T.C.

Kanish, SMBS

Industrial Circuits Application Note

Stepper Motor Basics
A stepper motor is an electromechanical Disadvantages
device which converts electrical pulses into 15°
1. Resonances can occur if not
discrete mechanical movements. The shaft
properly controlled. A
or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in
discrete step increments when electrical 2. Not easy to operate at extremely

D'
command pulses are applied to it in the high speeds.
1
proper sequence. The motors rotation has

6
several direct relationships to these applied

2
Open Loop Operation

C
input pulses. The sequence of the applied

C'
5
pulses is directly related to the direction of One of the most significant advantages

3
motor shafts rotation. The speed of the
4
of a stepper motor is its ability to be
motor shafts rotation is directly related to accurately controlled in an open loop

B'
the frequency of the input pulses and the system. Open loop control means no
length of rotation is directly related to the feedback information about position is A'

number of input pulses applied. needed. This type of control

eliminates the need for expensive Figure 1. Cross-section of a variable-
sensing and feedback devices such as reluctance (VR) motor.
Stepper Motor Advantages optical encoders. Your position is
and Disadvantages known simply by keeping track of the
input step pulses.
Advantages
1. The rotation angle of the motor is Stepper Motor Types
proportional to the input pulse. There are three basic stepper motor
2. The motor has full torque at stand- types. They are :
N NSN SN
still (if the windings are energized) • Variable-reluctance
3. Precise positioning and repeat- • Permanent-magnet
ability of movement since good S N
stepper motors have an accuracy of • Hybrid
3 – 5% of a step and this error is
non cumulative from one step to S
Variable-reluctance (VR)
the next. This type of stepper motor has been
4. Excellent response to starting/ around for a long time. It is probably
stopping/reversing. the easiest to understand from a
structural point of view. Figure 1 Figure 2. Principle of a PM or tin-can
5. Very reliable since there are no con- shows a cross section of a typical V.R. stepper motor.
tact brushes in the motor. stepper motor. This type of motor
Therefore the life of the motor is consists of a soft iron multi-toothed
S
simply dependant on the life of the rotor and a wound stator. When the
bearing. stator windings are energized with DC
6. The motors response to digital current the poles become magnetized.
input pulses provides open-loop Rotation occurs when the rotor teeth N

control, making the motor simpler are attracted to the energized stator N N

and less costly to control. poles.

7. It is possible to achieve very low Permanent Magnet (PM)

speed synchronous rotation with a Often referred to as a “tin can” or
load that is directly coupled to the “canstock” motor the permanent S

shaft. magnet step motor is a low cost and

8. A wide range of rotational speeds low resolution type motor with typical
step angles of 7.5° to 15°. (48 – 24 Figure 3. Cross-section of a hybrid stepper
can be realized as the speed is motor.
proportional to the frequency of the steps/revolution) PM motors as the
input pulses.

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 T.C.Kanish, SMBS

has some advantages such as very low in many different applications. Some
inertia and a optimized magnetic flow of these include printers, plotters,
path with no coupling between the highend office equipment, hard disk
two stator windings. These qualities drives, medical equipment, fax
N S N S
N
are essential in some applications. machines, automotive and many more.
N S

Size and Power The Rotating Magnetic Field

In addition to being classified by their When a phase winding of a stepper
Figure 4. Principle of a disc magnet motor
step angle stepper motors are also motor is energized with current a
developed by Portescap.
classified according to frame sizes magnetic flux is developed in the
name implies have permanent which correspond to the diameter of stator. The direction of this flux is
magnets added to the motor structure. the body of the motor. For instance a determined by the “Right Hand
The rotor no longer has teeth as with size 11 stepper motor has a body di- Rule” which states:
the VR motor. Instead the rotor is ameter of approximately 1.1 inches. “If the coil is grasped in the right
magnetized with alternating north Likewise a size 23 stepper motor has a hand with the fingers pointing in the
and south poles situated in a straight body diameter of 2.3 inches (58 mm), direction of the current in the winding
line parallel to the rotor shaft. These etc. The body length may however, (the thumb is extended at a 90° angle
magnetized rotor poles provide an vary from motor to motor within the to the fingers), then the thumb will
increased magnetic flux intensity and same frame size classification. As a point in the direction of the magnetic
because of this the PM motor exhibits general rule the available torque out- field.”
improved torque characteristics when put from a motor of a particular frame Figure 5 shows the magnetic flux
compared with the VR type. size will increase with increased body path developed when phase B is ener-
length. gized with winding current in the
Hybrid (HB) Power levels for IC-driven stepper direction shown. The rotor then aligns
The hybrid stepper motor is more motors typically range from below a itself so that the flux opposition is
expensive than the PM stepper motor watt for very small motors up to 10 – minimized. In this case the motor
but provides better performance with 20 watts for larger motors. The maxi- would rotate clockwise so that its
respect to step resolution, torque and mum power dissipation level or south pole aligns with the north pole
speed. Typical step angles for the HB thermal limits of the motor are seldom of the stator B at position 2 and its
stepper motor range from 3.6° to 0.9° clearly stated in the motor manu- north pole aligns with the south pole
(100 – 400 steps per revolution). The facturers data. To determine this we of stator B at position 6. To get the
hybrid stepper motor combines the must apply the relationship P␣ =V ×␣ I. motor to rotate we can now see that
best features of both the PM and VR For example, a size 23 step motor may we must provide a sequence of
type stepper motors. The rotor is be rated at 6V and 1A per phase. energizing the stator windings in such
multi-toothed like the VR motor and Therefore, with two phases energized a fashion that provides a rotating
contains an axially magnetized con- the motor has a rated power dissipa- magnetic flux field which the rotor
centric magnet around its shaft. The tion of 12 watts. It is normal practice follows due to magnetic attraction.
teeth on the rotor provide an even to rate a stepper motor at the power
better path which helps guide the dissipation level where the motor case
magnetic flux to preferred locations in rises 65°C above the ambient in still Torque Generation
the airgap. This further increases the air. Therefore, if the motor can be The torque produced by a stepper
detent, holding and dynamic torque mounted to a heatsink it is often motor depends on several factors.
characteristics of the motor when com- possible to increase the allowable
power dissipation level. This is • The step rate
pared with both the VR and PM
types. important as the motor is designed to • The drive current in the windings
The two most commonly used types be and should be used at its maximum
power dissipation ,to be efficient from • The drive design or type
of stepper motors are the permanent
magnet and the hybrid types. If a a size/output power/cost point of view. In a stepper motor a torque is devel-
designer is not sure which type will oped when the magnetic fluxes of the
best fit his applications requirements rotor and stator are displaced from
he should first evaluate the PM type as When to Use a Stepper each other. The stator is made up of a
it is normally several times less expen- Motor high permeability magnetic material.
sive. If not then the hybrid motor may A stepper motor can be a good choice The presence of this high permeability
be the right choice. whenever controlled movement is material causes the magnetic flux to
required. They can be used to advan- be confined for the most part to the
There also excist some special tage in applications where you need to paths defined by the stator structure
stepper motor designs. One is the disc control rotation angle, speed, position in the same fashion that currents are
magnet motor. Here the rotor is and synchronism. Because of the in- confined to the conductors of an elec-
designed sa a disc with rare earth herent advantages listed previously, tronic circuit. This serves to concen-
magnets, See fig. 5 . This motor type stepper motors have found their place trate the flux at the stator poles. The

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 T.C.Kanish, SMBS

torque output produced by the motor increase the number of steps per
is proportional to the intensity of the revolution of the motor, or in other
magnetic flux generated when the words to provide a smaller basic (full 8 1
7
winding is energized. step) stepping angle. The permanent S
The basic relationship which 2
magnet stepper motor contains an Phase A S 6 N Rotor N
defines the intensity of the magnetic equal number of rotor and stator pole
flux is defined by: 3
pairs. Typically the PM motor has 12 5 4

H = (N × i) ÷ l where: pole pairs. The stator has 12 pole pairs

per phase. The hybrid type stepper Stator A
N = The number of winding turns motor has a rotor with teeth. The
rotor is split into two parts, separated Stator B IB
i = current
by a permanant magnet—making half
H = Magnetic field intensity Phase B
of the teeth south poles and half north
l = Magnetic flux path length poles.The number of pole pairs is Figure 5. Magnetic flux path through a
equal to the number of teeth on one of two-pole stepper motor with a lag between
This relationship shows that the the rotor halves. The stator of a hybrid
magnetic flux intensity and conse- the rotor and stator.
motor also has teeth to build up a
quently the torque is proportional to higher number of equivalent poles
the number of winding turns and the (smaller pole pitch, number of
current and inversely proportional to equivalent poles = 360/teeth pitch) N
the length of the magnetic flux path. compared to the main poles, on which 7
8 1
From this basic relationship one can Phase A S
the winding coils are wound. Usually 2
see that the same frame size stepper 4 main poles are used for 3.6 hybrids VM S 6 Rotor N
IA
motor could have very different torque and 8 for 1.8- and 0.9-degree types. Phase A N
3
output capabilities simply by chang- 5 4
It is the relationship between the S
ing the winding parameters. More number of rotor poles and the equival- Stator A
detailed information on how the ent stator poles, and the number the
winding parameters affect the output number of phases that determines the Stator B
capability of the motor can be found full-step angle of a stepper motor. IB
in the application note entitled “Drive Phase B VM Phase B
Circuit Basics”. Step angle=360 ÷ (NPh × Ph)=360/N
NPh = Number of equivalent poles per N
IA
phase = number of rotor poles 8 1
Phases, Poles and Stepping 7
Ph = Number of phases S
Angles Phase A S Rotor
2
N
6 N
Usually stepper motors have two N = Total number of poles for all
phases, but three- and five-phase phases together 3
5 4
motors also exist. S
If the rotor and stator tooth pitch is
A bipolar motor with two phases unequal, a more-complicated relation- Stator A
has one winding/phase and a unipolar ship exists.
motor has one winding, with a center Stator B IB
tap per phase. Sometimes the unipolar
stepper motor is referred to as a “four- Phase B
Stepping Modes
phase motor”, even though it only has The following are the most common Figure 6. Unipolar and bipolar wound
two phases. drive modes. stepper motors.
Motors that have two separate
windings per phase also exist—these • Wave Drive (1 phase on)
motors with the same winding param-
can be driven in either bipolar or • Full Step Drive (2 phases on) eters this excitation mode would result
unipolar mode. in the same mechanical position. The
A pole can be defined as one of the • Half Step Drive (1 & 2 phases on)
disadvantage of this drive mode is that
regions in a magnetized body where • Microstepping (Continuously in the unipolar wound motor you are
the magnetic flux density is con- varying motor currents) only using 25% and in the bipolar
centrated. Both the rotor and the motor only 50% of the total motor
stator of a step motor have poles. For the following discussions please
winding at any given time. This
Figure 2 contains a simplified picture refer to the figure 6.
means that you are not getting the
of a two-phase stepper motor having 2 In Wave Drive only one winding is
maximum torque output from the
poles (or 1 pole pairs) for each phase energized at any given time. The
motor
on the stator, and 2 poles (one pole stator is energized according to the
pair) on the rotor. In reality several sequence A → B → A → B and the
more poles are added to both the rotor rotor steps from position 8 → 2 → 4
and stator structure in order to → 6. For unipolar and bipolar wound

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 T.C.Kanish, SMBS

Torque
The excitation sequences for the The displacement angle is deter-
Unstable
above drive modes are summarized in mined by the following relationship:
TH Region Table 1.
In Microstepping Drive the X = (Z ÷ 2π) × sin(Ta ÷ Th) where:
Ta
currents in the windings are
Angle O continuously varying to be able to Z = rotor tooth pitch
A Oa B C
break up one full step into many Ta = Load torque
Stable Unstable Stable smaller discrete steps. More
Point Point Point information on microstepping can be Th = Motors rated holding torque
found in the microstepping chapter. X = Displacement angle.
Figure 7. Torque vs. rotor angular
position. Therefore if you have a problem
Torque vs, Angle with the step angle error of the loaded
Characteristics motor at rest you can improve this by
Torque The torque vs angle characteristics of changing the “stiffness” of the motor.
a stepper motor are the relationship This is done by increasing the holding
TH2 torque of the motor. We can see this
between the displacement of the rotor
and the torque which applied to the effect shown in the figure 5.
TH1 rotor shaft when the stepper motor is Increasing the holding torque for a
TLoad energized at its rated voltage. An ideal constant load causes a shift in the lag
stepper motor has a sinusoidal torque angle from Q2 to Q1.
vs displacement characteristic as
shown in figure 8.
Angle O Positions A and C represent stable Step Angle Accuracy
O1 O2
Figure 8. Torque vs. rotor angle position at equilibrium points when no external One reason why the stepper motor has
different holding torque. force or load is applied to the rotor achieved such popularity as a position-
shaft. When you apply an external ing device is its accuracy and repeat-
force Ta to the motor shaft you in ability. Typically stepper motors will
In Full Step Drive you are ener- essence create an angular have a step angle accuracy of 3 – 5%
gizing two phases at any given time. displacement, Θa. This angular of one step. This error is also non-
The stator is energized according to displacement, Θa, is referred to as a cumulative from step to step. The
the sequence AB → A B → A B → lead or lag angle depending on wether accuracy of the stepper motor is
AB and the rotor steps from position the motor is actively accelerating or mainly a function of the mechanical
1 → 3 → 5 → 7 . Full step mode decelerating. When the rotor stops precision of its parts and assembly.
results in the same angular movement with an applied load it will come to Figure 9 shows a typical plot of the
as 1 phase on drive but the mechanical rest at the position defined by this positional accuracy of a stepper motor.
position is offset by one half of a full displacement angle. The motor
step. The torque output of the develops a torque, Ta, in opposition to Step Position Error
unipolar wound motor is lower than the applied external force in order to The maximum positive or negative
the bipolar motor (for motors with the balance the load. As the load is position error caused when the motor
same winding parameters) since the increased the displacement angle also has rotated one step from the previous
unipolar motor uses only 50% of the increases until it reaches the holding position.
available winding while the bipolar maximum holding torque, Th, of the Step position error = measured step
motor uses the entire winding. motor. Once Th is exceeded the motor angle - theoretical angle
Half Step Drive combines both enters an unstable region. In this
wave and full step (1&2 phases on) region a torque is the opposite Positional Error
drive modes. Every second step only direction is created and the rotor The motor is stepped N times from an
one phase is energized and during the jumps over the unstable point to the initial position (N = 360°/step angle)
other steps one phase on each stator. next stable point. and the angle from the initial position
The stator is energized according to
the sequence AB → B → A B → A
→ A B → B → AB → A and the
rotor steps from position 1 → 2 → 3 Table 1. Excitation sequences for different drive modes
→ 4 → 5 → 6 → 7 → 8. This results
in angular movements that are half of Normal
those in 1- or 2-phases-on drive Wave Drive full step Half-step drive
modes. Half stepping can reduce a Phase 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
phenomena referred to as resonance A • • • • • •
which can be experienced in 1- or 2- B • • • • • •
phases-on drive modes. A • • • • • •
B • • • • • •

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 T.C.Kanish, SMBS

is measured at each step position. If Torque vs, Speed Positional

the angle from the initial position to Characteristics Angle Accuracy
the N-step position is ΘN and the The torque vs speed characteristics are
Deviation
error is ∆ΘN where: the key to selecting the right motor
∆ΘN = ∆ΘN - (step angle) × N. and drive method for a specific
application. These characteristics are
The positional error is the difference dependent upon (change with) the
of the maximum and minimum but is motor, excitation mode and type of Theoretical
usually expressed with a ± sign. That driver or drive method. A typical
Position
is: “speed – torque curve” is shown in
positional error = ± 1⁄2(∆ΘMax - ∆ΘMin) figure9.
To get a better understanding of Hysteresis
Error
this curve it is useful to define the
Hysteresis Positional Error different aspect of this curve. Figure 9. Positional accuracy of a stepper
The values obtained from the measure-
motor.
ment of positional errors in both Holding torque
directions. The maximum torque produced by
the motor at standstill. Torque
Holding Torque
Mechanical Parameters, Pull-In Curve Pull-out
Load, Friction, Inertia The pull-in curve defines a area refered Torque
The performance of a stepper motor to as the start stop region. This is the Curve
system (driver and motor) is also maximum frequency at which the Pull-in
Torque Slew
highly dependent on the mechanical motor can start/stop instantaneously, curve
parameters of the load. The load is with a load applied, without loss of Region
defined as what the motor drives. It is synchronism. Start-Stop Region
typically frictional, inertial or a Speed
Max Start Rate P.P.S.
combination of the two. Maximum Start Rate Max Slew Rate
Friction is the resistance to motion The maximum starting step frequency
due to the unevenness of surfaces with no load applied. Figure 10. Torque vs. speed characteristics
which rub together. Friction is of a stepper motor.
constant with velocity. A minimum Pull-Out Curve
torque level is required throughout The pull-out curve defines an area
the step in over to overcome this refered to as the slew region. It defines The shape of the speed - torque
friction ( at least equal to the friction). the maximum frequency at which the curve can change quite dramatically
Increasing a frictional load lowers the motor can operate without losing syn- depending on the type of driver used.
top speed, lowers the acceleration and chronism. Since this region is outside The bipolar chopper type drivers
increases the positional error. The the pull-in area the motor must which Ericsson Components produces
converse is true if the frictional load is ramped (accelerated or decelerated) will maximum the speed - torque
lowered into this region. performance from a given motor. Most
Inertia is the resistance to changes motor manufacturers provide these
in speed. A high inertial load requires Maximum Slew Rate speed - torque curves for their motors.
a high inertial starting torque and the The maximum operating frequency of It is important to understand what
same would apply for braking. In- the motor with no load applied. driver type or drive method the motor
creasing an inertial load will increase The pull-in characteristics vary also manufacturer used in developing their
speed stability, increase the amount of depending on the load. The larger the curves as the torque vs. speed charac-
time it takes to reach a desired speed load inertia the smaller the pull-in teristics of an given motor can vary
and decrease the maximum self start area. We can see from the shape of the significantly depending on the drive
pulse rate. The converse is again true curve that the step rate affects the method used.
if the inertia is decreased. torque output capability of stepper
The rotor oscillations of a stepper motor The decreasing torque output as
motor will vary with the amount of the speed increases is caused by the
friction and inertia load. Because of fact that at high speeds the inductance
this relationship unwanted rotor oscil- of the motor is the dominant circuit
lations can be reduced by mechanical element.
damping means however it is more
often simpler to reduce these
unwanted oscillations by electrical
damping methods such as switch from
full step drive to half step drive.

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 T.C.Kanish, SMBS

Single Step Response and Stepper motors can often exhibit a

phenomena refered to as resonance at Angle
Resonances
The single-step response character- certain step rates. This can be seen as a
istics of a stepper motor is shown in sudden loss or drop in torque at cer-
figure 11. tain speeds which can result in missed
O
When one step pulse is applied to a steps or loss of synchronism. It occurs
stepper motor the rotor behaves in a when the input step pulse rate coin-
manner as defined by the above curve. cides with the natural oscillation
The step time t is the time it takes the frequency of the rotor. Often there is a Time
motor shaft to rotate one step angle resonance area around the 100 – 200
t T
once the first step pulse is applied. pps region and also one in the high
This step time is highly dependent on step pulse rate region. The resonance Figure 11. Single step response vs. time.
the ratio of torque to inertia (load) as phenomena of a stepper motor comes
well as the type of driver used. from its basic construction and there-
Since the torque is a function of the fore it is not possible to eliminate it
displacement it follows that the accel- completely. It is also dependent upon
eration will also be. Therefore, when the load conditions. It can be reduced
moving in large step increments a by driving the motor in half or micro-
high torque is developed and stepping modes.
consequently a high acceleration. This
can cause overshots and ringing as
shown. The settling time T is the time
it takes these oscillations or ringing to
cease. In certain applications this
phenomena can be undesirable. It is
possible to reduce or eliminate this
behaviour by microstepping the
stepper motor. For more information
on microstepping please consult the
microstepping note.