PROC. INTERNAT. CONF. SCI. ENGIN.

ISSN 1504607797
Volume 4, February 2021 E-ISSN 1505707533
Page 282-295

Environmental Impacts of Shrimp Farming and Benefit of Pond

Intensification for Sustainable Aquaculture: A Review

Prihanik Marlina Widiyanti

PT ITS Science Indonesia, Life Science Division, Sentra Bisnis Artha Gading, Jl. Boulevard Artha Gading Blok A-6-A No. 3,
Kelapa Gading Barat, Jakarta Utara, Indonesia 14240, Phone (+62) 21 451 6222. Fax (+62) 21 451 6223.
Email: [email protected]

Abstract. The goal of sustainable aquaculture is to provide a continued supply farmed aquatic nutrients beneficial for human
sustenance without harming existing ecosystems or exceeding the ability of the planet to renew the natural resources required
for aquaculture production (Nevin, 2020). Shrimp is the single most valuable seafood product that enters world trade today.
Some of these farms are built in mangrove areas. To accommodate for this high demand farmers, intensify their production, thus
effecting the environment by surpassing the areas carrying capacity. Factory farming, has the potential to deplete soils, reduces
genetic stock, degrades coastal ecosystems and local water quality. These problems are mainly associated with pondconstruction
and operation (Bolanos, 1999). Shrimp aquaculture can be environmentally sustainable with the proper design, operation,
management, and monitoring. The use of a closed or recirculating system for growing shrimp is the best method for protecting
the environment. Water quality needs to also be checked for both semi-intensive and intensive systems for managing the health
of the shrimp and preventing disease and viral outbreaks. PAS offer a potential advantage over other culture systems because
waste nutrients can recycle back into a crop, greatly increasing feed-use efficiency. Waste nutrients in ponds are assimilated by
endogenous microflora, thereby transforming waste into a potential food source (biofloc). BFT is reliable for the cost effective,
environment friendly fish production. BFT is a preferable technique for facing economic, ecological, and social issues relevant
to current aquaculture. The system has advantage in intensive farming practices. An important feature of this technology is
ammonia wastes are consumed by bacteria for their growth that increases the microbial biomass yield as well as improves the
water quality. Previous studies indicated that the addition of probiotics in the water or feed increases growth, immunity, reduces
animals to expose pathogenic bacteria and stops the growth of harmful pathogens. There is rapidly growing literature on the
application of probiotics which indicates that it is one of the important methods developed to control disease at the farm;
therefore, the addition of probiotics is common practice in fish farming (Daniel and Nageswari, 2017).

Keywords: Aquaculture, mangroves, ponds, biofloc, probiotic, water, shrimp.

Abbreviation: BFT (Biofloc technology), PAS (ponds aquaculture system), NP (nitrogen phosphor), NPK (Nitrogen phosphor
kalsium), C (carbon), N (nitrogen), USA (United State of America)

Running Title: Pond Intensification for Sustainable Aquaculture (Widiyanti, 2020)

INTRODUCTION water movement and thus, aeration, or the mixing of the

air and water of the ponds. Due to poor planning and
Aquaculture is defined as the farming of aquatic plants management and a lack of appropriate regulations, many
and animals in land-based, (pond, raceways, or tanks) or environmental impacts and social conflicts have occurred.
water-based enclosures (cages) in fresh, salt, an'/or Objections are often associated with environmental
brackish waters. Aquatic organisms were raised under consequences (mangrove destruction, saltwater intrusion,
controlled parameters of salinity, pH, light intensity, and disease outbreak and pollutions) (Uddin, 2013).
water temperature. organism currently farmed include Aquaculture has been subjected to an intense learning
fish, mollusk, crustaceans, and aquatic plants, raised with curve with a slope that no other food industry has had to
the goal of enhancing production through interventive climb. The trajectory for aquaculture to achieved the goal
methods of regular stocking, feeding, and protection from of sustainability is no different than any other form of food
predators. production, that is, limit, counteract, or isolate its pollution
Shrimp aquaculture has significant benefits in on the localized environment, and accelerate the
socioeconomic terms, and its high profitability and efficiency of natural resource use. Four areas of focus that
generation of foreign exchange have provided major should effectively coalescence for the goal of sustainable
driving forces in the expansion of the industry. In order to aquaculture to be realized are the preservation of intact
keep up with the demand, many shrimp farmers adopted habitat, efficient use of natural resources, traceability, and
intensive farming practices. Strategic construction of the transparency. Traceability and transparency are
ponds regarding the prevailing wind direction facilitates fundamental to demonstrating accountability. Every

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stakeholder should be concerned with them because their focuses of the reviewed literature are divided into two
accomplishment will produce clear economic, societal, aspects: Environmental impacts of shrimp farming and the
and environmental benefits (Nevin, 2020). In practice, future sustainable aquaculture.
environmental sustainability becomes a question of
Tabel 1. Summary of literature review of two aspects of this review paper.
selecting the best alternatives among different practice and
procedures. Typically, when faced with an operating or Environmental impacts of The future
investment decision an aquaculture venture can choose shrimp farming sustainable
among solutions with different environmental aquaculture
consequences. Ideally, the best technologies allow a Destruction of the Partitioned pond
combination of producers increasing productivity while mangrove ecosystem Mechanical aeration
reducing environmental footprint (Juarez, 2020). Pollutions and water circulation
This paper reviews the production trends, Antibiotics and drugs Biofloc
environmental condition, and culture patterns of shrimp Probiotic
farming in most Asian country. The aim of the review is
to provide a firm foundation for advancing knowledge on
the environmental impacts of shrimp farming and multi-
solutions for it. Finally, this review will lead to an RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
empirical viability study of management approach for
sustainable shrimp farming. 3.1 Environmental impacts of shrimp farming
3.1.1 Destruction of the mangrove ecosystem
A lot of literature points to the fact that the biodiversity
MATERIALS AND METHODS of mangrove forest has degraded due to the unabated
destruction of the diverse mangrove ecosystem (Iftekhar,
Literature search 2006; Hoq, 2007; Iftekhar and Takama, 2008). Mangrove
The literature review is designed to compile the destruction in the world is caused by two major factors:
relevant contributions from previous publications and a aquaculture and agricultural expansion, as well as
literature search of following themes: industrial and settlement development (Primavera, 1997;
- Shrimp farming Giri et al, 2008). Destruction of mangroves due to shrimp
- Aquaculture aquaculture has been reported by several investigators in
- Environmental impact of aquaculture different parts of the world (Primavera, 1997; Dierberg
- Mangrove impact of aquaculture and Kiattisimkul, 1996; Heinz, 2002). The study of Sahid
- Pond intensification and Islam (2003) revealed that approximately 9.734 ha of
- Biofloc in aquaculture mangrove were lost in the southeastern part of Bangladesh
- Biofloc in shrimp farming could be directly attributed to shrimp culture. In indonesia,
- Probiotic in aquaculture Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, and Mexico mangrove
The reviewed studies were sourced from mainly scientific forest were damaged due to shrimp cultivation 55, 67, 84,
papers and journals. It covers journal articles and 37 and 30%, respectively (WRI, 2000).
conference papers in English and Bahasa. There was no Brackish water pond development is the most
limitation on the publication years for the literature search. damaging and widespread activity contributing to the loss
All sources, whether scientific papers, journals, or news, of mangroves since 1800 in Indonesia (Ilman et al, 2016).
were collected from internet with keywords associated to Other major contributors have been timber exploitation,
the previously mentioned themes. The selection was based although in the last 30 years, through combination of strict
on: silviculture methods and limiting the number of mangrove
- Relevant information of the studies addressing concession areas, the Government and private sector have
the issues presented by this paper begun exploiting timber in a more sustainable way. Over
- Information that raise important ideas for the same period, the conversion of mangroves into
exploring the results of unanswered issues brackish water ponds has continued an unprecedented
- Information that provide relevant insights for scale. The conversion rate is likely to spiral up in the next
future research directions two decades as the global demand for farmed shrimp from
South East Asia region is expected to triple (World Bank,
Methods 2013).
This review paper used descriptive qualitative method.
Descriptive qualitative method is a method to investigate
objects that cannot be measured with numbers or other
exact measurements and tend to use analysis with
inductive approach (Fachrul and Rinanti, 2018).

Analysis
According to the analysis of the selected articles, the

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Table 2. Estimated changes of mangrove area in major mangrove regions of Indonesia (Ilman et al, 2016).

Figure 1. Projection of potential loss and gain of mangroves due to brackish water pond activities (Ilman et al, 2016).

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Figure 2. The six mangrove regions in Indonesia: major destruction of mangroves started in Java, followed by Sumatra, Sulawesi, Maluku and Lesser
Sunda, and Papua (Ilman et al., 2016).

later stages of growth period (Flaherty and

3.1.2 Pollution Karnjanakesorn, 1995). In intensive shrimp farming,
Poor quality feed is the main pollution source of the water gets changed for 6 days at full and new moon in
farming and its adjacent waters, although the soluble every fortnight at a rate of 0-10 % of the total volume
organic matter is the important element of water quality of (Wahab et al. 2003). Directly discharged effluents can
the environment (Yang et al, 1999). Feed reacts with many easily pollute the surrounding water and soil quality (Deb,
elements (pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, wave strike 1998). The discharging effluents can reduce the dissolved
and chemical reaction) by resolving, swelling, breaking, oxygen, create hypernutrification and eutrification,
pulverization, and desquamation etc. (Uddin and increade sedimentation load, and cause changes in the
Fakhruddin, 2013). Intensive shrimp farming requires a benthic communities (Flaherty and Karnjanakesorn,
daily change of water, approximately 5-10 % of the total 1995).
pond volume per day during earlier, and 30-40 % during
Table 3. Pollution load and recommended water quality parameter values for shrimp culture.

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farm to farm (Paez- Osuna, 2001). Shrimp culture in Asia

3.1.3 Antibiotics and drugs relies on the input of artificially formulated feed and the
When physio-chemicals factors such as pH, application of agrochemicals, antibiotics, and
temperature, dissolved oxygen, etc. fluctuate frequently, disinfectants. Overuse of antibiotics results in too much
shrimps become susceptible to stress, leading to disease antibiotics residues in the aquaculture products, which
(Paez-Osuna, 2003). Such as red colour, soft shell, tail leads to not only the decrease in the immunity of the
root, and black gill (Primavera, 1991; Alam, 2007). High aquaculture products, but also decrease in the disease
stocking density and excessive use of feed lowers water resistance of consumers and the increase in the possibility
quality, which contributes to stress and disease among of infecting the disease (Gräslund and Bengtsšon, 2001;
shrimp in intensive farming system (Flaherty and Holmstrőm et al., 2003; Cabello, 2006). Excessive and
Vandergeest, 1998; Paez-Osuna, 2003). It is dangerous unwanted use of such chemicals results in problems
when redundant feed and waste are discharged directly to related to toxicity to non-target species (cultured species,
environment, which renders it extremely susceptible to human consumers, and wild biota), development of
carrying diseases. The intake of polluted water from antibiotics resistance and accumulation of residues
neighboring farms often spreads water-borne disease from (Primavera, 1998).
Table 4. Common antibiotics usage in the shrimp hatcheries in Bangladesh

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Table 5. Chemicals and biological products used in the brackish water ponds culture of whiteleg shrimp (L. vannamei) in Pesawaran Regency Lampung
Province, Indonesia.

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Table 6. Chemicals used by 80 shrimp farmers in Songkhla and Nakhon Sri Thammarat in southern Thailand (Philip, 1995).

3.2. The future sustainable aquaculture

3.2.1 Partitioned ponds
Intensifying pond aquaculture without resorting to
water exchange is daunting technological challenge. One
approach is to increase the pond’s internal waste-removal
capacity by either redesigning the pond to enhance
phytoplankton growth (the dominant ecological process in
conventional ponds) or by radically changing the internal
biological processes responsible for waste treatment. This
internalenhancement concept of waste removal spawned
two innovative technologies-partitioned ponds and biofloc
ponds. Another approach to address intensification is to
enhance waste-treatment capacity on a whole-farm basis Figure. 3 Split ponds for ictalurid catfish in Mississippi, USA. The middle
rather than in individual ponds. These disparate pond is highlighted to show partitioning of the original 3.2-ha pond into a
0.6-ha fish-holding basin and a 2.6-ha algal waste-treatment lagoon.
management technologies have broken the barriers that Arrows show direction of daytime pumped-water circulation through
limit productivity in conventional ponds while improving culverts. Photograph by Danny Oberle (Boyd, Abramo, Glencross,
land and water-use efficiencies and reducing pollution Huyben, Juarez, Lockwood, McNevin, Tacon, Telechea, Tomasso, Tucker,
Valenti (2019).
(Tucker, 2019).
Partitioned ponds were developed in the 1990s to 3.2.2 Mechanical aeration and water circulation
integrate fish culture with zero-discharge wastewater An especially critical research needs for dissolved
treatment (Brune, Schwartz, Eversole, Collier, and oxygen management in ponds in the investigation of the
Schwedler, 2014). The original partitioned aquaculture relationship between aeration and water circulation. Most
system (PAS) confines fish at high density in concrete aerators, and particularly floating electric paddlewheel
raceways that comprise about 5% of the total pond area. aerators, were designed for maximum oxygen transfer
Waste produced during fish culture are circulated through efficiency, and the characteristics of water current
a large, well-mixed pond based on “high-rate algal produced by aerators have not been thoroughly studied.
ponds”originally designed for domestic wastewater Devices that induce water circulation in ponds have been
treatment (Oswald, 1963). Potential fish production designed, fabricated, and tested (Howerton, Boyd and
increases because of the system’s improved waste Watten, 1993). A preliminary study suggested that the
treatment capacity. In theory, if you double the rate of net combination of aerators and water circulations might be
algal photosynthesis, you can double the removal rate of more efficient in maintaining dissolved oxygen
ammonia and other waste products, thereby doubling both concentrations in ponds than that achieved by application
the maximum safe feeding rate and fish production (Boyd of aeration alone
and Tucker 2019). (Tucker and Steeby, 1995). Research to determine the
conditions under which water circulators could be
efficiently used to enhance aeration practices should be
highly prioritized.
Both fish and shrimp cannot hold position in ponds if
water currents become too strong, and in laboratory
studies, shrimp grow best at water velocities of 0.63-2.78
cm/s (Dai, Zhang, and Zhang, 2008). In earthen culture
ponds, shrimp avoid areas where water velocities were <3
cm/s (apparently because of sedimentation) and tended to
avoid areas where water velocities were >5 cm/s
(Wijesekara, Nomura and Matsumura, 2005). Experience
in shrimp culture has revealed that for each additional
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horsepower of aeration produced by Asian-style accuracy of the production to aerators horsepower ratio
paddlewheel aeration, 400-500 kg more shrimp can be selected in a pond should be continually verified by
reared (Boyd et al., 2019). Nevertheless, due to the monitoring the dissolved oxygen concentration.
variability of pond dissolved oxygen budgets, the

Figure 4. A “Taiwan-style” paddlewheel aerator on a fish farm (photograph courtesy of Wikimedia Commons) (Boyd, Abramo, Glencross, Huyben, Juarez,
Lockwood, McNevin, Tacon, Telechea, Tomasso, Tucker, Valenti (2019)).

Although mechanical aeration has become a common 3.2.3 Biofloc

practice, and aerators that are efficient in transferring In general, biofloc is the macro-aggreagation of
oxygen to water and of excellent mechanical reliability bacteria, algae, detritus, and other decomposed
have been developed, the knowledge of efficient aerator components (Avnimelech et al., 1995). It is the
use to contribute to sustainable production system is combination of bacteria, diatoms, zooplankton, protozoa,
poorly developed. Minimum dissolved oxygen macro-algae, feces, uneaten feed, and exoskeleton from
concentration that can be maintained without causing a dead organism (Decamp et al, 2008). It is a group of biotic
decrease in feed consumption and feed conversion and abiotic particulate components suspended in the water
efficiency and greater susceptibility to disease need to be which includes bacteria, plankton, and other organic
determined for the different aquaculture species (Boyd et materials (Hargreaves et al., 2006). Large Flocs can be
al, 2019). The placement of aerators in ponds also seen with the naked eye, but most of them are
deserves additional investigation. In the interest of the microscopic. Floc size range from 50-200 microns
promotion and achievement of sustainable aquaculture (Vikaspedia, 2020). Biofloc technology (BFT) has been
production, the reduction of resource use per unit of amply studied and contributes to the maintenance of
aquaculture production is a pervasive goal. Ultimately, adequate water quality in aquaculture systems and to the
direct resource use is conserved by reducing inputs per nutrition of farmed aquatic animals. It has been shown that
unit weight of aquaculture production as well as the BFT systems not only keep ammonia below toxic levels
quantity of waste generated per unit weight of productions and improve the efficiency of nutrient utilization of
(Boyd et al., 2017; Chatvijitkul, Boyd, Davis, and Mc farmed animals, but also provide additional nutrients and
Nevin, 2017). exogenous digestive enzymes. BFT application can also
support greater growth, survival, and reproductive
performance of the cultured animals (Ekasari et al, 2019).

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Table 7. Some of the study conducted in fish with reference to biofloc based culture systems (Daniel and Nageswari, 2016).

Figure 5. The ammonia, nitrite, and ortho-phosphate concentration in each DOC of shrimp pond. The error bar indicates standard deviation of nutrients
(nitrite, ammonia, and orthophosphate) for each DOC (Kasan et al., 2018).

Nitrite concentration was the highest during DOC 60 with 2.40 mg/L while DOC 20 was found to have the lowest
nitrite concentration with only 0.02 mg/L. Throughout all DOC, nitrite concentration showed increasing trend from
DOC 30 to DOC 60. However, at DOC 70, nitrite concentration showed declining (Kasan et al., 2018).

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Table 8. Comparison of survival rate and shrimp production in control pond and super-intensive 2-phase biofloc system (Kasan et al., 2018).

(2019)).
A variation in BFT pond production with an average
of 3.1 tons per pond per cycle was achieved (table 2). This 3.2.4 Probiotic
is equivalent to average of 2.06 kg/m2 of shrimp Various studies have analyzed the use of probiotic
production. As for comparison, the control pond generates bacteria to promote the health of the organism (Dohail et
between 0.8 to 1.0 kg/m2 of shrimp production. From the al., 2011; Ghareeb et al., 2008; Souza et al., 2012).
population density between 240,000 to 340,000 pieces, an Conducted research on probiotics has shown many
average survival rate (SR) of 89% was achieved. This beneficial impacts to the health of cultured animals,
finding showed that with high stocking density, the 89% including growth and immunity (Decamp, 2008; Tseng,
of SR achieved is relatively high and sustainable (Kasan 2009; Verschuere, 2000). Probiotics have many
et al., 2018). mechanisms of action: the competitive exclusion of
pathogenic bacteria, serving as a nutrient source and
contributing to enzymatic digestion of animals, beneficial
effects on water quality, and improvement of the animal
immune response. Many bacteria are being explored to be
used as a probiotic strain as they contain the growth,
immune stimulatory effect, and resistance against
pathogenic microbes (Kesarcodi-Watson, 2008).

Figure 6. Observation of biofloc volume in Imhoff cone (Daniel and

Nageswari, 2016).

Figure 7. An intensively aerated biofloc shrimp pond in Guatemala.

Photograph by John Hargreaves (Boyd, Abramo, Glencross, Huyben,
Juarez, Lockwood, McNevin, Tacon, Telechea, Tomasso, Tucker, Valenti
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Table 9. Some of the study conducted in fish with reference to probiotics supplementation (Daniel and Nageswari (2016).

CONCLUSIONS effluent discharge, preventing risk from the disease

outbreak, protecting the water free from pathogen entry;
Partitioned aquaculture system (PAS) or in this case, thus, ultimately improve the biosecurity at the farm level
partitioned pond, represents the ultimate degree of (Burford, 2003). However, the monitoring techniques for
intensification for ponds where phytoplankton floc characteristics, composition, and nutritional quality
metabolism is the dominant process affecting the (amino acid, fatty acid, and vitamin content) need to be
environment. However, the original PAS was not widely developed (Nahar and Nabi, 2019). Result of the recent
adopted by fish farmers because the system operationally studies supported that supplementing the probiotics to
complex and costly to build (Boyd et al., 2019). Although biofloc helps in the growth, digestion, metabolism, and
mechanical aeration has become a common practice, and disease resistance to the animals together with improving
aerators that are efficient in transferring oxygen to water the water quality in the culture system (Daniel and
and of excellent mechanical reliability have been Nageswari, 2016). The only confounding problem is that
developed, the knowledge of efficient aerator use to large variations in bacterial community composition that
contribute to sustainable production system is poorly exist for different time point, feed composition, fish
developed. Minimum dissolved oxygen concentrations lifecycle stages, rearing systems, water temperature, and
that can be maintained without causing a deceased in need external-internal factors. Only a small number of probiotic
to be determined for the different aquaculture species. The studies that analyze gut microbiota and additional data are
placement of aerators in ponds also deserves additional needed to evaluate the effects of probiotics on a range of
investigation (Boyd et al., 2019). Biofloc technology aquaculture species (Boyd et al., 2019).
offers an ample advantage ensuring zero water exchange
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