LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

LABORATORY MANUAL

PHY123: PHYSICS LAB-III

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Sr. Title of experiment Page.No.
No.

1 An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs, measurement of 3-11

length and mass

2 To find the wavelength of He-Ne Laser by using Michelson Interferrometer. 12

3 To plot a graph between angle of incidence and corresponding angle of 13-14

deviation and to find the refractive index of material of the prism.

4 To find the angle of prism by using spectrometer. 15-17

5 To determine the resolving power of a plane transmission diffraction grating. 18-19

6 To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel 20-22
circuit and find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.

7 To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of 23-24
circular coil carrying current by plotting a graph.

8 To study the induced e.m.f as the function of velocity of magnet. 25-27

9 To compare the velocity of light in water and glass using traveling microscope. 28-30

10 To find the energy band gap of semiconductor using four probe method. 31-32

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Experiment 1

Title :- An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs and measurement of

length,mass and time.

Equipments to be used :- Veriner caliper, travelling microscope, and screw gauge etc.

Material Required:- Simple graphs papers

Learning objective:-

1. To find the least count of various measuring instrument.

2. How to plot graphs?

3. Error Analysis

Units.
The measurement of the physical quantities should be done in the most convenient
unit e.g. mass of the body in grams, measurement using veriner caliper in cm, small
current in mA etc. All the measured quantity must be converted into SI unit while
tabulating.

Least count.

Least Count= (Value of one main scale division) / (Total no. divisions on the veriner
scale)

Observed Reading=M.S. reading+ V.S. reading

Note: find out the the least count of the measuring instrument available in the lab

e.g veriner caliper, screw gauge, spectrometer, Michelson Interferometer, etc.

A graph is a straight or curved which shows the relative change between two
quantities out of which one varies as a result of change in the other. The quantities

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which is changed at will is called independent variable while alter due to the change in
the first is called dependent variable. The point where the axes of independent and
dependent variable meet at right angle is called origin.

Following rule must be adopted while plotting a graph

1. Find the independent and dependent variables. Plot the independent variable
along X-axis and the dependent variable along the Y-axis.
2. Determine the range of each variable and count the no of divisions available on
the graph to represent the each variable along the respective axes.
3. Choose a convenient scale for both variables .It is not necessary to have the
same scale for both.The scale should neither be too narrow nor too wide. It is
preferable that 10 divisions should be represent 1,2,5, or 10 or their multiples
by any +ve or –ve power of 10. We must see that maximum portion of the
graph paper is utilized and the graph is well within it.
4. At least six observation extending over a wide range should be taken for
plotting the graph.
5. If the relation between the two variables begins from zero of if zero value of one
of one of the variables is to be found out, it is necessary to take origin as zero
along both the axes.
6. The origin need not always be represent by zero. Its value should be round
number less than the smallest given value of the independent or dependent
variable.
7. It is not necessary to write all the values along the respective axes.
8. Mark the point with a pencil. Draw a small circle or put a cross to indicate the
plotting point prominently.
9. Draw a smooth free hand curve through the plotted points. It is not necessary
that the curve should pass through every point leave as many points below it as
there are above it.
10. The title graph should be given boldly near the top of the graph paper.
11. It is always better to indicate the scale for both the variable at the top in the left
or right corner of the graph paper.

Linear graphs

Example 1

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Let us consider the case of time period ‘T’ of a simple pendulum which is written as

T = (2) (L/g)1/2----------(1)

‘L’ is the “length” of the pendulum while ‘g’ is acceleration due to gravity. Eq. (1) can be
re-written as

T2 = (4gL---------(2)

Eq. (2) is an equation of straight line with slope = (4gand intercept = 0

A student came up with the following data.

S.No T L

(s) (cm)

1 1.0 24.8

2 0.9 20.1

3 0.8 15.9

4 0.7 12.2

5 0.6 8.9

6 0.5 6.2

Find the value of “g” by graphical analysis.

How to draw the graph?

Step 1. From Eq. 2 we have to plot T2 vs L so our table is (L should in meters)

S.No T2 L x 10-2

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(s) (m)

1 1.0 24.8

2 0.81 20.1

3 0.64 15.9

4 0.49 12.2

5 0.36 8.9

6 0.25 6.2

Step 2. Choose a “linear” graph sheet which is linearly (normally in mm) graduated on
both X- as well Y- axis.

Step 3. Choose Y-axis for T2 and X-axis for L

Step 4. Max T2 is 1 and min is 0.25; choose your scale so that you can mark 0.25 clearly.
Similarly choose scale for L on X-axis.

Step 5. Mark the points on the graph with a sharp pencil

Step 6. Draw a straight line through the points so that maximum number of points are
on/very close to the line (Best fit we will not discuss presently)

Step 7. Find the slope from the graph and calculate “g”

Important:

(i) Give a title to the graph; in present case it will be T2 Vs L for a simple pendulum.

(ii) Mark scales on the graph sheet; X-axis “10mm = so many m” and Y-axis
“10mm= so many seconds”

(iii) Mark X-axis and Y-axis with quantity (along with units) you are plotting

(iv)Calculate the slope and “g” on the graph sheet so that a graph is complete and
one need not to refer to the Lab Sheets.

Interpolation: From the graph you can find the L for T=0.44 (for example, within the
present data set)) even though there is no experimental data; this process is called
interpolation.

Extrapolation: One can extend the length of the line so that one can predict L for T
=0.1s or 2.5s (outside the present data set); this is called extrapolation.

Example 2. Change in the value “g” with the distance “h” (outside the earth) is
given by

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gh (value of g at a height h)= g(1-2h/R) where R is the radius of earth

Data from an experiment is given in the following table

S.No gh h

m/s2 m

1 8.8 0.05R

2 7.8 0.10R

3 6.9 0.15R

4 5.9 0.20R

5 4.9 0.25R

6 3.9 0.30R

By graphical analysis find the value of “g”. Can you find out the value of “R” from the
graph?

Semi-log graph

Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e-t , where N(t) are the observed counts at time
t, N(0) are the counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and is the decay constant. Calculate
N(0) and  by graphical technique from the given data:

Time ‘t’ No. of counts

1.0 905.0

2.0 820.0

3.0 735.0

4.0 670.0

5.0 600.0

6.0 550.0

N(t) = N(0) e-t

Or ln N(t) = ln N(o) - t (ln is log to the base e)

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Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -t (change of log base to 10)

Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (/2.3) t

Plot of log N(t) with t is a straight line with log N(o) as intercept and -2.3 as slope. Since
one side is log so use a semi-log graph paper to get the values of N(0) and 

Log-log graph

Planetary period ‘T’ (in earth years) is related to its distance ‘R’( AU, astronomical units;
1AU is equal to average separation between earth and sun) by the relationship of the
form

T = kRn

Calculate ‘k’ and ‘n’ by graphical analysis from the following data

Name of the planet T in R in

Earth years Astronomical units

Mercury 0.39 0.24

Venus 0.72 0.62

Earth 1.00 1.00

Mars 1.52 1.88

Jupiter 5.20 11.86

Saturan 9.54 29.46

T = kRn

or log T = log k + n log R

Plot of log T vs log R is a straight line with log k as intercept and n as slope. Since both
sides are in log form use log-log graph paper.

Error analysis

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Measurement is basic to science. A measurement is meaningful only if the uncertainties
involved are specified. An operator “X” has to specify the uncertainty (error) in his final
result; the practice of comparing the result with “standard value” is unscientific as the
experimental conditions/instruments used to find out the “standard value” are different
when compared to those of X. Please remember

The error in an experimentally measured quantity is never found by

comparing it to some number found in a book or web page

These uncertainties do not include the blunders/mistakes of the person performing the
measurement. These errors are due to limitations of the measuring instruments (like zero
error, faulty calibration, error due to parallax, bias of the operator etc) and uncontrollable
changes in experimental parameters like temperature, pressure, voltage etc. The
instrument errors (systematic errors) are instrument specific, can be either +ve or –ve and
are constant in nature. On the other hand errors due to changes in experimental
parameters are random in nature; can be both +ve as well as –ve in a particular set of
easements.

Estimation of systematic errors

There is no prescribed method to minimize systematic errors. An operator has to examine

various measuring instruments (scales, meters, etc) for zero-errors (zero of a meter or
vernier caliper might have shifted), take readings so as to minimize parallax error and if
possible check the calibration of the measuring instruments. Systematic errors cannot be
minimized by taking large number of measurement (Why?).

Estimation of random errors

Random errors are both +ve as well –ve in a measurement cycle, can be handled by
well-known statistical techniques. Two basic techniques are:

(i) Arithmetic Mean or simply mean = (X1 + X2 + X3+…………………………..+XN)/N= XM

(ii) Standard deviation = {(1/N) [(X1-XM)2 + (X2-XM)2 + (X3-XM)2 +………..+(XN-XM)2}1/2

It shows how much deviation there is from the "average" (mean). A low standard deviation
indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean. whereas high standard
deviation indicates that the data are spread out over a large range of values.

Propagation of random errors

If Z is a function of X and Y so that we have Z = F(X,Y). Error in X is X while for Y the

error is Y how to find error in Z (Z) { X and Y are independent that measurement in X
does not induce error in Y and vice versa; this is the case in most of your experiments.)

What will be Z in case Z = X – Y ? The standard procedure is:

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Contribution to the error Z due to X is given by (F/X) X [(F/X) is partial derivative
of F with respect to X treating Y as constant) while due to Y the contribution is (F/Y)
Y.

Total Z is given by

Z = {(F/X)2 (X)2 +(F/Y)2 (Y)2}(1/2)

Example1. Z= X+Y

Z/X =1, Z/ Y = 1 so Z = {(X)2 + ( Y)2}(1/2)

What will be Z in case Z = X – Y ? What conclusion you arrive at from this example?

What will be Z in case Z =a X + Y/b ? where a and b are constants?

Example2. Z = XY

Z/X =Y, Z/Y = X Z = {Y2(X)2 +X2 ( Y)2}(1/2). This is absolute error in Z. Alternately
we can have Z/Z =Z/XY ={(X/X)2 + ( Y/Y)2}(1/2). This is relative error in Z and can be
expressed in terms of % by the relation (Z/Z) x 100.

Example3. Z = X/Y

Z/X = 1/Y,Z/Y = -X/Y2 Z ={(1/Y) 2(X)2 +[(X)2]/Y4 ( Y)2}(1/2).

Which gives Z/Z ={(X/X)2 + ( Y/Y)2}(1/2).

The procedure outlined above can be used for functions with more than two independent
variables.

Significant figures

The final result of an experiment should be expressed [measured value] ± [estimated

error] units. If it is a single measurement like measurement of length your final result could
be for example, 10.28±0.05cm which means that the length could be from 10.33 to
10.23cm. All the four digits in the result are important; your result has four significant
digits. If the object whose length was measured has breadth say 5.41±0.05cm (measured
with the same scale used for the measurement of length so that error is same). Area =
(10.28±0.05cm) x (5.41±0.05cm). (10.28) x (5.41) = 55.6148 and error in area = {(0.05)2+
(0.5)2}1/2 = 0.070710678 (calculated on CASIO 5-VPAM). So our result will look like
55.6148±0.070710678 cm2. We know the error in our length as well as breadth
measurement is 0.05cm so the order of magnitude of the error in area must be same
which turns out to be 0.07cm when you carefully examine the final result for area. Note
that the error in area is more than that of length or breadth which is expected(WHY?). So

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area = 55.6148±0.07cm2 which means that area is expressed to 1/10000 accuracy while
error is only accurate to 1/100. Hence digits 4 and 8 have no significance in the final result
which is area = 55.61±0.07 cm2.

Errors in the measurement determine the number of significant digits one should use in
the final result

How to calculate errors in your Lab experiments

1. Check for zero-errors in all your measuring instruments like scales, vernier calipers,
screw gauges, volt/amper meters etc and note them properly in your “LAB Note Book”=
no rough copy is to used in the LAB for recording of the data.

2. Check and record the least count of all the measuring instruments. Examine each
instrument carefully to determine the least count. For example a scale may be graduated
so that it has “markers’ after every one mm; least count being 0.1cm. However, if the
“markers’ are distant enough so that one can read to an accuracy of o.5mm the least
count is 0.05cm.

Intelligent and careful use of the measuring instruments to get best out of
these instruments is the basic experimental skill. In real world you will
never get ideal instruments.
3. Make the required measurements and record these measurements directly in your
“LAB note book”. Units of all the quantities you have entered in the note book should be
mentioned.

4. Compute the result

5. Calculate the error by standard deviation technique.

6. Calculate the percentage error by “partial differentiation technique”

Experiment 2

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Title: To measure the wavelength of light from the given source using Michelson’s
Interferometer.

Equipment used: Michelson Interferometer, source of light (sodium vapour lamp or Laser
source), a thin sheet with fine hole and a convex lens.

Learning Objective:

1. To study the Interference fringes pattern in dark and bright circular shape.

2. To find the wavelength of the light used.

Procedure:

1. Find the least count of Michelson's Interferometer

2. Obtain clear and bright circular fringes in the field of view of telescope.

3. Move the F.M.S. ( Fine Micrometer Screw) slowly and go on counting the
number of bright that shift across the field of view(The fringes will go either rising or
sinking).When the large number of fringes say 25 have shifted . Note and record the
reading on main(linear) scale , micrometer scale and F.M.S.

4. Similarly repeat the process after shifting 25 fringes and so on. Take six readings

Scope of Result

Mean difference for (n= 25) fringes=l = cm

Wavelength of light=λ = cm= Å

Caution: 1.The micrometer screw should always be moved in the same direction to avoid
error due to backlash.

2. There should be no movement near the experiment as the fringes are likely to be
disturbed.

3. The screw behind the mirror should be rotated through very small angle

4. There should be no linear or lateral displacement of fringes.

5. Glass plates and mirror are front silvered. These should not be touched.

6. The Laser tube axis should be horizontal.

7. The source of light should be switched on while taking the observation and immediately
switched off thereafter.

Experiment 3

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Title: To plot a graph between the angle of incidence and the corresponding angle of deviation and
to find the refractive index of material of the prism

Equipment to be used: A spectrometer, a spirit level, a source of monochromatic light (sodium

light), a glass prism, a wooden screen with a circular aperture, an eye-piece and an electric lamp

Learning objectives:

(1) Setting of spectrometer

(2)To study the spectrum.

Procedure: (1) After setting the spectrometer find the angle of prism by rotating telescope method

(2) Place the prism with the centre coinciding with the centre of the prism table and set it
approximately in the position of minimum deviation, so that light falls on the face AB and emerges
out from the face AC as shown

(3) Turn the telescope to receive the emergent light and adjust its position, so that the image of the
slit is formed on the cross-wire. Clamp the telescope and note its reading on both verniers V1 and
V2

(4) Now turn the telescope to receive the reflected light from the face AB as shown. Adjust the
position of telescope till the image of the slit falls on the vertical cross-wire. Clamp it and note the
reading on both the verniers.

(5) Bring the telescope back to receive the deviated ray. Turn the prism table without disturbing the
circular scale in the clockwise direction so that the deviated ray is displaced by about one degree.
Adjust the telescope so that the image is formed on vertical cross-wire again. Note the reading on
both the vernier scales.

(6) Turn the telescope again to receive the reflected light from the face AB. Make the necessary
adjustments and note the reading on both the vernier scales.

(7) Turn the table in clockwise direction again and take three or four observations as explained.

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(8) Rotate the prism table back to its starting position so that the prism is again in the minimum
deviation position approximately.

(9) Remove the prism and turn the telescope so that the direct light is received and the image of slit
falls on the vertical cross wire. Note the reading of both the verniers.

(10) Plot a graph between i and D and from graph find the angle of minimum deviation.

Note: if θ is the angle between the direct and reflected rays, the angle of incidence is given by

The angle of deviation D is given by the difference between the reading of deviated ray and direct
ray. Find the mean value of i and corresponding mean value of D for each observation. Plot a graph
between i (angle of incidence) along x-axis and D (angle of deviation) along y-axis for a prism .and
hence calculate angle of minimum deviation Dm

Scope of Result:

(1) To find the angle of incidence

(2) To find the corresponding angle of deviation
(3) Plot Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation
(4) Find refractive index of material of prism

Caution:

(1) The axis of telescope, the collimator and the plane of the prism table should be horizontal.
(2) The position of the eye piece should be adjusted so that the cross wires are clearly visible
without any strain.
(3) The telescope should be focused for infinity and the collimator should be adjusted to give
parallel beam of light.
(4) The slit should be narrow.
(5) The prism should be placed with its refracting edge at the centre of the prism table when
finding the angle by rotating the telescope.
(6) The prism should table should be levelled so that the reflected image from both the
reflecting faces lies symmetrically w.r.t. to horizontal cross wire.
(7) Both the verniers should be read to avoid error due to non –coincidence of the centre of the
circular scale with axis of rotation of the telescope or the table.

Experiment 4

Title: - To find the angle of the prism by rotating the telescope method

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Equipment Required : - A spectrometer, a spirit level for checking the leveling of

telescope, collimator and prism table, a source of monochromatic light (sodium lamp), a
glass prism, an eye piece and an electric lamp.

Learning Objectives: Students will acquire proficiency in the reading of vernier

scales. They will learn how to use a spectrometer. They will obtain a practical
understanding of refraction of light through prism.

Circuit diagram:-

Measuring the angle of prism:

Procedure:-

To have a demonstration on reading a vernier scale, go to the link:

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http://level1.physics.dur.ac.uk/ISE/AngularVernierScale.html
1. Place the prism on the turn table in such a way that the refracting edge A coincides with
the centre of the table and one of the refracting and polished face say AB remains
perpendicular to the line joining the screws Y and Z.
2. Now rotate the prism table to bring the refracting edge A of the prism towards the
collimator so that the light from the collimator falls equally on both faces AB and AC
bounding the refracting angle A.

3. Find the least count of the spectrometer.

4. Rotate the telescope to the right side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and
focus the crosswire on the image of the slit. Now by tangent screw the telescope is moved
slowly until its vertical cross wire coincide with the image. The reading of the two verniers
of the spectrometer are taken.

5. Now rotate the telescope to the left side to receive the light reflected from the face AC and
again focus the crosswire on the image of the slit by means of tangent screw. The reading
of the two verniers of the spectrometer are again noted.

6. The difference of the two vernier readings of the same vernier for two positions of the
telescope gives twice the refracting angle A of the prism. Thus half of this angle will give
the value of angle of prism.

Scope of the Result : - The angle of the prism would comes out to be 60o approx. With
the same experiment, we can find the refractive index of the material of the prism. We can
also observe the Balmer line spectrum of hydrogen atom.

Cautions:
1 The axis of the telescope, the collimator and the plane of the prism table should be
horizontal.
2. The position of the eye piece should be adjusted so that the cross wires are clearly
visible without any strain.

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3. The telescope should be focused for infinity and the collimator should be adjusted to
give a parallel beam of light.
4. The slit should be narrow.
5. The prism table, collimator and telescope should be leveled.
6. Both the verniers should be read to avoid error due to the non-coincidence of the centre
of the circular scale with the axis of rotation of the telescope of the table.

Experiment 5
Title: To determine the resolving power of a plane transmission diffraction grating.

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Equipment to be Used: A spectrometer, a sodium lamp, an eye-piece, a diffraction
grating with clamping arrangement, a variable rectangular slit provided with micrometer
arrangement to measure the width.

Learning Objectives:
To find grating element of diffraction grating ( 2.54/N) where N is number of lines on
grating(per inch)

To find full width of grating(cm)

To find the diameter of collimator lens(cm)

To find the diameter of objective lens(cm)

Procedure:
A) First Order
1) Set the spectrometer , mount the grating and set the grating normal to incident
light.
2) Obtain the first order spectrum and find the angle of first order diffractionθ1.
3) Now mount adjustable slit and adjust its width till two lines just unresolved and
note micrometer scale to find width of the slit.
4) To measure the width of the slit note the reading on the micrometer scale. Carefully
remove the slit and turn the screw slowly till the slit and hence the portion of the
grating which just resolves the two wavelengths of the D-lines of sodium in the
first order.
5) Measure the full width of the grating and the diameter of the objective of the
collimator also that of the telescope lens.
6) Make several trials and repeat the experiment on the other side of direct image.
B) Second Order
Repeat the experiment using the second order spectrum.

Scope of Results:

 Parameters

Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating is the ability to show the two

neighboring lines in a spectrum as separate. It is measured as λ/dλ where dλ is the
smallest difference in wavelength of two lines.

According to Rayleigh’s criterion the two lines of wavelength λ and λ+dλ are said
to be resolved in a certain order grating spectrum if the principal maximum of one
falls on the first secondary minimum of the other.

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For nth order principal maximum for wavelength λ for normal incidence and a
grating element (a+b)

(a+b)sinθ= nλ

Theoretical Resolving Power

Where N is number of lines on the grating(per inches)

Where r= nN’ ; N’= AB/(a+b)

Width of grating used=d/cosθ1

Actual Resolving Power= 982

 Known Parameters

Wavelength of D1 line of sodium= 5896× 10-10m

Wavelength of D2 line of sodium= 5890×10-10m

Mean Wavelength= 5893×10-10m

Difference in Wavelength=dλ= 6×10-10m

Caution

a. The axis of telescope, the collimator and the plane of the prism table
should be horizontal.
b. The position of the eye piece should be adjusted so that the cross wires
are clearly visible without any strain.
c. The telescope should be focused for infinity and the collimator should be
adjusted to give parallel beam of light.
d. The slit should be narrow.
e. The prism should be placed with its refracting edge at the centre of the
prism table when finding the angle by rotating the telescope.
f. The prism should table should be levelled so that the reflected image from
both the reflecting faces lies symmetrically w.r.t. to horizontal cross wire.
g. Both the verniers should be read to avoid error due to non –coincidence of
the centre of the circular scale with axis of rotation of the telescope or the
table.

Experiment No. 6

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Title- To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel circuit and
find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.

Equipment Required- An audio-frequency oscillator (range 10 Hz to 10 kHz), an inductance

coil, variable capacitors, variable resistors, a non-inductive resistance box, ac milliammeter, ac
voltmeter, connecting wires etc.

Material Required: NA

Learning Objective - To experimentally study LCR series and parallel circuit.

2. To find the quality factor and resonant frequency.

3. Also calculate bandwidth from the graph.

4. Be able to explain why LCR series circuit is called acceptor and LCR parallel circuit is
called rejector circuit.

Circuit diagram:

Fig: Series LCR Circuit Fig: Parallel LCR Circuit

Procedure: 1. Connect the LCR (series/parallel) circuit.

2. With output voltage of the oscillator kept constant throughout the experiment vary the value
of A.F. and measure the corresponding value of current in millammeter for each observation.

3. Repeat the experiment for two more different values of R.

4. Plot a graph between current (y axis) and frequency (x axis).

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Observations:
Resistance R =
Capacitance C =
Inductance L =
Output voltage of audio oscillator = Input voltage for LCR Circuit , Ev =

S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for

R1 R2 R3

Current at resonance from the graph for

(i) R1 =
(ii) R2 =
(iii) R3 =
Calculated value of current at resonance for
(i) R1 = Ev /R1
(ii) R2 = Ev /R2
(iii) R3 = EV /R3
Resonant frequency, νr = 1/(2π LC )
Resonant frequency, νr (graphically) =

Quality Factor
Maximum value of current at resonance Ir =
Corresponding Frequency νr =
0.707 Ir =
Corresponding value of frequency
below νr , ν1 =
above νr, ν2 =
Band Width = ν2 - ν1 =
 r 
Quality Factor, Q = 2π  
 2  1 
2  r L
Calculated value of Q from inductance L = (ωrL)/R =
R

(1 / C r ) 1
Calculated value of Q from inductance L = =
R 2CR  r
Parallel Circuit
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
R1 R2 R3

Current at (anti) resonance from the graph for

L
(i) R1 = =
R1C
L
(ii) R2 = =
R2 C

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

Impedance at resonance Z =
Calculated value of current at (anti) resonance for
E RC
(i) R1 = Ev /Z = v 1
L

Ev R2 C
(ii) R2 = Ev /Z =
L
Anti Resonant frequency, νr (graphically) =
1  1 R12 
Calculated value for R1 =   2 
2  LC L 

1  1 R2 
Calculated value for R2 =   22 
2  LC L 

Plots and parameters:

Current vs. frequency

Scope of the Result-

Graph between current and frequency will be Gaussian.

Resonant frequency, quality factor and band width can be calculated from the graph.

Cautions-

 If the amplitude of the output voltage of the oscillator changes with frequency, it must
be adjusted.
 The values of inductance and capacitance are so selected that the natural frequency of
the circuit lies almost in the middle of the available frequency range.

Experiment No. 7

Title: To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular coil
carrying current by plotting a graph. (Using Stewart and Gee’s apparatus.)

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III
Equipments required: Stewart and Gee’s type tangent galvanometer, a battery, a rheostat,
an ammeter, a one-way key, a reversing key, connecting wires.

Material Used: NA

Learning Objectives:

 To understand the working of Tangent Galvanometer using Tangent Law.

 To study the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field around the coil.
Circuit Diagram

Procedure:

1. Place the instrument in such a way that the arms of the magnetometer lie roughly east and
west and the magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical coil. Place the eye a little
above the coil and rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and
its image in the mirror provided at the base of the compass box, all lie in same vertical
plane. The coil is thus set roughly in the magnetic meridian. Rotate the compass box so
that the pointer lies on the 0-0 line.
2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery, rheostat, one way key and an ammeter through a
reversing key.
3. Adjust the value of the current so that the magnetometer gives a deflection of the order of
60-700 degrees. Reverse the current and note the deflection again.
4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum
deflection is obtained.
5. Note the position of arm against the reference mark and also the value of current. Read
both ends of the pointer in the magnetometer, reverse the current and again read both
ends. Now shift the magnetometer by 2 cm and note the reading again. Record a number
of observations.
6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction and
keeping the current constant at the same value.
Observations.

Least count of the magnetometer =

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III
Current I =

S. No Distance from Left Side Mean θ tan θ Right Side Mean θ tan θ

the centre,x
Direct Reversed Direct Reversed
(in )

Scope of the result to be reported

Plots & Parameters: Plot a graph between tan θ and x, where θ is the deflection produced in
a deflection magnetometer and ‘x’ is the distance from the centre of the coil.

The intensity of magnetic field varies with distance from the centre of coil, the
graph can be plotted and variation can be known. The intensity of magnetic field is maximum
at the centre and goes on decreasing as we move away from the centre of the coil towards
right or left.

The value of magnetic field at the centre of coil and radius of coil can also be
determined from this experiment. A graph showing the relation between B and the distance ‘x’
is plotted. The curve is first concave towards O and then afterwards becomes convex. Then
the points where the curve changes its nature are called the point of inflection. The distance
between the two points of inflexion is equal to the radius of the circular coil.

Cautions:

1. There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductor near
the apparatus.
2. The plane of the coil should be set in the magnetic medium.
3. The current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observation.

Experiment 8

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

Title: To Study the induced e.m.f. as function velocity of the magnet.

Equipment Required: A small permanent magnet mounted at the middle of a semi-circular

arc, a coil consisting of number of turns, two weights, stopwatch, capacitor, diode, resistance,
voltmeter

Material Required: A small strong permanent magnet, a stopwatch

Learning Objectives:

 Electromagnetic induction
 Induced e.m.f
 Dependence of the magnitude of induced e.m.f on the velocity of the magnet.
Outline of the Procedure:

 Mount the magnet at the middle point of the semi-circular arc and suspend the rigid
aluminium frame from its centre so that whole frame can oscillate freely through the
coil.
 Adjust the position of two weights on the diameter arm of the arc to have minimum time
period.
 Connect the terminals of the coil to the diode circuit for measuring the peak value of
induced e.m.f.
 Note time for about 20 oscillations with an amplitude of about say 20cm and respective
peak voltage.
 Repeat thrice keeping the amplitude same and find the time period. Also note the peak
voltage each time.
 Repeat the experiment after changing the amplitude and take 8-10 readings.
 Now change the time period by adjusting the position of the weights on the diameter
arm. Take about three readings at this position.
 Repeat the experiment after changing the time-period and take 8-10 readings.

Scope of the results expected: This experiment will help in understanding the nature and
polarity of induced e.m.f. One can apply the acquired knowledge to see the dependence of
induced e.m.f. on velocity of magnet w.r.t. the pickup coil.

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

Parameters and Plots:

(A) Time period constant, amplitude variable:

Mean position of the centre of the magnet= cm.

Radius of the semi-circular arc R0= cm.

Sr.No. Amplitude Time for 20 Mean time eo eo/a= eo/ R0 0 Linear velocity

a = R0 0 Oscillations period(T) v = (2Π/T) R0 0

1 (i)

(ii)

. (iii)

. Mean

(B) Amplitude constant, time period variable:

Sr.No. Amplitude Time for 20 Mean time eo eoT Linear velocity

a = R0 0 Oscillations period(T) v = (2Π/T) R0 0

1 (i)

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

(ii)

(iii)

Mean

Model Plot:

Cautions:

 The semi circular frame should oscillate freely as a whole on the knife edge.
 The magnet should pass freely through the coils..
 The magnet should be small and should be mounted at the middle of the semi circular
arc.

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

Experiment no. 9
Title– To compare the velocity of light in water and in glass using a travelling
microscope.

Equipment To Be Used- Travelling microscope, lycopodium powder, a glass beaker with

a cross mark at the bottom on the inner side, spirit level.

Learning Objective-

1) The refractive index of a medium is a measure of how much the speed of light (or
other waves such as sound waves) is reduced inside the medium.

Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as ratio of speed of light in vacuum to

its speed in the medium.

µ = c/v

2) Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is
equivalent to the ratio of velocities in the two media, or equivalent to the opposite ratio of
the indices of refraction:

Procedure: 1. Level the travelling microscope using a spirit level & the base screws. Set
its axis parallel to the vertical scale. Calculate the vernier constant of the vertical scale &
record it.

2. Move the eye piece of the microscope to that a sharp image of the cross-wires is
obtained.

3. (a) µ of water. Place a glass beaker having cross-mark, on the platform of the
travelling microscope underneath the objective. Focus the travelling microscope on the
mark at the bottom of the beaker so that there is no parallax between cross-wire & image
of the mark. This is done with the help of the rack & pinion arrangement & the micrometer

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III
screw. Note the main scale reading & coinciding vernier scale division. This gives the
reading R1.

4. Pour some water into the beaker without disturbing its position such that the level of the
water does not touch the microscope objective. Raise the microscope through a suitable
distance & focus the refractive virtual image Q of the mark again. Do not touch the rack &
pinion arrangement. Note the main scale reading & coinciding vernier scale division. This
gives the reading R2.

5. Sprinkle lycopodium powder on the surface of water. Raise the microscope still farther
to focus the particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of water. Do not touch the rack
& pinion arrangement. Note the main scale reading & coinciding vernier scale division.
This gives the reading R3.

6. Repeat the experiment three times with different depths of water in the beaker.

7. (b) µ of glass. Put an ink mark on the platform of the travelling microscope & focus the
microscope on it. Note the reading R1. Raise the microscope & put the glass slab on the
mark. Focus the microscope on the image of the mark & note the reading R2 again.
Finally Sprinkle lycopodium powder on the upper face of the glass slab & focus again to
note R3.

8. Repeat the experiment three times.

Observations

Readings of the travelling microscope

Sr.no. R1 (cm) R2 (cm) R3(cm) Real Apparent R3-R1 Mean µ

thickness/depth thickness/depth
µ= ------------
(R3-R1 ) (R3-R2)
R3-R2

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

Scope Of Results To Be Reported-

1. Find refractive index (µ) of water and glass

R3-R1
µ = ------------
R3-R2

Where R3-R1 is real depth of the object from surface of water

and R3-R2 is apparent depth of the object from surface of water

2. Velocity of light in water

v1 = c/µ1

where µ1 is the refractive index of water.

3. Velocity of light in glass

v2= c/ µ2

where µ2 is the refractive index of glass.

4. v 1/v 2 = µ2/ µ1

Cautions:

1. The cross mark should be made on the inner side of the bottom of the beaker.
2. Microscope should be parallel to the vertical scale.
3. The rack & pinion arrangement not be touched with taking observations for R2 &
R3.
4. There should be no parallax between the cross-wires & the image of the mark.

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III

EXPERIMENT 10

Title: To find the energy band gap of the semiconductor material by using the four probe
method.

Equipment to be used: Probes arrangement, sample crystal, oven, four probes setup. Four
probes are individually spring loaded, coated With Zn at the tips. probes are collinear and
equally spaced. Sample crystal is Ge in the form of a chip slice. Operating temperature of
oven is 1700C.four probe setup consist of multirange digital voltmeter(range 0 to 200mV
and 0 to 2V) and constant current generator(range is 0 to 20mA)

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

The highest filled energy band which includes electron shared, in the covalent bonds or
transferred in the ionic bond in a semiconductor is known as valance bond. The energy level
corresponding to the top of the valence bond in an intrinsic semiconductor is denoted as EV. the
energy band which includes free electrons is known as the conduction band. the energy level
corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band is known as the EC in the intrinsic
semiconductor. The energy gap between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band is known as band gap.

Band gap( EG) = EC - EV

The region between the two energy bands is known as forbidden band .

Band gap ( EG ) = 2K * slope of the graph between 1/ T and log ρ

Where k = Botezmann’s constant = 1.38 * 10 -23 J / K

PROCEDURE

(1) Put the sample on the base plat of the four probe arrangement. Unscrew the pipe holding
the four probes and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample. Apply a very
general pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this position. Check the continuity
between the probes for proper electrical contents.

5. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and fixed the thermometer in the oven
through the hole provided.

6. Switch on the Ac main of four probe set up put the digital meter in the current measuring
mode through the selector swtich. In this LED facing mA would glow. Adjust the current
to a desire value(say 5 mA)

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 LMPHY123:PHYSICS LAB-III
7. Note down the readings of milli voltmeter at every increase in temprature.

Current=.........mA(constant)

S.No. Temperature in 1/ T Voltmeter Resistivity logρ

Kelvin reading ( Δv)
(ρ=V/I*correction
(C + 273 )K factor)

Plot the graph between 1/T along x-axis and log ρ along y-axis.

Scope of Result :-

Slope = log ρ 1 – log ρ2 / 1/( T1- 1/T2.)

Band gap ( EG ) = 2K * slope of the graph between 1/ T and log ρ

Band gap ( EG ) …………………….Electron volt

CAUTION

(1)The Ge crystal is very brittle.Therefore apply minimum pressure for proper electrical contacts.

(2)Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power supply and the inner pair of
probes to the voltage terminals.

(3)The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.

(4)Measurement should be made on surface which have high recombination, such as mechincal
lapped surfaces.

(5)The surface on which the probe rest is flat with no surface leekage.

(6)The four probe used for resistivity measurement contact the surface at points that lie in a straight
line.

(7)The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical
and small in diameter.

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