foot notation is highly suggested for fusu, that is, fusu, the
mulberry tree with luxuriant leaves and branches, symbolizing a handsome and strong man.

Animal Images in Shijing and Their Cultural Transference

An animal image is the mental product of the integration between a person’s perception and an animal figure.
There is no doubt that animals are absolutely indispensable in our human life, and their names are frequently
endowed with certain cultural meanings. The ancients looked up at the sky and looked down on the ground,
getting an understanding of the endlessness of heaven and earth. At the same time, they placed their various
feelings on birds, beasts, insects and fish.
However, it is often the case that people of different cultures may designate different interpretations to the
same images, so an image which has a certain meaning in one culture context may make a different effect in
another culture, and a certain animal image in Chinese may have a different cultural implication in English. In
general, the animal images involved in Shijing are featured with vividness and authenticity. They were largely
created when the ancient poets were doing hard labor or expressing their thoughts. And people’s rich feelings on
them make these images overflow with human ideas and reflections. As for the translation of the animal images,
on the premise that it will not lead to a wrong association or interpretation, these animal images should be
translated as literally as possible in order to preserve their fresh and vivid culture-specific features. “No matter
how good the translation is, if it loses or even distorts the cultural image in ST, it’ ll cause a fly in the ointment, or
misguide readers” (XIE, 2002, p. 92). Accordingly, it is inadvisable to change or simply omit the animal images
when a translator is rendering Chinese classical poems. A translator should transfer these images in Shijing
without going beyond the general principle.
In the following part, two animal images shijiu (鸤鸠) and qingying (青蝇) are selected for detailed
explanation. Two translators’ English versions are put in comparison.

[Example 1]
[ST] [TT1]
国风·曹风·鸤鸠 Guofeng·Caofeng·Shijiu
鸤鸠 She-kew
鸤鸠在桑，其子七兮。 The turtle dove is in the mulberry tree,
淑人君子，其仪一兮。 And her young ones are seven.
其仪一兮，心如结兮。3 The virtuous man, the princely one,
Is uniformly correct in his deportment.
He is uniformly correct in his deportment,
His heart is as if it were tied to what is correct. (Legge, 2011, p. 355)

[TT2]
The Cuckoo
The cuckoo nestles in the mulberry tree,
She feeds seven of her young.
The gentleman of moral excellence,
Consistent he is in his personal integrity.

3
See TANG (1998), pp. 313-314.
 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION 741

He is consistent in his personal integrity,

His will is as firm as a rock. (AN, 1999, p. 363)

Shijiu serves to eulogize an honorable gentleman’s merits and virtues and satirize the fatuous and
self-indulgent emperor and his officials of great eclat in feudal times. James Legge and An Zengcai differ in
translating shijiu (鸤鸠), one being the “turtle dove” and the other the “cuckoo”.
In Western countries, the image of a “turtle dove” mainly implies two cultural meanings. For one thing, it
has a rich religion color. Legend has it that two turtle doves sacrificed themselves for the Birth of Jesus in the
Christian religion. For another, a pair of turtle doves has long been regarded as emblems of loyal love between a
couple. This cultural meaning is frequently seen in a lot of European folk songs and love stories. As for the
“cuckoo”, its call being bitter and biting, this bird is a very familiar cultural image in ancient Chinese poems.
According to Xiong Youqi, “it is often used to express a poet’s complaints and dreariness” (XIONG, 2013).
From the above comparison, An Zengcai’s “cuckoo” is a better choice for the translation of shijiu because it
vividly shows this dreadful and complaining image of shijiu to the target readers. That is, in his translational
action, An Zengcai interprets the ST with regard to shijiu’s Chinese cultural connotation. Additionally, in doing
translation, one should not alter the cultural image of the original to suit the TT readers’ taste. In this sense, turtle
dove’s rich western cultural meaning can largely misguide readers’ interpretation on the original poem’s mood.
Though James Legge wipes the cultural distance, he is very likely to give English readers a misleading
impression of the source culture.

[Example 2]
[ST] [TT1]
小雅·青蝇 Xiaoya· Qingying

营营青蝇， Buzzing all around are the green bottle flies,

止于樊。 Finally lighting on the fence.
岂弟君子， O thou, sovereign gentle and amiable!
无信谗言。4 Do not believe those slanderous talks. (AN, 1999, p. 629)

[TT2]
They buzz about, the blue flies,
Lighting on the fences.
O happy and courteous sovereign,
Do not believe slanderous speeches. (Legge, 2011, p. 605)

Xiaoya·Qingying is a poem written in the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC). Its main
idea is to satirize the ruler of the time who lent a ready ear to rumormongers, and to reprimand treacherous court
officials who wrecked the country and did harm to the people. In this case study, we compare James Legge’s and
An Zengcai’s versions and find their difference in translating the word qingying (青蝇).
The ST’s rich cultural connotations are embodied in qingying. Qing in Chinese refers to a color between
green and blue, and ying is a kind of fly. So Legge and An Zengcai translate qing into green and blue respectively.

4
See TANG (1998), p. 560.
742 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION

Actually, Qingying is a green-body blowfly, making a buzzing and annoying noise in flight. It has a unique
cultural implication. From ancient times, the color “green” has been endowed with a dual character in traditional
Chinese culture. For one thing, it stands for peace, youth, gallantry and vitality. For another, it is rather negative.
“Green is also used to describe jealousy and envy” (MA & CHEN, 2009, p. 64). Indeed, “green” can imply a
despicable person or action.
And here in this context, “green” and “blowfly” are bound together to act as a metaphor for a jealous person
who always gives his slanderous talk and insidious advice to others. Coincidentally, in English, “green” has a
negative connotative meaning for jealousy and grudge. “The phrase green eyed finds its equivalent in Chinese,
which refers to a strong feeling of envy” (ZHANG, 1999, p. 124). Other phrases like “green-eyed monster”,
“green with envy”, help to emphasize the degree of one’s jealousy.
As for the color blue, Chinese scholar Lu Yan believes that “to Chinese people, the color ‘blue’ gives a sense
of profoundness, tranquility and coldness” (LU, 2009). Besides, some Chinese experts also indicate that “blue is
a favorable word in Chinese. Blue stands for peace, tranquility and calmness in Chinese ” (MA & CHEN, 2009,
pp. 69-70).
In English culture, “blue” is usually used to describe a person’s melancholy temperament, and in some
situations, it is an implication for truth and justice. From this it appears that “blue” does not have an associative
meaning for jealousy or bad actions. Accordingly, “the blue flies” in James Legge’s version cannot express the
original text’s connotation adequately, while “the green bottle flies” in An Zengcai’s version is more
recommendable for it properly transfers the connotative meaning behind qingying in the ST culture.

Conclusion
From the above-cited examples, we find that although some words have the similar referential meaning in
both Chinese and English, they sometimes carry different associative meanings and cultural connotations. The
differences on the interpretation of some cultural connotations between Chinese and English pose lots of
translation problems.
Hence, for the translation of the cultural connotations, the reproduction of their suggestive features is an
important task for translators. Among the above-cited English versions, some translators directly borrow Western
cultural terms to render the Chinese culture-loaded words in the ST. Though these English versions are more
accessible to Western readers, they deviate themselves from the Chinese culture reflected in the ST and even
remove the Chinese cultural peculiarity. For them, their purpose is to cater for the English readers’ familiarity,
instead of preserving the traditional Chinese culture in the ST.
Snell-Hornby “states that the translation process can no longer be envisaged as being between two
languages but between two cultures involving ‘cross-cultural transfer’” (Katan, 2004, p. 126). Cultural
connotations appear frequently in Shijing. A translator is required to catch these connotations during the
translation process.
In short, good translation relies on a translator’s deep thinking on the cultural factors in the ST. If a translator
wants to realize the cultural transfer, he should first of all have a wide range of knowledge of ST’s country culture
and then do his best to realize the cultural transmission during the process of translation. The translation ought to
retain the cultural connotation in the ST, and intentional omission, deletion or replacement of culture-loaded
 CULTURAL TRANSFERENCE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL IMAGES IN SHIJING TRANSLATION 743

words especially images in classical poems are not suggested, while annotation, transliteration, cultural
explanation are more recommendable. Only in this way can the world cultural exchange and the mutual
understanding be further promoted.

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