15.2.3 Horizontal Alignment The horizontal alignment consists of straight sections of the road (known as tangents) connected by curves. The curves are usually segments of circles, which have radii that will provide for a smooth flow of traffic. The design of the horizontal alignment entails determination of the minimum radius, determination of the length of the curve, and computation of the horizontal offsets from the tangents to the curve to facilitate locating the curve in the field. In some cases, to avoid a sudden change from a tangent with infi- nite radius to a curve of finite radius, a curve with radii varying from infinite to the radius of the circular curve is placed between the circular curve and the tangent. Such a curve is known as a spiral or transition curve. There are four types of horizontal curves: simple, compound, reversed, and spiral. Computations required for each type are presented in the following sections. Simple Curves Figure 15.18 is a layout of a simple horizontal curve. The curve is a segment of a circle with radius R, which is discussed in Chapter 3 for the case when SSD is unobstructed. The relationship was shown to be a se +f where R= minimum radius (m) 4 = design speed (km/h) € = superelevation (m/m) J, = coefficient of side friction Scanned with CamScannerR = radius of circular curve T tangent length 4 = intersection angle M = middle ordinate PC = point of curve PT point of tangent P= point of intersection E = extemal distance Figure 15.18 Layout of a Simple Horizontal Curve When there are obstructions in the roadway that limit SSD on the curve, Ris deter- mined as described later in this section. AAs Figure 15.18 illustrates, the point at which the curve begins (A) is known x the point of curve (PC), and the point at which it ends (B) is known as the point of tangent (PT). The point at which the two tangents intersect is known as the point Of intersection (PI) or vertex (V). A simple circular curve is described either by its {itus (for example, 60 m-radius curve) or by the degree of the curve (for example, a Adegtee curve). There are two ways to define degree of the curve, which is based on 0m of arc length or on 30 m of chord length. Highway practice (which is the focus Ofthis chapter) uses arc definition, whereas railroad practice uses chord definition, he angle subtended at the center of a circular arc 30 m in length as shown in Figure = is the degree of curve as used in highway work. For example, a 2-degree curve *ends an arc of 30 m if the central angle is 2 degrees. 7 that 28 the angle in radians subtended at the center by an are ofa circle, the length of are is given by RO = L. If D* is the angle in degrees subtended at the center by an of length L, then : Sinoe Scanned with CamScanner804 Part 4 Location, Geometries, and Drainage iy (b) Chord definition (a) Are definition Figure 15.19 Arc and Chord Definitions for a Circular Curve Solving for R yields or 17g (sm) Radius and degree of curve are not independent of each other when one value hasbeen selected; the other has been defined as well. The degree of curve can thus be determined the radius is known, or the radius can be determined if the degree of curve is known. For CADD programs such as InRoads, the radius is specified, whereas in traditional highv’ practice, the degree of curve is stated. Chord definition for R in terms of D’ is based on a chord of 30 m, as i Figure 15.19b. For this case, the radius of curve is as follows. illustrated it R=— a (1521) sin Di/2 Since the arc definition is used for highway worl rt fer rocesret ince tk ences to degre? ‘uit iighway work, all further referé cue Ciateiprebiad Simple Curves. Figure 15.18 illustrates the elements of 2 simple Og Using the properties of a circle, the two tangent lengths AV and BV ate Co) sontnated'ssT-The angle thas formed by the two tangents is known the ee gl ise it is the angle that i i i nae expression for the tangent Tength De ere ee A 3) T=Rtane tan 4 Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 15, Geometric Des ign of Highway Fait clits aos ression for the length C of the chord AB, which a + Which is known as th, i long chord, is C=2R sind 2 (15.23) ion for the external dist i ‘The expression nal distance E, which suction co the CUFVE On a radial ine is ons the distance from the point of 4 E=Rseco eo R E=r(—1 (1524) ‘The expression for the middle ordinate M, which is the distance bet i pein ofthe long chord and the midpoint of the curve is ae M=R-Reos* 2 = 5(1-cos4) i The expression for the length of the curve L is: RA —— .2¢ Ea (15.26) Field Location of a Simple Horizontal Curve. Simple horizontal curves are usually located in the field by staking out points on the curve using angles measured from the ~ tangent at the point of curve (PC) and the lengths of the chords joining consecutive Whole stations. The angles are also called “deflection angles” because they are the angle that is “deflected” when the direction of the tangent changes direction to that of the chord, Figure 15.20 is a schematic of the procedure involved. Fi 7 18.20, Deflection Angles on a Simple Circular Curve Scanned with CamScanner806 Part 4 Location, Geometries, and Drainage ~ The first deflection angle VAp to the frst whole station onthe cury re Whi based on the Prope, n tha "Sit, less than a station away from the PC, is equal to a ‘The next deflection angle VAq is ies of, 2 2 To set out the horizontal curve, it is necessary The length of the first arc, is related to 3, as y to determine 6, and ,, Ra = F595 (32 Solving for R provided the following expression, Equating R from Eq. 15.27, j 6 Provides the relationship between the central angle that subtends the length o! follows, | sb 7 int of cue) Points on simple horizontal curve in the field, the PC (Point FU PT (Point of ti ) f Nee nt ate established and deflection angies between the = ha FC and the next whole station are meaerect using a transit set over the PCT i aeuon i located on the ground using the appropriate deflection angle 208 distance measured from the Preceding station, etl Lengths , and 1, are the actual distance along the curve. Thus, 010 api of these curves, e chord lengths corresponding to the are length St Scanned with CamScanner807 ‘ession relating chord Iengt The expr gths to the Corresponding are | 00 ft are: length /, and J, and C,=2R sin St y= 2Rsin 2 a, C= 2Rsin 2 : 22 (15:28) where C, Cp, and C, are the first, intermedia Figure 15.20 and the following formulas angles and chord lengths required to set out te, and last chords, respectively, Summarize the relationships for deflection a simple curve. 6 Chord: Ap = 2R sin z Deflection angle: VAp D. Chord: pg = 2R sin 2 Deflection angle: VAq 5, Chord: sB = 2R sin Deflection angle: VAB = ample 15.6 Design of a Simple Horizontal Curve The intersection angle of a 4° curve is 55°25’, and the PC is located at station 238 + 13.43, Determine the length of the curve, the station of the PT, the deflection, ‘angles, and the chord lengths for setting out the curve at whole stations from the PC. Figure 15.21 illustrates a layout of the curve. Solution: 1m9 Radius of curve = p= = = 4298m Rar _ 429.8 x S5A1670 Length of curve = “739 = a =415.7m 25.63) Thestation at PTis equal to station (238+ 1343) H(I37200 5 3) — 1657 m. The distance between the PC and the first station i? Boel ee aL i Bi Abe? | 55.4107 415° Scanned with CamScanner808 part4 ‘OC Figure 15.21 Therefore, The first deflection angle to station 239 is 5,/2 = 1.105° Similarly, Note that the This relationship s tively flat, the chord The other deflec 2.210° Layout of Cutve for Example 15.6 2.210 C,= 2 429.8 sin (2%) =16.58m =1°6'18". 1, = (252 + 9.05) — (252) = 9.05 m 6, 9.05 _ 55.4167 " 2 asa x am 0.6034" = 36712” C, = 2 x 1432.4 sin (0.6034") D=4¢ 05 m. C, = 2X 429.8sin (3) =30m lengths are appr tion angles are ¢, re Wt the computation. Since highway curves are oximately equal to the arc lengths. ‘omputed in Table 15.8. Scanned with CamScanner als: le deflection an s range! gle to PT ir i A of the : serves as a check of is half the intersection angle clCHAPTER 18 _ Geometric Design of Highway Facies 809 que 138 Computations of Deflection Angles and Chord Lengths for Examph : ation Deflection Angle Chord i =a Bas 1°6"18" 0 ben 39618" 1658 Fo 56°18" 30 PC22 7°6'18" 2 Len 9618" 30 poze 11°6'18" 2 PCS 13°6'18" 3 C246 15°6'18" : a C247 17°6'18" 0 PC 28 19°6'18" 30 C249 21°6'18" 0 PC250 23°6'18" 30 PpC2st 25°6'18" 30 PC252 27°6'18" 30 PT.252-+ 9.06 27°42'30" 9.05 Compound Curves Compound curves consist of two or more simple curves in succession, turning in the same direction, with any two successive curves having a common tangent point. Figure 15.22 shows a typical layout of a compound curve, consisting of two simple curves. These curves are used mainly to obtain desirable shapes of the horizontal alignment, particularly for at-grade intersections, ramps of interchanges, and highway sections in difficult topographic areas. To avoid abrupt changes in the alignment, the radii of any two consecutive simple curves that form a compound curve should not be widely different. AASHTO recom- mends that the ratio of the flatter radius to the sharper radius at intersections should not be greater than 2:1 s0 drivers can adjust to sudden changes in curvature and speed. The max mum desirable ratio recommended for interchanges is 1.75:, although 2:1 may be used. To provide a smooth transition from a flat curve toa sharp curve, and to facilitate 9 reasonable deceleration rate on a series of curves of decreasing rai, the length of each carve should observe minimum length requirements, based on the radius of cach eure 88 recommended by AASHTO and given in Table 15.9, which are developed based on the premise that trevel is in the direction of the sharper curve. The 2:1 ratio of De "adius should preferably not be exceeded but is not critical for the acceleration cond ee Figure 1229 chow: coven variables, RyRy: By Ay &> Tip tid Try SO ead independent, since A = A, + A,. Several solutions can be developed fa ea mer Bie The vertex al mata prested ss Me ying a? design. In Figure 15.22, R, and R, are usually known. Used to determine the remaining variables. (15.29) A=A +4, A, t 153) tan Scanned with CamScanner810 Part 4_Location, Geometric, and Drainage 2, Ry © cad of simple curves forming compound curve 44,14; = incesection angles of simple curves ection angle of compound curve {= tangent lengths of simple curves TT, = tangent lengths of compound curve PC = point oF carve PT = point of tangent Figure 15.22 Layout of a Compound Curve (531) (1532) sin (180- A) sind VG+t (153) VA+, (1534) where R,and R, = radii of simple curves forming the compound curve 4, and A, = intersection angles of simple curves #, and, = tangent lengths of simple curves Table 15.9 Leng aths of Clreular Arc for Different Compound Curve Radi ——4 Radius (fi) i Pe Cg of Circular Are (ft) 100 re 150 200 250 300 ee a 1 Acceptable 40 50 60 80 100 pa 00 Desirable 6 % 90 120 140 a SOURCE: Basedon4 Policy on Geomaric ign of Highways and Sires, 2004, AASHTO, Washington, DC ——— Scanned with CamScanneran gyder toset out the curve, the intersection an mined. Usually, of A, can be obtained from the fo 15.34 can be used to solve for A, or A. VG, Vin jn Se ly gles and chord len, In be detet through Out plans and Es, 1 Ty and 7,, ae gaya bedon oaCompoond Curve (art llustrates a compound curve that is jgure 15.23 ill is to be set out ata F nepoint of compound curve (PCC) is located atelsan (565 deflection angles for setting out the curve, highway intersection, +105), determine the Solution: For length of horizontal curve of 150 - m radius, = RAW 2195 L= RA = 105 xT = 89.01 m Forlength of horizontal curve of 105 m radius, 1 26a LaRAg ay = 10x = 47.65 m Therefore, station of the PC is equal to (565 + 10.50) ~ (2 + 29.01) = 562 + 11.49. Fi 2 SW©18.23 Compound Curve for Example 15.7 Scanned with CamScanner“7 ‘The station of the PT is equal to (565 + 10.50) + (2+29.01) = soe, i For curve of 150 m radius, 9, D__in9 2 2x150 563 +00) ~ (562 + 11.49) = 18.51 m 812 Part 4 Location, Geometrcs, and Drainage °43'47" Yale 8, _ 18.51 x34 a = 3°32'8" 2° 289.01 1, = (565 + 10.50) ~ (565 + 00) = 10.5 m 39X34 gage x29671 7019 For curve of 105 -m radius, Den tI 2 2x105 EU 1, = (566 + 00) ~ (565 + 10.50) = 19.5 m Bib. 65X26 ees 2" 2x158a2 1916 1, = (566 + 28.15) — (566 +00) = 28.15 m 8, _ 28.15 x 26 i DDE Ae ‘Computations of the deflection angles are shown in Table 15.10. The deflection angles for the 105 m radius curve are turned from the common tangent with the transit located at PCC. Since each simple curve is relatively fat, calcu ated lengths of the chords are almost equal to the corresponding arc lengths. Table 15.10 Computations for Example 15.7 150m Radius Curve Station Deflection Angle Chord Leng) PC 562 +3829 a 6 oe 3°32"8" 61.66" : ete 91555" spt oo 14°59'47" 99.8 PCC 565 + 35.00 17°00'00" 35.0 aS 105 m Radius Curve sal N oe Déflection Angle Chord Lens ~ RCC565 + 35:00 * 0 566 40 te! ay PT566 + 93.82 ca See Scanned with CamScannerz_ . the alignments tangent between of spiral, which is a preferable design consists of two simple ho, wn them, to achieve full superelevation, jy described in the next section, rizonts = a femnatiye)y Uo MAY Separate the a” antag ey i inl, me Transition Curves s re placed between tangents and circular g having substantially different radii, The yo by, that gradually increases or decreases tna °! tans, NES the rai ft a ‘Transition curves 2 cent circular curves vides a vehicle path vaters or leaves a circular curve. th of Spiral Curves. Ii the transition curve is a spiral, the de, tangent an the circular curve varies from Oat the tangent endef ME, fue D, atthe curve end. When the transition is placed between tte: Gegree of curve varies from that ofthe first circular cure tothatot nen "The expression given in Eqs. 15.37 and 15.38 is used by some et compute the minimum length of a spiral transition curve, The ae Be be the larger of the values obtained from these equations. Ug Leng _ 3.15 ‘smn RO Lggig = VIP oa)R minimum length of curve (m) u = speed (km/h) R= radius of curve (m) ate of increase of radial acceleration (m/sec*/sec); valuesrageé= P,,, = minimum lateral offset between the tangent and the circular Under operational conditions, the most desirable length of a spiral ane? mately the length of the natural spiral path used by drivers as they travers! i ‘The computations required for setting out a spiral iransition curve st of this book. Length of Superelevation Runoff when Spiral Curves Are Not ut Me agencies do not use spiral transition curves since drivers will wall ge into circular curves gradually. Under these conditions, the tangett 8 gi the main circular curve (called “tangent-to-curve transition”): HOTT gt Supetelevated at arate of e m/m, an appropriate transition engin alt any elevation transition length is comprised of superelevation ge width, ighWays where rotation is about any pavement feo ya supectS @ common superelevation, the following equation Petelevation runoff, / dea oA L, (,) | Scanned with CamScannercH r IAPTER 15 Geometric Pesian of Highway Facilities a5 | where | 1, = minimum length of superelevation runoff ‘A= maximum relative gradient (%) (0.78% | 1, = number of lanes rotated (© 24 kmph t0 0.35% @ 128 kmph) b, = adjustment factos for number of lanes rotated (1 w= width of one traffic lane (m) (typically 3.6 m) = 1.00,2=0.75,3 =0.67) ¢,= design superelevation rate (%) AASHTO recommends minimum su ortwo lanes are rotated about the pavem ‘re based on concerns for appearance difference between the longitudinal the edge of the pavement. In this case, over which the pavement cross slope superelevation of the curve (e). Typically, the runoff length is divided Perclevation runoff lengths where either one ‘ent edge as shown in Table 15.11. These values and comfort and thus a m; y between the tangent and the curved sec- tion and avoids placing the runoff either entirely on the tangent or the curve, Thea, retcally, superclevation runoff should be placed entirely on the tangent section, thus providing full superelevation between the PC and PT. In practice, sharing the runoff between tangent and curve reduces peak lateral acceleration and its cffect an side friction. Motorists tend to adjust their driving path by steering a “natural spiral,” thus supporting the observation that some of the runoff length should be on the curve. ‘The length of the tangent runout consists of the length of roadway needed to accom- blish a change on the outside-lane cross slope from normal (ie., 2 percent) to zero, or vice versa. The sum of the superelevation runoff and tangent runout comprises the total distance over which transition from normal crown to full superelevation is achieved. The following equation can be used to determine the minimum runout length, The values Tie IS. Superelevation Runoff é, (m) for Horizontal Curves fk) a Design Speed (kon/h) BF B @ 80 96 Ti2 128 (0 OO oF 0 ok G8 oo Mm Ge Go iy M7 108 165 123 186 sa 216 159 240 180 290 20 309 [a MS ayy 36S 246 186 2719 216 324 240 360 270 405 309 462 tas Yi 29 327 249 372 288 432 31 480 360 540 41 as & $5 73 408 309 46s 360 $40 399 600 450 675 a3 7a ye 58 27 492 372 558 432 648 480 720 sto S10 ai m7 4 9 see 381 573° 435 651 S04 756 561 840 63 : g0 822 133 WSs GS 85 654 498 D4 576 B64 69 960 720 108 8 yy 92 735 55. 7 648 97. r 5 927 138.9 3 08.0 81.0 121.5 92. b 2, 8 83. 8 972 720 1 a by 4 gg 46 BLO 61 930 720 1080 80.1 1200 900 on 0 102.9 1542 ross slope ‘sch direction rotated separately Scanned with CamScannera6 = Part 4 Location, Geometries, and Drainage obtained by substitutin in Table 15.11 for appropriate valves into the equation are similar thos hoy percent. (15.40) where 1, = minimum length of tangent runout (m) 4, = normal cross slope rate (%) °, = design superelevation rate (%) 1 L, = minimum length of superelevation runoff (m) “AASHTO Lengths and Tangent Rumouts for Spiral Curves. AASHTO recommends that when spiral curves are used in transition design, the superelevation runoff should be achieved over the length of the spiral curve. Based on this, tis recommended that the length of the spiral curve should be the length of the superelevation runoff. The run- out spiral length and runout length are very different when values of e increase beyond 2 pereent. Recommended lengths for tangent runout are shown in Table 15.12. Sineit js desirable to maintain runoff within the spiral curve, its length should be increased to that of the runoff values shown in Table 15.12, which are based on a 2.0 percent normal cross slope. The change in cross slope begins by introducing a tangent runout section ju in advance of the spiral curve. Table 15.12 Tangent Runout Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design Tangent Runout Length (fi) ‘Superelevation Rate (%) Det Sped oh) iP awm as 44 = = = = 20 59 30 = — a 25 "4 3 25 - = oO 88 44 2 = oa a 103 2 34 26 7 40. uy 59 39 29 is 45 132 66 44 33 = 50 147 "4 49 37 ste si 161 81 54 40 es 6 16 88 59 “4 3 70 7 ee 64 ee 4, 5 205 103 68 st “ 20 110 B 55 a bi 235 18 8 59 Not falues for e = (Yau ae 2% pea ed tae pl cone aan li sound? Yate tot enol animate 6 licy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2004, "AASHTO: Washi — —-d Scanned with CamScannerCHAI TER 15, Geometic Design of Highway Facilities rament of Superclevation. It is essential thy tair ‘] lat the chy At to a superelevated one be achieved withowt causiog me fom 8 crowned cros oy creating unsafe conditions. One of four methods can be used to ooh fort to motorists. on! undivided highways. ichieve this change 4, A-crowned pavement is rotated about the 4, Acrowned pavement is rotated about the 4 A crowned pavement is rotated about the 4, Astraight cross-slope pavement is rotated Profile of the centerline. Profile of the inside edge, Profile of the outside edge, about the profile of the outside edge, Figure 1525 is a ae of Method 1. Thi the distortion obtained is less than that obtained with other sen mai first to raise the outside edge of the pavement relative te cate ane outerhalf ofthe eross section is horizontal. The outer edge is then raised by ap adding amount to obtain a straight cross section. The inside edge is stil at its original elevation Tae entire cross section is then rotated as a unit about the centerline profile until the full superelevation is achieved. Straight lines have been used to illustrate this method, but in practice, angular breaks are appropriately rounded by using short vertical curves, InMethod2, the centerline profiles raised with respect tothe inside pavement edge to obtain half the required change, while the remaining half is achieved by raising the outside pavement edge with respect to the profile of the centerline, Method 3is similar to Method 2, with the only difference being that a change iseffected below the outside edge profile. Method 4 is used for sections of straight cross slopes. s is the most commonly used method Curve Radii Based on Stopping Sight Distance ltwas shown in Chapter 3 that the minimum radius of a horizontal curve depends on the design speed w of the highway, the superelevation e, and the coefficient of side friction f, This relationship was shown to be we ae 15(e + f) Normally, this value for R is sufficient for design purposes. However, there a Itstances when a constraint may exist. For example, if an object is located near 7 Inside edge of the road, the driver's view may be blocked. When this situation exists, the Supecetion Tasdon ensth STL) Parement Ee Proiles taining Superelevation for @ Cro nae suned Pavernent Poted oS Diagrammatic Profiles Depicting Att ut it the Profile of the Centerline + psig ant ine SECA SOURCE. sii (ease gana Department of Transportation, ALDOT Sta Scanned with CamScannerEo ae 18 Part 4 Location, Geometrics, and Drainage 4 sed on design speed is Compromised a design of Petre thes veaius sf the curve to assure adequate SSD ot at | has 0 orton the curve. Figure 15.2608 scliematic diagram ofa horizontm speed iit on gets dive vo an object Locaed within the curve fine o geen Stata ele s Focated at point A on the curve and the object is at point pt, sight is the length ‘of chord AB. The Horeca aT eet by the nd te sight ee point A co point B ise Hength oF O76 oe cont tge tt no y0 (in degrees). Thus, the expression for SSD 's . tins 20m 180 and 180(S) _ 28.65 QR OR S (1541) where R = radius of horizontal curve ‘5 = stopping sight distance 6 = one half central angle From Figure 15.26a, we can write aa = cos (59) Centerline inside lane Sight obstruction Figure 15.26(a) 5 .26(8) Horizontal i ius , forStopping Sight Distances, ™*S With Sight-Distance Restrictions and Range of tower SOURCE: Basedon A py 3 tects, 2008, AASHTO sed on A Policy on Geometric Dy Yi of Highways and Steers, 2004, AASHTO. % Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 15 ie Desi Geometric Design of Highway Facies 819 Radius (R) centerline of inside ane (ft) 0 5 10 is 2 25 30 35 40 45 50 Horizontal Sightline Offset, HSO, centerline of inside lane to obstruction, () Figure 15.26(b) Horizontal Curves with Sight-Distance Restrictions and Range of Lower Values for Stopping Sight Distances SOURCE: Based on A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2008, AASHTO, Washington, DC. Equating the cosines of @ from Eqs. 15.41 and 15.42 yields 28.65. _R-m ROAR cos Wi mee ™ = the horizontal sightline offset, HSO (m). Solving for m produces the follow- 8 elationship: , N (15.43) depending on which two of the tage ation 15.43 can be used to determine m, R, oF 5. tation of Eq, 15.43 and Varia . ; ical represent abe teen a are known, Figure 15.26b is graphical fermine the value of the unknown variable. Scanned with CamScanner