HEATING SYSTEM

• The basic principle behind Heating system is very

simple. Heat is released by Burning Fossil Fuels or
by passing an electric current through a wire.
• The heat is used to warm the occupants by
Radiant or Convective means.
• Heating systems can be categorized into one two
main types these are :
INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS &
DIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS.
 DIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS
• Direct heating systems use INDIVIDUAL
STAND ALONE HEATERS in each room where
heating is required.
• The most common form of direct heating is
the use of gas, coal or electric heaters in a
domestic property.
 INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS
• INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS are known as CENTRAL
HEATING SYSTEMS in house because they generate heat at
a central location, the boiler.
• The heat must then be removed from the boiler and
delivered to each room. It is carried there by a heat
transfer medium, which can be water, steam or air.
• Pipes are used to direct the flow of steam and water and
ducts guide the movement of warm air.
• Heat emitters such as RADIATORS are required in the
rooms to “hand over” the warmth from the heating system
to the room air.
 WET INDIRECT HEATING SYSTEMS
A Wet indirect system uses water as the heat transfer medium
 GAS BOILER
• A gas boiler is a device which burns gas in a
controlled manner to produce heat. This heat
is transferred, using a heat exchanger, to
water which circulates around heating circuit.
Boilers are specified in terms of their power
measured in kilowatts (kw)
PARTS OF A BOILER
 GAS VALVE
• This valve is normally closed. It is opened by a
solenoid allowing gas to flow into the burner if
there is a call for heat & safety conditions are
satisfied.
• If there is a loss of power or a signal indicating
a fault is sent from the control unit then the
valve will automatically close.
 PILOT LIGHT
• This is a small flame which burns continually. Its
function is to ignite the gas/air mix as it leaves
the burner.
• An alternative is to use ELECTRONIC SPARK
IGNITION. Electronic ignitions have a greater
degree of technical complexity but give
improved boiler economy by eliminating the gas
used by the pilot light at times when the boiler is
not required to fire.
 BURNER
• For optimum performance all of the gas that
enters the boiler must be burned.
 FLAME FAILURE DEVICE [FFD]
• Flames are detected by this unit and if present
gas is allowed to enter the burner. If the
flames are extinguished for any reason the gas
valve will be closed. This avoids a dangerous
build up of un burnt gas within the boiler.
 CONTROL UNIT
• This is an electronic device which receives signals
from the FFD and Thermostats. Using this
information it controls the operation of the gas
valve, pump and ignition systems.
• Time control is also carried out by this unit to
make sure that the heating system only operates
when it is required. Each type of boiler has its own
control strategy, individual boiler manufacturers
should be consulted for further details.
 BOILER THERMOSTAT
• This is a temperature sensor which is used to
control the boiler flow temperature.
• Boiler flow temperature is the temperature of
water leaving the boiler. It determines the
RADIATOR Temperature.
 Heat Exchanger
• Made of materials such as CAST IRON and
ALUMINUM the heat exchanger is designed to
give maximum thermal contact between the
hot combustion gases and the circulating
water.
 FLUE
• A flue is essentially a DUCT to the boiler
combustion chamber, terminating outside of
the building
 Schematic – Two Zone
Multiple Boiler System

25 KW 25 KW 25 KW 25 KW
MULTIPLE BOILERS for a 100kW load
 MULTIPLE BOILERS
• As an Example, a multiple system of boilers used to satisfy a 100 KW
load is shown in previous slide.
• It can be seen that the 100 KW load is provided by four 25 KW boilers
feeding heated water into a COMMON FLOW PIPE and supplied by a
COMMON RETURN.
• The First benefit of this arrangement of Boilers is that there is back up if
one of the boilers should fail. It can be isolated and heating can still be
provided, at a reduced capacity, by the other boilers.
• The second benefit is that the boilers are fired in a progressive manner
to satisfy the load. So for example in the morning when there is a high
load situation all of the boilers will fire. Later in the day when the
building has started to warm through. Boilers 1 and 2 will fire
continuously with boilers 3 and 4 shut down. At the end of the day
when top up heating only is required only boiler 1 will be firing. The
PROGRESSIVE MODE of operation means that each boiler will only be
firing near its full output rating. The system as a whole will therefore
maintain a high efficiency even though the load is decreasing
 PUMPS
• It is the job of the pumps to make the water circulate between
the boiler and heat emitters within the heating system pipe
work. The three main components of a pump are:
(A) ELECTRIC MOTOR, (B) IMPELLER and (C) CASING.
• The ELECTRIC MOTOR is directly coupled to the drive shaft of
the impeller water on the inlet side enters the pump in the
centre of the impeller.
• The IMPELLER rotates driving the water out towards the CASING
by centrifugal force. The water outlet is situated off the centre
axis of the pump. As a result the pump casing must be cast to
arrange the inlet and outlet flows to be along the same centre
line. The pump is then known as an “In-line pump”.
 VARIABLE SPEED PUMPS
• An energy saving development in pump technology
is the variable speed drive pump. This system does
not run at a fixed speed but varies its speed and
hence pumping power depending on the work it is
required to do.
• For example, if a heating zone is warm enough,
valves will close, isolating its heat emitters from the
heating flow. As a result less water will need to be
pumped around the heating circuit. A variable
speed pump will sense this and slow down.
 CONTROLS
• Controls are required to ensure that the
heating system operates safely, efficiently and
provides comfort for the building occupants.
 Domestic Heating controls
The figure shows a typical arrangement of controls for a domestic central heating system.
 Room Thermostat
• Is a device which controls room temperatures. Control is made in relation
to a preferred temperature setting made on the thermostat by the
occupant.
• It is in fact a switch opened and closed as the room temperature rises
above or falls below the temperature setting respectively.
• The thermostat should be positioned in a representative room such as the
living room at a standing chest height away from sources of heat such as
direct sunlight. This means it will accurately sense the air temperature
experienced by an occupant in the room.
• When the Thermostat switch is closed, current can flow through it this is
interpreted by the boiler as a call for heat. The boiler will fire, the pump
will run and the three way valve will Direct hot water to the radiators.
• When the room temperature rises above the preferred temperature
setting, changes within the thermostat either electronically sensed or due
to the differential expansion of metal in a bi-metallic strip cause the
thermostat switch to open. As a result the control current will stop and
the boiler and the pump will switch off. It can be seen therefore that room
temperatures are controlled by stopping and starting the flow of heat into
 HEATING - HOT WATER & COIL
HOT WATER SUPPLY

HEATING COIL

AIR FLOW
TO SPACE

HOT WATER SUPPLY

100°F 120°F
HOT WATER
GENERATOR 100°F
HOT WATER RETURN PIPE

HEAT REJECTED TO HEAT EXCHANGE

BETWEEN HOT
ELECTRIC HEATERS WATER & AIR

TERMINAL UNITS
* AHU'S * FCU'S
TWO PIPE VS FOUR PIPE SYSTEM
TWO PIPE STSTEM

THE PIPING IS COMMON FOR CHILLED AND HOT

WATER.
IT CAN CARRY EITHER CHILLED OR HOT WATER.
THE PUMP & COIL IS COMMON.
SIMULTANEOUS COOLING & HEATING IS NOT
POSSIBLE.
 EXPANSION EXPANSION TANK
TANK

C. COIL - 3
COIL - 3
H. COIL - 3

COIL - 2 C. COIL - 2
H. COIL - 2
COIL - 1
C. COIL - 1
H. COIL - 1

PUMP PUMP
COOLER COOLER

PUMP
HOT WATER HOT WATER
GENERATOR GENERATOR

TWO PIPE STSTEM FOUR PIPE STSTEM

 FOUR PIPE SYSTEM
• HAS SEPARATE PIPING CIRCUITS, COILS, PUMPS
& EXPANSION TANK FOR BOTH COOLING &
HEATING CIRCUIT.
• USED FOR JOBS WHICH MAY NEED FOR
SIMULTANEOUS COOLING & HEATING. USED FOR
CRITICAL JOBS FOR HOSPITALS,
PHARMACEUTICALS ETC.
• FOUR PIPE SYSTEM IS VERY EXPENSIVE &
SELDOM USED FOR NORMAL COMFORT JOBS.
 RECOMMENDED WATER VELOCITY
RECOMMENDED WATER VELOCITY
SERVICE VELOCITY RANGE ( FPS )
PUMP DISCHARGE 8 - 12
PUMP SUCTION 4-7
DRAIN LINE 4-7
HEADER 4 - 15
RISER 3 - 10
PIPE SHOULD BE SIZED FOR A PRESSURE DROP NOT
MORE THAN 5 FT/100FT
ASHRAE/IES STANDARD 90.1 - 1999
WATER VELOCITY PIPE SMALLER THAN 50 MM
LESS THAN 4 FPS
PIPE FITTINGS SUCH AS ELBOWS, TEES,
VALVES ETC OFFER A GREATER RESISTANCE
TO FLOW THAN DOES STRAIGHT PIPE.

IT IS CONSIDERED BY ADDING A RESISTANCE

EQUAL TO CERTAIN LENGTH OF STRAIGHT
PIPE, CALLED EQUIVALENT LENGTH.
PIPE MATERIAL - WATER DUTY
MS ( BLACK STEEL ) OR GALVANISED AS PER IS. 1239
( UPTO 150 MM DIA ) & IS. 3589 (200 MM DIA &
ABOVE)
* CHILLED WATER - BLACK STEEL ( M.S )
* HOT WATER - BLACK STEEL ( M.S )
* CONDENSER COOLING
SYSTEM - BLACK STEEL ( M.S )
* DRAIN - GALVANISED STEEL (G.I)

COPPER, PIPES HAVE BETTER CORROSSION

RESISTANT. HOWEVER IT IS EXPENSIVE.
WORKING PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE

AND TEMPERATURE ARE APPLICABLE TO ALL
CONNECTED COMPONENTS
* PIPE & FITTINGS
* VALVES & STRAINER
* COOLER, CONDENSER & COILS
* PUMP CASING
 IS - 1239 - IS APPLICABLE FOR MS PIPES UPTO
150 MM DIA
AVAILABLE IN THREE CATEGORIES
YELLOW BAND - LIGHT WEIGHT, CLASS-A - INCREASING THK

BLUE BAND - MEDIUM WEIGHT, CLASS-B

RED BAND - HEAVY WEIGHT, CLASS-C

• PIPES COULD BE SEAMLESS - NO LONGITUDINAL JOINTS

• PIPES COULD BE ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDED ( ERW )
- HAS LONGITUDINAL JOINT

IS-3589 IS APPLICABLE FOR PIPES 200 MM DIA & ABOVE

STANDARD PIPES ARE AVAILABLE IN LENGTH OF 6 METER
 HOW TO DECIDE ON PIPE WALL THICKNESS ?
 HOOP & LONGITUDINAL STRESS BECAUSE OF INTERNAL PRESSURE
 CORROSSION - SAFETY AGAINST BAD QUALITY WATER, UNDERGROUND
APPLICATION
 INTERNAL PRESSURE COULD BE BECAUSE OF HIGHER
STATIC HEAD, HIGHER INTERNAL FRICTION LOSS
 Tm = P D / 2 S E + A
FORMULAE AS PER ASME STANDARD
WHERE Tm = MINIMUM WALL THK., INCHES
P = INTERNAL PRESSURE, PSI
D = OUTSIDE DIAMETER, INCH
S = MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE STRESS
( 1/4 OF TENSILE STRESS )
A = CORROSSION ALLOWANCE
E = JOINT EFFICIENCY
JOINT EFFICIENCY = ( ASME B 31.9 )
SEAMLESS = 1.0
ERW = 0.8
PIPE WALL THICKNESS INCREASES WITH:
• INSIDE PRESSURE - HIGHER THE PRESSURE HIGHER THE WALL THICKNESS.
• OUTSIDE DIAMETER
• WATER QUALITY - PRONE TO CORROSSION
• TYPE OF PIPE SEAMLESS, ERW ETC AS JOINT EFFICIENCY CHANGES
ALL PARAMETERS REMAINING SAME,
THE PIPE WALL THICKNESS WILL BE LESS FOR SEAMLESS PIPES

 SEAMLESS IS EXPENSIVE & HENCE NOT USED GENERALLY FOR

HVAC SYSTEM
 FOR CHILLED & CONDENSER WATER PIPING ERW CLASS -C, PIPES
ARE USED
 CLASS A IS NEVER USED
 FOR DRAINS ERW CLASS ‘B’ GI PIPE IS USED
Boiler: A closed vessel in which water
is heated and/or steam is generated
 Heating Systems
Heating system types can be classified
fairly well by the heating equipment
type. The heating equipment used in
buildings includes boilers (oil and
gas), furnaces (oil, gas, and
electric), heat pumps, and space
heaters. Boiler-based heating systems
have steam and/or water piping to
distribute heat.
Split-system air conditioning systems: This consists of
an outdoor metal cabinet that contains the condenser
and compressor, and an indoor cabinet that contains
the evaporator. In many split-system air conditioners,
this indoor cabinet also contains a furnace or
the indoor part of a heat pump.
Packaged air conditioners: In a packaged air
conditioner, the evaporator, condenser, and compressor are all
located in one cabinet, which usually is placed on a roof or on a
concrete slab adjacent to the building. This type of air
conditioner is typical in small commercial buildings and also in
residential buildings. Air supply and return ducts come from
indoors through the building’s exterior wall or roof to connect
with the packaged air conditioner, which is usually located
outdoors. Packaged air conditioners often include electric
heating coils or a natural gas furnace.
This combination of air conditioner
and central heater eliminates the
need for a separate furnace indoors.
 Energy Efficiency Terms
Coefficient of Performance (COP) – Cooling
The ratio of the rate of heat removal to the rate of energy input, in
consistent units, for a complete refrigerating system or some specific
portion of that system under designated operating conditions.
Coefficient of Performance (COP) – Heating
The ratio of the rate of heat delivered to the rate of energy input, in
consistent units, for a complete heat pump system, including the
compressor and, if applicable, auxiliary heat, under designated operating
conditions.
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER)
The ratio of net cooling capacity in BTU/hr to total rate of electric input in
watts under designated operating conditions.
Integrated Part-Load Value (IPLV)
A single number figure of merit based on part-load EER, COP, or KW/ton
expressing part-load efficiency for air-conditioning and heat pump
equipment on the basis of weighted operation at various load capacities for
the equipment.
 Controls
Controls are one of the most
critical elements for improving
efficiency of any HVAC system.
Controls determine how HVAC
systems should operate to meet
the design goals of comfort,
efficiency, and cost-effective
operation.
 Timeclock Control
All mechanical cooling and heating systems shall be
controlled by a timeclock that:
a. Can start and stop the system under different
schedules for three different day-types per week,
b. Is capable of retaining programming and time setting
during loss of power for a period of at least 10
hours, and
c. Includes an accessible manual override that allows
temporary operation of the system for up to 2 hours.
Exceptions to the above are:
a. Cooling systems < 28 kW (8 tons)
b. Heating systems < 7 kW (2 tons)
 Temperature Control
All heating and cooling equipment shall
be temperature controlled.
Where separate heating and cooling
equipment serve the same temperature
zone, thermostats shall be interlocked to
prevent simultaneous heating and
cooling.
 Variable Speed Drive
A variable speed drive (VSD) is an
electronic device that controls the
rotational speed of a piece of
motor-driven equipment (e.g. a
blower, compressor, fan, or
pump).
 Piping and Ductwork
Pipe Insulation
To minimize heat losses, the Code requires that
piping of heating and cooling systems,
(including the storage tanks,) must be
insulated. The Code specifies required R-values
of insulation for heating and cooling systems
based on the operating temperature of the
system.
Insulation of Heating Systems Insulation of Cooling Systems

Heating System Cooling System

Designed Insulation with
Designed Insulation with Operating Minimum R-value
Operating Minimum R-value Temperature of (m2K/W)
Temperature of (M2K/W) Piping
Piping

Below 15°C 0.35

60°C and above 0.74

Above 40°C and 0.35

Refrigerant Suction Piping
below 60°C
Split System 0.35
Insulation exposed to weather shall
be protected by aluminum sheet
metal, painted canvas, or plastic
cover.
Cellular foam insulation shall be
protected as above, or be painted
with water retardant paint.
 Heat Pump
A heat pump consists of one or more factory-
made assemblies that normally include indoor
conditioning coil, compressor, and outdoor
coil, including means to provide a heating
function. Heat pumps provide the function of
air heating with controlled temperature, and
may include the functions of air cooling.
 Economizers
Economizers allow the use of outdoor air to cool the
building when the outside temperature is cooler than
that inside. An economizer consists of
dampers, sensors, actuators, and logic devices that
together decide how much outside air to bring into a
building. Under the right conditions, sensors and
controls shut down the compressor and bring in the
outside air through the economizer louvers. A
properly operating economizer can cut energy costs by
as much as 10% of a building’s total energy
consumption, depending mostly on local climate and
internal cooling loads.
ECONOMIZER
 Air-Side Economizers
As per the Code:

Each individual cooling fan system that has a design supply capacity over
1,200 L/S (2,500 CFM) and a total mechanical cooling capacity over 22 kW
(6.3 TONS) shall include either:
a. An air economizer capable of modulating outside-air and return-air
dampers to supply 100% of the design supply air quantity as outside-air; or
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Energy Conservation Building
Code (ECBC) User Guide 50.
b. A water economizer capable of providing 100% of the expected system
cooling load at outside air temperatures of 10°C (50°F) dry-bulb/7.2°C (45°F)
wet-bulb and below Exceptions to above are:
a. Projects in the hot-dry and warm-humid climate zones are exempt.

b. Individual ceiling mounted fan systems< 3,200 L/S (6,500 CFM) are exempt.
 Economizers
Air Economizer
An air economizer is duct and damper arrangement and automatic
control system that together allow a cooling system to supply outdoor
air to reduce or eliminate the need for mechanical cooling during mild
or cold weather.

Water Economizer
A water economizer is a system by which the supply air of a cooling
system is cooled indirectly with water that is itself cooled by heat or
mass transfer to the environment without the use of mechanical cooling.
 What are boilers typically used for?

• Heating Water
– Space heating
– Domestic Hot Water
• Producing Steam
Space heating
Process heating
Dryers
Sanitizing
Curing
Cooking
 Boiler Size Ratings
• Steam Boilers Rated In:
– Horse Power (HP)
• 1 HP = 33,400 Btu/Hr
– LBS / Hour
• 1 LBS per Hours ~ 1,000 Btu / Hr
– Btu / Hour
• 1 MM Btu / Hour ~ 30 HP

• HW Boilers Rated In:

– MMBtu / Hour
– Horse Power (HP)
• Example: 20 MMBtu/Hr ~ 600 HP
~ 20,000 Lbs/Hr
• M = 1,000 and MM = 1,000,000
5
© 2008 Enovity, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 Boiler Basics:
Efficiency
1) Combustion Efficiency:
= 100% - Stack Losses
Stack Losses ~ 15 to 30%
Does not include Shell & Other Losses
(heat not transferred to fluid)
• Typically 1 to 3%
2) Boiler or Thermal Efficiency:
= 100% - Stack Losses - Shell & Other
Losses
= Boiler Output / Fuel Input
6
 System Heat Recovery:
Feed-water Economizer
• Captures exhaust
heat from the
boiler to pre-heat
boiler feed-water
• Warmer water
coming into the
boiler means less
energy to make
hot water and
steam. Hot combustion gasses
leaving the system
• Can result in a 3%
to 8% Efficiency
Improvement 16
© 2008 Enovity, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 System Heat Recovery:
Blow-down Heat Recovery
• Blow-down: Releasing water from the
boiler to remove mineral build-up due to
steam production (minerals left behind).
• Captures Heat of Continuous Blow-down
Water to Preheat Make-up Water
• Potential Energy Savings of 1 to 5%
– Depending on the amount of continuous
blow-down
– More than 4% blow-down is a good
candidate
– Also, reduces water consumption

17
© 2008 Enovity, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 System Heat Recovery:
Economizer & Blow-down

18
© 2008 Enovity, Inc. All Rights Reserved
 ELECTRIC STRIP
• Uses either BASEBOARD or AIR HANDLER mounted
electric resistance strips
• Low installation cost but least efficient option.

HEAT PUMP
• Air conditioner refrigeration cycle in reverse (heats home
instead of cooling it).
 • Gas Furnace
• Burns natural gas or liquid propane

• Similar efficiency to heat pumps

 Heat Transfer
 Conduction

 Convection

 Radiation

 Always from hot to cold

 Quantity depends on temperature difference

Vermont Energy Investment Corporation

 Conduction
 Heat movement through a solid
 Quantity depends on temperature
difference and characteristics of the
material

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 Convection
 Heat carried by a moving fluid
• How furnaces and boilers get heat to
the rooms
 Air leaving the building takes heat
with it
• Same amount of heat must be added to
incoming air to maintain temp

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 Radiation
 Heat flow through empty space
• More or less like light
 Hot Surfaces Warm You Up
• You feel heat through space, even if
the air is cold
• You feel cold surfaces the same way
 Function of temperature difference,
area, surface characteristics
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 Air Flow

Wind Temperature Fans

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Vermont Energy Investment Corporation
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 Air Under Pressure

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 Thermal Envelope

2nd fl

1st1stfloor
Floor

Sun
Sun Garage
Room
room
Basement

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 Thermal Envelope Alternate

2nd fl

1st floor
Sun Garage
room
Basement

Vermont Energy Investment Corporation

 How Insulation Works
 Trapped Air
• Air flow through it reduces effectiveness
• Air flow between it and the conditioned
space prevents it from working
 Convective loops matter
 Missed areas matter a lot

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 Effect of Insulation Voids
100
90
R100
80
70
60
R-value of R60
50
Insulation
40
30 R38
20
10 R19
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Percent of Air Space in Cavity
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Vermont Energy Investment Corporation
Vermont Energy Investment Corporation
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Vermont Energy Investment Corporation
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Vermont Energy Investment Corporation
 Heat Transfer
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Resistance (R-Value)
• U=1/R U-Value is the rate of heat
flow in Btu/h through a one ft2
• Q = U x A x T area when one side is 1oF
warmer
 Basic Refrigeration Cycle

Condenser

Compressor

Expansion Valve

Evaporator
 Basic HVAC Equipment
• Fans / Blowers
• Furnace / Heating unit
• Filters
• Compressor
• Condensing units
• Evaporator (cooling coil)
• Control System
• Air Distribution System
 System Types and Common Terms
• Packaged Rooftop Constant Volume
Unit Variable Volume
Indoor Air Quality
• Split System
Direct Expansion
• Heat Pump
• Geothermal
• Air to Air
• Hydronic (water)
• PTAC / PTHP
Packaged Rooftop Units

                                                  
 Split System

Ductwork

Heating
and Cooling
Equipment

FURNACE

A/C UNIT
Temperature &
Humidity Controls
 Heat Pump

• Operate on simple
refrigeration cycle
• Reversing the cycle provides
heating
• Temperature limitations
• Air to air
• Water source
• Geothermal
• Lake coupled
Geothermal Heat Pump Systems
 Variable Air Volume
Variable Speed
Supply Fan Supply Ducts

VAV Box
Filters
Cool Coil w/Temp Reset

Heat Coil w/Temp

Return Air

Reheat Coil
Reset

T T

Zone Thermostat

Variable Speed Return Ducts

Return Fan

HVAC-98
 Terminal Units

Variable volume: Constant volume:

Parallel Series

                                        
 Hydronic systems
• Pumps
• Piping
• Valves
 Control Devices
  
                             
                         
• Thermostats
– Manual
– Programmable
• Optimum Start
• DDC Systems
• Variable Speed Drives
• Automatic Valves and Dampers
• Outdoor Sensors
 Major Equipment

• Chillers
• Boilers
• Cooling Towers
 Economizers

Air Side Water Side

 Economizers
Free cooling source: When available, use cool outdoor air instead
of mechanically cooled air.
Minimum supply of 55 oF and up
outside air
55 oF 85%
outside air

85%
80 F
o exhaust 80 oF

Normal Operation Economizer Operation

Outside air dampers are positioned to Outside air dampers are fully open.
provide the minimum outside air Maximum outside air is provided

HVAC-104
 Zoning and Economizers

• Economizers provide “free cooling”

when outdoor conditions are optimal

• Proper orientation & zoning yields

comfort & efficiency

W Core E

HVAC-105
Air Distribution

• Ductwork
– Metal
– Flexible
– Ductboard
• Grilles, Louvers,
& Registers
• Dampers
– Shut off
– Fire
– Smoke
• Sealants
• Supports
Return Plenum Problems

HVAC-107
 Additional Equipment

• Energy Recovery Units

• Desiccant Systems
 Additional Equipment
• Heat Exchangers
• Humidifiers

 
• Silencers

                                                            
 Mechanical Dehumidification

Return air is mixed with ventilation air

Cold coil condenses moisture
Heat is added back (electric or gas) so that room air is not over
cooled- Reheat
Filter
 Historical Minimum Ventilation Rates
(CFM/Person)
70
Smoking 62-89
60

50

40 Billings Flugge
1895 1905
Nightengale
30 1865
Smoking 62-81
ASH-
RAE
20 ASHRAE 62-89
62-73
Tredgold Yaglou
10 1836 1938
ASHRAE 62-81
0
 Improved Ventilation Effectiveness

• Mechanically provide filtered and

dehumidified outdoor air to the
breathing space
• Vary ventilation based on the number
of occupants and process loads -
changes in occupancy can be
measured by CO2 sensors
• Consider designs that separate
ventilation and space conditioning
• Utilize heat recovery systems to reduce
system size and ventilation energy
costs
 Improved Ventilation Effectiveness
• Effective mixing of ventilation
air within space
• Net positive pressure in the
southeast; exhaust from
appropriate spaces
• Provide clean outdoor air,
avoid:
– loading docks
– exhaust vents
– plumbing stacks
– waste collection
– stagnant water
Question:1
Question:2
Question:3
 Duct Leakage

DUCT LEAKAGE is also an important Efficiency factor.

A supply Duct disconnected from the main supply “TRUNK”
is shown here.
 Duct Leakage

Gaps at collar where a flex supply duct

attaches to a supply register box.
 Duct Leakage
Cooling System w/ Supply Leaks
Effective System EER
10
9
8
7
System EER

6
5
4
3
2
Source:Contracting Business Apr94,
1 Solving Leakage & Return Problems by
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Percent Leak

Replaced Air = Outside Replaced Air = Attic

This plot show how leaky Ducts can reduce the effective efficiency of an
AC system. Typical leakage percentages in new homes are 10 to 15%, so
what started as a EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) 10 system efficiency will
actually perform like a EER 6,7 or 8 system.
Duct Leakage HVAC-INDUCED INFILTRATION
Infiltration rates - Florida Duct Study 1990
80
70
60
Number of
houses

50
40 Fan off Fan on
30
20
10
0
<0.25 0.25- 0.5- 0.75- 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 >2.0
0.5 0.75 1.0
air change rate

INFILTRATION is unwanted or unplanned Air leakage into or out of a building through cracks and
other holes in the building envelope. So infiltration also has an effect on overall efficiency. This
bar chart shows that most homes tested in this study had relatively low infiltration rates (less
than 0.25 air changes per hour) when the air conditioner was off, but when it was turned on, the
air change rate increased to where most homes were between (0.5 and 1.5 air changes per
hour). This increase was caused because of duct leakage creating increased pressures inside the
home so more air leaks through the existing cracks and holes.
The recommended air change rate is 0.35 air changes per hour.
 DUCT LEAKAGE

Visible photo of wall section with return grille on the left and infrared (IR)
photo (showing surface temperature) of the same wall on the right. White and
red colors are hottest and blues are coolest in the IR photo, so this summer
time photo shows that hot air is being pulled from the attic down the wall and
into the air handler because of leak pathways through the wall cavity (the wall
cavity should have been sealed off from the air pathway into the air handler).
 Duct Design Problems

• Utility room door that swings to the return grill.

• When the system turns on, the door is pulled to the grill,
blocking air flow.
Question:4
=

Question:5
Question:6
Question:7
Question:8
 9.5’

7’x9’
12’ 17’x9’
3’x2’ 9’x9’

9.5’x9.5’ 22’x13’

12.5’x11.5’
 42’x22’

11’x3’