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Built-in Functions
Introduction
The Python interpreter has a number of functions and types built into it that
are always available. They are listed
Next topic here in alphabetical order.
Built-in Constants
Built-in Functions
This Page A E L R
abs() enumerate() len() range()
Report a Bug
Show Source
aiter() eval() list() repr()
all() exec() locals() reversed()
any()

round()
anext() F M

ascii() filter() map() S

float() max() set()
B format() memoryview() setattr()
«
bin() frozenset() min() slice()
bool()

sorted()
breakpoint() G N staticmethod()
bytearray() getattr() next() str()
bytes() globals()
sum()


O super()
C H object()

callable() hasattr() oct() T

chr() hash() open() tuple()
classmethod() help() ord() type()
compile() hex()

complex()
P V

I pow() vars()
D id() print()

delattr() input() property() Z

dict() int()
zip()
dir() isinstance()

divmod() issubclass()
_

iter()
__import__()

abs(x)
Return the absolute value of a number. The argument may be an
integer, a floating point number, or an
object implementing __abs__() .
If the argument is a complex number, its magnitude is returned.

aiter(async_iterable)
Return an asynchronous iterator for an asynchronous iterable.
Equivalent to calling x.__aiter__() .

Note: Unlike iter() , aiter() has no 2-argument variant.

New in version 3.10.

all(iterable)
Return True if all elements of the iterable are true (or if the iterable
is empty). Equivalent to:

def all(iterable):

for element in iterable:

if not element:

return False

return True

awaitable anext(async_iterator[, default])

When awaited, return the next item from the given asynchronous
iterator, or default if given and the iterator
is exhausted.

This is the async variant of the next() builtin, and behaves

similarly.

This calls the __anext__() method of async_iterator,

returning an awaitable. Awaiting this returns the next
value of the
iterator. If default is given, it is returned if the iterator is exhausted,
otherwise
StopAsyncIteration is raised.

New in version 3.10.

any(iterable)
Return True if any element of the iterable is true. If the iterable
is empty, return False . Equivalent to:

def any(iterable):

for element in iterable:

if element:

return True

return False

ascii(object)
As repr() , return a string containing a printable representation of an
object, but escape the non-ASCII
characters in the string returned by
repr() using \x , \u , or \U escapes. This generates a string
similar to
that returned by repr() in Python 2.

bin(x)
Convert an integer number to a binary string prefixed with “0b”. The result
is a valid Python expression. If x is
not a Python int object, it
has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. Some
examples:
 >>>
>>> bin(3)

'0b11'

>>> bin(-10)

'-0b1010'

If the prefix “0b” is desired or not, you can use either of the following ways.

>>>
>>> format(14, '#b'), format(14, 'b')

('0b1110', '1110')

>>> f'{14:#b}', f'{14:b}'

('0b1110', '1110')

See also format() for more information.

class bool([x])
Return a Boolean value, i.e. one of True or False . x is converted
using the standard truth testing
procedure. If x is false
or omitted, this returns False ; otherwise, it returns True . The
bool class is a
subclass of int (see Numeric Types — int, float, complex).
It cannot be subclassed further. Its only
instances are False and
True (see Boolean Values).
«
Changed in version 3.7: x is now a positional-only parameter.

breakpoint(*args, **kws)
This function drops you into the debugger at the call site. Specifically,
it calls sys.breakpointhook() ,
passing args and kws straight
through. By default, sys.breakpointhook() calls
pdb.set_trace()
expecting no arguments. In this case, it is
purely a convenience function so you don’t have to explicitly
import
pdb or type as much code to enter the debugger. However,
sys.breakpointhook() can be set to
some other function and
breakpoint() will automatically call that, allowing you to drop into
the debugger
of choice.

Raises an auditing event builtins.breakpoint with argument breakpointhook .

New in version 3.7.

class bytearray([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

Return a new array of bytes. The bytearray class is a mutable
sequence of integers in the range 0 <= x <
256. It has most of the usual
methods of mutable sequences, described in Mutable Sequence Types, as well
as most methods that the bytes type has, see Bytes and Bytearray Operations.

The optional source parameter can be used to initialize the array in a few
different ways:

If it is a string, you must also give the encoding (and optionally,

errors) parameters; bytearray() then
converts the string to
bytes using str.encode() .
If it is an integer, the array will have that size and will be
initialized with null bytes.
If it is an object conforming to the buffer interface,
a read-only buffer of the object will be used to
initialize the bytes array.
If it is an iterable, it must be an iterable of integers in the range
0 <= x < 256 , which are used as the
initial contents of the array.

Without an argument, an array of size 0 is created.

See also Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview and Bytearray Objects.

class bytes([source[, encoding[, errors]]])

Return a new “bytes” object which is an immutable sequence of integers in
the range 0 <= x < 256 .
bytes is an immutable version of
bytearray – it has the same non-mutating methods and the same
indexing and slicing behavior.

Accordingly, constructor arguments are interpreted as for bytearray() .

Bytes objects can also be created with literals, see String and Bytes literals.

See also Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview, Bytes Objects, and Bytes and Bytearray
Operations.

callable(object)
Return True if the object argument appears callable,
False if not. If this returns True , it is still possible that
a
call fails, but if it is False , calling object will never succeed.
Note that classes are callable (calling a class
returns a new instance);
instances are callable if their class has a __call__() method.

New in version 3.2: This function was first removed in Python 3.0 and then brought back
in Python 3.2.

chr(i)
Return the string representing a character whose Unicode code point is the
integer i. For example, chr(97)
returns the string 'a' , while
chr(8364) returns the string '€' . This is the inverse of ord() .

The valid range for the argument is from 0 through 1,114,111 (0x10FFFF in
base 16). ValueError will be
raised if i is outside that range.

@ classmethod
Transform a method into a class method.

A class method receives the class as an implicit first argument, just like an
instance method receives the
instance. To declare a class method, use this
idiom:

class C:

@classmethod

 def f(cls, arg1, arg2, ...): ...

The @classmethod form is a function decorator – see

Function definitions for details.

A class method can be called either on the class (such as C.f() ) or on an instance (such
as C().f() ).
The instance is ignored except for its class. If a class
method is called for a derived class, the derived class
object is passed as the
implied first argument.

Class methods are different than C++ or Java static methods. If you want those,
see staticmethod() in
this section.
For more information on class methods, see The standard type hierarchy.

Changed in version 3.9: Class methods can now wrap other descriptors such as
property() .

Changed in version 3.10: Class methods now inherit the method attributes ( __module__ ,
__name__ ,
__qualname__ , __doc__ and __annotations__ ) and
have a new __wrapped__ attribute.

compile(source, filename, mode, flags=0, dont_inherit=False, optimize=- 1)

Compile the source into a code or AST object. Code objects can be executed
by exec() or eval() . source
can either be a normal string, a
byte string, or an AST object. Refer to the ast module documentation
for
« information on how to work with AST objects.

The filename argument should give the file from which the code was read;
pass some recognizable value if it
wasn’t read from a file ( '<string>' is
commonly used).

The mode argument specifies what kind of code must be compiled; it can be
'exec' if source consists of a
sequence of statements, 'eval' if it
consists of a single expression, or 'single' if it consists of a single
interactive statement (in the latter case, expression statements that
evaluate to something other than None
will be printed).

The optional arguments flags and dont_inherit control which

compiler options should be activated
and which
future features should be allowed. If neither
is present (or both are zero) the code is compiled with the same
flags that
affect the code that is calling compile() . If the flags
argument is given and dont_inherit is not (or
is zero) then the compiler
options and the future statements specified by the flags argument are used
in
addition to those that would be used anyway. If dont_inherit is a
non-zero integer then the flags argument is
it – the flags (future
features and compiler options) in the surrounding code are ignored.

Compiler options and future statements are specified by bits which can be
bitwise ORed together to specify
multiple options. The bitfield required to
specify a given future feature can be found as the
compiler_flag
attribute on the
_Feature instance in the __future__ module.
Compiler flags can be found in ast
module, with PyCF_ prefix.

The argument optimize specifies the optimization level of the compiler; the
default value of -1 selects the
optimization level of the interpreter as
given by -O options. Explicit levels are 0 (no optimization;
__debug__ is true), 1 (asserts are removed, __debug__ is false)
or 2 (docstrings are removed too).

This function raises SyntaxError if the compiled source is invalid,

and ValueError if the source contains
null bytes.

If you want to parse Python code into its AST representation, see
ast.parse() .

Raises an auditing event compile with arguments

source and filename . This event may also be raised
by implicit
compilation.

Note:
When compiling a string with multi-line code in 'single' or
'eval' mode, input must be
terminated by at least one newline
character. This is to facilitate detection of incomplete and complete
statements in the code module.

Warning:
It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a
sufficiently large/complex string when
compiling to an AST
object due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler.

Changed in version 3.2: Allowed use of Windows and Mac newlines. Also, input in 'exec' mode
does not
have to end in a newline anymore. Added the optimize parameter.

Changed in version 3.5: Previously, TypeError was raised when null bytes were encountered
in source.

New in version 3.8: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT can now be passed in flags to enable

support for
top-level await , async for , and async with .

class complex([real[, imag]])

Return a complex number with the value real + imag*1j or convert a string
or number to a complex number. If
the first parameter is a string, it will
be interpreted as a complex number and the function must be called
without a
second parameter. The second parameter can never be a string. Each argument
may be any
numeric type (including complex). If imag is omitted, it
defaults to zero and the constructor serves as a
numeric conversion like
int and float . If both arguments are omitted, returns
0j .

For a general Python object x , complex(x) delegates to

x.__complex__() . If __complex__() is not
defined then it falls back
to __float__() . If __float__() is not defined then it falls back
to
__index__() .

Note:
When converting from a string, the string must not contain whitespace
around the central + or -
operator. For example,
complex('1+2j') is fine, but complex('1 + 2j') raises
ValueError .

The complex type is described in Numeric Types — int, float, complex.

Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.
 Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to __index__() if __complex__() and
__float__() are not defined.

delattr(object, name)
This is a relative of setattr() . The arguments are an object and a
string. The string must be the name of
one of the object’s attributes. The
function deletes the named attribute, provided the object allows it. For
example, delattr(x, 'foobar') is equivalent to del x.foobar .

class dict(**kwarg)
class dict(mapping, **kwarg)
class dict(iterable, **kwarg)
Create a new dictionary. The dict object is the dictionary class.
See dict and Mapping Types — dict for
documentation about this class.

For other containers see the built-in list , set , and

tuple classes, as well as the collections module.

dir([object])
Without arguments, return the list of names in the current local scope. With an
argument, attempt to return a
list of valid attributes for that object.
«
If the object has a method named __dir__() , this method will be called and
must return the list of
attributes. This allows objects that implement a custom
__getattr__() or __getattribute__() function
to customize the way
dir() reports their attributes.

If the object does not provide __dir__() , the function tries its best to
gather information from the object’s
__dict__ attribute, if defined, and
from its type object. The resulting list is not necessarily complete and
may
be inaccurate when the object has a custom __getattr__() .

The default dir() mechanism behaves differently with different types of

objects, as it attempts to produce
the most relevant, rather than complete,
information:

If the object is a module object, the list contains the names of the module’s
attributes.
If the object is a type or class object, the list contains the names of its
attributes, and recursively of the
attributes of its bases.
Otherwise, the list contains the object’s attributes’ names, the names of its
class’s attributes, and
recursively of the attributes of its class’s base
classes.

The resulting list is sorted alphabetically. For example:

>>>
>>> import struct

>>> dir() # show the names in the module namespace

['__builtins__', '__name__', 'struct']

>>> dir(struct) # show the names in the struct module

['Struct', '__all__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',

'__initializing__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__',

'_clearcache', 'calcsize', 'error', 'pack', 'pack_into',

'unpack', 'unpack_from']

>>> class Shape:

... def __dir__(self):

... return ['area', 'perimeter', 'location']

>>> s = Shape()

>>> dir(s)

['area', 'location', 'perimeter']

Note:
Because dir() is supplied primarily as a convenience for use at an
interactive prompt, it tries to
supply an interesting set of names more
than it tries to supply a rigorously or consistently defined set of
names,
and its detailed behavior may change across releases. For example,
metaclass attributes are not
in the result list when the argument is a
class.

divmod(a, b)
Take two (non-complex) numbers as arguments and return a pair of numbers
consisting of their quotient and
remainder when using integer division. With
mixed operand types, the rules for binary arithmetic operators
apply. For
integers, the result is the same as (a // b, a % b) . For floating point
numbers the result is
(q, a % b) , where q is usually math.floor(a /
b) but may be 1 less than that. In any case q * b +
a % b is very
close to a, if a % b is non-zero it has the same sign as b, and 0
<= abs(a % b) <
abs(b) .

enumerate(iterable, start=0)
Return an enumerate object. iterable must be a sequence, an
iterator, or some other object which supports
iteration.
The __next__() method of the iterator returned by
enumerate() returns a tuple containing a
count (from start which
defaults to 0) and the values obtained from iterating over iterable.

>>>
>>> seasons = ['Spring', 'Summer', 'Fall', 'Winter']

>>> list(enumerate(seasons))

[(0, 'Spring'), (1, 'Summer'), (2, 'Fall'), (3, 'Winter')]

>>> list(enumerate(seasons, start=1))

[(1, 'Spring'), (2, 'Summer'), (3, 'Fall'), (4, 'Winter')]

Equivalent to:

def enumerate(sequence, start=0):

n = start

for elem in sequence:

yield n, elem

n += 1

eval(expression[, globals[, locals]])

 The arguments are a string and optional globals and locals. If provided,
globals must be a dictionary. If
provided, locals can be any mapping
object.

The expression argument is parsed and evaluated as a Python expression

(technically speaking, a condition
list) using the globals and locals
dictionaries as global and local namespace. If the globals dictionary is
present and does not contain a value for the key __builtins__ , a
reference to the dictionary of the built-in
module builtins is
inserted under that key before expression is parsed. That way you can
control what
builtins are available to the executed code by inserting your
own __builtins__ dictionary into globals
before passing it to
eval() . If the locals dictionary is omitted it defaults to the
globals dictionary. If both
dictionaries are omitted, the expression is
executed with the globals and locals in the environment where
eval() is called. Note, eval() does not have access to the
nested scopes (non-locals) in the enclosing
environment.

The return value is the result of

the evaluated expression. Syntax errors are reported as exceptions.
Example:

>>>
>>> x = 1

>>> eval('x+1')

«
This function can also be used to execute arbitrary code objects (such as
those created by compile() ). In
this case, pass a code object instead
of a string. If the code object has been compiled with 'exec' as the
mode argument, eval() 's return value will be None .

Hints: dynamic execution of statements is supported by the exec()

function. The globals() and
locals() functions
return the current global and local dictionary, respectively, which may be
useful to pass
around for use by eval() or exec() .

If the given source is a string, then leading and trailing spaces and tabs
are stripped.

See ast.literal_eval() for a function that can safely evaluate strings

with expressions containing only
literals.

Raises an auditing event exec with the code object

as the argument. Code compilation events may also be
raised.

exec(object[, globals[, locals]])

This function supports dynamic execution of Python code. object must be
either a string or a code object. If it
is a string, the string is parsed as
a suite of Python statements which is then executed (unless a syntax error
occurs). [1] If it is a code object, it is simply executed. In all cases,
the code that’s executed is expected to be
valid as file input (see the
section File input in the Reference Manual). Be aware that the
nonlocal , yield ,
and return
statements may not be used outside of
function definitions even within the context of code
passed to the
exec() function. The return value is None .

In all cases, if the optional parts are omitted, the code is executed in the
current scope. If only globals is
provided, it must be a dictionary
(and not a subclass of dictionary), which
will be used for both the global and
the local variables. If globals and
locals are given, they are used for the global and local variables,
respectively. If provided, locals can be any mapping object. Remember
that at the module level, globals and
locals are the same dictionary. If exec
gets two separate objects as globals and locals, the code will be
executed as if it were embedded in a class definition.

If the globals dictionary does not contain a value for the key
__builtins__ , a reference to the dictionary of
the built-in module
builtins is inserted under that key. That way you can control what
builtins are available
to the executed code by inserting your own
__builtins__ dictionary into globals before passing it to
exec() .

Raises an auditing event exec with the code object

as the argument. Code compilation events may also be
raised.

Note:
The built-in functions globals() and locals() return the current
global and local dictionary,
respectively, which may be useful to pass around
for use as the second and third argument to exec() .

Note:
The default locals act as described for function locals() below:
modifications to the default
locals dictionary should not be attempted.
Pass an explicit locals dictionary if you need to see effects of
the
code on locals after function exec() returns.

filter(function, iterable)
Construct an iterator from those elements of iterable for which function
returns true. iterable may be either a
sequence, a container which
supports iteration, or an iterator. If function is None , the identity
function is
assumed, that is, all elements of iterable that are false are
removed.

Note that filter(function, iterable) is equivalent to the generator

expression (item for item in
iterable if function(item)) if function is
not None and (item for item in iterable if
item) if function is
None .

See itertools.filterfalse() for the complementary function that returns

elements of iterable for
which function returns false.

class float([x])
Return a floating point number constructed from a number or string x.

If the argument is a string, it should contain a decimal number, optionally

preceded by a sign, and optionally
embedded in whitespace. The optional
sign may be '+' or '-' ; a '+' sign has no effect on the value
produced. The argument may also be a string representing a NaN
(not-a-number), or positive or negative
 infinity. More precisely, the
input must conform to the following grammar after leading and trailing
whitespace
characters are removed:

sign ::= "+" | "-"

infinity ::= "Infinity" | "inf"

nan ::= "nan"

numeric_value ::= floatnumber | infinity | nan

numeric_string ::= [ sign ] numeric_value

Here floatnumber is the form of a Python floating-point literal,

described in Floating point literals. Case is
not significant, so, for example,
“inf”, “Inf”, “INFINITY”, and “iNfINity” are all acceptable spellings for
positive
infinity.

Otherwise, if the argument is an integer or a floating point number, a

floating point number with the same
value (within Python’s floating point
precision) is returned. If the argument is outside the range of a Python
float, an OverflowError will be raised.

For a general Python object x , float(x) delegates to

x.__float__() . If __float__() is not defined
then it falls back
to __index__() .
«
If no argument is given, 0.0 is returned.

Examples:

>>>
>>> float('+1.23')

1.23

>>> float(' -12345\n')

-12345.0

>>> float('1e-003')

0.001

>>> float('+1E6')

1000000.0

>>> float('-Infinity')

-inf

The float type is described in Numeric Types — int, float, complex.

Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.

Changed in version 3.7: x is now a positional-only parameter.

Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to __index__() if __float__() is not defined.

format(value[, format_spec])
Convert a value to a “formatted” representation, as controlled by
format_spec. The interpretation of
format_spec will depend on the type
of the value argument; however, there is a standard formatting syntax
that
is used by most built-in types: Format Specification Mini-Language.

The default format_spec is an empty string which usually gives the same
effect as calling str(value) .

A call to format(value, format_spec) is translated to

type(value).__format__(value,
format_spec) which bypasses the instance
dictionary when searching for the value’s __format__()
method. A
TypeError exception is raised if the method search reaches
object and the format_spec is
non-empty, or if either the
format_spec or the return value are not strings.

Changed in version 3.4: object().__format__(format_spec) raises TypeError

if format_spec is not
an empty string.

class frozenset([iterable])
Return a new frozenset object, optionally with elements taken from
iterable. frozenset is a built-in class.
See frozenset and
Set Types — set, frozenset for documentation about this class.

For other containers see the built-in set , list ,

tuple , and dict classes, as well as the collections
module.

getattr(object, name[, default])

Return the value of the named attribute of object. name must be a string.
If the string is the name of one of
the object’s attributes, the result is the
value of that attribute. For example, getattr(x, 'foobar') is
equivalent to
x.foobar . If the named attribute does not exist, default is returned if
provided, otherwise
AttributeError is raised.

Note:
Since private name mangling happens at
compilation time, one must manually mangle a private
attribute’s
(attributes with two leading underscores) name in order to retrieve it with
getattr() .

globals()
Return the dictionary implementing the current module namespace. For code within
functions, this is set
when the function is defined and remains the same
regardless of where the function is called.

hasattr(object, name)
The arguments are an object and a string. The result is True if the
string is the name of one of the object’s
attributes, False if not. (This
is implemented by calling getattr(object, name) and seeing whether it
raises an AttributeError or not.)

hash(object)
Return the hash value of the object (if it has one). Hash values are
integers. They are used to quickly
compare dictionary keys during a
dictionary lookup. Numeric values that compare equal have the same hash
value (even if they are of different types, as is the case for 1 and 1.0).
 Note:
For objects with custom __hash__() methods, note that hash()
truncates the return value
based on the bit width of the host machine.
See __hash__() for details.

help([object])
Invoke the built-in help system. (This function is intended for interactive
use.) If no argument is given, the
interactive help system starts on the
interpreter console. If the argument is a string, then the string is looked
up
as the name of a module, function, class, method, keyword, or documentation
topic, and a help page is
printed on the console. If the argument is any other
kind of object, a help page on the object is generated.

Note that if a slash(/) appears in the parameter list of a function when

invoking help() , it means that the
parameters prior to the slash are
positional-only. For more info, see
the FAQ entry on positional-only
parameters.

This function is added to the built-in namespace by the site module.

Changed in version 3.4: Changes to pydoc and inspect mean that the reported
signatures for callables
are now more comprehensive and consistent.

« hex(x)
Convert an integer number to a lowercase hexadecimal string prefixed with
“0x”. If x is not a Python int
object, it has to define an
__index__() method that returns an integer. Some examples:

>>>
>>> hex(255)

'0xff'

>>> hex(-42)

'-0x2a'

If you want to convert an integer number to an uppercase or lower hexadecimal

string with prefix or not, you
can use either of the following ways:

>>>
>>> '%#x' % 255, '%x' % 255, '%X' % 255

('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

>>> format(255, '#x'), format(255, 'x'), format(255, 'X')

('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

>>> f'{255:#x}', f'{255:x}', f'{255:X}'

('0xff', 'ff', 'FF')

See also format() for more information.

See also int() for converting a hexadecimal string to an

integer using a base of 16.

Note:
To obtain a hexadecimal string representation for a float, use the
float.hex() method.

id(object)
Return the “identity” of an object. This is an integer which
is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this
object during its lifetime.
Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may have the same id()
value.

CPython implementation detail: This is the address of the object in memory.

Raises an auditing event builtins.id with argument id .

input([prompt])
If the prompt argument is present, it is written to standard output without
a trailing newline. The function then
reads a line from input, converts it
to a string (stripping a trailing newline), and returns that. When EOF is
read, EOFError is raised. Example:

>>>
>>> s = input('--> ')

--> Monty Python's Flying Circus

>>> s

"Monty Python's Flying Circus"

If the readline module was loaded, then input() will use it

to provide elaborate line editing and history
features.

Raises an auditing event builtins.input with

argument prompt before reading input

Raises an auditing event builtins.input/result with the result after

successfully reading input.

class int([x])
class int(x, base=10)
Return an integer object constructed from a number or string x, or return
0 if no arguments are given. If x
defines __int__() ,
int(x) returns x.__int__() . If x defines __index__() ,
it returns x.__index__() .
If x defines __trunc__() ,
it returns x.__trunc__() .
For floating point numbers, this truncates towards
zero.

If x is not a number or if base is given, then x must be a string,

bytes , or bytearray instance representing
an integer
literal in radix base. Optionally, the literal can be
preceded by + or - (with no space in between)
and surrounded by
whitespace. A base-n literal consists of the digits 0 to n-1, with a
to z (or A to Z ) having
values 10 to 35. The default base is 10. The allowed values are 0 and 2–36.
Base-2, -8, and -16 literals can
be optionally prefixed with 0b / 0B ,
0o / 0O , or 0x / 0X , as with integer literals in code. Base 0
means to
interpret exactly as a code literal, so that the actual base is 2,
8, 10, or 16, and so that int('010', 0) is
not legal, while
int('010') is, as well as int('010', 8) .

The integer type is described in Numeric Types — int, float, complex.

 Changed in version 3.4: If base is not an instance of int and the base object has a
base.__index__
method, that method is called
to obtain an integer for the base. Previous versions used
base.__int__
instead of base.__index__ .

Changed in version 3.6: Grouping digits with underscores as in code literals is allowed.

Changed in version 3.7: x is now a positional-only parameter.

Changed in version 3.8: Falls back to __index__() if __int__() is not defined.

isinstance(object, classinfo)
Return True if the object argument is an instance of the classinfo
argument, or of a (direct, indirect, or
virtual) subclass thereof. If object is not
an object of the given type, the function always returns False .
If
classinfo is a tuple of type objects (or recursively, other such
tuples) or a Union Type of multiple types, return
True if
object is an instance of any of the types.
If classinfo is not a type or tuple of types and such tuples,
a
TypeError exception is raised.

Changed in version 3.10: classinfo can be a Union Type.

« issubclass(class, classinfo)
Return True if class is a subclass (direct, indirect, or virtual) of classinfo. A
class is considered a subclass of
itself. classinfo may be a tuple of class
objects or a Union Type, in which case return True if class is a
subclass of any entry in classinfo. In any other case, a TypeError
exception is raised.

Changed in version 3.10: classinfo can be a Union Type.

iter(object[, sentinel])
Return an iterator object. The first argument is interpreted very
differently depending on the presence of the
second argument. Without a
second argument, object must be a collection object which supports the
iterable
protocol (the __iter__() method), or it must support
the sequence protocol (the __getitem__() method
with integer arguments
starting at 0 ). If it does not support either of those protocols,
TypeError is raised. If
the second argument, sentinel, is given,
then object must be a callable object. The iterator created in this
case
will call object with no arguments for each call to its
__next__() method; if the value returned is equal
to
sentinel, StopIteration will be raised, otherwise the value will
be returned.

See also Iterator Types.

One useful application of the second form of iter() is to build a

block-reader. For example, reading fixed-
width blocks from a binary
database file until the end of file is reached:

from functools import partial

with open('mydata.db', 'rb') as f:

for block in iter(partial(f.read, 64), b''):

process_block(block)

len(s)
Return the length (the number of items) of an object. The argument may be a
sequence (such as a string,
bytes, tuple, list, or range) or a collection
(such as a dictionary, set, or frozen set).

CPython implementation detail: len raises OverflowError on lengths larger than

sys.maxsize , such
as range(2 ** 100) .

class list([iterable])
Rather than being a function, list is actually a mutable
sequence type, as documented in Lists and
Sequence Types — list, tuple, range.

locals()
Update and return a dictionary representing the current local symbol table.
Free variables are returned by
locals() when it is called in function
blocks, but not in class blocks. Note that at the module level,
locals()
and globals() are the same dictionary.

Note:
The contents of this dictionary should not be modified; changes may not
affect the values of local
and free variables used by the interpreter.

map(function, iterable, ...)

Return an iterator that applies function to every item of iterable,
yielding the results. If additional iterable
arguments are passed,
function must take that many arguments and is applied to the items from all
iterables
in parallel. With multiple iterables, the iterator stops when the
shortest iterable is exhausted. For cases
where the function inputs are
already arranged into argument tuples, see itertools.starmap() .

max(iterable, *[, key, default])

max(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])
Return the largest item in an iterable or the largest of two or more
arguments.

If one positional argument is provided, it should be an iterable.

The largest item in the iterable is returned. If
two or more positional
arguments are provided, the largest of the positional arguments is
returned.

There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The key argument specifies
a one-argument ordering
function like that used for list.sort() . The
default argument specifies an object to return if the provided
iterable is
empty. If the iterable is empty and default is not provided, a
ValueError is raised.

If multiple items are maximal, the function returns the first one
encountered. This is consistent with other
sort-stability preserving tools
such as sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc, reverse=True)[0] and
heapq.nlargest(1, iterable, key=keyfunc) .
 New in version 3.4: The default keyword-only argument.

Changed in version 3.8: The key can be None .

class memoryview(object)
Return a “memory view” object created from the given argument. See
Memory Views for more information.

min(iterable, *[, key, default])

min(arg1, arg2, *args[, key])
Return the smallest item in an iterable or the smallest of two or more
arguments.

If one positional argument is provided, it should be an iterable.

The smallest item in the iterable is returned. If
two or more positional
arguments are provided, the smallest of the positional arguments is
returned.

There are two optional keyword-only arguments. The key argument specifies
a one-argument ordering
function like that used for list.sort() . The
default argument specifies an object to return if the provided
iterable is
empty. If the iterable is empty and default is not provided, a
ValueError is raised.

If multiple items are minimal, the function returns the first one
encountered. This is consistent with other sort-
« stability preserving tools
such as sorted(iterable, key=keyfunc)[0] and heapq.nsmallest(1,
iterable, key=keyfunc) .

New in version 3.4: The default keyword-only argument.

Changed in version 3.8: The key can be None .

next(iterator[, default])
Retrieve the next item from the iterator by calling its
__next__() method. If default is given, it is returned
if
the iterator is exhausted, otherwise StopIteration is raised.

class object
Return a new featureless object. object is a base for all classes.
It has methods that are common to all
instances of Python classes. This
function does not accept any arguments.

Note:
object does not have a __dict__ , so you can’t
assign arbitrary attributes to an instance of the
object class.

oct(x)
Convert an integer number to an octal string prefixed with “0o”. The result
is a valid Python expression. If x is
not a Python int object, it
has to define an __index__() method that returns an integer. For
example:

>>>
>>> oct(8)

'0o10'

>>> oct(-56)

'-0o70'

If you want to convert an integer number to an octal string either with the prefix
“0o” or not, you can use
either of the following ways.

>>>
>>> '%#o' % 10, '%o' % 10

('0o12', '12')

>>> format(10, '#o'), format(10, 'o')

('0o12', '12')

>>> f'{10:#o}', f'{10:o}'

('0o12', '12')

See also format() for more information.

open(file, mode='r', buffering=- 1, encoding=None, errors=None, newline=None,

closefd=True, opener=None)
Open file and return a corresponding file object. If the file
cannot be opened, an OSError is raised. See
Reading and Writing Files for more examples of how to use this function.

file is a path-like object giving the pathname (absolute or

relative to the current working directory) of the file
to be opened or an
integer file descriptor of the file to be wrapped. (If a file descriptor is
given, it is closed
when the returned I/O object is closed unless closefd
is set to False .)

mode is an optional string that specifies the mode in which the file is
opened. It defaults to 'r' which means
open for reading in text mode.
Other common values are 'w' for writing (truncating the file if it
already
exists), 'x' for exclusive creation, and 'a' for appending
(which on some Unix systems, means that all
writes append to the end of
the file regardless of the current seek position). In text mode, if
encoding is not
specified the encoding used is platform-dependent:
locale.getpreferredencoding(False) is called to
get the current locale
encoding. (For reading and writing raw bytes use binary mode and leave
encoding
unspecified.) The available modes are:

Character Meaning
'r' open for reading (default)
'w' open for writing, truncating the file first
'x' open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists
'a' open for writing, appending to the end of file if it exists
'b' binary mode
't' text mode (default)
 '+' open for updating (reading and writing)

The default mode is 'r' (open for reading text, a synonym of 'rt' ).
Modes 'w+' and 'w+b' open and
truncate the file. Modes 'r+'
and 'r+b' open the file with no truncation.

As mentioned in the Overview, Python distinguishes between binary

and text I/O. Files opened in binary
mode (including 'b' in the mode
argument) return contents as bytes objects without any decoding. In
text
mode (the default, or when 't' is included in the mode argument),
the contents of the file are returned as
str , the bytes having been
first decoded using a platform-dependent encoding or using the specified
encoding if given.

There is an additional mode character permitted, 'U' , which no longer

has any effect, and is considered
deprecated. It previously enabled
universal newlines in text mode, which became the default behavior
in
Python 3.0. Refer to the documentation of the
newline parameter for further details.

Note:
Python doesn’t depend on the underlying operating system’s notion of text
files; all the processing
is done by Python itself, and is therefore
platform-independent.

« buffering is an optional integer used to set the buffering policy. Pass 0

to switch buffering off (only allowed in
binary mode), 1 to select line
buffering (only usable in text mode), and an integer > 1 to indicate the size
in
bytes of a fixed-size chunk buffer. When no buffering argument is
given, the default buffering policy works as
follows:

Binary files are buffered in fixed-size chunks; the size of the buffer is
chosen using a heuristic trying to
determine the underlying device’s “block
size” and falling back on io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE . On
many systems,
the buffer will typically be 4096 or 8192 bytes long.
“Interactive” text files (files for which isatty()
returns True ) use line buffering. Other text files use
the policy
described above for binary files.

encoding is the name of the encoding used to decode or encode the file.
This should only be used in text
mode. The default encoding is platform
dependent (whatever locale.getpreferredencoding()
returns), but any
text encoding supported by Python
can be used. See the codecs module for
the list of
supported encodings.

errors is an optional string that specifies how encoding and decoding

errors are to be handled—this cannot
be used in binary mode.
A variety of standard error handlers are available
(listed under Error Handlers),
though any
error handling name that has been registered with
codecs.register_error() is also valid.
The standard names
include:

'strict' to raise a ValueError exception if there is

an encoding error. The default value of None
has the same
effect.
'ignore' ignores errors. Note that ignoring encoding errors
can lead to data loss.
'replace' causes a replacement marker (such as '?' ) to be inserted
where there is malformed
data.
'surrogateescape' will represent any incorrect bytes as low
surrogate code units ranging from
U+DC80 to U+DCFF.
These surrogate code units will then be turned back into
the same bytes when
the surrogateescape error handler is used
when writing data. This is useful for processing files in an
unknown encoding.
'xmlcharrefreplace' is only supported when writing to a file.
Characters not supported by the
encoding are replaced with the
appropriate XML character reference &#nnn; .
'backslashreplace' replaces malformed data by Python’s backslashed
escape sequences.
'namereplace' (also only supported when writing)
replaces unsupported characters with \N{...}
escape sequences.

newline controls how universal newlines mode works (it only

applies to text mode). It can be None , '' ,
'\n' , '\r' , and
'\r\n' . It works as follows:

When reading input from the stream, if newline is None , universal

newlines mode is enabled. Lines in
the input can end in '\n' ,
'\r' , or '\r\n' , and these are translated into '\n' before
being returned
to the caller. If it is '' , universal newlines mode is
enabled, but line endings are returned to the caller
untranslated. If it
has any of the other legal values, input lines are only terminated by the
given string,
and the line ending is returned to the caller untranslated.
When writing output to the stream, if newline is None , any '\n'
characters written are translated to
the system default line separator,
os.linesep . If newline is '' or '\n' , no translation
takes place. If
newline is any of the other legal values, any '\n'
characters written are translated to the given string.

If closefd is False and a file descriptor rather than a filename was

given, the underlying file descriptor will
be kept open when the file is
closed. If a filename is given closefd must be True (the default);
otherwise, an
error will be raised.

A custom opener can be used by passing a callable as opener. The underlying

file descriptor for the file
object is then obtained by calling opener with
(file, flags). opener must return an open file descriptor (passing
os.open as opener results in functionality similar to passing
None ).

The newly created file is non-inheritable.

The following example uses the dir_fd parameter of the

os.open() function to open a file relative to a given
directory:

>>>
>>> import os

>>> dir_fd = os.open('somedir', os.O_RDONLY)

>>> def opener(path, flags):

... return os.open(path, flags, dir_fd=dir_fd)

...

>>> with open('spamspam.txt', 'w', opener=opener) as f:

... print('This will be written to somedir/spamspam.txt', file=f)

 ...

>>> os.close(dir_fd) # don't leak a file descriptor

The type of file object returned by the open() function

depends on the mode. When open() is used to
open a file in a text
mode ( 'w' , 'r' , 'wt' , 'rt' , etc.), it returns a subclass of
io.TextIOBase
(specifically io.TextIOWrapper ). When used
to open a file in a binary mode with buffering, the returned
class is a
subclass of io.BufferedIOBase . The exact class varies: in read
binary mode, it returns an
io.BufferedReader ; in write binary and
append binary modes, it returns an io.BufferedWriter , and in
read/write mode, it returns an io.BufferedRandom . When buffering is
disabled, the raw stream, a subclass
of io.RawIOBase ,
io.FileIO , is returned.

See also the file handling modules, such as fileinput , io

(where open() is declared), os , os.path ,
tempfile ,
and shutil .

Raises an auditing event open with arguments file , mode , flags .

The mode and flags arguments may have been modified or inferred from
the original call.

Changed in version 3.3:

«
The opener parameter was added.
The 'x' mode was added.
IOError used to be raised, it is now an alias of OSError .
FileExistsError is now raised if the file opened in exclusive
creation mode ( 'x' )
already exists.

Changed in version 3.4:

The file is now non-inheritable.

Deprecated since version 3.4, removed in version 3.10: The 'U' mode.

Changed in version 3.5:

If the system call is interrupted and the signal handler does not raise an
exception, the
function now retries the system call instead of raising an
InterruptedError exception
(see PEP 475 for the rationale).
The 'namereplace' error handler was added.

Changed in version 3.6:

Support added to accept objects implementing os.PathLike .

On Windows, opening a console buffer may return a subclass of
io.RawIOBase other than
io.FileIO .

ord(c)
Given a string representing one Unicode character, return an integer
representing the Unicode code point of
that character. For example,
ord('a') returns the integer 97 and ord('€') (Euro sign)
returns 8364 .
This is the inverse of chr() .

pow(base, exp[, mod])

Return base to the power exp; if mod is present, return base to the
power exp, modulo mod (computed more
efficiently than
pow(base, exp) % mod ). The two-argument form pow(base, exp) is
equivalent to using
the power operator: base**exp .

The arguments must have numeric types. With mixed operand types, the
coercion rules for binary arithmetic
operators apply. For int
operands, the result has the same type as the operands (after coercion)
unless the
second argument is negative; in that case, all arguments are
converted to float and a float result is delivered.
For example, pow(10, 2)
returns 100 , but pow(10, -2) returns 0.01 . For a negative base of
type int
or float and a non-integral exponent, a complex
result is delivered. For example, pow(-9, 0.5) returns a
value close
to 3j .

For int operands base and exp, if mod is present, mod must
also be of integer type and mod must be
nonzero. If mod is present and
exp is negative, base must be relatively prime to mod. In that case,
pow(inv_base, -exp, mod) is returned, where inv_base is an inverse to
base modulo mod.

Here’s an example of computing an inverse for 38 modulo 97 :

>>>
>>> pow(38, -1, mod=97)

23

>>> 23 * 38 % 97 == 1

True

Changed in version 3.8: For int operands, the three-argument form of pow now allows
the second
argument to be negative, permitting computation of modular
inverses.

Changed in version 3.8: Allow keyword arguments. Formerly, only positional arguments were
supported.

print(*objects, sep=' ', end='\n', file=sys.stdout, flush=False)

Print objects to the text stream file, separated by sep and followed
by end. sep, end, file, and flush, if
present, must be given as keyword
arguments.

All non-keyword arguments are converted to strings like str() does and
written to the stream, separated by
sep and followed by end. Both sep
and end must be strings; they can also be None , which means to use the
default values. If no objects are given, print() will just write
end.

The file argument must be an object with a write(string) method; if it

is not present or None ,
sys.stdout will be used. Since printed
arguments are converted to text strings, print() cannot be used
 with
binary mode file objects. For these, use file.write(...) instead.

Whether the output is buffered is usually determined by file, but if the

flush keyword argument is true, the
stream is forcibly flushed.

Changed in version 3.3: Added the flush keyword argument.

class property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None)

Return a property attribute.

fget is a function for getting an attribute value. fset is a function

for setting an attribute value. fdel is a
function for deleting an attribute
value. And doc creates a docstring for the attribute.

A typical use is to define a managed attribute x :

class C:

def __init__(self):

self._x = None

def getx(self):

«
return self._x

def setx(self, value):

self._x = value

def delx(self):

del self._x

x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.")

If c is an instance of C, c.x will invoke the getter,

c.x = value will invoke the setter, and del c.x the
deleter.

If given, doc will be the docstring of the property attribute. Otherwise, the
property will copy fget’s docstring
(if it exists). This makes it possible to
create read-only properties easily using property() as a decorator:

class Parrot:

def __init__(self):

self._voltage = 100000

@property
def voltage(self):

"""Get the current voltage."""

return self._voltage

The @property decorator turns the voltage() method into a “getter”

for a read-only attribute with the
same name, and it sets the docstring for
voltage to “Get the current voltage.”

A property object has getter , setter ,

and deleter methods usable as decorators that create a
copy of
the property with the corresponding accessor function set to the
decorated function. This is best explained
with an example:

class C:

def __init__(self):

self._x = None

@property
def x(self):

"""I'm the 'x' property."""

return self._x

@x.setter

def x(self, value):

self._x = value

@x.deleter

def x(self):

del self._x

This code is exactly equivalent to the first example. Be sure to give the
additional functions the same name
as the original property ( x in this
case.)

The returned property object also has the attributes fget , fset , and
fdel corresponding to the constructor
arguments.

Changed in version 3.5: The docstrings of property objects are now writeable.

class range(stop)
class range(start, stop[, step])
Rather than being a function, range is actually an immutable
sequence type, as documented in Ranges and
Sequence Types — list, tuple, range.

repr(object)
Return a string containing a printable representation of an object. For many
types, this function makes an
attempt to return a string that would yield an
object with the same value when passed to eval() ; otherwise,
the
representation is a string enclosed in angle brackets that contains the name
of the type of the object
together with additional information often
including the name and address of the object. A class can control
what this
function returns for its instances by defining a __repr__() method.

reversed(seq)
 Return a reverse iterator. seq must be an object which has
a __reversed__() method or supports the
sequence protocol (the
__len__() method and the __getitem__() method with integer
arguments
starting at 0 ).

round(number[, ndigits])
Return number rounded to ndigits precision after the decimal
point. If ndigits is omitted or is None , it returns
the
nearest integer to its input.

For the built-in types supporting round() , values are rounded to the
closest multiple of 10 to the power
minus ndigits; if two multiples are
equally close, rounding is done toward the even choice (so, for example,
both round(0.5) and round(-0.5) are 0 , and round(1.5) is
2 ). Any integer value is valid for ndigits
(positive, zero, or
negative). The return value is an integer if ndigits is omitted or
None .
Otherwise, the return
value has the same type as number.

For a general Python object number , round delegates to

number.__round__ .

Note:
The behavior of round() for floats can be surprising: for example,
round(2.675, 2) gives
2.67 instead of the expected 2.68 .
This is not a bug: it’s a result of the fact that most decimal fractions
« can’t be represented exactly as a float. See Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations for
more
information.

class set([iterable])
Return a new set object, optionally with elements taken from
iterable. set is a built-in class. See set and
Set Types — set, frozenset for documentation about this class.

For other containers see the built-in frozenset , list ,

tuple , and dict classes, as well as the
collections
module.

setattr(object, name, value)

This is the counterpart of getattr() . The arguments are an object, a
string, and an arbitrary value. The
string may name an existing attribute or a
new attribute. The function assigns the value to the attribute,
provided the
object allows it. For example, setattr(x, 'foobar', 123) is equivalent to
x.foobar =
123 .

Note:
Since private name mangling happens at
compilation time, one must manually mangle a private
attribute’s
(attributes with two leading underscores) name in order to set it with
setattr() .

class slice(stop)
class slice(start, stop[, step])
Return a slice object representing the set of indices specified by
range(start, stop, step) . The start
and step arguments default to
None . Slice objects have read-only data attributes start ,
stop , and step
which merely return the argument
values (or their default). They have no other explicit functionality;
however,
they are used by NumPy and other third-party packages.
Slice objects are also generated when extended
indexing syntax is used. For
example: a[start:stop:step] or a[start:stop, i] . See
itertools.islice() for an alternate version that returns an iterator.

sorted(iterable, /, *, key=None, reverse=False)

Return a new sorted list from the items in iterable.

Has two optional arguments which must be specified as keyword arguments.

key specifies a function of one argument that is used to extract a comparison

key from each element in
iterable (for example, key=str.lower ). The
default value is None (compare the elements directly).

reverse is a boolean value. If set to True , then the list elements are
sorted as if each comparison were
reversed.

Use functools.cmp_to_key() to convert an old-style cmp function to a

key function.

The built-in sorted() function is guaranteed to be stable. A sort is

stable if it guarantees not to change the
relative order of elements that
compare equal — this is helpful for sorting in multiple passes (for
example,
sort by department, then by salary grade).

The sort algorithm uses only < comparisons between items. While
defining an __lt__() method will suffice
for sorting,
PEP 8 recommends that all six rich comparisons be implemented. This will help avoid bugs when
using
the same data with other ordering tools such as max() that rely
on a different underlying method.
Implementing all six comparisons
also helps avoid confusion for mixed type comparisons which can call
reflected the __gt__() method.

For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see Sorting HOW TO.

@ staticmethod
Transform a method into a static method.

A static method does not receive an implicit first argument. To declare a static
method, use this idiom:

class C:

@staticmethod

def f(arg1, arg2, ...): ...

The @staticmethod form is a function decorator – see

Function definitions for details.

A static method can be called either on the class (such as C.f() ) or on

an instance (such as C().f() ).
Moreover, they can be called as regular
functions (such as f() ).
 Static methods in Python are similar to those found in Java or C++. Also, see
classmethod() for a variant
that is useful for creating alternate class
constructors.

Like all decorators, it is also possible to call staticmethod as

a regular function and do something with its
result. This is needed
in some cases where you need a reference to a function from a class
body and you
want to avoid the automatic transformation to instance
method. For these cases, use this idiom:

def regular_function():

...

class C:

method = staticmethod(regular_function)

For more information on static methods, see The standard type hierarchy.

Changed in version 3.10: Static methods now inherit the method attributes ( __module__ ,
__name__ ,
__qualname__ , __doc__ and __annotations__ ),
have a new __wrapped__ attribute, and are now
callable as regular
functions.

« class str(object='')
class str(object=b'', encoding='utf-8', errors='strict')
Return a str version of object. See str() for details.

str is the built-in string class. For general information

about strings, see Text Sequence Type — str.

sum(iterable, /, start=0)
Sums start and the items of an iterable from left to right and returns the
total. The iterable’s items are
normally numbers, and the start value is not
allowed to be a string.

For some use cases, there are good alternatives to sum() .

The preferred, fast way to concatenate a
sequence of strings is by calling
''.join(sequence) . To add floating point values with extended precision,
see math.fsum() . To concatenate a series of iterables, consider using
itertools.chain() .

Changed in version 3.8: The start parameter can be specified as a keyword argument.

class super([type[, object-or-type]])

Return a proxy object that delegates method calls to a parent or sibling
class of type. This is useful for
accessing inherited methods that have
been overridden in a class.

The object-or-type determines the method resolution order

to be searched. The search starts from the class
right after the
type.

For example, if __mro__ of object-or-type is

D -> B -> C -> A -> object and the value of type is B ,
then super() searches C -> A -> object .

The __mro__ attribute of the object-or-type lists the method

resolution search order used by both
getattr() and super() . The
attribute is dynamic and can change whenever the inheritance hierarchy is
updated.

If the second argument is omitted, the super object returned is unbound. If

the second argument is an object,
isinstance(obj, type) must be true. If
the second argument is a type, issubclass(type2, type)
must be true (this
is useful for classmethods).

There are two typical use cases for super. In a class hierarchy with
single inheritance, super can be used to
refer to parent classes without
naming them explicitly, thus making the code more maintainable. This use
closely parallels the use of super in other programming languages.

The second use case is to support cooperative multiple inheritance in a

dynamic execution environment.
This use case is unique to Python and is
not found in statically compiled languages or languages that only
support
single inheritance. This makes it possible to implement “diamond diagrams”
where multiple base
classes implement the same method. Good design dictates
that such implementations have the same calling
signature in every case (because the
order of calls is determined at runtime, because that order adapts
to
changes in the class hierarchy, and because that order can include
sibling classes that are unknown prior to
runtime).

For both use cases, a typical superclass call looks like this:

class C(B):

def method(self, arg):

super().method(arg) # This does the same thing as:

# super(C, self).method(arg)

In addition to method lookups, super() also works for attribute

lookups. One possible use case for this is
calling descriptors
in a parent or sibling class.

Note that super() is implemented as part of the binding process for

explicit dotted attribute lookups such as
super().__getitem__(name) .
It does so by implementing its own __getattribute__() method for
searching
classes in a predictable order that supports cooperative multiple inheritance.
Accordingly,
super() is undefined for implicit lookups using statements or
operators such as super()[name] .

Also note that, aside from the zero argument form, super() is not
limited to use inside methods. The two
argument form specifies the
arguments exactly and makes the appropriate references. The zero
argument
form only works inside a class definition, as the compiler fills
in the necessary details to correctly retrieve the
class being defined,
as well as accessing the current instance for ordinary methods.

For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using

super() , see guide to using super().
 class tuple([iterable])
Rather than being a function, tuple is actually an immutable
sequence type, as documented in Tuples and
Sequence Types — list, tuple, range.

class type(object)
class type(name, bases, dict, **kwds)
With one argument, return the type of an object. The return value is a
type object and generally the same
object as returned by
object.__class__ .

The isinstance() built-in function is recommended for testing the type

of an object, because it takes
subclasses into account.

With three arguments, return a new type object. This is essentially a

dynamic form of the class statement.
The name string is
the class name and becomes the __name__ attribute.
The bases tuple contains the base
classes and becomes the
__bases__ attribute; if empty, object , the
ultimate base of all classes, is added.
The dict dictionary contains
attribute and method definitions for the class body; it may be copied
or wrapped
before becoming the __dict__ attribute.
The following two statements create identical type objects:

>>>
« >>> class X:

... a = 1

...

>>> X = type('X', (), dict(a=1))

See also Type Objects.

Keyword arguments provided to the three argument form are passed to the
appropriate metaclass
machinery (usually __init_subclass__() )
in the same way that keywords in a class
definition (besides
metaclass) would.

See also Customizing class creation.

Changed in version 3.6: Subclasses of type which don’t override type.__new__ may no
longer use the
one-argument form to get the type of an object.

vars([object])
Return the __dict__ attribute for a module, class, instance,
or any other object with a __dict__ attribute.

Objects such as modules and instances have an updateable __dict__

attribute; however, other objects
may have write restrictions on their
__dict__ attributes (for example, classes use a
types.MappingProxyType to prevent direct dictionary updates).

Without an argument, vars() acts like locals() . Note, the

locals dictionary is only useful for reads since
updates to the locals
dictionary are ignored.

A TypeError exception is raised if an object is specified but

it doesn’t have a __dict__ attribute (for
example, if
its class defines the __slots__ attribute).

zip(*iterables, strict=False)
Iterate over several iterables in parallel, producing tuples with an item
from each one.

Example:

>>>
>>> for item in zip([1, 2, 3], ['sugar', 'spice', 'everything nice']):

... print(item)

...

(1, 'sugar')

(2, 'spice')

(3, 'everything nice')

More formally: zip() returns an iterator of tuples, where the i-th

tuple contains the i-th element from each of
the argument iterables.

Another way to think of zip() is that it turns rows into columns, and
columns into rows. This is similar to
transposing a matrix.

zip() is lazy: The elements won’t be processed until the iterable is

iterated on, e.g. by a for loop or by
wrapping in a
list .

One thing to consider is that the iterables passed to zip() could have
different lengths; sometimes by
design, and sometimes because of a bug in
the code that prepared these iterables. Python offers three
different
approaches to dealing with this issue:

By default, zip() stops when the shortest iterable is exhausted.

It will ignore the remaining items in
the longer iterables, cutting off
the result to the length of the shortest iterable:

>>>
>>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum']))

[(0, 'fee'), (1, 'fi'), (2, 'fo')]

zip() is often used in cases where the iterables are assumed to be

of equal length. In such cases, it’s
recommended to use the strict=True
option. Its output is the same as regular zip() :

>>>
>>> list(zip(('a', 'b', 'c'), (1, 2, 3), strict=True))

[('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3)]

Unlike the default behavior, it checks that the lengths of iterables are
identical, raising a ValueError if
they aren’t:
 >>>
>>> list(zip(range(3), ['fee', 'fi', 'fo', 'fum'], strict=True))

Traceback (most recent call last):

...

ValueError: zip() argument 2 is longer than argument 1

Without the strict=True argument, any bug that results in iterables of

different lengths will be
silenced, possibly manifesting as a hard-to-find
bug in another part of the program.

Shorter iterables can be padded with a constant value to make all the
iterables have the same length.
This is done by
itertools.zip_longest() .

Edge cases: With a single iterable argument, zip() returns an

iterator of 1-tuples. With no arguments, it
returns an empty iterator.

Tips and tricks:

The left-to-right evaluation order of the iterables is guaranteed. This

makes possible an idiom for
clustering a data series into n-length groups
using zip(*[iter(s)]*n, strict=True) . This
repeats the same iterator
n times so that each output tuple has the result of n calls to the
iterator. This
« has the effect of dividing the input into n-length chunks.

zip() in conjunction with the * operator can be used to unzip a

list:

>>>
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]

>>> y = [4, 5, 6]

>>> list(zip(x, y))

[(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)]

>>> x2, y2 = zip(*zip(x, y))

>>> x == list(x2) and y == list(y2)

True

Changed in version 3.10: Added the strict argument.

__import__(name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0)

Note:
This is an advanced function that is not needed in everyday Python
programming, unlike
importlib.import_module() .

This function is invoked by the import statement. It can be

replaced (by importing the builtins module
and assigning to
builtins.__import__ ) in order to change semantics of the
import statement, but
doing so is strongly discouraged as it
is usually simpler to use import hooks (see PEP 302) to attain the
same
goals and does not cause issues with code which assumes the default import
implementation is in
use. Direct use of __import__() is also
discouraged in favor of importlib.import_module() .

The function imports the module name, potentially using the given globals
and locals to determine how to
interpret the name in a package context.
The fromlist gives the names of objects or submodules that should
be
imported from the module given by name. The standard implementation does
not use its locals argument
at all and uses its globals only to
determine the package context of the import statement.

level specifies whether to use absolute or relative imports. 0 (the

default) means only perform absolute
imports. Positive values for
level indicate the number of parent directories to search relative to the
directory
of the module calling __import__() (see PEP 328 for the
details).

When the name variable is of the form package.module , normally, the

top-level package (the name up till
the first dot) is returned, not the
module named by name. However, when a non-empty fromlist argument is
given, the module named by name is returned.

For example, the statement import spam results in bytecode resembling the
following code:

spam = __import__('spam', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

The statement import spam.ham results in this call:

spam = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), [], 0)

Note how __import__() returns the toplevel module here because this is
the object that is bound to a
name by the import statement.

On the other hand, the statement from spam.ham import eggs, sausage as
saus results in

_temp = __import__('spam.ham', globals(), locals(), ['eggs', 'sausage'], 0)

eggs = _temp.eggs

saus = _temp.sausage

Here, the spam.ham module is returned from __import__() . From this

object, the names to import are
retrieved and assigned to their respective
names.

If you simply want to import a module (potentially within a package) by name,

use
importlib.import_module() .

Changed in version 3.3: Negative values for level are no longer supported (which also changes
the default
value to 0).

Changed in version 3.9: When the command line options -E or -I are being used,
the environment variable
PYTHONCASEOK is now ignored.

Footnotes
 [1] Note that the parser only accepts the Unix-style end of line convention.
If you are reading the code from a
file, make sure to use newline conversion
mode to convert Windows or Mac-style newlines.

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