Research Methods In Psychology

Psychologists use many scientific methods for research

purposes to understand various psychological issues more
scientifically. These scientific methods reduce bias and errors
in understanding various behavioural aspects.

The relevance of these scientific methods extends beyond

testing and evaluating theories and hypotheses in
psychology. Though there are many such methods used by
psychologists, each has its own advantages and
disadvantages.

Some of the important methods are:

a. Introspection method

b. Observation method

c. Experimental method

d. Case study method

e. Questionnaire method

f. Interview method

g. Survey method
A.Introspection Method

Introspection or self-observation may be considered as a old

method but it is something we are doing almost constantly in
our everyday life. Introspection is a method of studying the
consciousness in which the subjects report on their
subjective experiences. It is a method that requires long and
difficult training. It gives in-depth information about the
individual.

In introspection, the subject is taught to achieve a state of

“focused attention” in which he can closely observe his own
conscious experiences. He will be able to report the smallest
possible elements of awareness. Thus the goal of
introspection is to learn about the basic building blocks of
experience and the principles by which they combine to give
us our everyday consciousness.
B. Observation Method:

This is the most commonly used method especially in relation

to behavioural science, though observation as such is
common in everyday occurrences, scientific observations are
formulated in research places. It is systematically planned,
recorded and is subjected to check and control its validity
and reliability.
In this method we not only ask the subject to report his
experiences but also gather information by direct
observation of overt behaviour. When observations are
carried out under standardized conditions they should be
observed with a careful understanding of the units, that is
the style of recording observed information and the selection
of dependent or related data of observation concerned, then
it is called structured observation. But when observation
takes place without these consideration it is called
unstructured observation.

Structured observation is useful in descriptive studies, while

unstructured observation is useful in exploratory studies.
Another way of classifying observation is that of participant
and non-participant types of observation. In participant
observation the observer makes himself a member of the
group which is being observed.

In non-participant observation the observer detaches himself

from the group that is being observed. Sometimes, it so
happens that the observer may observe in such a way that
his presence is unknown to the people he is observing. This is
called disguised observation.

The method of participant observation has a number of

advantages, the researcher can record natural behaviour of
the group and he can gather information which cannot be
easily obtained; if he stays outside the group, and also he can
verify the truth of statements made by the subjects in the
context of schedule or questionnaires.
The other way of classifying observation is that
of controlled and uncontrolled observations:

a. Uncontrolled observation:
It is that which takes place in natural setting. Here no
attempt is made to use precautional instruments or methods.
Here the major aim of this type of observation is to get a
spontaneous picture of life of the persons.

b. Controlled observation:
In this, behaviour is observed according to definite pre-
arranged plans involving experimental procedure. Here
mechanical or precision instruments are used to aid accuracy
and standardization. This provides formulized data upon
which generalizations can be built with considerable
accuracy. Generally, controlled observation takes place in
various experiments which are carried out in labs under
controlled conditions.

C. Experimental Method:

The experimental method is most often used in laboratory.

This is the method of observation of the behaviour or the
ability of the individual under controlled condition or fixed
circumstances. It is the performing of an experiment that is a
tightly controlled and highly structured observation of
variables.

The experimental method allows researchers to infer causes.

An experiment aims to investigate a relationship between
two or more factors by deliberately producing a change in
one factor and observing its effect on other factors. The
person who conducts the experiment is called the
experimenter and the one who is being observed is called the
subject.

An experiment begins with a problem. Problem is the

relationship which experimenter wishes to study between
two or more variables. Then a hypothesis is formed; it is a
suggested answer to the problem under investigation, based
on the knowledge that existing in the field of study. To test
the hypothesis, relationship between variables is examined.
Variables are the factors that can change.

There will be two variables. An independent variable is a

variable that the experimenter selects. He can control this
variable according to the requirements of the experiment.
The dependent variable is the factor that varies with the
change in the independent variable that is subject’s
behaviour.

Experimenters will not wait for the behaviour to occur in

nature rather the behaviour will be created in situation by
presenting a stimuli to the organism. The behaviour that
occurs will be co-related with the stimulus.

From this, it is possible to predict the nature and types of

response or responses that may occur to a given stimulus.
The changes observed in the dependent variable may be
influenced by a number of factors. To establish a clear-cut
relationship between a stimulus and response, all other
possible influences must be eliminated.
Conditions of Experimental Study:

a. The control group

b. The experimental group.

If experiment has to be successful, the subjects

(patients/clients) must be selected carefully. This is called
sampling. A random sample is one where every member of
the population has an equal chance of being selected. When
this is not the case, the sample is said to be biased sample
(manipulated). A random sample of entire population is not
always necessary or even desirable.

For instance, an experimenter may begin by conducting

experiment on a particular population and then repeat the
experiment on broader or more representative samples.
Once the experiment has been conducted, the results have
to be summarized and a conclusion drawn.

a. Control group provides a base line against which the

performance of experimental group can be composed.

b. The group that receives the experimental treatment is

called the experimental group (The group that receives no
treatment is called the control group).

D. Case Study (History) Method:

It is a detailed description of a particular individual. It may be

based on careful observation or formal psychological testing.
It may include information about the person’s childhood
dreams, fantasies, experiences, relationships and hopes that
throw light into the person’s behaviour.

Case studies depend on client’s memories of the past and

such memories are highly reliable to understand the
problems. As case studies focus on individuals, so we cannot
generalize about human behaviour.

E. Questionnaire Method:

Questionnaire is an instrument of data collection. It is a

method of data collection through which both qualitative as
well as quantitative data can be collected by formulating a
set of interrelated questions.

A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or

typed in a definite order, one set of forms to which the
respondents are supposed to answer unaided, by writing the
answers in the space provided for the purpose. Where this
questionnaire is mailed to the respondents instead of directly
administering it is called a mailed questionnaire.

This method of data collection is especially popular when

large scale enquiries have to be made. The questionnaire is
sent to the person concerned with a request to answer the
questions. It consists of a number of questions printed in a
definite order which the respondents have to answer. It is
considered as the heart of survey operation. In order to
construct a good comprehensive questionnaire, some points
have to be kept in mind.
They are:

1. The general form

2. The question sequence

3. Question formulation and wording.

F. Interview Method:

This involves collection of data by having a direct verbal

communication between two people. Personal interviews are
popular but telephone interviews can also be conducted as
well. This method is also called face to face method.

In personal interviews an interviewer asks questions

generally in a face to face contact with the person being
interviewed. In direct personal interview, the investigator
collects information directly from the sources concerned.
This has to be used when intensive investigation is required.

But in some cases, an indirect examination is conducted

where the interviewer cross-examines other persons who are
supposed to have knowledge about the problem under
investigation. This is used where ever it is not possible to
directly contact the required person to be interviewed.

Types of Interview:

Structured interview involves the use of predetermined

questions and standardized techniques of recording. The
interviewer follows a rigid procedure asking questions in a
framed prescribed order.

b. Unstructured interview is flexible in its approach to

questioning. Here it does not follow the system of
predetermined questions and standardized techniques of
recording the data. Here the interviewer is allowed much
greater freedom to ask supplementary questions or to omit
some questions if required and he may change the sequence
of questions.

He also has a freedom while recording responses, whether to

include some aspects and exclude others. This may lead to
lack of comparability and also difficult in analyzing the
responses.

Other types of interviews are:

i. Focused interview

ii. Clinical interview

iii. Non-directive interview.

i. Focused interview:
In focused interviews the attention is paid on a given
experience, and its effects on the respondent. This is
generally used in developing the hypotheses and constitutes
a major type of unstructured interview.

ii. Clinical interview:

In clinical interviews concern is given to the feelings or
motivations of individuals life experiences. Here the
interviewer simply encourages the respondent to talk about
the given topic with a minimum of direct questioning.
iii. Non-directive interview:
The researcher acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the subject’s feelings, belief and of the frame,
of reference within which such feelings which are expressed
by the subjects personal significance.

G. Survey Method:

This method involves in asking large numbers of individuals

to complete the given questionnaires or through interviews
by interviewing people directly about their experiences,
attitudes or opinions.

That is for example, survey on healthcare reform, or

economic reform, voting preferences prior to elections,
consumer reactions to various products, health practices,
public opinion and complaints with safety regulations and so
on. Surveys are often repeated over long period of time in
order to trace the shifts in public opinion. Surveys can
provide highly accurate prediction when conducted carefully.

H. Testing Method:

This method makes use of carefully devised and standardized

tests for measuring attitudes, interest, achievement,
intelligence and personality traits. Intelligence tests measure
the intellectual capacity of an individual and achievement
tests through light on achievement of student in various
subjects they are studying.
So by adopting all these methods, psychology collects
information about behaviour, which helps us to study the
behaviour systematically. There are the different methods
used in psychology to study the behaviour.