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Energy and Momentum

WORK DONE BY THE FORCE Section - 1

Work done by a Constant Force

Let F be constant force acting on a body. If the body goes through
a displacement S , then the work done by the force F is given by
W = Fs cos θ = F.s
where  = angle between force vector F and displacement
vector S .
F = magnitude of force F
and s = magnitude of displacement S .
 If  is acute, W is positive (force tries to increase the
speed of the body).
 If  = 90 i.e., force is perpendicular to displacement,
W = 0.
 If  is obtuse, W is negative (force tries to decrease
the speed of the body).

Note : (i) If F is in same direction as S  W=Fs

(ii) If F is opposite to S  W=Fs

Illustrating the concept :

For a block sliding on a rough horizontal table, force of friction ( k mg) is opposite to displacement,
so the work done by the force of friction =  k mgs where s = displacement

Work Done by a Variable Force

When the force is an arbitrary function of position, we need the
techniques of calculus to evaluate the work done by it. The
figure shows F as some function of the position x. We begin by
replacing the actual variation of the force by a series of small
steps. The area under each segment of the curve is approximately
equal to the area of a rectangle. The height of the rectangle is a
constant value of force, and its width is a small displacement

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x. Thus, the nth step involves an amount of work

Wn  Fn xn . The total work done is given approximately by
the sum of the areas of the rectangles :
W  Fn xn
As the size of the steps is reduced, the tops of the rectangles
more closely trace the actual curve shown in Fig. In the limit x
 0, which is equivalent to letting the numbers of steps tend to
infinity, the discrete sum is replaced by a continuous integral.

lim
 xn  0
 Fn xn   F  x  dx
Thus, the work done by a variable force F (x) from an initial point A to final point B is
x B
WA  B  x A F  x  dx

Illustration - 1 A block of mass 5 Kg is being raised vertically upwards by the help of a string attached to
it. It rises with an acceleration of 2 m/s2. The block rises by 2.5 m. Match the correct choices :
Column I Column II
(A) Work done by gravity (P) 122.55
(B) Work done by tension (Q) 147.55
(C) Net work done on the block (R) – 122.55
(S) 25 J
SOLUTION :
Let us first calculate the tension. W = T s = 59 (2.5) = 147.5 J
From force diagram : Work done by the gravity
T - mg = 5a =  mgs  5 (9.8) (2.5)  122.5 J
T = 5 (9.8 + 2) = 59 N.
Net work done on block
= work done by T + work done by mg
= 147.5 + ( 122.5) = 25 J
The answer is A  R, B  Q, C  S
As the T and displacement S are in same direction
(upwards), work done by the tension T is :

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Illustration - 2 A block of mass 4 kg slides down a plane inclined at 37 with the
horizontal. The length of plane is 3m. The coefficient of sliding friction between the
block and the plane is 0.2. Find the work done by the gravity, the frictional force
and the normal reaction between the block and the plane.
SOLUTION :
As the normal reaction is perpendicular to the
displacement, Work done by the normal
reaction R
= R s cos 90 = 0
The magnitude of displacement = s = 3 m and
the angle between force of gravity (mg) and
mg sin 37 = 4  9.8  3  3/5
displacement is equal to (90°-37°)
= 70.56 J
Work done by the gravity  Work done by friction
= mgs cos (90° - 37°)
= (R)s =  (mg cos 37)s
=  0.2  4  9.8  4/5  3
= 18.816 J

ENERGY Section - 2

Anything which has the ability to do work possesses energy. When the work is done by such a body, it loses
energy. When the work is done on the body, it gains energy. Energy is a scalar quantity and measured in
joules (J).
Mechanical Energy can be of two types :
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy (KE)

It is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
1 2
KE = mv (m : mass of the body and v : velocity)
2

Potential Energy (PE) :

When work is done on a system and the system preserves this work in such a way that it can be subsequently
recovered back in form of some type of energy, the system is capable of possessing potential energy.

Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces

While analysing the problems using the principle of conservation of energy, it is important to distinguish
between two types of forces :

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Conservative Forces
There are two ways in which we can characterise a conservative force :
A force is conservative if :
 The net work done against the force in moving a mass between two points depends only on the
location of two points and not on the path followed
or
 The net work done against the force in moving a mass through any closed path is zero.
These two criteria are equivalent. A conservative force follows both properties.
Examples of conservative forces are - gravitational force, ideal spring forces, electrostatic forces.
We can always define an associated potential energy for every conservative force. Corresponding to
these conservative forces we have gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy and electrostatic
potential energy.

Non-Conservative Forces
Those forces which do not satisfy the above mentioned criteria are non conservative forces. Friction and
viscous forces are the most common examples of non-conservative forces.

Conservative Forces and Potential Energy

For every conservative force, there is a corresponding potential energy function. In each case, the potential
energy expression depends only on position.
For every conservative force F (x), that depends only on the position x, there is an associated potential
energy function U(x). When conservative force does positive work, the potential energy of the system
decreases.
work done by conservative force = loss in PE
F(x) x = U
or F(x) =  U/x
dU
which, in the limit, becomes F  x  
dx
Integrating both sides for a displacement from x = a to x = b, we have :
b
U b  U a    F  x  dx
a

Note : In these equations, F is taken negative if it is opposite to x and positive if it is in same direction as x.

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Gravitational Potential energy (GPE) :

If we lift a block through some height (h) from A to B, work is
done against the gravity. This work done is stored in the form of
gravitational potential energy of the block-earth system.
We can write, work done in raising the block = (mg) h
This equal to increase in GPE of the block
If the centre of a body of mass m is raised by a height h,
Increase in GPE = mgh where h is the gain in height.w

If the centre of a body of mass m is lowered by a distance h,

Decrease in GPE = mgh where h is the loss in height.

Elastic potential energy

When a spring is elongated (or compressed), work is done
against the restoring force of the spring. This work done is stored
in the spring as elastic potential energy.
If the length of a spring is increased or decreased by a distance
x, the spring exerts a restoring force to oppose this change.
Restoring force = – k x and Applied force = + kx
where
k : spring constant (or force constant) ; units of k: N/m

To keep the spring elongated (or compressed) in this position, the applied force should also be of same
magnitude.
Work done in stretching or compressing a spring by a distance x is given by
x 1 2 1 2
= 0 kxdx  kx  Elastic potential energy stored in a spring  kx
2 2

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Illustration - 3 A bullet leaving the muzzle of a rifle barrel with a velocity v penetrates a plank and loses
one fifth of its velocity. It then strikes second plank, which it just penetrates through. Find the ratio of the
thickness of the planks supposing average resistance to the penetration is same in both the cases.
SOLUTION :
Le R = resistance force offered by the For second plank :
planks,
2
t1 = thickness of first plank, 1 4 
t2 = thickness of second plank. m  v   0  Rt2
2 5 
For first plank : 1 2  16 
loss in KE = work against resistance  mv    Rt2 . . . .(ii)
2  25 
2
1 2 1 4  Dividing (i) and (ii)
mv  m  v   Rt1
2 2 5 
t1 9
 
1 2 9  t2 16
 mv    Rt1 . . . .(i)
2  25 

Illustration - 4 A block is placed on the top of a plane inclined at 37 with

horizontal. The length of the plane is 5 m. The block slides down the plane
and reaches the bottom.
(a) Find the speed of the block at the bottom if the inclined plane is smooth.
(b) Find the speed of the block at the bottom if the coefficient of friction is 0.25.

SOLUTION :
Let h be the height of inclined plane (b) As the block comes down, it loses GPE.
 h = 5 sin 37 = 3m. It gains KE and does work against
friction.
(a) As the block slides down the inclined
plane, it loses GPE and gains KE.  Loss in GPE = gain in KE
 Loss in GPE = gain in KE + work done against friction
mg (loss in height) = KEf  KEi  mgh = (1/2 mv2  0) + ( mg cos 37)s
1 2 1
 mgh = mv  0  3mg = mv2 + (0.25)  mg  4/5  5
2 2
 v  2 gh  2  9.8  3 = 7.67 m/s  v = 4g = 6.26 m/s

Note : (i) Loss in energy = initial energy - final energy

(ii) Gain in energy = final energy - initial energy

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Illustration - 5 A 1.0 kg block collides with a horizontal light spring of force

constant 2 N/m. The block compresses the spring 4 m from the rest position.
Assuming that the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the
horizontal surface is 0.25, what was the speed of the block at the instant of
collision ?
SOLUTION :
When the block compresses the spring, let x 1 2 1
m be the amount of compression, i.e. x = 4 m.  mv  0  kx 2   mgx
2 2
Let v = velocity of the block when it collides
1 2 1
with the spring. mv  (2)(4) 2  0.251 9.8  4
2 2
Loss in KE of the block = (gain in elastic
potential energy of the spring) + (work done v2 = 51.6  v = 51.6
against friction) = 7.18 m/s

Illustration - 6 A pump is required to lift 1000 kg of water per minute from a well 20 m deep and eject it
at a rate of 20 m/s.
(a) How much work is done in lifting water ?
(b) How much work is done in giving it a KE ?
(c) What HP (horse power) engine is required for the purpose of lifting water ?
SOLUTION :
Work done in lifting water = gain in PE Power of the engine = work done per second
(potential energy) = 1/60 (1.96 + 2) 105 J
Work = 1000  g  20 = 6.6  103 W (watts)
= 1.96  105 J per minute Since 1 HP = 746 W, HP required = 8.85
Work done (per minute) in giving it KE
= 1/2 mv2
= 1/2 (1000) (20)2
= 2  105 J per minute

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Illustration - 7 A uniform chain of length  and mass m lies on a smooth table. A very small part of this
chain hangs from the table. It begins to fall under the weight of hanging end. Find the velocity of chain when
the length of hanging part becomes y.
SOLUTION :

As the chain slips down from the table, the

(mass of hanging part ) g ( loss in height of
gravitational potential energy of hanging part
decreases and gets converted into kinetic 1 2
C.G)  mv
energy. 2
The part of the chain lying on the table does  my   y  1 2
not lose any GPE.    g    mv
   2 2
loss in GPE of hanging part = gain in KE of the
gy 2 g
1
chain  mv 2  v2   v y
2  

Illustration - 8 The potential energy of a particle in a certain field has the form U = a/r2 - b/r, where a and
b are positive constants, r is the distance from the centre of the field. Find the value of r0 corresponding to the
equilibrium position of the particle ; examine whether this position is stable.
SOLUTION :
U(r) = a/r2 b/r
At stable equilibrium, the potential energy is
dU  2a b  minimum and at unstable equilibrium, it is
Force = F     3  2 
dr  r r  maximum. From calculus, we know that for
 br  2a  minimum value around a point r = r0 , the first
F derivative should be zero and the second
r3 derivative should be positive.
dU
At equilibrium, F   0 For minimum potential energy,
dr
Hence br - 2a = 0 at equilibrium. dU d 2U
0 and 0 at r = r0
r = r0 = 2a/b corresponds to dr d r2
equilibrium. dU
We have already set  0 to get
dr
r = r0 = 2a/b.

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Let us investigate the second derivative. d 2U 6a  2br0 2a

   0.
2
d 2U d  dU  d  2 a b  6 a 2b dr r04 r04
    3  2   4  3
d r 2 dr  d r  dr  r r  r r Hence the potential energy function U(r) has a
minimum value at r0 = 2a/b. The system has a
At r = r0 = 2a/b, stable equilibrium at minimum potential energy
state.

MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE Section - 3

Condition to Complete the Circle

A mass m is tied to a string of length  and is rotated in a vertical circle with centre at the other end of the
string.
Let us find the minimum velocity of the mass at the top of the circle at the bottom of the circle so that it is able
to complete the circle.
At all positions, there are two forces acting on the mass :
its own weight and the tension in the string.
Let the radius of the circle = 
(a) At the top :
Let vt = velocity at the top
mvt2
Net force towards centre =

2
mv mv 2
T  mg  t  T  t  mg
 
For the movement in the circle, the string should remain tight i.e. the tension must be positive at all
positions. As the tension is minimum at the top Ttop  0

mvt2
  mg  0  vt  g


 Minimum or critical velocity at the top =  g

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(b) At the bottom :

Let vb be the velocity at the bottom. As the particle goes up, its KE decreases and GPE increases.
 Loss in KE = gain in GPE
1 2 1 2
 mvb  mvt  mg  2 
2 2
vb2  vt2  4 g 

 vb min   vt2 min  4g

 vb min  5 g

Note : When a particle moves in a vertical circle, its speed decreases as it goes up and its speed increases as it
comes down. Hence it is an example of non-uniform circular motion.

Condition for Oscillations in a Semi-Circle

A particle of mass m is suspended from a string of length  fixed to
the point O. Let us find the velocity to be imparted to the particle in its
lowermost position so that the string is just able to reach the horizontal
diameter of the circle.
Let v be the required velocity imparted to the particle. The particle
just stops at B.

Loss in KE = Gain in GPE

1/2mv2 0 = mg
 v 2g

BRIEF ANALYSIS OF MOTION IN A VERTICAL CIRCLE

If vb : velocity of particle at bottom

 : radius of the circle ABCD
1. If vb  5 g  , the particle will move in the circle ABCD.
2. If vb  2 g  , the particle will oscillate right and left around point A.
3. If vb  2 g  , it will oscillate along the semicircle BAD.

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4. If 2 g   vb  5 g  , the particle will cross the

diameter DOB but will not be able to complete the
circle. It will leave the c ircular path somewhere
between B and C at a point P where tension
(or normal reaction) becomes zero.

Illustration - 9 A ball of mass 2 Kg is placed at a point A inside a smooth

semicircular track with centre O. Find the velocity of the ball when it reaches
the bottom B of the circle. Also find the force with which the ball presses
against the track at B. The radius of the track is 2 m.
SOLUTION :
The ball slides down from A to B along a circular path.

Between A and B : At B :
Loss in GPE = Gain in KE Let N = normal reaction between ball and track at B.
mv 2
2
mg (loss in height) = 1/2 mv  0
Net force towards centre =
Loss in height = BC = OB  OC r
= r  r cos 60 (r = radius = 2 m) mv 2
 N  mg =
 mg (r  r cos 60) = 1/2 mv2 r
2
mv  19.6 
 v 2 g r  0.5   19.6  4.43 m / s  N  mg   2  9.8    39.2 N
r  2 

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Illustration - 10 A block is released from rest at the top of an inclined

plane which later curves into a circular track of radius r as shown. Find
the minimum height h from where it should be released so that it is able to
complete the circle.
SOLUTION :
From A to B :
Loss in GPE = Gain in KE
 mgh = 1/2 mv2  0
1
mgh  m  5 gr 
2
To complete the circle of radius r, the 5
 h r
velocity at the top must be 2
 r g and Vbottom  5rg Hence h must be at least equal to 2.5 r.

Illustration - 11 A block is tied to one end of a light string of length  whose other end is fixed to a rigid

7 g
support. The block is given a speed of from the lowermost position. Find the height and speed at
2
which the block leaves the circle. Also find the maximum height to which it rises finally.
SOLUTION :
Let the velocity at the bottom = vb The block will leave the circle at some point
P, where the radius OP makes an angle 
7
vb  g with the upward vertical.
2
From A to P :
As 2 g   vb  5 g  Loss in KE = Gain in GPE
1 1
m vb2  mv 2  mg     cos   . . . .(i)
2 2
From the force diagram :
mv 2
T + mg cos  =

As the block leaves the circle at P, T = 0.

mv 2
mg cos  = . . . .(ii)


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Putting value of v2 from (ii) in (i) The velocity at that moment v is

1 2 1
mvb  m (g  cos ) g
v  g cos  
2 2 2
= mg  (1+ cos) After the string becomes slack, the block moves
1 7 mg  as a projectile in parabolic path. Now, further
 m g  (2+ 3 cos ) height attained
2 2 2
v 2 sin 2  g  3  3
 cos = 1/2   = 60 =    
2g 4 g  4  16
 Total height attained from the bottom is :
3 3 27
  
2 16 16

Hence the block leaves the circle and string

becomes slack at a height
h =  +  cos 60 = 1.5  from the bottom.

Illustration - 12 A particle tied to the end of a string oscillates along a circular arc in a vertical plane. The
other end of the string is fixed at the centre of the circle. If the string has a breaking strength of twice the
weight of the particle,
(a) find the maximum distance that the particle can cover in one cycle of oscillation. The length of the
string is 50 cm.
(b) find the tension in the extreme position
(c) find the acceleration of the particle at bottom and extreme.
SOLUTION :
As the maximum tension occurs at the lowest
position, tension at the bottom can be at most 2mg
(where m is the mass of particle).

Considering forces on the particle at the

bottom :
mu 2
Tb  mg = where u : velocity at bottom


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mu 2 (b) At extremes, the speed is zero and hence

2 mg  mg =
 radial acceleration is zero.
 u g Balancing radial forces, we get :
TE = mg cos  = mg /2

(c) At extremes :
F mg sin 60 3
ar=0m/s2and at  t  g
m m 2
3
 Net acceleration = g
2
(a) Let  = angular amplitude from bottom
At bottom :
to the extreme,
Loss in KE = Gain in GPE There are no tangential forces. Hence at = 0
1
mu 2 = mg (   cos) u2
ar  g
2 r
1
mg   mg (1  cos ) Net acceleration = g
2
1
 (1  cos ) =   = 60
2
Length of arc covered in one cycle
 4(  )  4  / 3

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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COLLISIONS Section - 4

Conservation of Linear Momentum

If no external force acts on a system of masses, then its linear momentum remains constant.
Consider a system of masses m1, m2, m3, . . . . . moving with velocities v1, v2, v3, . . . respectively. The net
linear momentum of the system is :
p  m1v1  m2v2  m3v3  ......
If Fext  0, then p  constant.

In terms of X and Y components :

  px initial    px  final
  py initial    py  final

Head - on collision :
If the initial and final velocities of colliding masses lie along the same line (along the common normal) , then
it is known as head-on collision.

From Law of conservation of momentum :

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Oblique Collision
If the velocities of colliding masses do not lie along common normal,
then it is known as oblique collision.

From Law of conservation of momentum :

Along X-axis : m1u1 cos  + m2u2 cos  = m1v1 cos 1 + m2v2 cos 2
Along Y-axis :  m1u1 sin  + m2u2 sin = m1v1 sin 1  m2v2 sin 2

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Coefficient of Restitution (Newton’s Experimental Law)

(a) For direct impact :
When two bodies collide head-on (direct impact),
their velocity of separation after impact is in a
constant ratio to their velocity of approach
before impact.
velocity of separation
e
velocity of approach
 (0  e  1)
Vseparation = e Vapproach

The constant e is known as coefficient of

restitution of two bodies.

(b) For oblique impact :

When two bodies collide obliquely, their approach velocity resolved along their common normal after
impact is in a constant ratio to their separation velocity before impact (resolved along common nor-
mal).
Vseparation = e Vapproach

[CN : Common normal, CT : Common tangent]

Elastic Impact
If there is no change in kinetic energy of the system, then the collision is known as elastic or perfectly elastic.
For an elastic collision :
Total KE before collision = Total KE after collision
 For elastic impact : e = 1
 For a perfectly inelastic impact (when the bodies stick together after impact) : e = 0

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OBLIQUE IMPACT OF A SMOOTH SPHERE AGAINST A FIXED PLANE

A sphere of mass m collides with a fixed plane with initial speed u at an angle  with the normal. The sphere
rebounds with speed v at an angle  with normal.
The plane being fixed, remains at rest.


Vsep along CN  e Vapp along CN 
 v cos = eu cos  . . . . (i)

As there is no force along the common tangent, the velocity (or momentum) of the sphere remains constant
along that direction.
 u sin  = v sin  . . . . (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get :
 tanα 
v  u e 2 cos 2   sin 2  and   tan 1  
 e 
Note : For a perfectly elastic collision, the above results are :
v = u and  = 

 For elastic collision, sphere rebound with same speed at same angle on the other side of the normal.

DIRECT IMPACT OF A SMOOTH SPHERE AGAINST A FIXED PLANE

If the sphere collides head on (directly) with the plane,  =  = 0
Using the result of last section :
Rebound speed = v = e u

GENERAL EQUATIONS FOR DIRECT IMPACT

If u1, u2 are velocities before impact of the masses m1, m2 and v1, v2 are the velocities after impact, then we
have
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
and v2 - v1 = e (u1 – u2)

Combining these equations, we get :

m  em2
v1  1 u1 
1  e  m2 u 1  e  m1 u  m2  e m1 u
2 and v2  1 2
m1  m2 m1  m2 m2  m1 m2  m1
For a perfectly elastic collision, we can substitute e = 1.

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Illustration - 13 A ball drops from the ceiling of the room, and after rebounding twice from the floor,
1
reaches a height equal to half that of ceiling. Show that the coefficient of restitution is 4 .
2
SOLUTION :
Let R = height of ceiling This speed is the initial speed u for upward
 Speed before first impact = 2gh motion after second impact.
u2
 Speed after first impact = e 2gh Height attained =
2g
The ball comes back for second impact. 2
 e2 2 gh 
 h  
 Before second impact, speed = e 2gh 
2 2g
2
 After second impact, speed = e 2 gh 4
h e  2 gh  1
   e  4
2 2g 2

Note : Remember the following :

(i) Height attained (with initial speed u) = u2/2g
(ii) Time of flight (up and down) = 2u/g

Illustration - 14 A ball of mass m moving with a speed u1 collides elasticity with another identical ball
moving with velocity u2
(a) Find the velocities of the balls after collision if the impact is direct.
(b) Find the angle between velocities after collision if they collide obliquely and u2 = 0.
SOLUTION :
(a) Let v1, v2 be the final velocities of balls. Note : The colliding balls of same mass in an elastic
direct impact interchange their velocities.

(b)

Conservation of momentum :
mv1 + mv2 = mu1 + mu2
v1 + v2 = u1 + u2 . . . . (i)
Newton’s Experimental Law :
v2 – v1 = 1 (u1 - u2) . . . . (ii) mu = mv1 cos 1 + mv2 cos 2 . . . . (i)
0 = mv1 sin 1  mv2 sin 2 . . . . (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get :
1/2 mu2 = 1/2 mv12 + 1/2 mv22 . . . . (iii)
v1 = u2 ; v2 = u1

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Squaring and adding (i) and (ii), we get : Note : The balls move at right angles to each other
u2 = v12 + v22 + 2v1v2 cos (1 +  2 ) after collision if a moving ball hits another
Using (iii), we have : identical stationary ball in oblique collision.
u2 = v12 + v22
 cos  1  2   0
 1   2   / 2

Illustration - 15 A bullet of mass 2 gm travelling at a speed of 500 m/s

is fired into a ballistic pendulum of mass 1.0 kg suspended from a cord 1.0
m long. The bullet penetrates the pendulum and emerges with a velocity
of 100 m/s. Through what vertical height will the pendulum rise ?

SOLUTION :
Let m = 2 × 103 kg ; M = 1.0 kg
u = 500 m/s, v1 = 100 m/s The block swings and its kinetic energy gets
converted into potential energy.
v2 = speed of the pendulum after impact.
1
mu = mv1 + Mv2 Mv22  Mgh
2
(conservation of momentum)
m  u  v1  2 v 2 0. 8  0. 8 8
 v2   (500  100)  h 2   m
M 1000 2g 2  9.8 245
= 0.8 m/s.

Illustration - 16 A ball of mass 4 kg moving with a velocity of 12 m/s impinges directly on another ball of
mass 8 kg moving with a velocity of 4 m/s in the same direction. Find their velocities after impact and
calculate the loss of KE due to impact if e = 0.5.
SOLUTION :
u1 = 12 m/s m1 = 4 kg Newton’s experimental Law :
u2 = 4 m/s m2 = 8 kg
v2 – v1 = e (u1  u2)
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities after impact.
v2 – v1 = 0.5 (12  4) = 4 . . . . (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get :
v1 = 4 m/s and v2 = 8 m/s
Loss in KE =
Conservation of momentum :
1 1 1 1
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2 m1u12  m2u22  m1v12  m2v22
2 2 2 2
 4v1 + 8v2 = 80 . . . . (i)

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1 1
  4(144)  8(16)  [4(16)  8(64)]
2 2
= 64 J.

Illustration - 17 An explosion blows a rock into three parts. Two pieces go off
at right angles to each other; 1.0 kg piece with a velocity of 12 m/s and other
2.0 kg piece with a velocity 8 m/s. If the third piece flies off with a velocity
40 m/s, compute the mass of third piece.
SOLUTION :
Let m1, m2 and m3 be the masses of three
pieces.
Along X-axis : 0 = m1v1  m3v3 cos 
m1 = 1.0 kg, m2 = 2.0 kg
Along Y-axis : 0 = m2v2  m3v3 sin 
Let v1 = 12 m/s
 m1v1 = m3v3 cos  and m2v2 = m3v3 sin 
v2 = 8 m/s, v3 = 40 m/s
Squaring and adding, we get :
Let v1 and v2 be directed along X and Y axes
respectively. Let v3 be directed as shown. m1v12 + m2v22 = m32v32
By conservation of momentum : 2 2
m32 
12 12    2   8 2
Initial momentum = 0  2
m3 = 0.5 kg.
 40 

Illustration - 18 A block of mass m = 2 kg slides along a frictionless table with a speed of 10 m/s. Directly
1
in front of it , and moving in same direction is a block of mass m 2 = 5 kg moving at a speed of 3 m/s. A
massless spring with a constant of k = 1120 N/m is attached to the back side of m2 as shown.
When the blocks collide, what is the maximum compression ? What are the final velocities of block after they
again separate ?

SOLUTION :
When the block m1 strikes m2, the spring be-
Let v = common velocity of blocks.
gins to get compressed and m2 gains speed. At
the instant when m2 and m1 have equal veloci- Now applying momentum conservation :
ties, the compression in the spring is maximum. m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v + m2 v

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When the blocks have equal speeds, spring has Using conservation of energy :
maximum compression. After this instant, the
spring again expands and after sometime m1 Loss in KE = Gain in elastic PE
loses contact with the spring. 1 1 1 1 
m1u12  m2u22   m1v 2  m2v 2 
Let v1 and v2 be the velocities of blocks after 2 2 2 2 
they lose contact.
1 2
 m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2  kx
2
m u  m2u2  200 + 45  7 (25) = 1120 x2
 v 1 1 5m/ s
m1  m2  x = 0.25 m.
and v2  v1  e(u1  u2 )
[e  1because no loss in KE ]
Solving for v1 and v2, we get :
v1 = 0 m/s and v2 = 7 m/s.

Illustration - 19 Two equal spheres of mass m are in contact on a smooth horizontal table. A third identical
sphere impinges symmetrically on them and is reduced to rest. Prove that e = 2/3 and find the loss of KE.
SOLUTION :

Newton’s experimental Law :

For an oblique collision, we have to take
components along normal i.e., along AB for
balls A and B.

Let u = velocity of sphere A before impact. As  v – 0 = e (u cos30  0)

the spheres are identical, the triangle ABC formed
by joining their centres is equilateral. The spheres  v = eu cos 300 . . . . (ii)
B and C will move in direction AB and AC after
impact making an angle of 300 with the original Combining (i) and (ii), we get :
line of motion of ball A. e = 2/3.
Let v = speed of the other balls after impact 1 2 1 2
Momentum conservation : Loss in KE = mu  2  mv 
2 2 
mu = mv cos 30° + mv cos 30°
2
 u = v 3 . . . . (i) 1 2  u  1
= mu  m    mu 2
2  3 6

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Illustration - 20 A ball is projected with a velocity u at an elevation from a

point distance d from a smooth vertical wall in a plane perpendicular to it. After
rebounding from the wall, it returns to the point of projection, prove that :
 1
u2 sin 2  = gd 1   .
 e
Hence find the maximum distance d for which the ball can return to point
of projection.
SOLUTION :

The vertical force on the ball is only mg  Time taken to reach the wall
throughout its motion because during impact, it d
experiences a horizontal force from the wall. = t1 =
u cos 
 we can use uy t  1/2 gt2 = sy
and time taken to come back to O from B
Let t = total time of flight
d
 t2 
 0 = u sin  t  1 gt 2 e u cos 
2
and t1 + t2 = t
2u sin 
 t= d d 2u sin 
g  

u cos  eu cos  g
Due to impact with the wall at B, the normal
component (i.e., horizontal component) of  1
 u2 sin 2 = gd 1  
velocity is reversed and becomes e times.  e
Horizontal velocity before impact = u cos As sin 2   1
and horizontal velocity after impact = e u cos
gd  1 
 1    1
u2  e 
eu 2
d
g (1  e)

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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IMPULSE OF A FORCE Section - 5

The Impulse I experienced by a particle is defined as the change in its linear momentum :
I  p  p f  pi

Impulse is a vector quantity with the same unit as linear momentum (kg.m/s). Its direction is that of the
change in momentum. We may relate impulse to the net force acting on the particle with Newton’s second
dp
law in the form F = .
dt
Since p =  dp =  F dt, we have
t2
I  t1 F dt  p

Impulsive Forces
The above equation is valid for any time interval t  t2  t1 ; but it is
most often applied to so- called impulsive forces. Such forces start to act at
a specific time t1, rise in value in some unknown fashion, and stop abruptly
at t2 . Impulsive forces act for a very short time interval and are very large
compared to other forces that may be acting. For example, while a tennis
ball is being struck by a racket, the fact that it is also subject to gravity and
air resistance is not significant. The change in momentum of the ball is deter-
mined almost exclusively by the impulsive force due to the racket.
We may interpret the impulse of a force graphically as the area under the
F – t graph.
tf
I  Fdt = Area under Ft graph.
ti

Average Value of Force :

We usually have little information on how an impulsive force varies in time. Thus, it is convenient to define the
average force acting on the particle by :
p 1 tf
Fav  
t t  ti
F dt (t = tf  ti )

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CENTRE OF MASS Section - 6

Consider a system of point masses m1, m2, m3,. . . . . . . located at the co-ordinates (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2),
. . . . . . . respectively. The centre of mass of this system of masses is a point whose co-ordinates are
(xcm, ycm , zcm) which are given by :

m x  m2 x2  ......... m y  m2 y2  ........ m z  m2 z2  .......

xcm  1 1 ; ycm  1 1 ; zcm  1 1
m1  m2  ............ m1  m2  ........ m1  m2  .......

Note : We can imagine a rigid body also as a system of masses and hence every rigid body has a centre of mass.
In case of a regularly shaped uniform rigid body, centre of mass is simply the geometric centre of the body.

By differentiating the co-ordinates of centre of mass, we can easily show that the velocity and the accelera-
tion of centre of mass are :

m v  m2v2  ........ Ptotal

Vcm  1 1  Vcm 
m1  m2  ......... M total

m a  m2a2  .......... Fext

and acm  1 1  acm 
m1  m2  ........ M total

Note : If there is no net external force acting on a system of masses, then the velocity of the centre of mass does not
change. When some particles in an isolated system (Fext = 0 ) collide , the velocity of centre of mass remains
same.

Illustration - 21 Two small spherical balls of masses m = 2 kg and m = 10 kg move towards each other
1 2
from rest due to mutual gravitational attraction. The initial distance between them is d = 12 m. Locate the
point where they will collide.
SOLUTION :
As there is no external force on the system of
masses, the centre of mass will remain at rest m  0  m2   d 
xcm  1
(because initially it is at rest). When the m1  m2
masses collide, they coincide and hence the
x cm = 10 m
point of collision becomes their centre of mass.
Hence they will collide at the centre of mass. Hence the collide at their centre of mass which
Thanking m1 at origin initially, is 10 m from m1 and 2 m from m2.

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Illustration - 22 A log of wood of length  and mass M is floating on the surface of a river perpendicular to
the banks. One end of the log touches the banks. A man of mass m standing at the other end walks towards
the bank Calculate the displacement of the log when he reaches the nearer end of the log.
SOLUTION :
Let PQ be the log of wood. As there is no ex-
ternal force, the centre of mass of man and the
log system remains at rest. Let the bank of the
river be the origin A. Initially, the man is at the
point Q.
Let m = mass of man, M = mass of log
AP = x = displacement of log
m     M   / 2
xcm (initial) =
m M M M
 m   mx   Mx
m  x   M  / 2  x 
2 2
xcm (final) =
mM m
 x
xcm (initial) = xcm (final) m M
Hence the log moves away from the bank
m
through a distance of .
mM
NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-C BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A mass m slides down a fixed plane inclined at an

angle  to the horizontal. Find the distance that it will move on the
horizontal plane after covering the entire length of the inclined plane.
The height of the inclined plane is h and the coefficient of friction over
both surfaces is  .
SOLUTION : Loss in GPE = work done against friction
mgh = WAB + WBC
mgh = (mg cos  ) AB + (mg) BC
h
mgh = (mg cos )   mgL
sin 
L = h   h cot 
Block starts from A and comes to rest again at C. 1 
 L  h   cot  
Along the path,  

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Example - 2 In the given system, when the ball of mass m is released, it will
swing down the dotted arc. A nail is located at a distance d below the point of
suspension.
(a) What will be the speed when it reaches the lowest point in its swing ?
(b) Show that d must at least 0.6 , if the ball is to swing completely around a
circle centered along the nail.
(c) If d = 0.6  , find the change in tension in the string just after it touches the
nail.
SOLUTION :
(a) From A to B : Loss in GPE = Gain in KE (c) Just before touching the nail, the ball is mov-
1 ing in a circle of radius  .
mg   mv 2  v  2 g
2 mv 2
 Tension = mg +
(b) Radius of the circle centred at nail =   d. 
To comlete the circle centred at nail, the = mg + 2 mg = 3 mg
speed at the bottom must be at least
5g    d  Just after touching the nail, the ball is moving
in a circle of radius (  d).
To complete the circle :
mv 2 m  2 g 
2 g  5 g    d   Tension = mg +  mg 
d 0.4 
 5   5d = 2  Tension = 6 mg
3 Hence the tension in the string changes from 3mg to
 d    0.6
5 6mg as it touches the nail.

Example - 3 A small sphere tied to the string of length 0.8 m is describing a vertical circle so that the
maximum and minimum tensions in the strings are in the ratio 3 : 1. The fixed end of the string is at a height
of 5.8 m above ground.
(a) Find the velocity of the sphere at the lowest position.
(b) If the string suddenly breaks at the lowest position, when and where wills the sphere hit the ground ?
(Take g = 10 m/s2)
SOLUTION :
Let u and v be the speeds of sphere at the bottom and the top positions and m be the mass.
Radius of circle = length of string = r = 0.8 m.

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T b = tension at the bottom or the maximum tension

T t = tension at the top or the minimum tension

mu 2
Tb  mg 
r

m v2
Tt  mg 
r
 Tb = 3 Tt

 mu 2   mv 2 
  mg   3   mg 
 r   r 
   
 (3v2  u2) = 4 rg . . . .(i)

Using conservation of energy,

Loss in KE from bottom to the top = Gain in GPE

1 1
mu 2  mv 2  mg  2r 
2 2
 v2 = u2  4rg . . . . (ii)
Using (i) and (ii), we get :

3 (u2  4gr)  u2 = 4rg

 2u2 = 16 rg

 u  8rg  8  0.8 10  8m / s

(b) After breaking away from the string, thesphere moves along a parabolic path, and strikes the ground
at G.

Vertical displacement of sphere

s y = 5.8  0.8 = 5 m.
Let t = time after which the sphere hits the ground.

2 sy
 sy = 0 t + 1/2 gt2  t   1s
g
the horizontal displacement = x= ut = 8  1 = 8 m.

Hence the sphere hits the ground 1 s after breaking off the string and at the point G.

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Example - 4 A block of mass m is begins to slide down from a height h along the inclined surface of the
wedge M. Assuming that there is no friction and both the bodies are free to move, find the speed of the wedge
M at the instant when block m reaches the bottom of the wedge.
SOLUTION :
The velocity of block on reaching bottom is the vector sum of its relative velocity with respect wedge and
the horizontal velocity of wedge.
Let ur the velocity of block m relative to wedge M.
This velocity is directed parallel to the inclined surface as shown.
vx = ur cos   V . . . .(i)
vy = ur sin  . . . .(ii)
Loss in GPE = gain in KE
1 1
mgh 
2
 2

m vx2  v 2y  MV 2 . . . . (iii)
We can apply conservation of linear momentum along horizontal because there is no horizontal external
force.
Hence m (ur cos  V) + (–MV) = 0 . . . . (iv)
Eliminate vx, vy and ur from (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv) to get :

2gh m 2 cos 2 
V
 m  M   M  m sin 2  
Alternative method :
Proceed on the pattern of Example27 in Chapter4 and find the acceleration of wedge and relative
acceleration of m.

A
mg sin  cos 
;
 M  m  g sin
M  m sin2  M  m sin 2 
The displacement of block relative to wedge is h cosec  along the incline.

1 2h
Hence h cosec   ar t 2 t
2 ar sin 
where t is the time taken to reach bottom.

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Now we apply V = 0 + At on the horizontal motion of wedge

2h
V  At  A
ar sin 
Substitute for ar and A and get :

2gh m 2 cos 2 
V
 m  M   M  m sin 2  

Example - 5 A small bar A resting on a smooth horizontal plane is

attached by threads to a point P and by means of a weightless pulley, to a
weight B possessing the same mass as the bar itself. The bar is also attached
to a point O by means of a light non-deformed spring of length 0 = 50 cm and
stiffness k = 5 mg/ 0 where m is the mass of the bar. The thread PA having
been burned, the bar starts moving to the right. Find its velocity at the moment
when it is breaking off the plane.
SOLUTION :
Using energy conservation :
1  1
mgd  2  mv 2   k x 2
2  2
0
 cos   . . . . (i)
0  x
N + kx cos  = mg
 kx cos  = mg . . . . (ii)
(As N = 0)
Let d = distance covered by A and B till this instant
Let  = angle between spring and vertical at V = speed acquired by A and B.
the instant when block A breaks off the plane (same because they are connected)
(N = 0).
5mg
5mg 0 From (i) and (ii) using k 
x  mg 0
0 0  x
3 0 1 5mg  20
1
x  0
mg  mv 2 

4
4 2  0 16

3 0 3g 0 5 19 g  0
 d   0  x 2   20   v2   g  0  v
4 4 32 32

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Example - 6 A ball of mass 100 gm is projected vertically upwards from the ground with a velocity of
49 m/s. At the same time another identical ball is dropped from a height of 98 m to fall freely along the same
path as that followed by the first ball. After some time, two balls collide and stick together and finally fall to
the ground. Find the time of flight of balls.
SOLUTION :
Let t be the time after which the balls collide. Using momentum conservation, we have :
The positions of the balls at time t (taking origin
mv1 + mv2 = 2mv
at the ground) are :
1 2 v v 29.4  19.6
x1  49t  gt  v 1 2   4. 9 m / s
2 2 2
1 2 Height of the point of collision :
x2  98  gt
2 1 2
x1  x2  9.8  gt  98  19.6  78.4 m
x1 = x2 2
1 2 1 Time interval after collision :
 49t  gt  98  gt 2
2 2 Let T = time taken by balls after collision to
reach ground.
 t=2s
Velocities of balls before collision : 1 2
 S  ut  at
2
v1 = 49  gt = 29.4 m/s
 = 78.4 + 4.9 T  1/2 gT2
v2 = 0  gt = 19.6 m/s.
 T = 4.53 s
Velocities of balls after collision :
 Time of flight = t +T = 2 + 4.53
= 6.53 s.

Example - 7 A projectile is fired at an angle of 60 with the horizontal with a velocity of 400 m/s. At
the highest point of the trajectory, the projectile explodes into two fragments of equal masses, one of which
falls vertically from rest. How far from the point of projection does the other fragment strike if the ground is
level ?
SOLUTION :

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At the highest point :

2 4002 sin 2 60 80 3
Conservation of momentum in horizontal  AB  400  km
 2 m 400 cos 60° = m v + 0 g 2g g
v = 400 m/s 1
 The other fragments move horizontally and OA   range 
2
with 400 m/s.
2h 1 4002 sin120 40 3
Horizontal displacement = v    km
g 2 g g

120 3
4002 sin2 60  OB  OA  AB  km  21.2 km
where h  and v = 400 m/s. g
2g

Example - 8 A cylindrical solid of mass 10-2 kg and cross-sectional area 10-4 m2 is moving parallel to its
axis (the X-axis) with a uniform speed of 103 m/s the positive direction. At t = 0, its front face passes the plane
x = 0. The region to the right of this plane is filled with stationary dust particles of uniform density 10-3 kg/m3.
When a dust particle collides with the face of the cylinder, it sticks to its surface. Assuming that the dimen-
sions of the cylinder remain practically unchanged, and that the dust sticks only to the front face of the
cylinder, find the x - co-ordinate of the front of the cylinder at t = 150 s.
SOLUTION :
Let x be the distance covered by the front face
of cylinder in time t. During this interval, the dx dx
M0 v0 = (M0 + Ax ) (because v= )
momentum of the cylinder is conserved. dt dt
t x
0 m0 v0 dt    M0  Ax  dx
0

2
M0 V0 t = M0 x + A x
2
Put t = 150 s, M0 = 102 kg,
 = 10–3 kg /m3, V0 = 103 m/s
A = 104 m2 to get the equation :
P (at t = 0) = P (at time t)
107 2
M0 V0 = (M0 + A x g) v x  10 x 2  1500  0
2
Where m0 is the original mass and Ax is the  x = 105 m.
mass deposited on the front face. As the mass
is increasing, the speed of the cylinder de-
creases from v0 to v

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Example - 9 A pulley fixed to the ceiling carries a thread with bodies of masses m1 and m2 attached to
its ends. The masses of the pulley and the thread are negligible and friction is absent. Find the acceleration of
the centre of mass of this system.
SOLUTION :
Taking downward direction as positive,
a1 =  a ; a2 = + a

m a  m2 a2  m1a  m2a  m2  m1  a
acm  1 1  
m1  m2 m1  m2 m2  m1

Substituting for the value of a, we have :

2
 m  m1 
acm   2  g
Let us assume that m2 > m1.  m2  m1 
From Example32 in Chapter  4 , we can
see that the masses have equal and opposite Alternative method :
acceleration of same magnitude.
 m2  m1  g acm 
Fext.  m  m2  g  2T  g  2T
 1
 a
m2  m1 m1  m2 m1  m2 m1  m2
2
2m1m2 g 4m1m2 g  m  m1 
Tension in string is T  acm  g   2  g
m2  m1 2
 m2  m1   m2  m1 
(downwards)

Example - 10 Two balls with masses m1 = 3 kg and m2 = 5 kg have

initial velocities v1 = 5 m/s in the directions shown in Fig. They collide at
the origin.
(a) Find the velocity of the CM 3s before the collision.
(b) Find the position of the CM 2s after the collision.
SOLUTION :

(a) The given time is of no consequence since

VCM is fixed for all times.
m1v1 y  m2v2 y
m v  m2v2 x and vCM  y  
vCM  x   1 1x M
M

 3  5 sin 37    5  5    2 m/s
8 kg

 3 5 cos 37    5 0   1.5 m / s
8 kg Thus, VCM  1.5 ˆi  2 ˆj m / s

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(b) Since the collision occurs at the origin  ri  0  ,

the position of the CM 2s later is :

rCM  ri  VCM t  VCM t

rCM  VCM t   3 ˆi  4 ˆj

NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. If the body goes through a displacement S , then the work done by the force F is given by
W = Fs cos θ = F.s

2. (i) If F is in same direction as S  W=Fs

(ii) If F is opposite to S  W=Fs
3. The work done by a variable force F (x) from an initial point A to final point B is
xB
WA  B  x A F  x  dx
4. Relation between Force and Potential Energy
dU b
(a) F  x  (b) U b  U a    F  x  dx
dx a

5. If vb : velocity of particle at bottom

 : radius of the circle ABCD
(a) If vb  5 g  , the particle will move in the circle ABCD.
(b) If vb  2 g  , the particle will oscillate right and left around point A.
(c) If vb  2 g  , it will oscillate along the semicircle BAD.

(d) If 2 g   vb  5 g  , the particle will cross the diameter

DOB but will not be able to complete the circle. It will leave the
circular path somewhere between B and C at a point P where
tension becomes zero.
6. When two bodies collide head-on (direct impact), their velocity of separation after impact is in a constant ratio
to their velocity of approach before impact.
velocity of separation
e  (0  e  1)
velocity of approach

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Vseparation = e Vapproach
The constant e is known as coefficient of restitution of two bodies.
m  em2
v1  1 u1 
1  e  m2 u
7. 2
m1  m2 m1  m2

v2 
1  e  m1 u m2  e m1
and 1 u2
m2  m1 m2  m1
For a perfectly elastic collision, we can substitute e = 1.
8. (a) The colliding balls of same mass in an elastic direct impact interchange their velocities.
(b) The balls move at right angles to each other after collision if a moving ball hits another identical
stationary ball in oblique elastic collision.
9. The Impulse I experienced by a particle is defined as the change in its linear momentum:
tf
(a) I  p  p f  pi (b) I  F d t  p
ti
10. If there is no net external force acting on a system of masses, then the velocity of the centre of mass does not
change. When some particles in an isolated system (Fext = 0 ) collide , the velocity of centre of mass remains
same.

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Simple Harmonic Motion

BASIC IDEAS Section - 1

Oscillatory Motion
A body is said to possess oscillatory motion if it moves back and forth repeatedly about the mean position.
For example : swinging pendulum, vibratory motion of a mass attached to a spring.

Periodic Motion
A motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time is called a periodic motion. Each oscillatory
motion is a periodic motion. A body moving in a circle is also an example of periodic motion but it is not
oscillatory motion.

Simple Harmonic Motion

A system is said to execute simple harmonic motion if the magnitude of the forces acting on it is directly
proportional to the magnitude of its displacement from the mean position and the force is always directed
towards the mean position. For example : motion of a simple pendulum, vibrating tuning fork, loaded spring,
etc., are all S.H.M.s.

Analysis of S.H.M.
Consider a particle of mass m executing S.H.M. along X-axis with mean position at origin.
Displacement from mean position = X co-ordinate = x (t)
The force acting on the particle must be towards mean position (i.e.,opposite in sign to x) and its magnitude
must be proportional to magnitude of x
F=–kx where k is a constant.
If a is acceleration, then :
ma = – kx

d 2x k
 = – x . . . . (i)
dt 2 m
This equation is called as the differential equation of S.H.M . The general expression for x(t) satisfying the
equation is :
x (t) =A sin (t + 0) . . . . (ii)

Substituting (ii) in (i), we get :

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k
=
m

Amplitude
The amplitude of a particle executing S.H.M. is magnitude of its maximum displacement on either side of the
mean position. Consider the equation of S.H.M. i.e.,
x (t) = A sin (t + 0)
maximum value of sin  = 1, so – A  x  A
 A is the amplitude of the particle.

Time Period
Time period of a particle executing S.H.M. is the time taken to complete one cycle and is denoted by T.
Consider the equation of S.H.M. i.e.,
x (t) = A sin (t + 0)
If t is increased by 2/ then
  2  
x (t) = A sin   t    0 
    
x (t) = A sin (t + 2 + 0)
x (t) = A sin [2 + (t + 0)]
x (t) = A sin (t + 0)
Thus, the function x (t) repeats itself after an interval of 2/ therefore :
2
Time Period (T) =


2 m  k 
T= = 2  as   
 k  m 

Frequency
The frequency of a particle executing S.H.M. is equal to the number of oscillations completed in one sec-
ond. It is measured in cycles per second (Hertz) and is denoted by
 1 k
v= =
2 2 m

Phase
The phase of a particle executing S.H.M. at any instant is its state as regard to its position and direction of

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motion at that instant. It is measured as argument (angle) of sine in the equation of S.H.M.
x (t) = A sin (t + 0)
Phase = (t +0)
At t = 0, phase = 0 ; the constant 0 is called initial phase of the particle or phase constant.

Initial Conditions
The amplitude A and initial phase 0 are determined by the initial conditions (position and velocity at t = 0)
for the oscillating particle.
When the motion starts at t = 0, initial position is :
x (0) = A sin 0 and the initial velocity is :
v (0) = A  cos 0

For example :
If 0 = /2 then x (0) = A, v (0) = 0. Hence the particle starts moving at t = 0 from the right extreme position
(with zero speed).

Angular Frequency
The quantity  is called the angular frequency and is equal to 2 times the frequency of the particle execut-
ing S.H.M.

2 k
i.e.,  = 2 v = =
T m

Energy Consideration in S.H.M.

Consider a mass m executing simple harmonic motion given by the equation
x = A sin (t + 0)
where, A is the displacement amplitude,
 is the angular frequency and 0 is the initial phase.

1. Kinetic Energy
At any instant of time, if v is the velocity of particle, its kinetic energy (K.E.) is given by
1
K = m v2
2

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Hence,
(i) the kinetic energy varies periodically
(ii) K.E. is maximum at mean position, where velocity is maximum.
(iii) K.E. is minimum, i.e., zero at the extreme position, where velocity is zero

2. Potential Energy
The potential energy (P.E.) of the particle at time t depends on the displacement x (t). The P.E. is
given by the amount of work done to move the body from the mean position (x = 0) to x (t) by
applying a force.
The applied force must be equal and opposite to the restoring force
F=–kx
i.e. Fapplied = + k x
The work done required to produce an infinitesimal displacement dx is
dw = (Fapp) × (dx)
dw = kx dx
x 1
Total work done =  o kx dx = kx2
2
i.e. gain in P.E. = 1/2 kx2 at a distance x from mean position.

If we take P.E. = 0 at mean postion then :

U (x) = 1/2 kx2
1 2
In general, U (x) = U(0) + kx
2

3. Total Energy : (TE)

T.E. = K.E. + P.E.
T.E. = 1/2 mv2 + 1/2 kx2 + U (0)
T.E. = 1/2 mA2 2 cos2 (t + 0) + 1/2 kA2 sin2 (t + 0) + U (0)

k
Using = we get :
m

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1 2 1 2 2
T.E. =
2
mA2  k/m  cos2 (t + 0) +
2
kA sin (t +0) + U (0)

1 2 2
T.E. = kA2  cos t  0   sin  t 0    U  0 
2
1
 T.E. = kA2
2
i.e., total energy remains constant (or conserved), if no energy is dissipated.

Important Relations :
1. Position
If mean position is at origin the position (X coordinate) depends on time in general as :
x (t) = A sin (t + 0)
 At mean position, x = 0
 At extremes, x = + A, – A
2. Velocity
 At any time instant t, v (t) = A  cos (t + 0)

 At any position x, v (x) = ± A2  x 2

This can be obtained by eliminating t between the expressions for x (t) and v (t).  sign indi-
cates that particle passes every postion with equal and opposite velocities.
 velocity is minimum at extremes because the particles is at rest.
i.e., v = 0 at extreme position.
 velocity has maximum magnitude at mean postion.
|v| max =  A at mean position.

3. Acceleration
 At any instant t, a (t) = – 2 A sin (t + 0)
 at any position x, a (x) = – 2 x
 Acceleration is always directed towards mean postion.
 The magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean position and maximum at extremes.
|a| min = 0 at mean position.
|a| max = 2 A at extremes.

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4. Force on the particle

 At any instant t, F (t) = – m a = m 2 A sin ( t + 0)
 At any position x, F (x) = – m 2 x or F = – k x,
 Force is always directed towords mean postion.
 The magnitude of force is maximum at extreme positions.
| F |max = m 2 A at extremes.
There is no force on the particle at mean position. (The mean position is always a position of stable
equilibrium for the oscillating particle.)

5. Energy
Kinetic energy
1 1
 K= m v2  k= m 2 (A2 – x2)
2 2
 K is maximum at mean position and minimum at extremes.

1 1
 Kmax = m 2 A2 = k A2 at mean position
2 2
 Kmin = 0 at extremes

Potential energy
If potential energy is taken as zero at mean position, then at any position x,
1
U (x) = kx2
2
1
 U is maximum at extremes Umax = kA2
2
 U is minimum at mean position.

Total Energy
1
T.E. = kA2
2
and is constant at all time instants and at all positions.

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Illustration - 1 A 50 gm mass vibrates in S.H.M. at the end of a spring. The amplitude of the motion is 12
cm and the period is 1.70 s. Find the :
(a) frequency (b) spring constant
(c) maximum speed of mass (d) maximum acceleration of the mass
(e) speed when the displacement is 6 cm (f) Acceleration when x = 6 cm.
SOLUTION :
2
4 2
T = 1.7 s A = 12 cm m = 50 gm (d) amax =  A = A = 1.63 m/s2
T2
1 1
(a)  Hz = 0.588 Hz. (e) v (x) =   A2  x 2
T 1.7
2 2
m v=  A2   0.06 
(b) T = 2 T
Ks
v =  0. 38 m/s  speed is 0.38 m/s.
4 2 m (f) a (x) = – 2 x
 ks = = 0.68N/m
T2
4 2
a=– 2 (0.06) = – 0.82 m/s2
2 T
(c) Vmax =  A = A = 0.44 m/s
T

Illustration - 2 A particle of mass 0.2 kg undergoes S.H.M. according to the equation :

x (t) = 3 sin (t + /4).
(a) What is the time period of oscillation ?
(b) What are the initial conditions ?
(c) What is the total energy of the particle if potential energy is zero at mean position ?
(d) What are the kinetic and potential energies of particle at time t = 1s ?
(e) At what time instants is the particle’s energy purely kinetic ?
SOLUTION :
Comparing the given equation with : Hence the particle starts moving at t = 0 from
the position x = 1.52 and with the velocity
x (t) = A sin ( t + 0), we get :
= (3)/(2) m/s.
A=3m  =  rad/s 0 =  /4
(c) TE = 1/2 kA2 = 1/2 m2 A2
2
(a) T = = 2 sec  TE = 1/2 (0.2) ()2 (3)2 = 0.9 2

(d) At t = 1, x (t) = 3 sin ( + /4)
(b) x (0) = 3 sin /4 = 1.52 m.
= – 3/2 m.
dx/dt = v (t) = 3 cos (t + /4)
v (t) = 3 cos ( +  /4) = – 3/2 m.
 v (0) = 3/2 m/s

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1 2 1 9 2 Using x (t) = 3 sin (t + /4)

K mv   0.2   4.44 J
2 2 2 We have 0 = 3 sin (t + /4)
1 2 1
U kx  m 2 x 2
2 2 t + /4 = 0,  2, 3...........
1 9  t = – 1/4, 3/4 , 7/4, 11/4,...........
  0.2  2    4.44 J
2 2 At these time instants, particle crosses
(e) Energy is purely kinetic at mean position origin and hence its energy is purely
i.e.when x = 0. kinetic.

Illustration - 3 A particle executing SHM starts at t = 0 from the mean position with velocity v = 3 m/s
in the positive direction. If the time period of the oscillation is 2 sec., form an equation of motion of the
particle .
(a) What minimum time does the particle take to go from mean position to a point which lies midway
between the mean position and the right extreme ?
(b) What minimum time does the particle take to reach the right extreme from the mean position ?
SOLUTION :
 = 2/T =  rad /s. A = 3/ = 3 m.

Let x(t) = A sin (t + 0) be the equation of  Equation of motion is x (t) = 3 sin ( t)
motion (a) The particle is at mean position at = 0.
 v (t) = A  cos (t + 0)
At t = 0,
x (0) = 0m ; v (0) = + 3 m/s. Let t be time instant when it reaches P.
 0 = A sin 0 . . . .(i) Using x (t) = 3 sin (t)
and 3 = A cos 0 . . . .(ii) 1.5 = 3 sin t
From (i) we get : 0 = 0,  sin  t = 1/2  t = 1/6 ses.
From (ii) 0 = 0 is possible but t 0 =  is not (b) To go from O to A, time
possible.
= 1/4 (time period) = 0.5 sec.
0 = 0 is a possible solution.
You should note that OP = PA = 1.5 m,
From (iii) 3 = A  cos 0
but tOP tPA.

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Important note :
1. If particle starts at t = 0 from mean position
its equation is
x (t) = A sin t if initial velocity is
positive
x (t) = – A sin  t if initial velocity is
negative

2. If particle start at t = 0 from right extreme :

its equation is x (t) = A cos  t

3. If particle start at t = 0 from left extreme :

its equation is x (t) = – A cos t

Illustration - 4 A particle performs harmonic oscillations along the x axis about the equilibrium position
x = 0. The oscillation amgular frequency is  = 4.00 s–1. At a certain moment of time the particle has a
coordinate x0 = 25.0 cm and its speed is equal to vx0 = 100 cm/s in + ve x-direction. Find the coordinate x
and the velocity vx of the particle t = 2.40 s after that moment .

SOLUTION :

v 2x 0
vx20
2 2
=  (A – x02 ) 
2
A =  x02 100 1
2 cos 0 =  from ...(ii)

A 2
 A = 252 cm
Hence 0 = /4
Let x(t) = A sin (t + 0) be the equation of
motion and t = 0 be the given time instant. x (t) = 252 sin (4t + /4) and
 v (t) = A  cos ( t + 0) v (t) = 1002 cos (4t /4)
We have x (0) = 25 = A sin 0
At t = 2.4s, x = 252 sin [4 × 2.40 + /4]
and v (0) = 100 = A  cos 0
= –28.97 cm
sin 0 = 25/A = 1/2 from ...(i)
 v = – 108.3 cm /s

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Illustration - 5 A body is executing S.H.M. under the action of a force whose maximum magnitude is 50
N. Find the magnitude of force acting on the particle at the time when its energy is half kinetic and half-
potential. (Assume P.E at mean position to be zero)

SOLUTION :
Fmax = m 2 A = 50 At these time instants, magnitude of force act-
ing on the particle is
When energy is half-kinetic and half-potential,
KE = U  TE = 2 U A
F = m 2 x = m2
2
1 2 1  A
kA  2  kx 2   x  F = 252 N
2 2  2

Illustration - 6 If the displacement of a moving particle at any time be given by an equation of the form
y = a cost + b sin t, show that the motion is simple harmonic. If a = 3, b = 4,  = 2; determine the time
period amplitude, maximum velocity and maximum acceleration.

SOLUTION :
The particle is moving along Y-axis Comparing with y = A sin (t + 0),

y (t) = a cos t + b sin t 2 2

T=    sec
 2
y = a 2  b2 sin (t + 0)
A = a 2  b2 = a 2  b2 = 5m

a vmax = A = 2 × 5 = 10 m/s.

where than 0   
b amax = 2A = 4 × 5 = 20 m/s2

y = a 2  b2 sin (t + tan–1 a/b)

Illustration - 7 A particle is moving in a straight line SHM. Its velocity has the values 3 m/s and 2 m/s
when its distances from mean position are 1 m and 2 m respectively. Find the length of its path and period of
its motion.
SOLUTION :
v1 = 3 m/s at x1 = 1m and v2 = 2 m/s at x2 Using v2 = 2 (A2 – x2 ) we have

= 2m 9 = 2 (A2 – 1) . . . .(i)
4 = 2 (A2 – 4) . . . .(ii)

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On solving these we get : Hence length of path = 2A = 5.06 m

5 2
A = 6.4 = 2.53 m and = = 1.29 Time period = T = = 4.87 s.
2 
rad/s

Illustration - 8 Describe the resultant motion of a particle if the following two S.H.M.’s are simultaneously
superposed on it ;
(a) x1 = A sin  t and x2 = A cos  t (b) x = A sin  t and y = A cos t

SOLUTION :
(a) The resultant equation of motion will be (b) The two SHM’s are perpendicular (along
given by X and Y axes).
x = x1 + x2 Eliminating t, we get the equation of trajec
 x (t) = A sin  t = A cos  t tory

x (t) = A2 sin (t + /4 ) x2 + y2 = A2.

Hence the resultant motion is an S.H.M. Hence the particle moves in a uniform cir-
with amplitude A2, same time period and cular motion with angular velocity  and
initial phase /4. radius A.

Illustration - 9 A particle starts oscillating simple harmonically from its equilibrium position. Then the
ratio of kinetic and potential energy of the particle at time T/12 is : (T = time period) (Assume P.E at eqm
position = 0)
(A) 2:1 (B) 3:1 (C) 4:1 (D) 1:4

SOLUTION : (B)
Let, x = A sin t
T 2 T  A
At t= , x  A sin   A sin 
12 T 12 6 2
2
1 1  A
U m 2 x 2  m 2  
2 2 2
 2
1 1  A 
2 2 2
2
 2

2

k  m A  x  m  A    
2  2  
k 3

U 1

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Illustration - 10 The displacement-time equation of a particle executing SHM is : x = A sin (t +  ). At


time t = 0 position of the particle is x = A/2 and it is moving along negative x-direction. Then the angle  can
be :
(A) /6 (B)  /3 (C) 2 /3 (D) 5 /6

SOLUTION : (D)
x  A sin  t  0 
t = 0 , x = A/2
A 1
 A sin 0  sin 0 
2 2
 5
 0 = ,
6 6
Since it is moving along negative x-axis, 0 > /2
5
 0 
6

Illustration - 11 A particle executes simple harmonic motion with a frequency, f. The frequency with which
its kinetic energy oscillates is :
(A) f/2 (B) f (C) 2f (D) 4f

SOLUTION : (D)
1
K 
2

m 2 A2  x 2 
1 1
 K  m 2 A2  m 2 A2 sin2  t
2 2
1 1  1  cos 2t 
 m 2 A2  m 2   which is SHM with angular frequency 2
2 2  2 

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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ANALYSIS OF FORCES IN SHM Section - 2

The following steps must be carefully followed while analysing S.H.M. for a particle :
1. Displace the particle from the mean position (equilibrium position) by a distance x along the line of
S.H.M.
2. Analyses the forces on the particle and try to show that
(a) The magnitude of the net force is proportional to x.
(b) The force is directed towords mean position i.e. it has a restoring nature.
3. Find the value of proportionality constant k from the expression of the magnitude of force.

m
4. Find the time period using T = 2 k

Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is an idealised body consisting a point mass, suspended by a light inextensible string
When pulled to one side of its equilibrium position and then released, the pendulum oscillates.
In figure, the string of a simple pendulum of length l attached to a bob of mass m is shown making an angle
 with the vertical. The forces acting on m are mg or W (gravitational pull of earth) and T (tension in the
cord).

 Choose the axes along tangent to the arc of motion and the along the radius. Resolve the forces along
the two axes.
 The radial component of magnitude mg cosbalances the force and tension in the string.
 The tangential component of magnitude mg sin is the restoring force acting on m to return it to the
equilibrium state, so the magnitude of restoring force is :
F = mg sin  acting towords mean position.

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If the angle  is very small, then sin is very close to  (sin  ) in radians
So sin    or F  mg  ( : angular displacement)
Now the magnitude of displacement along the arc is x
(but for small , arc can be taken as a straight line segment)

x  arc 
  =    
  radius 

mgx
So F = mg  = . . . .(i)
l
F  x, so the simple pendulum executes S.H.M.
The relation between magnitudes of force and displacement is
F = kx . . . .(ii)
Comparing (i) and (ii) we get :
mg
 k=
l
So, the time period of a simple pendulum, when its amplitude is small, is given as

m m l
T  2  2  2
k mg / l g

1 k 1 l
Also v = frequency = 
2 m 2 g

Liquid Oscillating in a U - Tub

Consider a liquid column of total length 2l inside a U-tube as shown.

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In the U-tube, liquid is displaced from state of equilibrium by distance x. It is clear from diagram that total
difference in liquid levels becomes 2x.
Consider equal cross-section A on both the sides (tube is uniform throughout). The restoring force acting on
the liquid is the thrust of excess pressure due to the column ABCD.
The magnitude of restoring force is F = pressure × area
= (2x)  g A
F = (2 A  g) x . . . .(i)
or Fx  the liquid executes S.H.M. in the tube

Comparing (i) with F = k x, we get : k = 2 A  g

m m
Hence time period is, T  2  2
k 2 A g

but mass of oscillating liquid = m = A (2l) 

2 Al 
T = 2
2l  g

l
T = 2
g

Oscillation of a Cylinder Floating in a Liquid

Consider a cylinder of mass m and density d floating on the surface of a liquid of density . The total length
of cylinder is L and the length immersed in the liquid is l at equilibrium. Taking A as the area of cross-section,
we apply the law of floatation on the cylinder.

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At equilibrium
Weight of cylinder = Buoyant force
mg = v  g
where v is the volume inside the liquid .
(AL) d g = (A l) g
 Ld = l  . . . .(i)
If the cylinder is displaced from this position, it oscillates up down. Let us displace it downwards through a
distance x and analyses the net force acting on it.
As the volume occupied inside the liquid increases, the buoyant force B becomes greater then weight and
hence net force acts upwards.
Magnitude of net force is F = B – mg
= (l + x ) A  g – L A d g
=A g x + l A g – L Ad g
= (A  g) x using (i)
Hence the magnitude of the net force is proportional to x and the direction of force is towords the equilib-
rium (or mean) position.
Thus the cylinder will execute S.H.M.
Comparing with F = k x, we get :
k =A g

m m
And hence time period (T) = 2  2
k A g

Using m = (AL) d and Ld = l  we can further simplify for T as

A Ld A ld l
T = 2 
A  g = 2 A g T = 2
g

Hence the time period depends only on the length of the immersed portion.

Oscillations of a Block Connected to Spring

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(a) Horizontal Spring :

Let a block of mass m be placed on a smooth horizontal surface and rigidly connected to spring of force
constant ks whose other end is permanently fixed. When the spring is in its undeformed condition, block is
in equilibrium. Let us displace the block by a distance x as shown.
The net force acting on the block has a magnitude Ks x and is directed towords its mean position (or
equilibrium position).
Hence the magnitude of force is F = ks x
i.e. F is proportional to x
block executes S.H.M. with k = ks

m
time period = T = 2
Ks

(b) Vertical Spring :

If the spring is suspended vertically from a fixed point and carries the block at its other end as shown, the
block will oscillate along the vertical line.

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In its equilibrium position, the block elongates the spring by a

distance d. In this position the weight of block and elastic force
of spring balance each other.

If the block is displaced downwards by a distance x the elongation

in spring becomes d + x and elastic force becomes greater than the
weight of the block. The net force now acts upwards and has a
magnitude
F = Ks (d + x ) – mg
F = Ks d + Ks x – mg
 F = Ks x using (i)

Hence the magnitude of net force is proportional to x and its direction

towards the mean position (equilibrium position).
 the block executes S.H.M. and k = Ks

m
time period = 2 k
s

Combination of Springs
1. Springs in series
When two springs of force constants K1 and K2 are con-
nected in series as shown, they are equivalent to a single spring
of force constant K which is given by

1 1 1
 
K K1 K 2

K1K 2
K
K1  K 2

2. Springs in parallel
For a parallel combination as shown, the effective spring constant is K = K1 + K2

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Illustration - 12 Show that the maximum tension in the string of a simple pendulum, when the
amplitude m is small, is mg (1 + m2).

SOLUTION :
2
 
v = 4gl  m  [ m is small & sin m m]
2
 2 
v2 = g l m2


m g l m2   mg 1   2
 T max = mg +
l
 m
Method 2 :

Let l be the length of the string. Tension will be We will treat the motion as the S.H.M. of a
maximum at the lowest position. simple pendulum.

If v be the velocity at bottom, from the force  vbottom = v =  A (at mean position )
diagram we have : Note : Carefully note that  here is the angular
Tmax – mg = mv2/ l frequency of oscillation and not the
angular velocity of the particle.
 Tmax = mg + mv2 / l
where A = Amplitude
Method 1 :
= length of arc from 1 to 2 = l m
Using conservation of energy from 1 to 2 (see
Fig.) g
v= l m
1/2 mv2 = mg l (1 – cos m) l
m g 2 2
 2 m  Hence Tmax = mg +  l  
v2 = 2gl  2 sin l l 
 2  2
Tmax = mg (1 + m).

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Illustration - 13 A horizontal platform executes S.H.M. in a vertical line with time period  sec and ampli-
tude 0.5 m. A book of mass 2 kg is placed on the platform and oscillates with it. Find the greatest and least
values of the force exerted by the book on the platform.
SOLUTION :
Let  = 2/T = 2 rad /s be the angular fre- At the top extreme :
quency. N is minimum at the top extreme.
A = 0.5 m is the amplitude and m = 2 kg is the Net force towords mean position = m a = m 2 A
mass of the book.
 mg – Nt = m 2 A
For any particle executing S.H.M. the net force
acting at a distance x from mean position must Nt = Nmin = mg – m 2 A
be m 2 x and must be directed towards mean At the bottom extreme :
position.
N is maximum at the bottom.
There are only two forces acting on the book :
Net force towords mean postion = m a = 2A
its weight and normal reaction.
 Nb – mg = m 2 A
The net effect of these two forces must be to-
Nb = Nmax = mg + m 2 A
wards mean position.
Hence the least force which the book and the plat-
At the mean position there is no net force and form exert against each other.
hence normal reaction equals mg. Above mean
position, normal reaction is less than mg and = mg – m 2 A
below mean position, normal reaction is greater = 2 × 9.8 – 2 × 4 ×0.5
then mg.
= 15.6 N.

Note :To maintain to contact between the book and

the platform, Nmin must be positive. If Nmin
becomes less then zero the book will leave
contact with the platform.
Hence to maintain constant,
= mg – m 2 A  0  2 A  g

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Illustration - 14 A spring of force constant k is cut into two parts whose lengths are in the ratio 1 : 2. The
two parts are now connected in parallel and block of mass m is suspended at the end of combined spring.
Find the period of oscillation performed by the block. (Hint : the force constant of a spring is inversely
proportional to its length.)

SOLUTION :
Let l be the length of the original spring. keff = k1 + k2

Length of parts are l1= l/3 and l2 = 2l/3 keff = 3k + 3k/2 = 9/2k

If k1 and k2 are their force constants, m

Force constant  1/length Hence time period = 2 keff
k l = k1l1 = k2 l2
2m
 k1 = 3k and k2 = 3 k/2  Time period = 2
9k
For a parallel combination effective spring con-
stant is

Illustration - 15 On a smooth inclined plane a body of mass M is attached

between two springs other ends of springs are fixed. If each spring has a force
constant k, the period of oscillation of body is : (assuming the spring as massless)
M 2M M sin  M sin 
(A) 2 (B) 2 (C) 2 (D) 2
2k k 2k k

SOLUTION : (A)

The two springs are in parallel keff  2k

M
T  2
2k

Illustration - 16 Let T and T be the time periods of two springs A and B when a mass m is suspended from
1 2
them separately. Now both the springs are connected in parallel and same mass m is suspended with them.
Now let T be the time period in this position. Then :
TT 1 1 1
(A) T = T1 + T2 (B) T 1 2 (C) T 2
 T 2
 T 2 (D) 2

2

T1  T2 1 2 T T1 T22

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SOLUTION : (D)

m
T1  2
k1

m
T2  2
k2

m
T  2 where k = k1 + k2
k
1 1 1
  
T2 T12 T22

Illustration - 17 A simple pendulum 4 m long swings with an amplitude of 0.2 m. What is its acceleration at
the ends of its path ? (g = 10 m/s2)
(A) zero (B) 10 m/s2 (C) 0.5 m/s2 (D) 2.5 m/s2

SOLUTION : (C)

a = gsin (tangential)

0.2 1  0.2 
 10   m / s 2  sin   tan   
4 2  4 

Illustration - 18 A rectangular block of mass m and area of cross-section A floats in a liquid of density . If
it is given a small vertical displacement from equilibrium, it undergoes oscillation with a time period T, then
select the wrong alternative :
(A) T2 m (B) T2 g (C) T2 1/A (D) T2 1/

SOLUTION : (B)

F = Axg
 F = (Ag)x

m
T  2
 Ag

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ANGULAR OSCILLATIONS OF A RIGID BODY Section - 3

Linear S.H.M. is right-left (or up-down) oscillations of particles. A rigid

body can also execute clockwise-anticlockwise oscillations. These os-
cillations are called as angular oscillation.
A very simple example of angular oscillation is a thin disc suspended
by a wire attached to centre of the disc. If the disc is rotated in the
horizontal plane, the wire will be twisted. The twisted wire will exert a
torque on the disc tending to return it to its original position this is a
restoring torque (compare it with a restoring force in linear oscillation).
For small twist angles , this restoring torque is proportional to the
angular displacement  (Hooke’s Law).

Hence  = – C . . . .(i)

where –ve sign indicates that if  is anticlokwise, torque is clockwise and vice-versa i.e. torque is opposite
to .
The equation (i) is the condition for angular simple harmonic motion.
It can easily be compared to F = – kx
torque = – C
I = – C
d 2 d 2 C
I = – C  = – 
dt 2 dt 2 I

This differential equation for angular S.H.M. can also be compared with the same equation for linear S.H.M.
d 2x k
= – x
dt 2 m

Following the same comparison we can see that

I
Time period = T = 2 and the variation of  with time is :
C
 (t) = max sin (t + 0)

where max is the angular amplitude or the maximum angular displacement from the mean position.

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Comparison of Linear S.H.M. & Angular S.H.M.

Linear S.H.M. Angular S.H.M.

F = – kx  = –C

m I
T = 2 T = 2
k C
x (t) = A sin (t + 0) (t)=max sin (t +0)

v(t) = A cos (t + 0) (t) = max  cos (t + 0)

v(x) = ±  A2  x 2 () = ±   2max   2

(x) = – 2 x () = – 2 

Note : Angular velocity at any instant is  while is the angular frequency in this case.

Physical Pendulum
A rigid body is suspended from a fixed point O. It can perform angular oscillations in a vertical plane about
the horizontal axis through O perpendicular to the plane of oscillations. This rigid body can be called as a
physical pendulum.
Let C be the centre of gravity of such a rigid body suspended
from O. The distance of C from point of suspension O is d.

If we displace the body anticlockwise through a small angle , the weight

of the body creates a clockwise restoring torque about axis through O.
Mangnitude of restoring torque is :
 = mg (d sin  )
 = mgd  (if  is small)
Comparing with  = C we have
C = mgd
Let I be the moment of inertia of the body about the axis through O.
I
time period = 2
mgd

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Illustration - 19 What is the period of the pendulum formed by pivoting a meter stick so that it is free to
rotate about a horizontal axis passing through the 75 cm mark ?
SOLUTION :
Let m be the mass and l be the length of the stick. I
T = 2
l = 100 m mgd
The distance of the point of suspension form cen- ml 2
tre of gravity is d = 25 cm.  md 2
T = 2 12
Moment of inertia about a mgd
horizontal axis through O is :
I = Ic + md2 l 2  12d 2
T = 2
12 gd
ml 2
I = 12 × md2 2
l 2  12  0.25 
= 2 = 153 s.
12  9.8  0.25

Illustration - 20 A solid cylinder is attached to a massless spring so that it can roll without slipping along a
horizontal surface. Calculate the period of oscillation made by the cylinder if m = mass of cylinder and k =
spring constant.

SOLUTION :
In the mean position of the cylinder, spring will
be in its original length. Let us rotate the
cylinder anti-clockwise through an angle . This
causes a linear displacement R of the centre of
the mass of the cylinder towards left as shown.
Hence the spring is elongated by R.

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Taking torques about the point P which is the  (clockwise) is opposite to  (anticlockwise)
instantaneous centre of rotation (vp = 0) for pure
rolling, 2 I cm  mR 2
 T= = 2
 = (k R ) R = Ip   kR 2
kR2 = (Icm+ MR2)  3m
T = 2
2k
kR 2 
 =
I cm  mR 2

Illustration - 21 Two identical balls A and B each of mass 0.1 kg are

attached to two identical massless springs. The spring-mass system is
constructed to move inside a rigid smooth pipe bent in the form of a
circle as shown. The pipe is fixed in a horizontal plane. The centres of
the balls can move in a circle of radius 0.06 m. Each spring has a
natural length of (0.06 m) and spring constant 0.1 N/m. Initially,
both the balls are displaced by an angle  = /6 radians with respect
to the diameter PQ of the circle (as shown) and released from rest.
(a) Calculate the frequency of oscillation of ball B.
(b) Find the speed of ball A when A and B are at two ends of the
diameter PQ.
(c) What is the total energy of the system ?
SOLUTION :
= 2 ks (2x) r
= 4 ks r2 

where ks = spring contant of each spring.

1 C 1 4 Ks r2
Frequency = 
2 I 2 mr 2
Let the balls A and B be at a distance x along the 1 4 k s 1 1
arc from P and Q as shown. We will analyse the =  s
motion balls as angular S.H.M. 2 m 
Elongation in lower spring = 2x (b) Let speed at mean position = Vmax
= 2r = compression in upper spring loss in elastic P.E. = gain KE
Restoring torque on any ball

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1 2 1 2  1 2 
2  k s  2 x    2  mVmax  (c) TE  2  mVmax 
2  2  2 
2
Vmax = 2x
ks
=r.
 ks
= 0.02  m/s  0.1 0.02  J  3.95  104 J
m 3 m

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A certain mass of a ideal gas is enclosed in a cylinder of volume V0 fitted with a smooth
heavy piston of mass m and area A. The piston displaced through a small distance downwards so as to
compress the gas isothermally, and then it is let go. Show that the resultant motion is S.H.M. and find its
period. Take the atmospheric pressure as Patm.
SOLUTION :

Let A be the area of cross-section of the cylinder. 1

 xA  x A
When the piston is in equilibrium, forces on it P = P0  1   = P  1  
 V0  0
 V0 
must balance.
 P0 A = Patm A + mg . . . .(i)  (1 + t)n  1 + nt for small t]
Let us now displace the piston through a small Considering the forces on the displaced piston,
distance x in downward direction. As the the thrust of the gas pressure now exceeds its
compression of the gas is isothermal, the final weight and hence magnitude of the upward force
pressure P is given by : is :
P0 V0  xA
P0 V0 = P (V0 – x A) P = V – x A  F = P0  1  V  A – mg – Patm A
0  0 

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Time period
P0 A2
 F= x using (i)
V0 m mV0
T  2  2
Hence the magnitude of force is proportional to k P0 A2
x and its direction is towards equilibrium posi-
tion. m V0
T  2
Comparing with F = k x, we get :  mg  2
 Patm  A
 A 
P0 A2
k=
V0 mV0
T  2
Patm A2  mg A

Example - 2 A uniform rod is placed on two

spinning wheels as shown in figure. The axes of the wheel
are separated by a distance 2l. The coefficient of friction
between the rod and the wheel is  . Demonstrate that in
this case the rod performs harmonic oscillations. Find
the period of these oscillation

SOLUTION :

If the rod is displaced by x towards right, the

normal reaction from right wheel increases to R2
and from left wheel decreases to R1.
Balancing vertical forces, R1 + R2 = mg . . .(i)
In equilibrium, normal reactions from two wheels Balancing moments about CG,
are equal and hence frictional forces also balance. R1 (l + x ) = R2 (l – x) . . . .(ii)
The net horizontal force now acts towards left
and is
= f2 – f1 = R2 – R1 =  (R2 – R1)
 mgx
= from (i) and (ii)
l
m ml l
Period = 2  2  2
k  mg g

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Example - 3 A ball is suspended by a thread of length l at the point O on an

incline wall as shown. The inclination of the wall with the vertical is . The thread
is displaced through a small angle  away from the vertical and the ball is released.
Find the period of oscillation of pendulum. Consider both case.
(a) > (b) < (Assume  and  to be very small)
Assume that any impact between the wall and the ball is elastic.

SOLUTION :

(a) If  >  the ball dose not collide with the wall
and it performs full oscillations like simple pen Consider A as the starting point (t = 0) and ori-
dulum. gin ato point B
l Equation of motion is x (t) = A cos  t
 period = 2
g x (t) = l  cos t, because amplitude = A = l
(b) If  > , the ball collides with the wall and re time from A to Q is the time t when x becomes
bounds with same speed. The motion of ball from – l .
A to Q is one part a simple pendulum.
 – l  = l  cost

 t = tAQ = 1/ cos–1

The return path from Q to A will involve the same
time interval.
Hence time period of ball = 2 tAQ

2    l   
= cos 1   2 cos 1  
    g   
time period of ball = 2 (tAQ). l l  
= 2 2 cos 1  
g g  

Example - 4 A body A of mass m1 = 1kg and B of mass m2 = 4.1 kg

are inter-connected by a spring as shown in figure. The body A performs
free vertical harmonic oscillations with the amplitude 1.6 cm and frequency
25 Hz. Neglecting the mass of the spring find the maximum and the
minimum value of force that the system exerts on the bearing surface.

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SOLUTION :

As A oscillates up and down, the normal reaction Combining

between B and the surface is max. when A is in
Rmax = (m1 + m2 ) g + m12 A.
lowest postion and it is minimum when A is at
top most postion. Case II : Topmost Position A
Case I : Lowest position of A

Let T2 be the tension in the elongated spring.

As B is at rest T2 + Rmin = m2g.
Acceleration of A is 2A towords mean position
Let T1 be the force in the compressed spring (down).
As B is at rest, T1 + m2g = Rmax  T2 + m1g = m1 2 A
Combining, we get Rmin = (m1 + m2) g – m12 A
As acceleration of A is 2 A towards mean po-
sition (up), Note : B will leave the surface if m1 2 A  (m1 + m2)
T1 – m1g = m1 2 A g.

Example - 5 In the arrangement shown in figure the sleeve M of mass m = 0.20 Kg is fixed between
two identical springs whose combined force constant k = 20 N/m. The sleeve can slide without friction over a
horizontal bar AB.
The arrangement rotates with a constant angular velocity
 = 4.4 rad/sec about a vertical axis passing through the
middle of the bar. Find the period of the small oscillations
of the sleeve. At what values of  will there be no
oscillations in the sleeve.

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SOLUTION :

We will analyze the problem relative to the rotat-

ing bar AB. As the acceleration of bar will be m
 period = 2
centripetal, a pseudo force will act on sleeve k  m 2
away from centre and will be of magnitude m
(2 x). Note :If k < m 2, there will be no oscillations of the
sleeve. It will rush to the point B if it is dis-
If the sleeve is displaced by x, net force towards placed slightly (for k < m 2) or will remain in
centre the displaced position (for k = m 2).
F = kx – m 2 x = (k – m 2) x

Example - 6 A particle of mass m is located in a unidimensional potential field where the potential
energy of the particle depends on the coordinate x as U(x) = U0 (1 – cosax); U0 and a are constant. Find the
period of small oscillation that the particle performs about the equilibrium position.

SOLUTION :
ax
U(x) = U0 (1 – cos ax) = 2U0sin2
2
ax ax
For small oscillations sin  .
2 2

a 2 x2 U 0a2 x 2
Hence U  x   2U 0 
4 2
1
Comparing with U = k x2, we get k = U0 a2
2

m m
time period = 2  2
k U 0a2

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Example - 7 Two particles are oscillating along the same line with same frequency and same ampli-
tude. They meet each other at points midway between mean position and extreme position while going in
opposite. Find the phase difference between their motions.

SOLUTION :
Let t = 0 be instant when the particles cross each other at x = A/2 with equal and opposite velocities.

Let x (t) = A sin (t + 0) be the equation of motion

At t = 0, A/2 = A sin 0
0 = /6, 5/6
0 = /6 corresponds to a positive initial velocity
0 = 5/6 corresponds to negative initial velocity
 the equations for the two particles are
x1(t) = A sin (t + /6) and
x2(t) = A sin (t + 5 /6)
Phase difference
= | (t + /6) – (t + 5/6) |= 2 /3.

Example - 8 The mass M shown in the figure oscillate in simple harmonic

motion with amplitude A. The amplitude of the point P is :
k1 A k2 A k1 A k2 A
(A) k2 (B) k1 (C) k1  k2 (D) k1  k2
SOLUTION : (D)

Let x1 and x2 be change in the length of spring at extreme posituo of SHM.

As, left end of left spring is fixed. So, change in lenght of left spring at extreme position of SHM will be the
Amplitude of point ‘P’.
So, x1  x2  A
Also k1x1  k2 x2
k2 A
Hence Amplitude of Point P  x1 
k1  k2

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Example - 9 A block of mass M is oscillating with amplitude A on the surface of a smooth horizontal
table with the help of a spring connected to it as shown. The spring has a force constant Ks and its other end
is rigidly fixed to a point P. At the instant when M passes through its mean (equilibrium) position, a small
mass m is gently placed on it.
Find the new time period and the new amplitude of oscillation. Was there a
loss of total mechanical energy ? Where did it go ? Assume sufficient friction
between blocks so that they quickly attain equal velocities.

SOLUTION :

The new oscillating mass is (m + M).

mM
 Tn = new time period = 2 Ks
Let A,  be the initial and An, n be the final amplitudes and angular frequencies respectively. As the mass m
is placed on M, we have from the conservation of linear momentum :
M Vinitial = (m + M ) Vfinal
M A  = (m + M) An n

Ks Ks
MA = (m + M) An
M mM

M
An = A M m
Hence time period increases and amplitude decreases.
The expression for the total energy is 1/2 K s A2. Hence TE decreases.
When m is placed on M, it slips for a short time before coming to rest relative to M. Hence the energy loss is
converted to heat through friction.

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Wave Motion
BASIC IDEAS Section - 4

In simple terms, we can say that wave motion involves transfer of disturbance (energy) from one point
to the other with the particles of medium ascillating about their mean positions. That is, the particles
of the medium do not themselves travel along with the wave. Instead, they oscillate back and forth about
some equilibrium position as the wave passes by. Only the disturbance is propagated.In this chapter we
will limit our discussion to mechanical waves (elastic waves) which require a medium to travel.There are
also electromagnetic waves which do not require any medium and can travel in vacuum.
The idea of wave motion can be understood by a very simple example. If a stone is dropped in a pool of
water, a distrubance is created where it enters the surface. The disturbance is not confined to that place
alone but spreads out and eventually it reaches all the parts of water, it brings the particles with which it
comes in contact, into motion. These particles set into motion neighbouring particles. They, in turn produce
similar motion in other and in this fashion disturbance is transmitted from particles to particles. The particles
oscillate over short paths about their initial postion, and as a result a wave moves through the
medium. The meduim as a whole does not go in the direction of the motion of the wave.

Transverse Wave
In transverse waves, the partcles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave travels. Travelling waves on a tight rope are transverse waves. If one end of the rope is rigidly fixed
and the other end is given periodic up and down jerks, the disturbance propagates along the length of the
rope but the particles of the rope oscillate up and down. Disturbance travels along the rope in form of crests
(upword peaks) and troughs (downward peaks).

Transverse waves require that there should be a shearing force in the medium. Hence transverse waves can
be propagated only in the meduim which will support a shearing stress i.e., mainly solids.

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T
Speed of transverse waves in a tight string is c =
m
where T is the tension in the string and m is the mass per unit length of the string

Longitudinal Waves
In longitudinal waves, the oscillation of the particles is parallel to the direction in which the wave
travels. Disturbance travelling in a spring parallel to its length, a pressure variation propagating in the liquid,
sound waves travelling in a medium are examples of longitudinal waves.
Let us consider stretched spring. If one end of the spring is suddenly given an in and out oscillation parallel
to the length of the spring, the coils start exerting forces an each other and the compression and the expan-
sion points travel along the length of the spring. The coils oscillate right and left parallel to the spring.

The spring in the above example can be replaced by a long tube of air with a piston at the left end. The
piston is set in to oscillation along length of the tube.

Compressions (crowding together of molecules) and rarefactions (spreading out of molecules away from
each other) travel along the tube.The pressure at the compression point is higher and the pressure at a
rarefaction point is lower. The molecules of air oscillate right and left i.e. parallel to the wave propagation.
Longitudinal waves do not require shearing stress and hence can travel in any elastic medium: solid, liquid
and gases.

Bulk modulus B
Speed of longtudinal waves in a liquid = =
density d

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P
Speed of longitudinal waves in a gas =


Y
Speed of longitudanal waves in solid rod =
d
where, B : Bulk Modulus d : densty
 density of gas P : adiabatic bulk modulus
Y : Young’s modulus P : pressure

WAVE PROPERTIES
Wave Speed (c): (depends on meduim )
The speed of a wave is the the distance it covers in one second. It should be carefully noted that wave
speed is completely different from particle speed. Particle speed is the speed of the vibrating particles in the
meduim. On the other hand wave speed is the speed with which the disturbance (or wave) propagates in
the meduim.

Wave Frequency (v) :

The frequency with which the particles of the medium (through which the wave is passing ) oscillate is
known as wave frequency. In transverse waves frequncy is the number of the crests (or troughs) that pass
through a point in one second. In longitudinal waves, frequency is the number of compressions (or rarefac-
tions) that pass through a point in one second.

Time period (T) :

The time peroid of the oscillation of the particles in the medium is the time period of the wave.

Amplitude (A) :
Amplitude of the wave is same as amplitude of the oscillating particles.

Wavelenght (l) :
Wavelenght is the distance between two consecutive crests (or compressions) in a wave.
Wavelength, wave speed and frequency are related as follows :

c = v

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Phase :
When a wave passes through a medium, all particles oscillate with same frequncy, but they reach the corre-
sponding postions in their path at diffrent time instants.

For example, in the above figure, the particle at P is at top extreme; the particle at Q is passing through its
mean position; the particle at R is at its bottom extreme. These relative postion represent the phase of
medium of motion.
(i) If two particles have same position and same velocities at all time instants, they are said to be in
same phase(or in-phase).
(ii) Two particles are said to be in opposite phase (or exactly out of phase) if their displacements from
the mean position and their velocities are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.

 the distance between particles in same phase = 0, , 2, 2............

 the distance between particles in opposite phase = /2, 3/2, 5/2,........
When we describe the wave equation, we will give a mathematical meaning to the phase of an oscillating
particle.

Instensity of a wave (I) :

In a travelling wave, energy is transferred through the medium in the direction in which the wave travels.The
transfer of energy per unit time per unit area perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave is
called as the Intensity of the wave.
If A is the amplitude ; c is the speed; v is the frequency ;  is the density of the medium ; I is the intensity, then
I = 2 2 c  v2 A2 . . . .(i)

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Note that intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude (I  A2).

As the wave propagates through the medium, its energy is shared by a larger number of particles and the
energy through unit area per second decreases. Hence the intensity and amplitude go on decreasing as we
move away from the source of the waves.
For a point source giving out waves in all direction (three-dimensional wave), the variations of intensity with
distance (r) from the source is given as :
P
I= . . . .(ii)
4 r 2
where P is the power (total energy given out per sec.) of the source.
Combining (i) and (ii) we can deduce that amplitude at a point is inversely proportional to the distance of the
point from the source of the waves.
1 1
I  2  A
r r

Wave Equation
1. Transverse wave travelling in tight string :
If a mathematical equation describe a wave, it must be able to give the position of any particles of the
medium at any given time instant. Consider a transverse wave travelling towards right in a tight string lying
along X-axis. If we take one point on the string as origin O, the displacement (y) of any particle P located at
some X-coordinate (x) at an instant its is given by ;
 2 x 2 t 
y (x, t) = A sin    0 
  T 

 0 depends upon initial conditions (at t = 0) and is called as initial phase.

2 x 2 t
 The angle  = – +0 is called as the phase angle and represent the phase of the particle
 T
located at x at time instant t.
 The wave equation can also be written in the folowing equivalent forms :

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y (x, t) = A sin (kx – t + 0)

 2
y (x, t) = A sin   x  ct   0 
  
where k = angular wave number = 2/ and  = angular frequency = 2/T
Phase difference between two particles located at x1 and x2 the same time intstant is

 2 x1 2 t   2 x2 2 t  2 x1 2 x2 2
 = 1 – 2 =    0      0  =    x 
  T    T    
where x is the separation between the particles.

  = 0, 2, 4,..... for x = 0, , 2......

Hence particles are in same phase if the phase diffrence is an even multiple of .
Similarly we can see that
= , 3, 5,.......... for x = /2, 3/2,.........
Hence particles are in opposite phase if the phase difference is an odd multiple of .
The velocity of the particle at any instant is given by

 dy 
vp =  dt  = – A cos (kx – t + 0)
x  constant t

The equation of the wave travelling towards left (–ve X-axis) is

y (x, t) = A sin (kx + t + 0)

ll. General From of wave Equation :

An equation of the form y  f  a x  bt  , (Where a and b are positive constant), is called wave equaiton
if ‘y’ is finit for all x and t  R. where, y  displacement of particles or medium about their mean positon
and ‘t’ is time.
‘+’ sign indicates left travelling wave
‘-’ sign indicates right ravelling wave

b
Wave speed   Angular Wave number = a  Angular Frequency = b
a

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Illustration - 1 A transverse wave of wavelength 50 cm is travelling towards +ve X-axis along a string
whose linear density is 0.05g/cm. The tension in the string is 450 N. At t = 0, the particle at x = 0 is passing
through its mean position with an upward velocity. Form an equation describing the wave. The amplitude of
the wave is 2.5 cm.

SOLUTION :
Let the wave be described by : Form (i) and (ii) we get : 0 = 

y (x, t) = A sin (kx – t + 0) Velocity transverse wave in the string is given by

2 2 T 450
where, k   4 and A = 2.5 cm = – = 300 m/s
 0. 5 m 0.05  101
y (0, 0) = 0 2 c 2  300 
  = 2 v = 
A sin 0 = 0  0.5

0 = 0,  . . . .(i) = 1200  rad/s.

dy  Using all the quantities, the equation is :

We also have >0
dt  (0, 0) y = 2.5 sin (4 x – 1200t + ) cm.
– A  cos 0 > 0 . . . .(ii)

Illustration - 2 Calculate the velocity of sound in air at N.T.P. The density of air at N.T. P. is 1.29 gm/l.
Assume air to be diatomic with  = 1.4. Hence calculate the velocity of sound in air at 27°C.

SOLUTION :

Velocity of sound in air We can see that the velocity of sound is propor-
tional to the square of absolute temperature.
P 1.4  1.013  105 N / m2 c2 T
=     1
1.29 kg / m3 c1 T2

= 331.6 m/s. T1 273  27

 c2  c1  331.6
P R T2 273
Using  T = 347.6 m/s
 M

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Illustration - 3 Calculate the stress in a tight wire of a material whose Young’s modulus is 19.6 × 1011
dynes/cm2 so that the speed of the longitudinal waves is ten times the speed of transverse waves.
SOLUTION :

Speed of transverse waves in string We have c2 = 10 c1

T T Y T
c1     10
m Ad d Ad
where A: crossectional area and d ; density T Y
 stress = 
Y A 100
Speed of logitudinal waves in string =
d = 19.6 × 109 dynes / cm2

Illustration - 4 A source of sound emits a total power of 10 W in all directions. Find the distance from the
source where the sound level is 100 dB.

SOLUTION :

The intensity level () of a sound wave is mea- I = 10–12 × 1010 = 10–2 Wm–2
sured in decibels (dB) and is given by
I P
Using I 
 = 10 log10 I 4 r 2
1
where I is the intensity in W/m2 and = 10–12 10
W/m2 is the weakest sound intensity that can be  102 
heard. 4 r 2
= 100 dB 1000
I  r  8.92 m
 100 = 10 log10  I = I0 × 1010 4
I1

Illustration - 5 The equation of a travelling wave in given as y = 5 sin 10  (t – 0.01x), along the x-axis.
Here, all quantities are in SI units. The phase difference between the points separated by a distance of 10 m
along x-axis is :
 
(A) (B)   (C) 2 (D)
2 4

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SOLUTION : (B)

2 2  2 
Δ 

Δx 
20
 10  K    0 .1 
 
=

Illustration - 6 A uniform rope having mass m hangs vertically form a rigid support. A transverse wave
pulse is produced at the lower end. The speed v of wave pulse varies with height h from the lower end as :

(A) (B) (C) (D)

SOLUTION :
m
Tension at P = T  xg


T T
V    gx
 m/

 V2 = gx

Illustration - 7 The amplitude of wave disturbance propagating in positive x-axis is given by

1 1
y at t = 0 and y  2
at t = 2s, where x and y are in metres
es. The
1  x2 1   x  1
shape of the disturbance does not change during the propagation. The velocity of the wave is :
(A) 1 m/s (B) 0.5 m/s (C) 2 m/s (D) 4 m/s

SOLUTION :
1 1 1
y t  2, y 
2 2  2  1   
1   k x  t   x  2  2
1  1
t  0, y   k2 = 1  k = 1 V   m/ s
2 2
1 k x k 2

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SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Section - 5

Two or more waves can propagate through the same medium simultaneously. At the points where the two
waves overlap, the resultant dicplacement of particle is the displacements of the individul waves.
 y = y1 + y2 +............

The two most important situations involving supperpostion are :

(i) Stationary Waves :
These are formed when two waves of same frequency travelling in opposite directions overlap.
(ii) Beats :
These are formed when two waves of slightly different frequencies travelling in same direction overlap.

Stationary Waves
Let us consider equation of two transverse waves travelling along a tight string in opposite direction.
y1 = A sin (kx – t) travelling towards +ve X-axis,
y2 = A sin (kx +t) travelling towords –ve X-axis.

The resultant wave is described by

y = y1 + y2
y = A sin (kx – t) + A sin (kx +t)
y (x, t) = (2A sin kx) cos t
Hence the particle at location x is oscillating in S.H.M. with angular frequency  and amplitude 2A sin kx.
As the amplitude depends on location (x), particles are oscillating with differnt amplitude. The points where
amplitude is minimum are called nodes and the points where amplitude is maximum are called antinodes.
Nodes : Amplitude = 0
 2A sin kx = 0
 x = 0, /k, 2/k.....
 x = 0,  /2, , 3 /2, 2.....
Antinodes : Amplitude is maximum.
 sin kx = ± 1
 x = /2k, 3/2k
 x = /4, 3/4, 5/4

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 Nodes are completely at rest. Antinodes are oscillatating with maximum amplitude (2A). The points
between a node and antinode have amplitude between 0 and 2A.

 Separtation between two consecutive (or antinodes) = 

 Separation between a node and the next antinode = 

 odes and antinodes are alternately placed.

 N1, N2 are nodes and hence remain at rest. The segment of the string between N1 and N2 move
up and down. The figure show the postions of this segment at t = 0, T/8, T/4, 3T/8 ,T/2 where T is
time period of the wave.

 The portion between two consecutive nodes is often called as a loop.

 It is clear form the figure that since nodes are at, rest they don’t transfer energy. In a stationary wave,
energy is not transferred from one point to the other.

Vibrations of a Stretched String

Consider a string of lenght l stretched between two fixed supports. When a wave is set up in the string, the
disturbance travels in both directions while being reflected at each end. For a stationary wave to exist, the
fixed ends must be nodes.
As the distance between two consecutive nodes is /2, l = n/2 if there are (n + 1) nodes in all.

 = 2l/n
 v = c/ = nc /(2l)

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n T
v where T : tension & m : mass per unit length
2l m
Hence the string can vibrate with those frequencies which are integral multiples of the fundamental fre-
quency v0

1 T
where v0 
2l m
The possible frequencies are : v0, 2v0, 3v0 , . . . . . . .
The fundamental frequency is simply the lowest possible frequency for the vibrations in the in the string. The
nth multipule of the fundamental is known as the nth harmonic.
v0 is the first harmonic ; 2v0 is the second harmonic ; third harmonic and so on.
The shape of loops in the strings for these harmonic is shown below :

Vibrations in an column in a tube

1. Open at Both Ends :
The open ends of the tube become antinodes because the particles at the
open end can oscillate freely. Let l = length of the tube (or air column).
If there are (n + 1) antinodes in all, l = nbecause distance
between two consecutive antinodes is 
 v = c/ = nc/(2l)

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where c : speed of sound wave

 the possible vibration frequncies are integral multiples of the fundamental or the lowest frequency
v0.
c
v0 =
2l
The possible frequencies are : v0, 2v0, 3v0,...........

2. Closed at one end :

The open end becomes antinode and closed end become a node.
The distance between a node and antinode is /4.
 If there are n nodes and n antinodes,
then l = (2n – 1) /4

c  2n  1 c
v 
 4l
 The possible vibration frequencies are odd multiples of the fundamental or the lowest fre-
quency v0.

c
v0 =
4l
possible frequencies are: v0, 3v0, 5v0, .........

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Note : There are only odd harmonics in a tube closed at one end.

Beats
Beats are formed by the superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies moving in the same
direction. If two sources of sound having slightly different frequencies are placed in the same medium, the
resultant effect heard at any fixed position will consist of alternate loud and weak sounds.
Let us consider two waves of frequencies v1 and v2 and amplitude A. We will analyse the net effect at a
convenientpoint (say, x = 0) :
y1 = A sin 2v1t
y2 = A sin 2v2t
 y = y1 + y2
 y = A (sin 2v1t + sin 2v2t)
y = [2A cos  (v1 – v2)t] sin  (v1 + v2)t
Thus the resultant wave can be represented as a travelling wave whose frequency is

 v1  v2 
  and amplitude is 2A cos  (v1 – v2) t.
 2 

As the amplitude term contains t, the amplitude (and hence intensity or loudness in case of sound) varies
periodically with time.
For Loud Sounds : net amplitude = + 2A
 cos  (v1 – v2) t = + 1
  (v1 – v2)t = 0, , 2, 3,........

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1 2
 t=0 , ,......
v1  v2 v1  v2
For Weak Sounds : Proceeding similarly, we get :
1 3
 t= , ,.......
2  v1  v2  2  v1  v2 

1
Hence the interval between two loud (or weak) sounds =
v1  v2
 the number of loud sound per second = v1 – v2
 beat per sec. = v1 – v2
Note that v1 – v2 must be small (0 – 8 Hz) so that loud and weak sound variations can be distinguished.

Illustration - 8 The vibrations of a string of length 60 cm fixed at both ends are represented by the
equation : y = 4 sin x/15 cos 96t, where x and y are in cm and t in seconds.
(a) What is the maximum displacement of a point at position x = 5 cm ?
(b) Where are the nodes located along the string ?
(c) What is the velocity of the particle at x = 7.5 cm at t = 0.25 s ?
(d) Write down the equations of the component waves whose superposition gives the above wave.

SOLUTION :
(a) At x = 5 cm  vp = –4 (96) sin (x/15) sin (96t)
y = 4 sin /3 cos 96t At x = 7.5 cm and t = 0.25 s,
 y = 23 cos 96t vp = –4 (96) sin (/2) sin (96/4)
The particle is oscillating with an amplitude 23 vp = 0 cm/s
cm. (d) y = 4 sin (x/15) cos (96t)
Hence the maximum displacement is 23.  y = 2 {sin (x/15 + 96 t) + sin (x/15
(b) Nodes are the points which are permanently at – 9 t)}
rest.  y = 2 sin (x/15 + 96t) + 2 sin (x/15
 y = 0 for all time instants. – 96t)
 sin x/15 = 0 The components of waves are :
 x = 0, 15 cm, 30 cm, 45 cm, .... 60 cm. y1 = 2 sin (x/15 + 96t)
 nodes are located at the above x-coordi (Travelling towards –ve X axis)
nates. and y2 = 2 sin (x/15 – 96 t)
(c) Particle velocity = dy/dt (Travelling towards +ve X axis)

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Illustration - 9 A steel wire 0.5 m long, of mass 5 gm, is stretched with a force of 400 N.
(a) What is the minimum possible frequency with which this wire can vibrate ?
(b) Is it possible for the wire to vibrate with a frequency of 1100 Hz ?
(c) What is the highest overtone that a person can hear if he is capable of hearing up to 10,000 Hz ?
SOLUTION :
(a) Minimum frequency = fundamental frequency
1100 Hz 11
= v0 
Now 200 Hz 2  an integer..
1 T 1 400
v0    the wire cannot vibrate with 1100 Hz.
2l m 2  0.5 5  103  2 = 200 Hz
(c) 10, 000 Hz = 50 × 200 Hz = 50 v0
(b) The wire can vibrate with frequencies which are  the frequency of 10, 000 Hz is the 50th
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency. harmonic and hence 49th overtone.
 the possible frequencies are :  he can hear upto the 49th overtone.

200 Hz, 400 Hz, 600 Hz, 800 Hz, 1000 Hz,.......

Illustration - 10 When a solid block is suspended from one end of sonometer wire, it vibrates with
fundamental frequency. If the block is immersed completely in water, the length of the wire has to be reduced
to the half of its value so that it again vibrates with same frequency. Find the relative density of the solid.
SOLUTION :
Let l1 and l2 be the initial and final lengths of the From (i) and (ii) :
vibrating wire.
Let V = volume of block d = density of solid 1 Vdg 1 Vdg  V  g

 = density of water. 2l1 m 2l2 m

When the block is in air d l2 d l2

  1   1
tension = weight of block = Vdg d   l22  l12  l22

1 Vdg Using l1 = 2l2, we get :

v0  . . . .(i)
2l1 m
When the block is in water d l12 4
Relative density =    2

tension = apparent weight = Vdg – Vg  l  3
l12   1 
2
1 Vdg  V  g
 v0  . . . .(ii)
2l2 m

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Illustration - 11 The lengths of an open pipe and a closed pipe are in ratio 3 : 2. Find the ratio of the third
overtone of closed pipe and the second overtone of open pipe.

SOLUTION :
Let v1, v2 be the fundamental frequencies of the open and closed pipe respectively. If c is the speed of sound,
c c l 3 3rd overtone of closed pipe 7v2 7 2l1
v1  , v2  and 1   
2l1 4l2 l2 2 2nd overtone of open pipe 3v1 3 4l2
7 l1 7 3 7
Possible frequencies for open pipe are :    
6 l2 6 2 4
{v1, 2v1, 3v1,........}
Possible frequencies for closed pipe are :
(v2, 3v2, 5v2, 7v2,........)

Illustration - 12 A pipe of length of 1.5 m closed at one end is filled with a gas and it resonates in its
fundamental mode with a tuning fork. Another pipe of same length but open at both ends is filled with air and
it resonates in its fundamental mode with same tuning fork. Calculate the velocity of sound at 0°C in the gas,
given that the velocity of sound in air is 360 m/s at 30°C where the experiment is perormed.
SOLUTION :
Let n be the frequency of tuning fork and cg and So in gas :
ca be the speeds of sound at 30°C in the as and
air respectively. wave speed at 0°C 273  0

cg c wave speed at 30°C 273  30
v  a where l = 1.5 m
4 l 2l  speed of sound in gas at 0°C
 cg = 2 ca = 720 m/s.
273
= 720 = 683.43 m/s
303

Illustration - 13 A closed air column 32 cm long is in resonance with a tuning fork. Another open air
column of length 66 cm is in resonance with another tuning fork. If the two forks produce 8 beats per sec
when sounded together, find :
(a) the speed of sound in the air (b) the frequencies of the forks.

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SOLUTION :
Let c be the speed of sound and v1, v2 be the As v1 > v2, we have v1 – v2 = 8
frequencies of tuning forks.
c c
c c c   8
v1    128 132
4l1 4  32 128
128  132  8
c c c  c  33792 cm / s
v2    4
2l2 2  66 132 c c
v1 = = 264 Hz; v2 = = 256 Hz.
Now | v1 – v2 | = 8 128 132

Illustration - 14 Two tuning forks A and B produce 5 beats/s. If the prongs of A are filed, 5 beat/s are again
heard. Find the frequency of A if the frequency of B is 240 Hz.

SOLUTION :
Let vA, vB be the frequencies of A and B. vA = 240 ± 5, because again 5 beats are
formed.
 vA = 240 ± 5
It means that the initial frequencies of A can be
When the prongs of A are filed, its frequency in-
245 Hz or 235 Hz. As the frequency has
creases to vA. The final frequency of A can be
increased, the final frequency must be 245 Hz
and the initial frequency must be 235 Hz.

Illustration - 15 The equation for the vibration of a string fixed at both ends vibrating in its third harmonic
is given by y = 2 sin[(0.6 cm–1) x] cos [(500 s–1)t]. The length of the strings is :
(A) 24.6 cm (B) 12.5 cm (C) 20.6 cm (D) 15.7 cm

SOLUTION :

3 
2
3 2 3 2
      5  cm
2 k 2 
0.6 cm1 
= 15.7 cm

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DOPPLER’S EFFECT Section - 6

Consider a source of sound (S) producing sound waves of frequency v. If an observer (O) hears the sound
waves, he will record a frequency same as v if both the source and the observer are stationary.
If the source or the observer or both are moving, the apparent frequency as heard by the observer will be
different from v. Let us call this apparent frequency as v. Let Vs, V0 be the velocities of the source and the
observer (or the components of their velocities along the line joining them). If c is the speed of sound, the
apparent frequency is given by :

 c  V0 
v  v  
 c  Vs 
V0, Vs are positive if they are directed from source to the observer. They are taken as negative if they are
directed from observer to source. In other words, we will assume that the direction from source to the
observer is the positive direction.
If the medium is moving relative to the ground, the speed of the sound will be taken as c + Vm (Vm is the
speed of the medium). Again note that Vm will be positive if the medium is moving from source to the
observer. So in general the apparent frequency is :
 c  Vm  V0 
v  v  
 c  Vm  Vs 

Illustration - 16 A railroad train is travelling at 30 m/s in still air. The frequency of the note emitted by
locomotive whistle is 500 Hz. What is the frequency of the sound waves heard by a stationary listener.
(a) in front of the train and (b) behind the train ? (speed of sound = 345 m/s)

SOLUTION :
(a) In front of train :  c  V0 
 apparentfrequency = v  v  
 c  VS 

 c0 
 v 
 c  30 
500  345
V0 = velocity of observer = 0 m/s  v   547.62 Hz
345  30
Vs = velocity of source = + 30 m/s
(b) Behind the train :
because the direction from S to O is the posi-
tive direction.

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If observer is behind the train, the velocity of the  c  0  500  345

v  v  
source will be negative.  c   30   375
V0 = 0 m/s, Vs = – 30 m/s = 460 Hz.

Illustration - 17 Two trains are moving with speeds 30 m/s and 25 m/s towards each other. The frequency of
the whistle of the faster train is 500 Hz. What is the apparent frequency after the trains have crossed each
other ? speed of sound is 345 m/s

SOLUTION :
(a) The faster train’s speed is the source’s speed and (b) After trains have crossed each other, they will
the other is the observer speed. move away from each other as shown.

Taking the direction from S to O as +ve, Now V0 = + 25 m/s, Vs = – 30 m/s

Vs = + 30 m/s, V0 = – 25 m/s
 v  V0 
 c  V0  v= v  c  V 
v  v    S 
 c  VS 
 c    25   345  25 
 c   25    345  25  v= v  c  30  = 500  345  30 
v  v   500   
 c   30   
 345  30    
 
= 587.3 Hz. = 426.67 Hz.

Illustration - 18 Two tuning forks A and B having a frequency of 500 Hz each are placed with B to the right
of A. An observer is between the forks and is moving towards B with a speed of 25 m/s. The speed of sound
is 345 m/s and the wind speed is 5 m/s from A to B. Calculate the difference in the two frequencies heard by
observer.
SOLUTION :

Let the fork at A be the source S1 and the fork at B be the source S2.

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For the sound from S1 :

 c  V0 
apparent frequency = v1 = v  
 c  VS 
Here c = 345 + 5 = 350 m/s as wind and sound are in same directions.
V0 = + 25 m/s. Vs = 0 m/s.

 350  25 
 v1 = 500   = 464.3 Hz.
 350  0 
For the sound from source S2 :
c = 345 – 5 = 340 m/s
As wind is opposite to sound.
Vs = 0 m/s, V0 = – 25 m/s

 c  V0   c   25  
 v2 = v   = 500  
 c  Vs   c0 
500  365
 = = 536.80 Hz.
340
 v2 – v1 = (536.80 – 464.30) = 72.5 Hz.
As the difference is very large, the observer will not hear the beats.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-E BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A metal wire of diameter 1 mm is held on two knife edges separated by a distance of 50
cm. The tension in the wire is 100 N. The wire vibrating with its fundamental frequency and a vibrating
tuning fork together produce 5 beats per second. The tension in the wire is then reduced to 81 N. When the
two are excited, beats are heard at the same rate. Calculate :
(a) the frequency of the tuning fork (b) the density of material of wire.

SOLUTION :

On reducing the tension the frequency of the wire (b) Let  be the density of material
decreases. As the beats per sec remains same, it
1 100
means that finally wire has a lower frequency and Using  v  5    ;
initially tuning fork had a lower frequency. 2l m
(a) Let v be the frequency of the fork 1 100
95  5 
frequency of the wire changes from 2  0. 5  r 2 
v + 5 to v – 5
100 1
1 100 1 81  2 4

2
v+5= and v – 5 =
2l m 2l m
 r  10

 0.5  103   100
Dividing these equations we get : = 12.7 × 103 kg/m3
v5 100 v  5 10
  
v 5 81 v 5 9
 v = 19 × 5 = 95 Hz

Example - 2 The total length of a sonometer wire between fixed ends is 110 cm. Two bridges are
placed to divide the length of the wire in ratio 6 : 3 : 2. What is the minimum common frequency with which
three parts can vibrate ? Also calculate the ratio of number of loops formed in three parts. The tension in the
wire is 400 N and the mass per unit length is 0.01 kg/m.

SOLUTION :

Let us first calculate the fundamental frequency of each part.

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6
l1 = length of AB = (110 cm) = 0.6 cm 0.6 n1 = 0.3 n2 = 0.2 n3  6n1 = 3n2 = 2n3
63 2
The sixth harmonic of AB, third harmonic of BC
3
l2 = length of BC = (110 cm) = 0.3 m and second harmonic of CD are equal. Hence
63 2 this is the common frequency with which each
2 part can vibrate.
l2 = length of CD = (110 cm) = 0.2 m
63 2  lowest frequency = 6n1 = 3n2 = 2n3

1 T
n1 =  1  400
2l1 m  6  1000 Hz .

 2  0.6  0.01
1 T
n2 = The nth harmonic contains n loops.
2l2 m
AB will vibrate in 6 loops, BC in 3 loops and
CD in 2 loops.
1 T
n3 =  the ratio of loops = 6 : 3 : 2
2l3 m

l 1 n1 = l 2 n2 = l 3 n3

Example - 3 AB is a cylinder of length 1.0 m, fitted with a thin flexible diaphragm C at the middle and
two other thin flexible diaphragms A and B at the ends. The portions AB and BC contain hydrogen and
oxygen respectively. The diaphragms A and B are set into vibrations of same frequency and behave as antin-
odes. What is the minimum frequency of these vibrations for which the diaphragm C is node ? Under the
conditions of the experiment, the velocity of sound in hydrogen is 1100 m/s and in oxygen is 300 m/s. Calcu-
late the total number of nodes and antinodes.
SOLUTION :
c02 300
The tubes AC and BC will be two closed tubes vl=   150 Hz
with antinodes at A and B and nodes at C. 4l 4  0.5 
For Tube AC : vl 550
   3 v1 = 11 v2
c1= cH 2 = 1100 m/s v2 150
cH 2 1100 The third harmonic of AC and eleventh harmonic
v1=  = 550 Hz.
4l 4  0.5  of BC are of same frequency. So the minimum
For Tube BC : frequency with which they can vibrate is 3 v1 or
11 v2.
c2= c02 = 300 m/s
vmin = 3 v1 = 3 (550) = 1650 Hz

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or vmin = 11 v2 = 11 (150) = 11 (150) Hence there are seven nodes in total (one in
AC, five in BC and one at C), and there are
= 1650 Hz. eight antinodes.

The number of nodes and antinodes in AC and

BC can be seen from the figure.

Example - 4 A source of sound of frequency 256 Hz is moving rapidly towards a wall with a velocity of
5 m/s. How many beats per second will be heard by an observer O standing in such a position that the sources
S is between O and wall ? c = 330 m/s.
SOLUTION :

Direct sound
Vs = –5 m/s 256  330
=  259.9 Hz.
330  5
because positive direction is from S to O.
 c  V0   330  0  (ii) frequency received by observer (v2) of the
v  v0    256   wave relfected from wall
 c  Vs   330  5 
= 252.2 Hz.  c  V0  c 0
v2  v1     v1
(i) frequency received at wall (v1) Vs = + 5 m/s)  c  Vwall  c 0
 v2 = 259.9 Hz
Beats per second = vl – v
= (259.9 – 252.2) Hz
= 7.7 Hz.

 c  Vwall   c0 
v1  v0    v0  
 c  VS   c  Vs 

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Example - 5 A uniform string clamped at x = 0 and x = l is vibrating in its fundamental mode. Find the
total energy stored in the string. Given : Mass of string per unit length = m: Tension in the string = T ;
Amplitude of vibration = A ; Assume no change in the length of the string during vibration
SOLUTION :
The displacement of the string is given by Substituting the expressions of dm and , we get :
yx, t = A sin kx sin t 2 T 
1  
where k = /l for fundamental mode of vibration dE= ( dx) A2  2  sin 2  x
2  l  l 
and
 = (/l) = T /  1  2 A2 T  
= sin 2  x  dx
2 4l 2 l 
The energy of an element dm = (dx) of the string is
equal to kinetic energy at mean position. Total energy of string is
As vm  a  A sin kx .  l
2 2
1  A T x 
1 E=  sin2  x  dx
 The energy (dm) A2 2 sin2 kx 2 l2 0
l 
2
1  2 A2 T  l   2 A2T
=  
2 l2 2 4l

Example - 6 Two wires of same material of radius r and 2r respectively are welded together end to
end. The combination is then used as a sonometer wire under tension T. The joint is kept midway between the
two bridges. What would be the ratio of the number of the loops formed in the wires such that the joint is a
node ?

SOLUTION :
Let v1 and v2 be the fundamental frequencies of the two wires.
1 T 1 T
v1  and v2 
2l  r 2 d 2l   2 r  2 d

v1 4
  2
v2 1 So, when the wires vibrate with the lowest com-
mon frequency (= v1 = 2v2), there will be one
 v1 = 2v2
 first harmonic of wire 1 loop in wire 1 and two loops in wire 2.
= second harmonic of wire 2  ratio of loops = 1 : 2

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Example - 7 A column of air at 51°C and a tuning fork produce 4 beats per sec when sounded together.
As the temperature of the air column is gradually decreased to 16°C, they again produce 1 beat/s. Find the
frequency of the tuning fork. It is found that they again produce 1 beat/s if temperature is further decreased
explain.
SOLUTION :
Let n = frequency of the tuning fork.
The number of beats per sec decreases as the frequency of the air column decreases. Hence the frequency of
air column is initially (n + 4) at 51°C. At 16°C, the frequency of air column can be (n + 1).
 n + 4 c51  n + 1  c16
where c is the speed of sound

n4 273  51
 =  n = 50 Hz
n 1 273  16

They can again produce 1 beat/s when air column frequency reduced to [n – 1] at a further low temperature
T.

n 1 273  16
  
n 1 T

Example - 8 A copper wire 1 m long is held at the two ends by rigid supports. At 30°C, the wire is just
taut, with negligible tension. Find the fundamental frequency of the wire at 10°C.
Y = 1.3 × 1011 N/m2,  = 9 × 103 kg/m3,  = 1.7 × 10–5/°C.
SOLUTION :
As the temperature drops from 30°C to 10°C, the tendency of the wire to contract produces tension (thermal
stress).
Let  = drop in temperature = 30 – 10 = 20°C.
A = area of crossection
l = length = 1 m
l = contraction in length due to drop in temperature = l 
l l  
 strain =   
l l
From Hooke’s Law : stress = Y (strain)
T
 = Y  T = Y A
A

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1 Y A 1 Y 
 v 
2l A 2l 

1 1.3  1011  1.7  105  20

v
2 1 9  103

= 35Hz

Example - 9 A tube of a certain diameter and length 48 cm is open at both ends. Its fundamental
frequency is found to be 320 Hz. The velocity of sound in air is 320 m/s.
(a) Estimate the diameter of the tube.
(b) One end of the tube is now closed. Calculate the lowest frequency of resonance for the tube.
SOLUTION :
When an air column in a tube vibrates, the 0.48 + 2 (0.3d) = 0.5
antinodes at the open end(s) are located at a  d = 1/30 m = 3.33 cm.
small distance outside the open end. This small
distance is called as end correction. (b) If one end is closed, the effective length of
the tube will be :
Approximate end correction = 0.3 d
where d is the diameter of the tube.
In case of a tube open at both ends, the effec-
tive length of the tube that should be taken in
calculation will now be l.

l= l + e
c c
v 
4l  4  l  e 

320  100 32000

 l= l + 2e where e = 0.3 d  v 
4  48  0.3  3.33 4  49
c 320
v  320  = 163.27 Hz.
2l 2  l  2e 
l + 2e = 0.5

NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET TO COMPLETE THIS EBOOK

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

[A] SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

1. A system is said to execute simple harmonic motion if the magnitude of the forces acting on it is directly
proportional to the magnitude of its displacement from the mean position and the force is always directed
towards the mean position.
For example : motion of a simple pendulum, vibrating tuning fork, loaded spring, etc., are all S.H.M.s.
The force acting on the particle must be towards mean position (i.e.,opposite in sign to x) and its magnitude
must be proportional to magnitude of x
(a) F=–kx

d 2x k
(b) = – x
dt 2 m
This equation is called as the differential equation of S.H.M . The general expression for x(t) satisfying
the equation is :
(c) x (t) =A sin (t + 0)

k m
(d) = and T = 2
m k

2. Initial Conditions
The amplitude A and initial phase 0 are determined by the initial conditions (position and velocity at t = 0)
for the oscillating particle.
When the motion starts at t = 0, initial position is :
x (0) = A sin 0 and the initial velocity is :
v (0) = A  cos 0

3. Energy
Kinetic energy
1 1
 K= m v2  k= m 2 (A2 – x2)
2 2
 K is maximum at mean position and minimum at extremes.
1 1
 Kmax = m 2 A2 = k A2 at mean position
2 2

 Kmin = 0 at extremes

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Potential energy
If potential energy is taken as zero at mean position, then at any position x,

1
U (x) = kx2
2
1
 U is maximum at extremes Umax = kA2
2
 U is minimum at mean position.

Total Energy
1
T.E. = kA2
2
and is constant at all time instants and at all positions.
4. The following steps must be carefully followed while analysing S.H.M. for a particle :
1. Displace the particle from the mean position (equilibrium position) by a distance x along the line of
S.H.M.
2. Analyses the forces on the particle and try to show that
(a) The magnitude of the net force is proportional to x.
(b) The force is directed towords mean position i.e. it has a restoring nature.
3. Find the value of proportionality constant k from the expression of the magnitude of force.

m
4. Find the time period using T = 2
k
5. (a) The time period of a simple pendulum, when its amplitude is small, is given as
l
T  2
g
(b) Consider a cylinder of mass m and density d floating on the surface of a liquid of density . The total length
of cylinder is L and the length immersed in the liquid is l.

m 
T  2  2
A g g

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6. Springs in series
When two springs of force constants K1 and K2 are connected in series as shown, they are equivalent to a
single spring of force constant K which is given by
1 1 1
 
K K1 K 2

K1K 2
K
K1  K 2

Springs in parallel

For a parallel combination as shown, the effective spring constant is K = K1 + K2

7. Comparison of Linear S.H.M. & Angular S.H.M.

Linear S.H.M. Angular S.H.M.
F = – kx  = –C

m I
T = 2 T = 2
k C

x (t) = A sin (t + 0) (t)=max sin (t +0)

v(t) = A cos (t + 0) (t) = max  cos (t + 0)

v(x) = ±  A2  x 2 () = ±   2max   2

(x) = – 2 x () = – 2 

8. Physical Pendulum
A rigid body is suspended from a fixed point O. It can perform angular oscillations in a vertical plane about
the horizontal axis through O perpendicular to the plane of oscillations. This rigid body can be called as a
physical pendulum.
I
time period = 2
mgd

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[B] WAVE MOTION

1. Wave motion involves transfer of disturbance (energy) from one point to the other with the particles
of medium ascillating about their mean positions. That is, the particles of the medium do not themselves
travel along with the wave. Instead, they oscillate back and forth about some equilibrium position as the
wave passes by. Only the disturbance is propagated. Mechanical waves (elastic waves) require a medium
to travel.There are also electromagnetic waves which do not require any medium and can travel in vacuum.

2. Transverse Wave
In transverse waves, the partcles of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave travels. Travelling waves on a tight rope are transverse waves.
Transverse waves require that there should be a shearing force in the medium. Hence transverse waves can
be propagated only in the meduim which will support a shearing stress i.e., mainly solids.
T
Speed of transverse waves in a tight string is c =
m
where T is the tension in the string and m is the mass per unit length of the string

3. Longitudinal Waves
In longitudinal waves, the oscillation of the particles is parallel to the direction in which the wave
travels. Disturbance travelling in a spring parallel to its length, a pressure variation propagating in the liquid,
sound waves travelling in a medium are examples of longitudinal waves.
Longitudinal waves do not require shearing stress and hence can travel in any elastic medium: solid, liquid
and gases.

Speed of longtudinal waves in a liquid = Bulk modulus

density

= B
d
P
Speed of longitudinal waves in a gas =


Speed of longitudanal waves in solid rod = Y

d
where, B : Bulk Modulus d : densty
 density of gas P : adiabatic bulk modulus
Y : Young’s modulus P : pressure

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4. (a) Wavelength, wave speed and frequency of a wave are related as follows :
c = v

(b) Instensity of a wave (I) :

In a travelling wave, energy is transferred through the medium in the direction in which the wave
travels.The transfer of energy per unit time per unit area perpendicular to the direction of
motion of the wave is called as the Intensity of the wave.
If A is the amplitude ; c is the speed ; v is the frequency ;  is the density of the medium ; I is the
intensity, then
I = 2 2 c  v2 A2 . . . .(i)
Note that intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude (I  A2).

5. Wave Equation
(a) If a mathematical equation describe a wave, it must be able to give the position of any particles of the
medium at any given time instant. Consider a transverse wave travelling towards right in a tight string
lying along X-axis. If we take one point on the string as origin O, the displacement (y) of any particle
P located at some X-coordinate (x) at an instant its is given by ;
 2 x 2 t 
y (x, t) = A sin    0 
  T 

 0 depends upon initial conditions (at t = 0) and is called as initial phase.

2 x 2 t
 The angle  = – +0 is called as the phase angle and represent the phase of the particle
 T
located at x at time instant t.
(b) The equation of the wave travelling towards left (–ve X-axis) is
y (x, t) = A sin (kx + t + 0)

6. Superposition of Waves
Two or more waves can propagate through the same medium simultaneously. At the points where the two
waves overlap, the resultant dicplacement of particle is the displacements of the individul waves.
 y = y1 + y2 +............

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The two most important situations involving supperpostion are :

(i) Stationary Waves :
These are formed when two waves of same frequency travelling in opposite directions overlap.
(ii) Beats :
These are formed when two waves of slightly different frequencies travelling in same direction over
lap.

7. Vibrations of a Stretched String

(a) Consider a string of lenght l stretched between two fixed supports. When a wave is set up in the
string, the disturbance travels in both directions while being reflected at each end. For a sationary
wave to exist, the fixed ends must be nodes.
(b) Hence the string can vibrate with those frequencies which are integral multiples of the fundamental
frequency v0 where
1 T
v0 
2l m
The possible frequencies are : v0, 2v0, 3v0 , . . . . . . .

8. Vibrations in an column in a tube

(a) Open at Both Ends :
The open ends of the tube become antinodes because the particles at the open end can oscillate freely.
Let l = length of the tube (or air column).
The possible vibration frequncies are integral multiples of the fundamental or the lowest frequency
v0.
c
v0 =
2l
The possible frequencies are : v0, 2v0, 3v0,...........

(b) Closed at one end :

The open end becomes antinode and closed end become a node.
The distance between a node and antinode is /4.
The possible vibration frequencies are odd multiples of the fundamental
or the lowest frequency v0.
c
v0 =
4l
possible frequencies are: v0, 3v0, 5v0, .........

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9. Beats
Beats are formed by the superposition of two waves of slightly different frequencies moving in the same
direction. If two sources of sound having slightly different frequencies are placed in the same medium, the
resultant effect heard at any fixed position will consist of alternate loud and weak sounds.
Beats per second = 1 – 2

10. Consider a source of sound (S) producing sound waves of frequency v. If an observer (O) hears the sound
waves, he will record a frequency same as v if both the source and the observer are stationary.
If the source or the observer or both are moving, the apparent frequency as heard by the observer will be
different from v. Let us call this apparent frequency as v’. Let Vs, V0 be the velocities of the source and the
observer (or the components of their velocities along the line joining them). If c is the speed of sound, the
apparent freuency is given by :
 c  V0 
v  v  
 c  Vs 
V0, Vs are positive if they are directed from source to the observer. They are taken as negative if they are
directed from observer to source. In other words, we will assume that the direction from source to the
observer is the positive direction.
If the medium is moving relative to the ground, the speed of the sound will be taken as c + Vm (Vm is the
speed of the medium). Again note that Vm will be positive if the medium is moving from source to the
observer. So in general the apparent frequency is :
 c  Vm  V0 
v  v  
 c  Vm  Vs 

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Rotational Motion

ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS Section - 1

We have already studied the rotation of a point mass. Presently, we are going to analyse the rotation of a
rigid body. Let us consider the example of a disc of radius R and mass M rotating about a fixed axis passing
through its centre as shown :
This rotating disc can be imagined as a group of infinite point masses revolving in
circles. The points which are at different distances from axis are moving with
different speeds in circles of different radii. The time period (T) and the angular
velocity ( ) of revolution (  2 / T ) are same for each point as all of them
complete one revolution in same time interval. For example, a point at a distance
r from the axis is rotating with speed r while a point on the circumference of
the disc is rotating with speed R. Points on the axis are at rest. Points on the
circumference have maximum tangential velocities.
If the disc is rotating with constant angular velocity , its angular displacement in
time interval t is simply given by   t.
If the disc is rotating with changing angular velocity, the rate of change of angular
velocity is known as angular acceleration ( ). If  is the change in angular
velocity in t , then :


 (units of  : rad/ s 2 )
t
If the angular velocity of rotation varies with time, the magnitude of tangential velocity (v  r ) for each
point in the disc also changes with time. The rate of change of magnitude of tangential velocity is known as
tangential acceleration (at ) given as :
v 
at  r  at  r 
t t
Note :  ,  are same for all particles in the body while v and at are different for different points. For a point at a
distance r from the axis, v  r and at  r

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Rotation with constant angular acceleration

If the angular velocity increases or decreases at a constant rate, the angular acceleration  is a constant.
Let i  angular velocity at some initial instant
 f  final angular velocity t seconds later
 f  i
Angular acceleration   
t
  f  i   t
If  is the angular displacement during these t seconds,

  i t  1 / 2 t 2

 2f  i2  2 

Note : These relations can be easily compared with those in uniformly accelerated linear motion. i.e.,
v  u  at ; s  ut  1/ 2at 2 ; v 2  u 2  2as
  ,  ,  can be clockwise or anti-clockwise. We can take one direction as positive and the other
direction as negative.
  and  are always in same direction.
  and  are opposite if the rotating body slows down. (compare with the case of retardation in linear
motion)

Illustration - 1 A wheel is rotating at the rate of 50 rev/min in the anti-clockwise direction. What should
be the magnitude and direction of the angular acceleration of the wheel so that it stops in 8 s ? How many
revolutions will it cover before stopping ?
SOLUTION :

Let i  initial angular velocity Hence angular acceleration of 5 / 24 rad/ s 2 must

i  2 (50 / 60)  5 / 3 rad/ s be imparted to the block in clock-wise direction.

here,  f  0 Angular displacement  is given as :

 f  i 0  5 / 3 5  2f  i2 0   5 / 3
2

   rad/ s 2
 
t 8 24
2  2  5 / 24 
20 
  radians.
3

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 10
Number of revolutions of  revolutions Hence it completes (3 + 1/3) revolutions before
2 3 stopping.
anti-clockwise.

Illustration - 2 A flywheel of radius 30 cm starts from rest and accelerates with constant angular accel-
eration of 0.5 rad/s2. Compute the tangential, radial and resultant accelerations of a point on its circumfer-
ence :
(a) Initially at  = 0° and (b) After it has made one third of a revolution.

SOLUTION :
(a) At the start : (b) After   120(2 / 3) :
  0.5 rad / s 2
 2f  i2  2  0  2(0.5) (2 / 3)
R = 0.3 m
  i  0 rad / s 2
 f  rad/ s
3
Radial acceleration  ar   2 R  0 m / s
ar   2 R  2 / 3(0.3)   / 5 m / s 2
Tangential acceleration  at  R
= (0.3) (0.5) = 0.15 m/s2 at  R  (0.3) (0.5)  0.15 m / s 2
Net acceleration = anet
2 2
anet = ar2  at2    0.15 
= ar2  at2  02  0.152 = 0.15 m/s2 25
= 0.646 m/s2

Illustration - 3 A wheel mounted on a stationary axle starts at rest and is given the following angular
acceleration :   9  1t (in SI units )
where t is the time after the wheel begins to rotate. Find the number of revolutions that the wheel turns before
it stops (and begins to turn in the opposite direction).
SOLUTION :
The kinematic equations do not apply because the We find the elapsed time t between
angular acceleration  is not constant.
0  0 and   0 by substituting these values :
We start with the basic definition :   d / dt
0 - 0 = 9t -6t2
to write
Solving for t, we obtain t = 9/6 = 1.50s
t t 2
  0   0  dt   0  9  12t  dt  9t  6t From   d / dt , we have
(in SI units)   0

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t t
0 0  
   dt   9t  6t 2 dt  4.5 t 2  2t 3
3.375
No. of revolution   0.53
Substituting 0  0 and t = 1.5s, we obtain 2

  0  4.5 (1.5) 2  2(1.5)3  3.375 rad

KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATING BODIES & MOMENT OF INERTIA Section - 2

Consider a system of point masses rotating with angular velocity  about a

fixed axis through O. Kinetic energy of a point mass m1 located at P distant r1
from the centre is given by :
1 1
m1 v12  m1 r12  2
2 2

Kinetic energy of the system

1 2 1 2
= m1v1  m2 v2  . . . . .
2 2
1 2 2 1 2 2
= m1 r1   m2 r2   . . . . . . . .
2 2
1
=
2
 
m1 r22  m r22  m3 r32  ......  2

2
 2

The expression m1 r1  m 2 r2  ..... is known as moment of inertia of the system about the correspond-
ing axis. It is denoted by I.
I = m1r12 + m2 r22 + m3 r32 + .............

I   m r2
Hence kinetic energy of the system  1 / 2 I  2

Moments of Inertia of Continuous Bodies :

When the distribution of mass of a system of particles is continuous, the dis-
crete sum I =  mi ri2 is replaced by an integral. We have to sum the contri-
butions of infinitesimal mass elements dm shown in figure, each of which con-
tributes dI = r2 dm to the moment of inertia.The mass element should be cho-
sen such that all the particles on it are at the same perpendicular distance from
the axis. The moment of inertia of the whole body takes the form

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I   r 2 dm

Keep in mind that here the quantity r is the perpendicular distance to an axis, not the distance to an origin.
To evaluate this integral, we must express dm in terms of dr.

Note : Comparing the expression of rotational kinetic energy with 1/2 mv2, we can say that the role of moment of
inertia (I) is same in rotational motion as that of mass in linear motion. It is a measure of the resistance
offered by a body to a change in its rotational motion .

Radius of Gyration :
If M is the mass and I is the moment of inertia of a rigid body, then the radius of gyration (k) of a body is
given by :
I
k
M
I = Mk2

Moment of Inertia of some important bodies :

1. Circular Ring :
Axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to
the plane of ring.
I = MR2

2. Hollow Cylinder :
I = MR2

3. Solid Cylinder and a Disc :

About its geometrical axis :
1
I MR 2
2
About the perpendicular axis :
 2 R2 
I M   
 12 4 
 

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4. (a) Solid Sphere :

Axis passing through the centre :
I = 2/5 MR2

(b) Hollow Sphere :

Axis passing through the centre :
I = 2/3 MR2

5. Thin Rod of length l :

(a) Axis passing through mid-point and perpendicular to the length :

M 2
I
12

(b) Axis passing through an end and perpendicular to the rod :

M 2
I
3

6. Cuboid ( l × b × h) :
Axis through centre and parallel to the height (h) :

M 2 2
I 
12

 b 
Same result will apply for a thin plate also ( h  0) .
 and be are perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Theorems on Moment of Inertia :

(i) Parallel Axis Theorem :
Let Icm be the moment of inertia of a body about an axis through
its centre of mass and let Ip be the moment of inertia of the same
body about another axis which is parallel to the original one.
If d is the between these two parallel axes and M is the mass of
the body then according to the parallel axis theorem :

Ip = Icm + Md2

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(ii) Perpendicular Axis Theorem :

Consider a plane body (i.e., a plate of zero thickness) of mass
M. Let X and Y axes be two mutually perpendicular lines in the
plane of the body. The axes intersect at origin O.
Let Ix = moment of inertia of the body about X-axis
Let Iy = moment of inertia of the body about Y-axis
The moment of inertia of the body about Z-axis (passing through
O and perpendicular to the plane of the body) is given by :
I z = Ix + Iy
The above result is known as the perpendicular axis theorem.
Illustration - 4 Calculate the moment of inertia of a :
(a) Disc about an axis passing through its edge and perpendicular to the circular base of the disc.
(b) Solid sphere about an axis touching the sphere at its surface.
SOLUTION :
(a) I = Icm + MR2 (b) I = Icm + MR2
1 2
I = MR2 + MR2 I = MR2 + MR2
2 5
3 7
I = MR2 I  MR 2
2 5
Try Yourself
Calculate the moment of intertia of a cuboid about an axis coinciding with one edge of the cuboid.

Illustration - 5 Calculate the moment of inertia of :

(a) A ring of mass M and radius R about an axis coinciding with a diameter of the ring.
(b) A thin disc about an axis coinciding with a diameter.
SOLUTION :
Similarly for a thin disc (i.e., a circular plate)
Let X and Y axes be along two perpendicular
diameters of the ring. Moment of inertia about a diameter is
By symmetry Ix = Iy 1 1 2 1 2
= I  MR   MR
and Iz = Ix + Iy 2 2  4
But we know that Iz = MR2
MR2 = Ix + Iy

MR2 = 2 Ix
MR 2
Ix = Iy =
2

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Illustration - 6 Find the moment of inertia of a circular disk or solid cylinder of radius R about the axis
through the center and perpendicular to the flat surface.
SOLUTION :

The moment of inertia of this element is

dI  dm r 2  2   r 3dr

For the whole body,

R 1
I  2  r 3dr   R 4
0 2
The figure shows that the appropriate mass el- The mass of the whole disk or cylinder is M
ement is a circular ring of radius r and width
dr.   A   R 2 , and so
Its area is dA  2 rdr and it s mass is I = 1/2 MR2
dm   dA; where   M / A is the areal
mass density.

Illustration - 7 Find the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere of mass M and radius R about a
diameter

SOLUTION :
The sphere may be divided into disks perpen-
dicular to the given axis, as shown in fig. The
disk at a distance x from the center of the sphere
has radius r = (R2 - x2 )1/2 and a thickness dx.

If   M / V is the volume mass density (mass

per unit volume), the mass of this elemental disk The total moment of inertia is
is
1 R
2 I    R 4  2 R 2 x 2  x 4  dx
dm   dV   r dx, or 2  R

R
dm    ( R 2  x 2 ) dx 1  2 1  8
   R 4 x  R2 x3  x5     R5
2  3 5   R 15
From the last example, the moment of inertia
of this elemental disk is The to tal mass of the sphere is
M = (4/3 R3), so the moment of inertia may
dI = 1/2 dm r2  1 / 2  (R2 - x2)2 dx
be written as :
I = 2/5 MR2.

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Illustration - 8 A disc of mass m and radius R has a concentric hole of radius r. Its moment of inertia
about an axis through its centre and perpendicular to its plane is :
1 1 1 1
(A)
2
2
m  R  r  (B)
2

m R 2  r 2 (C)  2
2
m  R  r  (D)
2
m R2  r 2  
SOLUTION :
M   4 4 
Let   mass per unit area =  R r
 R  r 
2 2 2
If we fill the hole with mass densities
 and   then the system can be treated as
a combination of two discs of radii r and R and
densities  and  
I = I1 + I2
1 1
 M 1R12  M 2 R22
2 2
M  R4  r 4  M  2 2
1 1   R r
     r 2  r 2       R 2  R 2  2 R  r
2 2  2
2 2

Illustration - 9 The radius of gyration of a solid sphere of radius R about a certain axis is R. The distance
of this axis from the centre of the sphere is :
(A) R (B) 0.5 R (C) 0.6 R (D) 0.4 R

SOLUTION :
I  I CM  Md 2 (parallel axis theorem)

2
MK 2  MR 2  Md 2 (But K = R)
5
2
 MR 2  MR 2  Md 2
5
 d  0.6 R

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ANGULAR MOMENTUM (L) Section - 3

(a) For a particle
Angular momentum about origin (O) is given as :

L  r   mv 
where r = position vector of the particle ; v = velocity

 L  mv r sin   mv(OA) sin   mvr

where r  perpendicular distance of velocity vector from O.

(b) For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a speed v, its linear momentum is mv, its angular
momentum (L) is given as :

L  m v r  mvr
(c) For a rigid body (about a fixed axis)
L = sum of angular momenta of all particles
= m1v1r1 + m2 v2 r2 + m3 v3 r3 + . . . . .

 m1r12  m2 r22  m3 r32  .... (v  r )

 ( m1r12  m2 r22  m3 r33 ......)

L  I
(compare with linear momentum p = mv in linear motion)
L is also a vector and its direction is same as that of  (i.e., clockwise or anticlockwise)

Illustration - 10 A body of mass m is moving with a constant velocity along a line parallel to the x-axis,
away from the origin. Its angular momentum with respect to the origin
(A) is zero (B) remains constant (C) goes on increasing (D) goes on decreasing

SOLUTION :
L  m v r
L = mv (OA)
As OA and v are both contant, the angular momentum remains constant.

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Illustration - 11 A particle of mass 1 kg is moving along the line y = x + 2 (here, x and y are in meters) with
speed 2 m/s. The magnitude of angular momentum of particle about origin is :
(A) 4 kg  m 2 / s (B) 2 2 kg  m 2 / s (C) 4 2 kg  m 2 / s (D) 2 kg  m 2 / s
SOLUTION :
L  m v r L  1 kg   2m / s   2 m 
|0  0  2|
where r   2 L  2 2 kg m 2 / s
2 2
1 1

Illustration - 12 A particle of mass m is projected with a velocity v0 making an angle of 45° with the
horizontal. The magnitude of the angular momentum of the projectile about the point of projection when the
particle is at its maximum height h is :

(A) zero (B) 

mv3 / 4 2 g  (C) mv3 /  2g  (D) m 2 gh3

SOLUTION :

L0  m v r

At the highest point, V = speed = V0 cos 45

V 2 sin 2 45
r  h  0
2g
V   V 2  mV 3
 L0  m  0   0   0  B is correct .
 2  4g  4 2 g

TORQUE () : Section - 4

Torque is a quantity which measures the capability of a force to
rotate a body. Torque due to a force is also known as the moment
of a force. It is defined as the product of the force and the per-
pendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the
axis of rotation. This perpendicular distance is known as the force
arm.
Torque    (force)  (force arm)
  F r
Units of torque are N-m.

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Torque is a vector quantity. Torque is clock-wise if the tendency of force

is to produce clock-wise rotation and vice-versa. In vector form, torque
due to a force F acting at a point A (whose position vector is r) is :
  r F
Taking magnitude, we can see that :   r F sin 
   F (r sin  )  F r

Couple
A pair of two equal and opposite forces acting along parallel lines but
having different lines of action constitutes a couple.
Moment of couple or torque  F 
= (force) × (perpendicular distance between forces)

Work done by a Torque

Consider a rigid body acted upon by a force F at perpendicular distance r from
the axis of rotation. Suppose that under this force, the body rotates through an
angle  .

Work done = force × displacement

W  F r. 

W   

Work done = (torque) × (angular displacement)

dW d
Power =   
dt dt
Newton’s IInd Law for Rotation
According to Newton’s IInd Law of rotation :
The rate of change angular momentum of a body is equal to the net torque acting on it.
L

t

   
I
t
    t 
 
  I

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Note : This important equation  I  can be compared with Newton’s IInd Law of motion (F = ma). Hence in
rotation, torque ( ) plays the role corresponding to force in linear motion.

Illustration - 13 A grind-stone is in the form of a solid cylinder has a radius of 0.5 m and a mass 50 kg.
(a) What torque will bring it from rest to an angular velocity of 300 rev/min in 10 s ?
(b) What is the kinetic energy when it is rotating at 300 rev/min ?

SOLUTION :
Let i  0 rad / s , (b) Kinetic energy of a rotating body
(RKE) :
 f  2 (300 / 60)  10  rad / s 2
1 2 1 1 
RK E I   MR 2   2
 f  i 10  0 2 2 2 
(a)     rad / s 2
t 10 1  1   2   2
  50 0.5  10 
1 2
2 2 
Torque required =   I   MR  
2  R K E = 3084 J

   1 / 2 (50) (0.5) 2   19.6 Nm

Illustration - 14 Calculate the torque developed by an airplane engine whose output is 2000 hp at an
angular velocity of 2400 rev/min.
SOLUTION :

  2 (2400 / 60)  80  rad / s. Power = work done per sec  
t
Power   
Work done by torque
2000  746
= (torque) × (angular displacement)   5937 Nm
80

Illustration - 15 In the given figure, calculate the linear acceleration of the blocks.
Mass of block A = 10 kg
Mass of block B = 8 kg
Mass of disc shaped pulley = 2 kg
(take g = 10 m/s2)
SOLUTION :
Let R be the radius of the pulley and T1 and T2 Let m1 = 10 kg ; m2 = 8 kg ; M = 2 kg.
be the tensions in the left and right portions of Let a be the acceleration of blocks.
the string.

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1
(iii) T2 R  T1R = MR 2 
2
The linear acceleration of blocks is same as
the tangential acceleration of any point on the
circumference of the pulley which is R  .
(iv) a  R
Dividing (iii) by R and adding to (i) and (ii),
For the blocks (linear motion) M
m2g - m1 g = m2a + m1a + R
2
(i) T1 - m1g = m1a
 M
(ii) m2g - T2 = m2a  m2 g  m1g   m2  m1  a
 2 
m2  m1
a g
For the pulley (rotation) M
m2  m1 
2
Net torque  I 
10  8 g 
20
m / s2
=
2 19
10  8 
2

Illustration - 16 A uniform rod of length L and mass M is pivoted freely at one end.
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the rod when it is at angle  to the vertical ?
(b) What is the tangential linear acceleration of the free end when the rod is horizontal ? The moment of
inertia of a rod about one end is 1/3 ML2.

SOLUTION :
The Figure shows the rod at an angle  to the
vertical.
If we take torques about the pivot we need not
be concerned with the force due to the pivot.
The torque due to the weight is mgL/2 sin,
so the second law for the rotational motion is When the rod is horizontal   / 2 and
  3g/ 2 L.
mgL ml 2
sin    The tangential linear acceleration of the free end
2 3
is
3g sin 
Thus   3g
2L at   L 
2

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Vidyamandir Classes Rotational Motion

GENERAL RIGID BODY MOTION Section - 5

We now analyse the motion of objects that move through space while also rotating : for example, a ball
rolling down an incline, or an object thrown into the air tumbling end-over-end as it moves. This complex
motion can be described simply as a combination of translational motion of the CM and a pure rotational
motion about the C.M.
Kinetic Energy
The total kinetic energy of a body which is moving through space as well as rotating is given by :
K = Ktranslational + Krotation

1 2 1
K MVCM  I CM  2
2 2
where VCM = velocity of the centre of mass
ICM = moment of inertia about CM
 = angular velocity of rotation
Instantaneous Velocity of a point
All points on a rigid body have instantaneous velocity v that is the vector sum of two velocities : the velocity

Vcm of the CM plus the tangential velocity Vt of the point relative to CM (at right angles to the radius vector
r of the point drawn from the CM). For a point A,
V A  V CM  V t

Where V t  r (r = distance of A from CM)

And Vt is directed along the tangent to the circular trajectory about CM.

Roll ing without Slipping

The figure shows a wheel rolling without slipping along the horizontal stationary surface. As the wheel turns
through an angle  = s/r, the arc length s equals the horizontal distance x that the CM of the wheel moves.
In a sense, the arc length s is “laid down” along the horizontal distance x. We can think of the wheel’s motion
as made up of two separate motions : the linear translational motion of the CM combined with pure
rotation about the CM (ignoring the linear motion of CM).
The relations between corresponding variables are :
x  r
(As P is at rest, VCM and r balance).

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(As P is at rest, VCM and r balance).

Vcm  r 

Acm  r 
Another feature of rolling without slipping is that the instantaneous velocity of the point of contact with the
surface is always zero. The highest point Q has a velocity  Vcm  r  2r

Illustration - 17 A rigid body of radius of gyration k and radius R rolls (without slipping) down a plane
inclined at an angle  with horizontal. Calculate its acceleration and the frictional force acting on it.

SOLUTION :
When the body is placed on the inclined plane,  v  R and ACM  R 
it tries to slip down and hence a static friction f
acts upwards. This friction provides a torque Solve the following three equations for a and
which causes the body to rotate. Let ACM be f:
the linear acceleration of centre of mass and  mg sin   f  ma
be the angular acceleration of the body.
fR  mk 2
From force diagram :
For linear motion parallel to the plane ACM  R 
mg sin   f  ma mg sin 
g sin  f 
ACM  and
k2 R2
For rotation around the axis through centre of 1 1
mass R2 k2

Net torque  I   f R  (mk 2 ) We can also derive the condition for pure
rolling (rolling without slipping) :

To avoid slipping , f   s N
g sin 
 s mg cos 
1  R2 / k 2
tan 
 s 
R2
1
k2
As there is no slipping, the point of contact of
the body with plane is instantaneously at rest. This is the condition on µs so that the body rolls
without slipping.

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Illustration - 18 A solid cylinder rolls down an inclined plane of height h and inclination . Calculate its
speed at the bottom of the plane using acceleration-method and energy-method. Also calculate the time
taken to reach bottom.
SOLUTION :
Energy Method :
Let VCM ,  be the velocity of centre of mass
and the angular velocity of cylinder respectively
at the bottom of the plane.
As the cylinder rolls down without rubbing, NO
energy is lost due to friction as heat.
Loss in G.P.E. = gain in KE
2
mgh 
1 2
mVCM
1
 I 2
Using VCM  02  2 ACM S
2 2
as down the plane
As the cylinder is rolling without slipping, (taking downward direction positive)

h
VCM  R  v 0  2a
sin 
2 
1 2 1  mR 2   VCM
 mgh  mVCM    2  2  h 4gh
2 2 2  R   2  g sin   
3  sin  3
4 gh
 VCM  Time to reach bottom = t
3

Acceleration Method : 4gh

0
From the result of last illustration v0 3
 
a 2
(using k2 = R2/2) g sin 
3
Acceleration of the cylinder is :
g sin  2 3h 1
 g sin  =
1 3 g sin 
1
2

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Illustration - 19 A solid cylinder of mass m = 4 kg and radius R = 10 cm has two ropes wrapped around it,
one near each end. The cylinder is held horizontally by fixing the two free ends of the cords to the hooks on the
ceiling such that both the cords are exactly vertical. The cylinder is released to fall under gravity. Find the
tension in the cords when they unwind and the linear acceleration of the cylinder.

SOLUTION :
Also, the linear acceleration of cylinder is same
Let ACM = linear acceleration of CM. as the tangential acceleration of any point on its
  angular acceleration of the cylinder.. surface.

For the linear motion of the cylinder : ACM  R 

mg - 2T = ma Combining the three equations, we get :
m
For the rotational motion : mg  ma  a
2
Net torque = ICM 
2g
 a  6.53 m / s 2
1 2 3
2TR =  mR  
2  mg  ma
and T  6.53 N
2
Illustration - 20 A solid sphere, a hollow sphere and a disc, all having same mass and radius, are placed at
the top of a smooth incline and released. Least time will be taken in reaching the bottom by :
(A) the solid sphere (B) the hollow sphere (C) the disc (D) all will take same time.
SOLUTION :
On a smooth incline, the only accelerating force
is mg sin  acting at the CM.
N = mg cos 

mg sin   mACM  ACM  g sin 

 CM  0    0 2 2
t = same for all = A 
CM g sin 
Hence all the bodies will slip down with same
acceleration and no spin. where   length of the incline.
 D is correct .

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Illustration - 21 A solid sphere, a hollow sphere and a disc, all having same mass and radius, are placed at
the top of an incline and released. The friction coefficients between the objects and the incline are same and
not sufficient to allow pure rolling. Least time will be taken in reaching the bottom by
(A) the solid sphere (B) the hollow sphere (C) the disc (D) all will take same time

SOLUTION :
Due to slipping, kinetic friction k mg cos 
will act on all.

mg sin  – mg cos  = mACM

 ACM  g (sin    cos  ) is agan 2
Hence all will take same time t = g  sin    cos  
same for all bodies.
 D is correct .

Illustration - 22 In the previous question, the smallest kinetic energy at the bottom of the incline will be
achieved by
(A) the solid sphere (B) the hollow sphere
(C) the disc (D) all will achieve same kinetic energy
SOLUTION :

As  CM    mg cos   R  I CM 
1 2 1
 KE  MVCM  ICM  2
 mgR cos   gR cos  2 2
 
2
mk k2 1 1   gR cos  2 t 2
2
 MACM t 2  Mk 2
 will be different for each one of the bodies 2 2 k4
and hence they will gain different angular velocities
1 1 M
at the bottom of the plane given by :  2
MACM t2 
2
  gR cos  2 t 2
2 2 k
  0   t
KE will be least for the body whose k2 is greatest.
 gR cos  t Hence hollow sphere will have least KE.
0 
k2  B is correct .

Illustration - 23 A hoop rolls on a horizontal ground without slipping with linear

speed v. Speed of a particle P on the circumference of the hoop at angle  is :
   
(A) 2v sin   (B) v sin  (C) 2v cos   (D) v cos 
2 2

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SOLUTION :
For rolling without slipping, (velocity of P)2 = (VCM  r cos  ) 2  (r sin  ) 2

VCM  r 2
 VCM (1  cos  ) 2  V 2 sin 2  (as r  VCM )

2 2
= 4VCM sin
2

 velocity of P  2VCM sin
2

The velocity of P is the resultant of CM velocity

and the tangential velocity r due to clockwise
rotation

Illustration - 24 A ring of mass m and radius R has three particles attached to

the ring as shown in figure. The centre of the ring has a speed v0. The kinetic
energy of the system is : (Slipping is absent).
(A) 6 mv02 (B) 12 mv02 (C) 4 mv02 (D) 8 mv02

SOLUTION :
Velocity of any point in the ring is the vector
sum of V CM and the tangential velocity R 
due to spin about CM.

For rolling without slipping, VCM  R 

V A  VCM  R  2VCM 1

2

m V A2  VD2  2 VB2 
2
VB  VCM  R 2 2  2 VCM  2 1 
  mVCM  ICM  2 
2 2 
2
VD  VCM  R 2 2  2 VCM 1 2
 m  4  2  4  VCM
2
1 1 1 1  2 2 
Ktotal  mVA2  mVD2   2m  VB2  K ring 2 VCM
2 2 2  m  VCM  R   6m V 2
2  R2  CM

 The correct answer is A .

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Vidyamandir Classes Rotational Motion

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM Section - 6

(a) Angular impulse about a point (J)

Linear impulse, I   F dt

Similarly, angular impulse J    dt

J    dt

J    Fr  dt

   F dt r 
J  I r (Compare with   Fr to remember)

(b) Impulse-Momentum Theorems :

(i) Linear impulse = I   Fdt

dp
 dt
dt

  dp

 p
 I  p

(ii) Angular impulse = J    dt

dL
= J  dt
dt
=  dL  L
 J  L

This equation is usually applied about CM.

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(c) Conservation of Angular Momentum

If external angular impulse about a point P during the collision is zero, then the angular momentum
about that point can be conserved.
If JP = 0
 L p  0

 ( Li ) p  ( L f ) p

Illustration - 25 A billiard ball, initially at rest, is given a sharp impulse by a rod. The rod is held horizontally
at a height h above the centre of the ball. The ball immediately begins to roll without slipping after the
impact. Calculate the height h in terms of the radius of the ball.
SOLUTION :
The horizontal force creates a linear impulse
and angular impulse.

I   Fdt

J    dt  Ih
Linear impulse = change in linear momentum Dividing (ii) by (i) we get :
 I  MVCM  0 . . . .(i) 2Mr 2
h (Using VCM  r )
Angular impulse about CM = change in angular 5MVCM
momentum 2
h r
2 5
J  Ih  mr 2  0 . . . .(ii)
5

Illustration - 26 In a “zero - g” environment, a thin uniform rod of length  is initially at rest with
respect to an inertial frame of reference. The rod is tapped at one end perpendicular to its length. How far
does the center of mass translate while the rod completes one revolution about its center of mass ?
SOLUTION : Impulse on the rod :
The “impulsive tap” delivered perpendicularly dP
F 
to the rod at one end gives some linear dt
momentum to the CM of the rod and also some
angular momentum about the CM.

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Using Impulse-Momentum equation, Let t be the time required for one complete
I  MVCM  0 revolution of 2 rad. Multiplying both sides
by t gives
 M 2
I  0  2 
2 12 
VCM  t      t
2  12 
 M 2
 MVCM   X CM 
 
2 12
6

X CM  as   2
3

Illustration - 27 A turntable rotates about a fixed vertical axis, making one revolution in 10 s. The moment
of inertia of the turntable about the axis is 1200 kg m2. A man of mass 80 kg initially standing at the centre
of the turntable, runs out along a radius. What is the angular velocity of the turntable when the man is 2m
from the centre ?
SOLUTION :

I0 = initial moment of inertia of the system I = 80(2)2 + 1200 = 1520 kg m2

I0 = Iman + Itable By conservation of angular momentum:

I0 = 0 + 1200 = 1200 kg m2 I 00  I

(Iman = 0 as the man is at the axis)
Now 0  2 / T0  2 / 10   / 5 rad / s
I = final moment of inertia of the system
I  1200  
I = Iman + Itable  0 0 
I 1520  5
I = mr2 + 1200
 0.49 rad / s

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Illustration - 28 The cylinder shown in figure has a fixed axis and

is initially at rest. The block of mass M is initially moving to the
right without friction with speed v1. It passes over the cylinder to
the dotted position. When it first makes contact with the cylinder, it
slips on the cylinder but the friction is large enough so that slipping
ceases before M loses contact with the cylinder.
Calculate the final speed v2 in terms of v1 , M, I (moment of inertia
of cylinder) and radius (R).
SOLUTION :
Let  be the angular velocity acquired by the As the slipping ceases, v2  R
cylinder as a result of contact. The only impulse on
v
the system is acting at O. Hence angular impulse  Mv1R  M v2 R  I 2
about O is zero. R
Applying conservation of angular momentum to the Mv1R v1
 v2  
block-cylinder system about the axis through O : I I
MR  1
R MR 2
Mv1R  Mv2 R  I 

Illustration - 29 A small block of mass 4 kg is attached to a cord passing through a hole in a horizontal
frictionless surface. The block is originally revolving in a circle of radius of 0.5 m about the hole, with a
tangential velocity of 4 m/s. The cord is then pulled slowly from below, shortening the radius of the circle in
which the block revolves. The breaking strength of the cord is 600 N. What will be the radius of the circle
when the cord breaks ?
SOLUTION :
 T2  600 N
mv1r1 = mv2r2 and T2 = mv22/r2

r2 T2
 mv1 r1  m r2
m
The tension of the rope is the only net force on
1/ 3 1/ 3
the block and it does not exert any torque about  mv 2 r 2   4  16  0.25 
the axis of rotation. Hence the angular momentum r2   1 1   
of the block about the axis should remain  T2   600 
conserved. 1/ 3
 16 
 m v r  constant  r2    3. 0 m
 600 
Let r1 = 0.5 m and v1 = 4 m/s.
Note :The tension in the string is inversely proportional
Let r2, v2, T2 be the radius, velocity and tension
to the cube of the radius.
when the string breaks.

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Illustration - 30 A horizontal disc rotates freely about a vertical axis through its centre. A ring, having the
same mass and radius as the disc, is now gently placed on the disc. After some time, the two rotate with a
common angular velocity.
Which of the following are true :
(A) Some friction exists between the disc and the ring
(B) The angular momentum of the ‘disc plus ring’ is conserved
2
(C) The final common angular velocity is rd of the initial angular velocity of the disc
3
2
(D) rd of the initial kinetic energy changes to heat
3

SOLUTION : (ABD)
(A) As the ring is placed on the rotating disc, they
rub against each other exerting kinetic friction
as shown. This kinetic friction produces torque
which opposes the motion of the disc and slows
it down to angular velocity . The kinetic friction
on the ring accelerates it from rest to final
angular velocity . When  for both becomes
same, they stop rubbing.

(B) As the torques of frictional forces are internal,

the angular momentum of system remains
conserved. (D) Loss in KE = Ki – Kf

MR 2 2  MR 2  2
(C) I disc 0  0  I disc   I ring   0    MR 2  0
2  2  9
( MR 2 / 2) 0 0 1
 2
MR / 2  MR 2

3

3

MR 2 02 
20 2 1 2 2 2
    MR 0   K i
3 3 2  3

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Illustration - 31 A uniform rod AB of mass m and length l is at rest on a smooth horizontal surface. An
impulse I is applied to the end B perpendicular to the rod in horizontal direction. Speed of particle P at a
 ml
distance l/6 from the centre towards A of the rod time t  is :
12 I
I I I I
(A) 2 (B) (C) (D) 2
m 2m m m

SOLUTION :
Using impulse-momentum equations, In the final position of rod,
I = MVCM – 0

 M 2
I  0
2 12
I
VCM 
M
6I
and 
M  2 2
VP2  VCM
2

M 36
After time t 
12 I I2 36 I 2 2 2I 2
VP2   
 M   6I   M2 36 M 2  2 M2
  t   
12 I  M   2
2I
Thus the rod has rotated through a right angle. VP   D is correct.
M

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Vidyamandir Classes Rotational Motion

SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 The end A of the rod AB is being pulled on the floor with a
constant velocity v0 as shown. Taking the length of the rod as  , Calculate :
(a) The velocity of end B (b) The angular velocity of the rod

(c) The velocity of the CM of the rod at the instant when   37.

SOLUTION :
Let OA = x, OB = y d v0 5v
   0
dt  sin 37 3
x 2  y 2  2 and x   cos .
x
(c) xCM 
(a) Differentiate x 2  y 2  2 with respect to time. 2
1 dx v0
2x
dx
 2y
dy
0
 VCM x   
2 dt 2
dt dt
y
dy x dx 4 yCM 
VB     VA cot   V0  2
dt y dt 3
1 dy vB 2
(b) Differentiate x   cos  with respect to time.  VCMy    v0 
2 dt 2 3
dx d
   sin  v02 4v02
dt dt  VCM  
4 9
d VA
 5 4
dt  sin   v0 at tan 1 below horizontal.
6 3
(negative sign indicates that  is decreasing)

Example - 2 Consider the arrangement shown in figure. The string is

wrapped around a uniform cylinder which rolls without slipping. The other
end of the string is passed over a massless, frictionless pulley to a falling
weight. Determine the acceleration of the falling mass in terms of only the
mass of the cylinder M, the mass m and g.

SOLUTION :
Let T be the tension in the string and f be the force of (static) friction between the cylinder and the surface.

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a = downward acceleration of block m Vm = velocity of the highest point of cylinder

Vm  VCM  r 

Taking derivatives,
a  ACM  r  …(iv)
We also have : (for rolling without slipping)
ACM  r  …(v)
Multiply (i) by r, (ii) by 2r and add to (ii).
ACM  acceleration of the CM of cylinder
2 mgr  MACM r  2 m a r  1 / 2 Mr 2
towards right
  angular acceleration o f cylinder From (iv) and (v), we have a  2r ,
(clockwise) ACM  r 

T  f  M ACM …(i)

2mgr  Mr 2  4mr 2  1 / 2Mr 2  
Taking torque about the CM,
4mg


Tr  fr  1 / 2 Mr 2   …(ii)  3M  8m  r
The acceleration of falling mass m is :
mg  T  ma …(iii)
8mg
The string attaches the mass m to the highest a  2r 
point of the cylinder. 3M  8 m

Example - 3 A rectangular rigid fixed block has a long

horizontal edge. A solid homogenous cylinder radius R is placed
horizontally at rest with its length parallel to the edge such that
the axis of the cylinder and the edge of the block are in the same
vertical plane as shown in figure. There is sufficient friction present
at the edge so that a very small displacement causes the cylinder
to roll of the edge without sipping. Determine :

(a) The angel c through which the cylinder rotates before it

leaves contact with the edge,
(b) The speed of the centre of mass of the cylinder before leaving
contact with the edge, and
(c) The ratio of the transitional and rotational kinetic energies
of the cylinder when its centre of mass is in horizontal line
with the edge.

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SOLUTION :
1 2 1
As the cylinder rotates about the edge, its CM mgr 1  cos    mVCM  I CM 2
moves along a circular arc of radius r centred at 2 2
the edge. Let N be the normal reaction from
where VCM  r 
edge at the instant when cylinder has rotated
through an angle . Combine all the three equations to get :

4 4
  cos 1 and VCM  rg
7 7

1 
(c) The rotational kinetic energy  I CM 2 
2 
become constant after the cylinder leaves the
mv 2 edge.
mg cos θ  N 
r
1 11 4 g M gr
At jump off point, N = 0 K rot  ICM 2   Mr 2  
2 22 7 r 7
Total kinetic energy at the instant when CM is in
mv 2
 mg cos   horizontal line with edge is K.
r
K = loss in GPE from initial position = m g r
We can also apply conservative of mechanical
energy as there is no slipping. The gravitational mgr 6
K trans  mgr  K rot  mgr   mgr
potential energy decreases and hence the kinetic 7 7
energy increases. K trans
 6
K rot

Example - 4 A solid sphere of radius r and mass m rolls without slipping

down the track shown in the figure. At the end of its run at point Q its center-
of-mass velocity is directed upward. The lower portion of track is circular of
radius R.
(a) Determine the force with which the sphere presses against the track
at B.
(b) Upto what height does the CM rise after it leaves the track ?

SOLUTION :
1 2 1
From A to B mg 10 R   mVcm  I cm 12
2 1 2
Loss in GPE = gain in KE
For rolling without slipping on a fixed surface.

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Vcm1  R1

The CM follows a circular path of radius R – r

AT B, net force towards centre
2
mVcm
 N  mg 
Rr

From Q to P,  does not change because

m 100 gR  mg 107 R  7r 
 N  mg   about C.M torque is zero in air.
7R  r 7R r
gain in GPE = loss in KE

(b) From A to Q, mg  9 R  r  1 2
 mg  gain in height  mVcm
2 2

2
1 2 1  Vcm2  V 2cm2 5
 mvcm  I cm    h  9R  r 
2 2 2  r 2g 7
 
52 R 5r
 height above the base  R  h  
7 7
Vcm2  rw2 at Q 
Example - 5 The descending pulley (disc shaped) shown in figure
have a radius 20 cm and moment of inertia 0.20 kg-m2. The fixed pulley
is light and the horizontal plane frictionless. Find the acceleration of the
block if its mass is 1.0 kg.

SOLUTION :
Let T1 and T2 be tension in the strings to the left Mg  T1  T2  MA …(ii)
and right of the pulley.
Taking torque about CM of the pulley
a = acceleration of block towards right
A = acceleration of CM of pulley downward T2 R  T1R  I  …(iii)

  angular acceleration of pulley (anticlock wise) The string attaches the mass m to the left point
of the cylinder.

 a  A  R …(iv)

1
For disc, I  MR 2 …(v)
2
We also have : (for right part of the string

A R …(vi)
T1  ma …(i)

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Solving these equation for a, we get : 4  0.2  9.8

 a 2
4 Ig 4 1   0.2   3  0.2

4m2  3I  5.96 m / s 2

Example - 6 In the arrangement shown in figure a weight A

possesses mass m, a pulley B possesses mass M. Also known are the
moment of inertia I of the pulley relative to its axis and the radii of
the pulley R and 2R. The mass of the threads is negligible. Find the
acceleration of the weight A after the system is set free.

SOLUTION :

T1  tension in string attached to ceiling

T2  tension in string attached to block mg  T2  ma …(ii)

Taking torque about CM.

2T1  R   T2  2 R   I  …(iii)
For the string winding over smaller part of the
spool, X is at rest.
Acm  R …(iv)
And for the string winding over the bigger part of
spool, acceleration of point Y = acc. of block.
Acm : acceleration of CM of spool downward Acm  2 R  a …(v)
a: acceleration of block down wards Solving these five equation for a, we get :

 : angular acceleration of spool clockwise. 3 g  M  3m 

a
Mg  T2  2T1  MAcm …(i) M  9m  I / R 2

Example - 7 A grindstone 1m in diameter, of mass 50 kg, is rotating at 900 rev/min. A tool is pressed
normally against the rim with a force of 200 N, and the grindstone comes to rest in 10 seconds. Find the
coefficient of friction between the tool and the gridstone. Neglect the friction in the bearings.

SOLUTION :
Let   coefficient friction between the tool and
the grid stone.

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Initial angular velocity i  900 rev/min Using  f  i  t, we have

900  2
 red / sec  2 F  
60  0  30   t
 MR 
 30 rad/sec (anticlock wise)
30 MR 
 
Final angular velocity   f  0 2 Ft

Taking torque about CM. 30  50  0.5  3.14

  0.5890
1 2  200 10
fR  I   fR  MR 2
2
2 f 2F
and   (clockwise)
MR MR

Example - 8 A carpet of mass M made of an inextensible material is rolled along its length in the form
of a cylinder of radius R and is kept on a rough floor. The carpet starts unrolling without sliding on the floor
when a negligibly small push is given to it. Calculate the horizontal velocity of the axis of the cylindrical part
of the carpet when its radius reduces to R/2.

SOLUTION :
At radius is reduced to R/2, mass of rolling
part reduced to M/4
Loss in GPE = gain in KE

M R
 MgR  g  For rolling without slipping,
4 2
R
1 M  2 1 Vcm   …(iii)
   Vcm  I 2 …(i) 2
2 4  2
I = moment of inertia of rolling part Solving these equation, we get :

2
1  M   R  MR 2 14 g R
     Vcm 
…(ii) 3
2 4   2  32

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Example - 9 A spherical ball is given a translation velocity equal to v0 and pushed along a horizontal
surface where the coefficient of friction is . Calculate the time after which it begins to roll without sipping.
Also calculate the velocity of entre of mass after it begins to roll without slipping.

SOLUTION :

The point of contact has a forward velocity when We also have v  r  for pure rolling …(iii)
the ball starts moving. This causes slipping and
hence a kinetic friction equal to mg act in  v k2  1
backward direction. This frictional force provides t  0 
 k 2  r 2  g
 
 where I  mk 2 
a clock-wise torque and hence the angular
velocity increases from zero  in time t. The
same frictional force reduces the linear velocity v0 r 2
and v 
of centre of mass from v0 to v in time t. k2  r2
If the ball begins to roll without slipping after time
t, For a solid sphere k 2  2 / 5 r 2

v  r 2v0
time (t) = and v  5 / 7 v0
7 g
 v  v0   gt …(i)
2v0
Using  f  i  t and   I for rotation : Hence seconds, the translational speed of
7 g
  mgr  ball reduces to 5 / 7 v0 and it begins to roll
  0  t …(ii)
 I  without slipping.

Example - 10 A Solid sphere is set into motion on a rough horizontal

surface with a linear speed v0 in the forward direction and an angular speed
0 the anticlockwise direction as shown in the figure.

V0
Find the value of ration so that sphere comes to rest permently after
r0
some time calculate this time also. The coefficient of friction is .

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SOLUTION :
The point of contact of the sphere and ground is
slipping in forward direction. A kinetic friction acts
in backward direction which causes backward
acceleration of C.M. and clockwise torque.
Therefore, velocity of centre of mass and angular
velocity both decrease with time.  mgr 5 gt
  t   0  t  0   0 …(ii)
2 2 2 r
f k  mg  mACM CM  f k r  ICM  mr
5

  mgr From (i) and (ii) we get :

 ACM g and   CM 
ICM 2 mr 2 v0 2
5 
0 r 5
v  t   v0  gt  0 …(i) v
t 0
g

Example - 11 A board of mass M, whose upper surface is rough and under surface smooth, rests on a
smooth horizontal plane. A sphere of mass m is placed on the board and the board is suddenly given a velocity
v0 in the direction of its length. Find the time after which the sphere begins pure rolling, if the coefficient of
friction between the board and the sphere is .

SOLUTION :
Let a be the acceleration of block of mass M. Let ACM be the acceleration of C.M. of sphere. Let  be the
angular acceleration of sphere.

Force diagram When pure rolling stars, velocity of points P

and Q will become equal.

VP  VQ

VCM  r  v …(i)
(i) f k  Ma (ii) f k  MACM

mg
a ACM   g
M

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m 2
v  t   v0  gt …(ii) ICM  Mr 2
M 5
Solving, (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) we get :
VCM  t   0   gt …(iii)
v
mgr t
t   0  t …(iv) 7 m 
ICM    g
2 M 

Example - 12 A billiard ball (of radius R), initially at rest is given a

sharp impulse by a cue. The cue is held horizontally a distance h above
the central line as shown. The ball leaves the cue with a speed V0, and
after some time acquires a final of 9/7 V0. Show that h = 4/5 R.

SOLUTION :

Let v0 be the linear velocity and 0 be the angular For rotation :

velocity imparted. frictional torque (mgR) opposes rotation and
hence decreases .
 linear impulse   Fdt  mv0  0
 mgR mgR …(iii)
   0  t
2 I 2 2
angular impulse   Fhdt  mr 2  0  mR 
5 5 

 h
 2 / 5 mR 2  0
After time t : V  9 v0  R
mv0 7
Combining all the equations,
2
2 R 0
 v0  …(i) 9  9v  2R
5h V  v0  v0    0  0 
7  7R  5
As linear velocity increase to 9/7 v0, friction must
be in forward direction and hence oppose angular [Eliminating  g t from (ii) and (iii)]
motion.
Substitute for v0 from I.
For linear motion :
friction (mgR) increase velocity. 2  2 R 20   9 2 R0  2 R
     0 
7  5 h   7 5h  5
(a = g) (t = time taken to start rolling)
V = V0 + gt …(ii) 4R
 h .
5

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Example - 13 A man of mass 100 kg stands at the rim of a turntable of radius 2 m and moment of inertia
4000 kg.m2 mounted on a vertical frictionless shaft at its centre. The whole system is initially at rest. The man
now walks along the outer edge of turntable with a velocity of 1 m/s relative to the earth.
(a) With that angular velocity and in what direction does the turntable rotates ?
(b) Through what angle will it have rotated when the man reaches his initial position on the turntable ?
(c) Through what angle will it have rotated when the man reaches his initial position relative to earth ?

SOLUTION :
Let the man be moving anti-clockwise 2  mt  t t (where t is the time taken)
(a) By conservation of angular momentum on the
2 2 2
man-table system t   s
m  t 0.5   0.05  0.55
Li  L f
 angular displacement of table is :
0  0  I m m  It t
 2 
t  t t   0.05   
I   0.55 
 t   m m where m  v / r  1 / 2
It
 2 
rad/s     radians
 11 
2 1
100  2     2
 t   2 The table rotates through radians clockwise.
11
4000
(c) If the man completes one revolution relative to
1 the earth, then :
 t   rad / s
20
m  2
Thus the table rotates clock-wise (opposite to
man) with angular velocity 0.05 rad/s. time  2 / m  2 / 0.5
(b) If the man completes one revolution relative to During this time, angular displacement of the table
the table, then :
 2 
mt  2  2  m  t t  t (time)  0.05   
 0.5 

t    / 5 radians.

t  36 in clock-wise direction

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Example - 14 Two skaters, each of mass 50 kg, approach each other along parallel paths separated by 3
m. They have equal and opposite velocities of 10 m/s. The first skater carries a long light pole, 3 m long, and
the second skater grabs the end of it as he passes (assume frictionless ice).
(a) Describe quantitatively the motion of the skaters after they are connected by the pole.
(b) By pulling one the pole the skaters reduce their distance apart to 1 m. What is their motion then ?
(c) Compare the KE’s of the system in parts (a) and (b). Where does the change come from ?

SOLUTION :

(a) As the net linear momentum of the system (skater (b) As the separation reduces to 2 ' = 1 m,
+ pole) is zero, the centre of mass will be at rest
before and after the collision. I   I ' '
The skaters and the pole will rotate around the (conservation of angular momentum)
centre of mass (at the mid point of the of the
pole). I  2m2
'    9  60 rad/s
Applying the conservation of angular momentum I ' 2m 2
about an axis through C and perpendicular to
the plane of the figure,  angular velocity increases

2 1
mv  mv  I  where I  2m    I ' ' 2
K .E f 2  ' 2 ' 2
(c)   2 2 9
K .Ei 1 2  
 2mv  / I  v /  I
2
 20 / 3 rad/s.
The kinetic energy increases because the skaters
do positive work in pulling themselves towards
the centre of pole.

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Example - 15 Two uniform thin rods A and B of length 0.6 m each and
of masses 0.01 kg and 0.02 kg respectively are rigidly joined end to end. The
combination is pivoted at the lighter end, P as shown in figure such that it
can freely rotate about the point P in a vertical plane. A small object of mass
0.05 kg, moving horizontally hits the lower end of the combination and sticks
to it. What should be the velocity of the object so that the system could just
be raised to the horizontal position ?

SOLUTION :
[by parallel axis theorem
2
 
I P  ICM  M 2     ]
 2
Substituting the values in (ii),

Let velocity with which mass (m = 0.05 kg) I  9  102 Kgm 2

hits the rod. The only external impulse act at P.
Substituting for I in (i),
Apply conservation of angular momentum about
P as the angular impulse about P is zero.

 0.05 u 1.2   2u
Li  L f 9  102 3

= angular velocity of the system after impact. After impact, loss in KE of rod = gain in PE

 0.05 u  0.6  0.6   I  . . . . (i) (as the rod rotates)

where I = total moment of inertia of the system 1 2   3 

I   M1g    M 2 g    mg  2 
about P 2 2 2
2
I  I1  I 2  m  2  . . . . (ii) 1  4u 2  8
2

9 102   9  2 1




M  3M 2  4 m 
2 2
where I1  I A  M1  0.01  0.6
3 3
u 2  g / 2  30  0.27 
 M 2 2
   u  6.3 m / s
I2  I B   2  M 2     
 12  2  


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Example - 16
A target in a shooting gallery consists of a vertical square wooden board, 0.2 m on a side,
of mass 2kg, and negligible thickness pivoted on an axis along its top edge. It is struck at the centre by a bullet
of mass 5 gm, travelling 300 m/s. The bulled gets embedded in the board.
(a) What is the angular velocity of the board just after bullet’s impact ?
(b) What maximum height above the equilibrium position does the centre of the board reach before starting
to swing down again ?
(c) What bullet speed would be required for the board to swing all the way over after impact ?

SOLUTION :
(b) Loss in K.E. = Gain in P.E.

2
1 1   
I A 2  m     M  m  gh
2 2  2 

 h = 0.0214 m
(c) Loss in K.E. = Gain in P.E.
(a) During ccollision impulse on the system is acting
2
at point A. Angular momentum can be conserved 1 1  
I A2  m      M  m  g 
only about A. 2 2  2

 LA i   LA  f 24  M  m  g
   4m  3m  
  m 2 
mv  0  IA  
2  4 
  v  
 4M  3m 
(from (i))
6m
6m v
   5.6 rad / sec …(i) v = 918 m/sec
 4 M  3m    
Note that the moment of inertia of the square board will be same as that of a rod of length l as one of
the dimensions of the board perpendicular to the axis is negligible.

Example - 17 A particle of mass m is subject to an attractive central force of magnitude k/r2 where k is
a constant. A the instant when the particle is at an extreme position in its closed elliptical orbit, its distance

from the centre of force is ‘a’ its speed is k

. Calculate its distance from force-centre when it is at the
2ma
other extreme position.

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SOLUTION :
1 2  k  1 2  k 
mv1     mv2   
2  r1  2  r2 
From conservation of angular momentum about
C,

m v1 r1  m v2 r2
Let P be the particle and C be the force-centre. We have to find r2. Hence we eliminate v2.
P1 and P2 are its extreme positions at distances
r1 to r2 from C. 2
1 2 k 1  v1 r1  k
mv1   m   
k 2 r1 2  r2  r2
We have r1 = a and v1 
2ma
k
As the force is directed towards C, torque about Substituting v1  and r1  a
2ma
C is zero.
Hence we will apply conservation of angular 1 k k 1 ma 2 k 1
m   
momentum about C and conservation of energy. 2
2 2ma a 2 r2 2ma r2

F  k / r2 2
 3r2  4ar2  a 2  0
 potential energy (U) = -k/r
 r2  a,a / 3
(compare the expression of force with
gravitational force) The other extreme positon is at a distance of
From conservation of energy, a/3 from C.

total energy at P1 = total energy at P2 Note : If the mass m is a satellite in an elliptical orbit
around a planet of mass M, then k = GmM and
the planet is at force-centre C.

Example - 18 A meter stick lies on a frictionless horizontal table. It

has a mass M and is free to move in any way on the table. A hockey puck
m, moving as shown with speed v collide elastically with stick.
(a) What is the velocity of the puck after impact ?
(b) What is the velocity of the CM and the angular velocity of the stick
after impact ?

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SOLUTION : (iii) At colliding points

Vsep  eVapp

  
 VCM   v1   ev …(iii)
 2 
e =1 (Elastic collision)
There is no external impulse on the system.
Soving (i), (ii) and (iii) we get :
 Linear momentum is conserved
 4m  M 
and Angular momentum about any point is v1   v
conserved.  4m  M 

(i) Pi  Pf 2m
VCM  v
 4m  M 
mv  mv1  MVCM …(i)
 12m  v
(ii)  LCM i   LCM  f about CM of rod.  
  4m  M   l
 
 mv 
mv  0  1  I  …(ii)
2 2 CM

Example - 19 A rod of mass m and length  is held vertically on a

smoot horizontal floor. If the rod begins to fall from this position, find
the speed of its C.M. When it makes an angle  with vertical.

SOLUTION :
When rod is falling freely due to gravity, the only
force acting is that of gravity in vertical direction. 
YCM  cos 
2
External force in horizontal direction = 0
 d
 VCM ,x remains constant at 0 m/s.  VCM    sin  
2 dt
i.e. C.M. Moves in vertical direction.

VCM   sin  …(i)
Let VCM be the velocity of CM and  be the 2
angular velocity of rod when it make angle  with Loss in P.E. = gain in K.E.
the vertical.

Mg 1  cos  
2

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1 1
2
 MVCM  ICM 2 …(ii) g 1 2 2  3 sin 2   1 
2 2 1  cos       

2 2  12 

12 g 1  cos  


 1  3 sin 2  

VCM  sin 
2

  
 sin 2 sin  
Using (i) and (ii) VCM  6 g   
 1  3 sin2  
 
 1  2 2  2
g 1  cos     sin 2    2
2 2 4  24


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THINGS TO REMEMBER - ROTATIONAL MOTION

1. Rotation about a fixed axis :

(a) ,  are same for all particles in the body while v and at are different for different points. For a point
at a distance r from the axis, v = r and at = r 
1 2
(b)  = I (c) L = I (d) K I
2
In all these results I, , L are to be taken about the fixed axis of rotation.

2. Rotation with constant angular acceleration :

If the angular velocity increases or decreases at a constant rate, the angular acceleration  is a constant.
(a) f = i +  t (b)  = i t + 1/2  t2 (c) f2 = i2 + 2  

3. Theorems on Moment of Inertia :

(i) Parallel Axis Theorem :
Let Icm be the moment of inertia of a body about an axis through its centre of mass and let Ip be the
moment of inertia of the same body about another axis which is parallel to the original one.
If d is the between these two parallel axes and M is the mass of the body then according to the parallel
axis theorem : Ip = Icm + Md2

4. Perpendicular Axis Theorem :

For a plane body lying in the x-y plane.
The moment of inertia of the body about Z-axis (passing through O and perpendicular to the plane of the
body) is given by : Iz = Ix + Iy

5. Angular Momemtum (L)

(a) For a particle :

The angular momentum about origin (O) is given as : L  r   mv  or L  mvr

where r = perpendicular distance of velocity vector from O.

(b) For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a speed v, its linear momentum is mv, its angular
momentum (L) is given as : L  m v r  mvr

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(c) For a rigid body (about a fixed axis) :

L = I
(compare with linear momentum p = mv in linear motion)
L is also a vector and its direction is same as that of  (i.e., clockwise or anticlockwise)

6. General Rigid Body Motion :

This complex motion can be described simply as a combination of translational motion of the CM and a
pure rotational motion about the C.M.

(a) Kinetic Energy :

The total kinetic energy of a body which is moving through space as well as rotating is given by :

K  K translational  K rotation

1 2 1
K MVCM  I CM 2
2 2

(b) Instantaneous Velocity of a point :

V A  V CM  V t

Where |V t |  rw (r = distance of A from CM )

And V t is directed along the tangent to the circular trajectory about CM.

(c) Rolling without Slipping :

The relations between corresponding variables for a body rolling without slipping on a stationary
surface.

x  r

Vcm  r 

Acm  r 

Another feature of rolling without slipping is that the instantaneous velocity of the point of contact with
the surface is always zero.

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7. Coservation of angular momentum

(a) Angular impulse about a point (J) :

Linear impulse, I   F dt

Similarly, angular impulse J    dt

J  I r (Compare with   Fr to remember)

(b) Impulse-Momentum Theorems :

(i) I  p (ii) J  L
This equation is usually applied about CM.

(c) Conservation of Angular momentum :

If external angular impulse about a point P during the collision is zero, then the angular momentum
about that point can be conserved.

If Jp  0

 L p  0

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Vidyamandir Classes Properties of Matter

Properties of Matter
CALORIMETRY Section - 1

This is the branch of heat transfer that deals with the measurement of heat. The heat is usually measured in
calories or kilocalories.
Heat :
It is form of energy which determines the change in thermal state of a body and is defined as the flow of
energy from one body to the other body due to difference in the degree of hotness of two bodies (tempera-
ture). It flows from the body which is at a high temperature to the other at low temperature.
One Calorie :
1 calorie is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.
Specific Heat :
The specific heat (s) of a substance is the quantity of heat in calories required to raise the temperature of 1
gm of that substance by 1C. Its units are cal/gm/C.

The heat lost by a body or gained from a body depends upon the difference in the temperature.

The heat lost or gained by a body = m s 

m : mass of the body ; s : specific heat ; : rise or fall in the temperature of body
Heat Capacity :
The heat capacity of a body is the quantity of heat required by the body to raise its temperature by 1C. It
is also known as thermal capacity.
Heat Capacity = m s (mass × specific heat)

Water Equivalent :
It is the quantity of water whose thermal capacity is same as the heat capacity of the body. It is denoted by
W.
W = m s = Heat capacity of the body

Principle of Calorimetry :
When two bodies at different temperatures are placed in contact with each other or mixed with each other
(liquid-in-liquid, solid-in-liquid), the heat will pass from the body at higher temperature to the body at
lower temperature until both bodies reach a common temperature. This state is called as thermal equilib-
rium.

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At this state :
Heat lost by one body = Heat gained by the other body
Two bodies of masses m1 and m2, specific heats s1 and s2 and at temperatures 1 and 1 are brought in
contact with each other. Assuming 1 > 1, heat will flow from body 1 to body 2. If  is the common
temperature of two bodies at the state of thermal equilibrium, then (assuming no heat is gained or lost from
or to the surroundings):
Heat lost by body 1 = Heat gained by body 2
m1 s1 (1  ) = m2 s2 (  2) (2 <  < 1)

Latent Heat :
The latent heat is the amount of heat that has to be supplied to (or taken from) the body during the change
of state even though its temperature does not change. It is measured in terms of cal/gm or kcal/kg.

Latent heat of fusion :

It is the quantity of heat required to change the unit mass of a solid substance to the liquid state at its melting
point. For ice, latent heat of fusion is 80 cal/gm.

Latent heat of vapourisation :

It is the quantity of heat required to convert unit mass of a liquid to gaseous state at the boiling point of the
liquid. For water, latent heat of vapourisation is 540 cal/gm.

Illustration
Illustration - 1- 1 Calculate the heat of fusion of ice from the following data for water added to ice at 0C
kept inside calorimeter. Mass of calorimeter = 60 gm, mass of calorimeter + water = 460 gm, mass of
calorimeter + water + ice = 618 gm, initial temperature of water = 38C, final temperature of the mixture =
5C. The specific heat of calorimeter = 0.10 cal/g/ C.
SOLUTION :
mass of water = 460  60 = 400 gm.  400 × 1 × (38 - 5)
mass of ice = 618  460 = 158 gm. = 158 × L + 158 × 1 × 5 + 60 × 0.1 × 5
Heat lost by water = Heat gained by ice to melt (where L is the latent heat of fusion of ice)
+ Heat gained by (water + calorimeter) to reach
 L = 78.35 cal/gm.
5C.

Illustration - 2 When a block of metal of specific heat 0.1 cal/g/C and weighing 110 gm is heated to
100C and then quickly transferred to a calorimeter containing 200 gm of a liquid at 10C, the resulting
temperature is 18C. On repeating the experiment with 400 gm of same liquid in the same calorimeter at
same initial temperature, the resulting temperature is 14.5C. Find :
(a) specific heat of the liquid (b) the water equivalent of calorimeter.

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SOLUTION :
Let s be the specific heat of the liquid and W be Heat lost by the block
the water equivalent of the calorimeter. = Heat gained by (liquid + calorimeter)
Heat lost by the block  110 × 0.1 × (100  14.5)
= Heat gained by (liquid + calorimeter) = 400 × s × (14.5  10) + W × (14.5  10)
 110 × 0.1 × (100  18)  1800 s + 4.5 W = 940.5 . . . . (ii)
= 200 × s × (18  10) + W × (18  10) On solving (i) and (ii), we get :
 1600 s + 8 W = 902 . . . . (i) s = 0.48 cal/g/ C and W = 16.6 gm.

Illustration - 3 The temperature of equal masses of three different liquids A, B, C are 12C, 19C and
28C respectively. The temperature when A and B are mixed is 16C while when B and C are mixed, it is
23C. What would be the temperature when A and C are mixed ?
SOLUTION :
Let m = mass of each liquid, when A and B are When A and C are mixed, Let  = final tem-
mixed, perature.
Heat lost by B = Heat gained by A Heat lost by C = Heat gained by A
 m sB (19 – 16) = m sA (16 – 12)  m sC (28 –  ) = m sA (  – 12)
 3 sB = 4 sA . . . . (i) By using (iii), we get :
When B and C are mixed,  15 sC (28 –  ) = 15 sA (  – 12)
Heat lost by C = Heat gained by B  16 sA (28 –  ) = 15 sA (  – 12)
 m sC (28 – 23) = m sB (23 – 19) On solving for  , we get :
 5 sC = 4 sB . . . . (ii) 16  28  12  15
From (i) and (ii), we get :  = 16  15
16 sA = 12 sB = 15 sC . . . . (iii)  = 20.26C

Illustration - 4 A tube leads from a flask in which water is boiling under atmospheric pressure to a calo-
rimeter. The mass of the calorimeter is 150 gm, its specific heat capacity is 0.1 cal/gm/ C, and it contains
originally 340 gm of water at 15C. Steam is allowed to condense in the calorimeter until its temperature
increases to 71C, after which total mass of calorimeter and contents are found to be 525 gm. Compute the
heat of condensation of steam.

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SOLUTION :
Mass of calorimeter and contents before passing Heat lost by steam = heat gained by water + heat
steam = (150 + 340) = 490 gm. gained by calorimeter.
Mass after passing steam = 525 gm 35 L + 35 × 1 (100 – 71)
 mass of steam which condense = 340 × 1 × (71 – 15) + 150 × 0.1 × (71 – 15)
= (525 – 490) gm = 35 gm.  L = 539 cal/gm.
Let L = latent heat of steam.

Illustration - 5 Determine the final result when 200 gm of water and 20 gm of ice at 0C are in a calorim-
eter having a water equivalent of 30 gm and 50 gm of steam is passed into it at 100C.

SOLUTION :
When steam is passed, the final temperature can = Heat gained by (ice + water + calorimeter)
be 0C, between 0C and 100C, 100C.  50 × 540 + 50 × 1 × (100 – )
We will consider all three possibilities = 20 × 80 + (20 + 200 + 30) × 1× ( – 0)
Case I :   = 101.3C
Final temperature = 0C The assumption (0 <  < 100) is proved to be
In this case, all the steam condenses and then wrong.
cools down to 0C. Hence final temperature can not be between 0C
Heat given out by steam and 100C.
= 50 × 540 + 50 × 1 × (100 – 0)  The final temperature will be 100C.
= 32000 cal.
Final contenst of mixture
Mass of ice which will melt by this heat
Let m = mass of steam condensed.
32000 Heat lost by steam = Heat gained by ice to melt
 400 gm
80 + Heat gained by (water + water + calorimeter)
But there are only 20 gm of ice in the calorim- to reach 100C.
eter. m (540) = 20 × 80 + (20 + 200 + 30)
Hence final temperature can not be 0C. × (100 – 0)
Case II :  m = 26600/540  49 gm.
Final temperature =  and 0 <  < 100  49 gm of steam condense and the final
temperature is 100C.
Heat lost by steam

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Illustration - 6 What will be the final temperature, when 150 gm of ice at 0C is mixed with 300 gm of
water at 50C. Specific heat of water = 1 cal/gm/ C. Latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 cal/gm.

SOLUTION :
Let us assume that T > 0C 300 × 1 × (50 – T) = 150 × 80 + 150 × 1
Heat lost by water = Heat gained by ice to melt × (T – 0)
+ Heat gained by water formed from ice  T = 6.7C
Hence our assumption that T > 0C is correct.

Illustration - 7 In a calorimeter (water equivalent = 40 gm) are 200 gm of water and 50 gm of ice all at
0C. Into this is poured 30 gm of water at 90C. What will be the final condition of the system.

SOLUTION :
Let us assume that all ice melts and warms up.  T = – 4.1C
Thus we will assume that T > 0.
Hence our assumption that T > 0 is wrong, since
Heat lost by water added = hot water added is not able to melt all of the ice.
Heat gained by ice to melt + Heat to warm water Therefore the final temperature will be 0C.
formed from ice and water added + Heat gained
Let m = mass of ice finally left in the can.
by calorimeter can.
Heat lost by water = Heat gained by melting ice
30 × 1 × (90 – T)
30 × 1 × (90 – 0) = (50 – m) × 80
= 50 × 80
 m = 16.25 gm.
+ (50 + 200) × 1 × (T – 0)
Finally there is 16.25 gm of ice and
+ 40 × 1 × (T – 0)
(200 + 30 + 33.75) = 263.75 gm of water at
 2700 – 30 T = 4000 + 250 T + 40 T
0C.

Illustration - 8 If water at 0°C, kept in a container with an open top, is placed in a large evacuated
chamber :
(A) all the water wil vaporize
(B) all the water will freeze
(C) part of the water will vaporize and the rest will freeze
(D) ice, water and water vapour will be formed and reach equilibrium at the triple point
SOLUTION :
Evacuation will greatly enhance evaporation leading to heat losses by water. As water is at 0C, it begins to
freeze. After some time, a part of water will vaporise and the remaining will freeze.
 C is correct.

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Illustration - 9 In the previous question, if the specific latent heat of vaporization of water at 0°C is 
times the specific latent heat of freezing of water at 0°C, the fraction of water that will ultimately freeze is :
1   1  1
(A) (B)  1 (C) (D)  1
 

SOLUTION :
Let m1 = mass which finally freezes  Fraction of total mass which freezes is
m2 = mass of water vaporised 
Heat gained by m2 = Heat lost by m1 1

m2 Lvap = m1 L fusion B is the correct answer.

m1 m1 
   
m2 m1  m2   1

THERMAL EXPANSION Section - 2

When a solid is heated, its length, surface area and the volume increase.

Linear expansion : (expansion in length of a solid)

Consider a rod of length 1 at a temperature T1. Let it be heated to a temperature T2 and the increased
length of the rod be 2, then :
2 = 1 (1 +  )
 : coefficient of linear expansion and  = T2 – T1

Superficial expansion : (expansion in surface area)

If A1 is the area of solid at T1C and A2 is the area at T2 C, then :
A2 = A1 (1 + )  = T2 – T1
 : coefficient of superficial (a real) expansion

Volume expansion : (expansion in volume)

(a) If V1 is the volume of solid at T1C and V1 is the volume at T2 C, then :
V2 = V1 (1 +  )
 : coefficient of cubical (volume) expansion

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(b) As the temperature increases, density of solid decreases. If d1 is the density at T1C, d2 is the density
at T1C, then :
d1
d2 
1    

Relation between 1,  and  :

 = 2,  = 3 [6 = 3 = 2 ]

Heating a metallic scale :

A metallic scale (linear) expands in length when heated. As a result all the markings are displaced from their
usual (correct) positions.
A reading of 1 unit on a heated scale is equivalent to an actual
length of 1 ( +  ), where is coefficient of linear expansion
of material of scale, and  is rise in the temperature of the scale.
 If the reading is , actual length =  (1 +  )
 If the reading is x, actual length = x (1 + )
 actual length = reading (1 +  )

Difference of lengths of two rods :

Consider two rods 1 and 2 of lengths 1 and 2 . Let they be heated through a temperature . If 1 and 2 are
their expanded lengths, then :
2 = 2 (1 + 2 ) 2 : coefficient of linear expansion of rod 2
1 = 1 (1 + 1 ) 1 : coefficient of linear expansion of rod 1
If the difference of lengths of two rods is constant :
 2 – 1 = 2 – 1
 1 1 = 2 2

Time period of pendulum :

Time period (T) of a simple pendulum of length  is given by :


T  2
g
If there is a rise in temperature by , length of the pendulum increases and hence the time period increases. As
a result, the clock supporting such a simple pendulum slows down.

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0
If  be the length of the pendulum and corresponding time period be T0, then : T0  2
0 g

t
If the pendulum be heated by  (rise in temperature), the new time period Tt is : Tt  2
g
t : expanded length
Tt t  0 1    
  
T0 0 0
Tt 1 Tt  T0 1
  1     1    as  is very small   
T0 2 T0 2
T 1
  
T0 2
T
 T0 = fractional increase in T = time lost in 1 sec.
1 
 Time lost in one day =      3600 × 24 s
2 
1 
=      86400 s
2 

Illustration - 10 A surveyor’s 30 m steel tape is correct at a temperature of 20°C. The distance between
two points, as measured by this tape on a day when the temperature is 35°C, is 26 m. What is the true distance
between the points ? (asteel = 1.2 × 10–5/°C)

SOLUTION :
Let temperature rise above the correct tem- True distance between the points
perature be  . = 26 (1 + 1.2 × 10 –5 × 15)
  = 35 – 20 = 15C.  true distance = 26.00468 m.
Using the relation :
Correct length = measured length (1 +  )

Illustration - 11 A clock with a brass pendulum shaft keeps correct time at a certain temperature.
(a) How closely must the temperature be controlled if the clock is not to gain or lose more than 1 sec. a day
? Does the answer depend on the period of the pendulum ?
(b) Will an increase of temperature cause the clock to gain or lose ? (brass = 2  10–5/C)

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SOLUTION :
2
(a) No. of seconds lost or gained per day  || 
2  105  86400
1  |  | < 1.1574 C
   86400
2
Hence temperature should not increase or
where :  = rise or drop in temperature decrease by more than 1.1574 C. This
 = coeff. of linear expansion of shaft. does not depend on the time period.
1 (b) An increase in temperature makes the pen-
We want that    86400  1 dulum slow and hence clock loses time.
2

Illustration - 12 A steel ring of 3.000 inches inside diameter at 20C is to be heated and slipped over a
brass shaft measuring 3.002 inches in diameter at 20C. To what temperature should the ring be heated ?
(steel = 1.2  10–5/C)

SOLUTION :
Let  be the temperature to which the ring must 3.002  3
   20
be heated. 3
Final diameter of ring should be 3.002 inches.   = 75.6 C
 3.002 = 3 [1 +  ( – 20)]

Illustration - 13 A pendulum clock loses 12 sec. a day if the temperature is 40C and goes fast by 4 sec. a
day if the temperature is 20C. Find the temperature at which the clock will show correct time and the
coefficient of linear expansion of the metal of the pendulum shaft.

SOLUTION :
Let T be the temperature at which the clock is On adding (i) and (ii), we get :
correct. 64 = 86400  (40 – 20)
Time lost per day = 1/2  (rise in temperature) ×   = 1.85 × 10–5/ C.
86400
On dividing (i) and (ii), we get :
 12 = 1/2 (40 – T) × 86400 . . . . . .(i) 12 (T – 20) = 4 (40 – T)
Time gained per day  T = 25C.
= 1/2 (drop in temperature) × 86400  Clock shows correct time at 25C.
 4 = 1/2  (T – 20) × 86400 . . . . . .(ii)

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Illustration - 14 A glass flask whose volume is exactly 1000 cm3 at 0C is filled level full of mercury at this
temperature. When the flask and mercury are heated to 100C,15.2 cm3 of mercury overflow. If the coeffi-
cient of cubical expansion of Hg is 1.82 × 10–4/C, compute the coefficient of linear expansion of glass.

SOLUTION :
15.2
As 15.2 cm3 of Hg overflow at 100 C,  g =  – 1000 θ = 0.000182 – 0.000152
final volume of Hg – final volume of glass flask
= 15.2 cm3  g = 0.00003/C = 3  10–5 (C)–1
 1000 (1 +  ) – 1000 (1 + g) = 15.2 g
 g = = 1  10–5 (C)–1
where  = rise in temperature = 100 – 0 = 100C 3

Illustration - 15 A 250 cm3 glass bottle is completely filled with water at 50C. The bottle and water are
heated to 60C. How much water runs over if :
(a) the expansion of the bottle is neglected ;
(b) the expansion of the bottle is included ? Given the coefficient of areal expansion of glass
g = 1.2 × 10–5/ C and  = 60 × 10–5 / C.
water

SOLUTION :
Water overflow = (final volume of water) (b) If the bottle (glass) expands :
 (final volume of bottle) Water overflow = (final volume of water)
(a) If the expansion of bottle is neglected : – (final volume of glass)
Water overflow = 250 (1 + ) – 250 = 250 (1 + ) – 250 (1 + g)
= 250 × 60 × 10–5 × 10 = 250 ( – g)
 water overflow = 1.5 cm3. = 250 (58.8 × 10–5) × (60 – 50)
 water overflow = 1.47 cm3.

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TRANSIMISSION OF HEAT Section - 3

There are three different ways in which heat can be transferred: conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction :
It is a process by which heat is transferred in solids. In conduction, molecules vibrate about a fixed location
and transfer the heat by collision.
Convection :
It is a process by which heat is transferred in fluids (liquids & gases). In convection, transfer of heat takes
place by transport of matter (in form of motion of particles).
When a liquid in a container is heated, the molecules at the lower layers are heated up and the density
decreases. As a result the molecules rise up and heavier ones come down and hence a continuous movement
of molecules takes place giving rise to convection currents. In this manner the whole of liquid gets heated.
Radiation :
It is a process in which the heat is transferred in the form of electromagnetic waves without the aid of any
material medium. Heat is radiated from a body due to its own temperature (greater than 0 K) is called as
radiant energy.
Thermal Conductivity
In solids, heat is transferred through conduction. We will study conduction of heat through a solid bar in the
following section.
Consider a solid bar of thickness d and area of cross-section A. The left side of the bar is maintained at a
temperature A and right side at B.
Let us assume that A > B .
Heat flows from high temperature to low temperature i.e. from left side
to right side, as shown.
After some time, temperature of each section becomes constant with
time. This is known as steady state.
If Q is the amount of heat flow (transferred) through a cross-section in t seconds at steady state, then the
rate of heat flow is given by :

 Q KA  A   B 
H= 
t d

K = coefficient of thermal conductivity of solid material

Its units are : cal s–1 m–1 K–1 or J s–1 m–1 K–1 (W m–1 K–1)

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Heat Conduction through a Composite Slab (rod)

(A) Two rods connected in series
(B) Three rods connected in series
(A) Consider a composite rod made up of two rods of
lengths d1 and d2 and each of cross-section A, joined
end to end (asshown). LetK 1 and K 2 be t he
coefficients of thermal conductivities of two rods and
A and B be the temperatures of two ends of the
composite rod.
Let us assume  as the temperature of the junction of two rods and A > B. Heat flows from left to
the right. In steady state, heat flow per second is same through each rod. It is given by :
Q
H = t

K
For Ist rod : H  1 A  A    . . . . . . .(i)
d1

K2
For IInd rod : H A    B  . . . . . . .(ii)
d2

A  A   B 
Eliminating  from (i) and (ii) we get : H 
d1 d
 2
K1 K 2
Equating (i) and (ii) we get :
K1 K
 A  2 B
K1 K d1 d2
A  A    = 2 A    B    
d1 d2 K1 K 2

d1 d2
(B) Consider a composite slab made up of three rods of lengths d1, d2 and d3 joined end to end. Let area of
cross-section of each rod be A. The left side of the composite rod is maintained at A and right side at B
(A > B). Let the coefficient of thermal conductivities of three rods be K1, K2 and K3 and the junction
temperatures of rods 1 and 2 be 1 and that of 2 and 3 be 2.

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As A > B heat flows from left to right side. At steady state let H be the heat flowing per second.
K1
First rod : H= A  A  1  . . . . . . . .(i)
d1
K2
Second rod : H= A 1   2  . . . . . . . .(ii)
d2
K
Third rod : H = 3 A  2   B  . . . . . . . .(iii)
d3

H d1
From (i) A – 1 = . . . . . . . .(iv)
A K1
H d1
 1 = A –
A K1

H d2
From (ii) 1 – 2 = . . . . . . . .(v)
A K2

H d3
From (iii) 2 – B = . . . . . . . .(vi)
A K3
H d3
 2 = B + A K
3
A and B are known, so 1 and 2 can be determined.
Adding the equations (iv), (v) and (vi) to eliminate 1 and 2, we get :

H  d1 d 2 d3 
A – B =    
A  k1 k2 k3 

 A   B  A
 H=d
1 d d3
 2 
k1 k 2 k3

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Conduction of Heat through a Cylindrical Shell

1 = temperature of the inner surface
2 = temperature of the outer surface
L = length of the cylinder
K = thermal conductivity
r1 and r2 are inner and outer radii of
the cylinder

Q
= Heat flow per second = H
t

2 L 1   2 
H=
1 r
og 2
K r1

In case of two cylindrical layers

2 L 1   2 
H=
1 r 1 r3
og 2  og
K1 r1 K2 r2

Heat Conduction through a Spherical Shell

4 1   2 
H=
11 1
  
K  r1 r2 

In case of multiple shells

4 1   2 
H=
1 1 1  1 1 1
    K r  r 
K1  r1 r2  2  2 3

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Growth of Ice on the Surface of a Lake

A layer of ice of thickness x is formed on the surface of a lake. The water
below the ice layer is at a temperature of 0C. The air above the ice layer
is at a temperature of – C (below 0C). Heat flows from water to air
through ice. As a result of this heat loss, the layer increase in thickness from
below. Let dx be the increase in thickness in time dt.
 heat loss from water to air = (mass) × (latent heat)
= (A dx)  L
where  : density of ice ;
L : latent heat of ice ;
A : area of cross–section of ice slab

Using  Q KA 1   2 

t d

 dx  KA
 Heat flow per second = AL   
 dt  x
dx KA
Rate of growth of thickness = dt   L x

If the thickness changes of ice layer chnges from x1 to x2 in t seconds, then:

 x2 K t


xdx  0 d t
x L
1

x22  x12 K t
 
2  L

Illustration - 16 Water is being boiled in a flat bottom kettle placed on a stove. The area of the bottom is
3000 cm2 and the thickness is 2 mm.If the amount of steam produced is 1 g/min, calculate the difference of
temperature between the inner and outer surface of the bottom. K for the material of kettle is 0.5 cal/C/s/cm,
and the latent heat of steam is 540 cal/gm.
SOLUTION :
d Q KA
dm 1  
Mass of steam produced =  g/s dt d
dt 60
dQ dm d m KA
Heat transferred per sec. = L  L 
dt dt dt d
dQ 1 0.5  3000  
  540  cal / s  9 cal / s
dt 60  9=
0.2
Area = 3000 cm2 ; K = 0.5 cal/ C/s/cm
 = temperature difference   = 1.2  10–3 C.
d = thickness = 2 mm = 0.2 cm.

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Illustration - 17 A uniform copper bar 100 cm long is insulated on sides, and has its ends exposed to the ice
and steam respectively. If there is a layer of water 0.1 mm thick at each end, calculate the temperature
gradient in the bar. KCu = 1.04 and Kwater = 0.0014 in C.G.S. units.

SOLUTION :
Let 1 and 2 be the temperatures at the ends of As the rods are in series, heat transfer per second
the copper bar. must be same through each part.
Heat transfer per sec. through the system is : A 100  0  K A 1   2 
  Cu
dQ A 100  0   0.01 100 0.01  100
dt

 0.01 100 0.01   K K  K 
 w Cu w 
K  K 
K w 
 w Cu Putting Kcu = 1.04 and Kw = 0.0014 we get :
Heat transfer per sec. through copper bar
   
Temperature gradient = 1 2 = 0.87C cm–1.
K A 1   2 
= Cu 100
100

Illustration - 18 A closed cubical box made of perfectly insulating material has walls of thickness 8 cm and
the only way for the heat to enter or leave the box is through the solid, cylindrical, metallic plugs each of
cross-sectional area 12 cm2 and length 8 cm fixed in the opposite walls of the box as shown in fig. The outer
surface A is kept at 100C while the outer surface B of other plug is kept at 4C. K of the material of the
plugs is 0.5 cal/s/ C/cm. A source of energy generating 36 cal/s is enclosed inside the box. Find the equilibrium
temperature of the inner surface of the box assuming that it is same at all points on the inner surface.

SOLUTION :
Let  be the temperature of inner surface of box.
Heat transfer per sec. through A + Heat pro-
duced by source per sec.
= Heat transfer per sec. through B

dQ dQ
  d t   36 cal / s   d t  Now d = 8 cm, A = 12 cm2,
 A  n
K = 0.5 cal/s/ C/cm.
KA 100   KA   4  36  8
  36 
d d  2 – 104 =
12  0.5
 KA (  – 4 – 100 + ) = 36  d.
  = 76C

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Illustration - 19 One end of a copper rod of uniform cross-section and of length 1.5 m is in contact with ice
and the other end with water. At what point along its length should a temperature of 200C be maintained so
that in steady state, the mass of ice melting is equal to that of steam produced in the same interval of time ?
Assume that whole system is insulated from surroundings.

SOLUTION :
The end A of the copper rod is at 100C K A 100 
 . . . . .(i)
(vapourising water) and end B is at 0C (melt- x
ing ice).
KA  200 100 
Let C be the point where 200C temperature is Heat received per sec at B =
maintained (AC = x). 150  x
80  mass of ice melting per sec
KA  200 
 . . . . .(ii)
150  x
Dividing (i) by (ii) we get :

KA  200 100  540 100  150  x 

  
Heat received per sec at A = 80 200  x 
x
(540  mass of steam produced per sec) 27 150  x
   x = 10.34 cm
2 x

Illustration - 20 Two identical rods are connected between two containers one of them is at 100° C and
another is at 0°C. If the rods are connected in parallel then the rate of melting of ice is q1 gm/sec. If they are
connected in series then the rate is q2. The ratio q2/q1 is :
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 1/2 (D) 1/4

SOLUTION :
KA
In parallel, H = H1 + H2  q2  100  0  . . . . (ii)
2
KA 100  0  KA
H  q1L   100  0 
  Divide (ii) by (i) to get :
2 KA q2 1
 q1L  100  0  . . . . (i)   D is correct.
 q1 4
A 100  0  KA
In series, H 
 
 100  0 
 2 
K K

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Illustration - 21 A and B are two point on a uniform metal ring whose centre is C and the angle ACB =
. A and B are maintained at two different constant temperatures. When  = 180°, the rate of total heat
flow from A to B is 1.2 W. When  = 90°, this rate will be :
(A) 0.6 W (B) 0.9 W (C) 1.6 W (D) 1.8 W

SOLUTION :
KA KA  2
H0  2 TA  TB   1.2 H  2    TA  TB 
r r  3

H  H1  H 2 H0  2 4 4
H  2    H 0  1.2 
2  3 3 3
KA KA
H TA  TB   TA  TB 
r / 2 3r / 2  H = 1.6 W. (C is correct).

IN - CHAPTER EXERCISE - A

1. A solid material is supplied with heat at a constant rate. The temperature of the material is changing
with heat input as shown in the graph. Study the graph carefully and answer the following question :
(a) What do the horizontal regions AB and CD represent ?
(b) If CD = 2 AB, what do you infer ?
(c) What does the slope DE represent ?
(d) The slope of OA > slope of BC. What does this indicate ?

2. Two walls I and II of the same thickness are made of heterogenous metals, as shown in figure. In what
case will the coefficient of thermal conductivity will be greater ?

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A FOR REMAINING QUESTIONS

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RADIATION Section - 4

In radiation, heat is transferred from one body to other or to the surroundings even in the absence of any
medium in the intervening space. Heat energy of the sun is transmitted to earth through radiations.
Radiation is only a mode of transfer of energy by transverse electromagnetic waves. While studying heat
radiations (Radiant energy), we are concern with thermal radiations which form the infra-red region of elec-
tromagnetic waves. All bodies emit heat to the surroundings at all temperatures and at all times. When the
temperature of a body remains constant, it emits as much heat to the surroundings as it gains from them. The
body is then in a state of dynamic (thermal) equilibrium.

Black Body :
A black body may be described as one that completely absorbs the radiations of all wavelengths falling upon
it. There is no substance which exactly behaves like a black body as described.

Hollow Enclosure :
A hollow enclosure, kept at constant temperature behaves like a black body. If a small hole is made in such a
enclosure, it will act as perfectly black body towards the incident radiations. Any ray getting into the enclosure
through the hole will be internally reflected not be able to escape. Any radiation coming out of a narrow hole
made in a hollow enclosure is generally referred to as black body radiation or cavity radiation.

Emissive Power :
It is the total amount of energy radiated by a body (at a particular temperature) per second per unit area of the
surface.E : energy radiated per second per unit area of the surface.

1 Q
E=
A t

Q
where A : surface area, : heat radiated per sec from the surface
t

Stefan’s Law :
The energy emitted per second per unit area of a black body
(emissive power = 1) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
i.e., E =  T4  : Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10–8 J/m2/s/K4.
For any other body :
E =   T4  : emissivity of body ( = 1 for a black body)

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Net Heat Loss from the Surface of a Body

The rate at which a body radiates energy is determined by the temperature
of the body, but the rate at which it absorbs energy by radiation depends
on the temperature of its surroundings. When a body is hotter than its
surroundings, the rate of emission exceeds the rate of absorption; there
is net loss of energy, and the body cools down, unless it is heated by
some other means. When a body is cooler than its surroundings, the
rate of absorption is greater than the rate of emission, and its temperature
rises. At thermal equilibrium the two rates are equal.
Hence for a body at a temperature of T1, surrounded by walls at a
temperature T2 (as in figure), the net rate of loss (or gain) of energy per
sec by radiation is

Hnet = A   T14  A   T24

Hnet = A    T14  T24 

Newton’s Law of Cooling :

It states that the rate of heat loss from a hot body to the surroundings (dQ/dt) is given by:
dQ
= kA ( – 0) A : surface area ; k : constant
dt
 : absolute temperature of body 0 : temperature of surroundings
 – 0 : difference in temperature
dQ d
 Ms
dt dt

M : mass of the body s : specific heat of body

d /dt = rate of fall of temperature (rate of cooling)
d
 Ms  A   0 
dt

Wien’s Law :
The distribution of energy among the wavelengths of radiations emitted from a BLACK BODY was studies
by Lummer and Pringsheim. The energy contained over a wide range of wavelengths of radiations emitted by
black body is not equally divided. It was found that the relative intensities of different wavelengths depend
upon the absolute temperature of the radiator. The energy distribution (E ) in the spectrum for the temperature
range 893K to 1893 K was found and plotted against the wavelengths (). The general shape of the curve is
same for all temperature. From the graph it was analysed that :

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 For a particular temperature, the graph is continuous one

spreading from a minimum to a maximum at the other end
and has a wavelength where the emission is maximum ( m).

 As the temperature increases, the minimum cut off wavelength

shifts to a lower value and the wavelength where emission is
maximum (m) also shifts to a lower value.
He deduced that : m T = constant
where m = wavelength corresponding to maximum energy at a particular temperature
The value of constant is 2.9 × 10–3 m K = 0.29 cm K. The above statement is known as Wien’s Displace-
ment Law.

Illustration - 22 The emissivity of tungsten is approximately 0.35. A tungsten sphere 1 cm in radius is

suspended within a large evacuated enclosure whose walls are at 300 K. What power input is required to
maintain the sphere at a temperature of 3000 K if heat conduction along the supports is neglected ?  = 5.67
× 10–8 S.I. units.
SOLUTION :
Net heat lost by sphere per second Power input required = net heat loss per sec from
the surface
Hnet =   A (T4 – T04)
Pinput =   A (T4 – T04)
where T = temperature of sphere = 3000 K
Pinput = 0.35 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 4  (0.01)2 ×
T0 = temperature of surrounding = 300K (30004 – 3004)
A = 4  r2 = 4 (0.01)2 = 2019.8 watts.
To maintain constant temperature,

Illustration - 23 Two solid copper spheres of radii r = 15 cm and r = 20 cm are both at a temperature of
1 2
60C. If the temperature of surroundings is 50C, then find :
(a) the ratio of the heat loss per second from their surfaces initially (b) the ratio of rates of cool-
ing initially.
SOLUTION :
H1  dQ / dt 1 H1 A1 r12  15 2 9
(a) The ratio of heat loss       
H 2  dQ / dt  2 H 2 A2 r22  20  16

H1 K A1  60  50  (b) The ratio of initial rates of cooling

 
H 2 K A2  60  50   d / dt 1
=
(by using Newton’s Law of cooling)  d / dt 2

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2
H1  r1 
We have    d / dt 1  r1 2 M 2
H 2  r2   
 d / dt 2  r2  M1
M1 s  d / dt 1  r1 2 2 3
   r1   r2 
M 2 s  d / dt 2  r2  =   
 r2   r1 
As the spheres have the same densities, the ratio
of their masses is equal to the ratio of their vol- r2 20 4
= r  15  3
umes. 1

Illustration - 24 Two identical spheres A and B are suspended in an air chamber which is maintained at a
temperature of 50C. Find the ratio of the heat lost per sec. from the surfaces of the spheres if :
(a) A and B are at temperatures 60C and 55C respectively
(b) A and B are at temperatures 250C and 200C respectively.
SOLUTION :
Net heat loss per sec. per unit area E A 10
Hence  2
=   (T4 – T04) from Stefan’s Law EB 5
If T – T0 is small as compared to the tempera- (b) As the temperature difference is not
ture of surroundings, we have : negligible as compared to the
temperature of surrounding, we use
Net heat loss per sec. per unit area Stefan’s Law for accurate answer.
= (constant) × (T – T0) EA  (250 + 273)4 – (50 + 273)4
(From Newton’s Law of cooling) EA  (200 + 273)4 – (50 + 273)4
(a) Here the temperature difference is small
and hence we can use Newton’s Law of E A 5234  3234
Hence   1.632
cooling. E B 4734  3234
 EA  (60 – 50) and EA  (55 – 50)

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Illustration - 25 A body cools down from 60C to 55C in 30 seconds. Using Newton’s Law of cooling,
calculate the approximate time taken by same body to cool down from 55C to 50C. Assume that the
temperature of surroundings is 45C.
SOLUTION :
Assume that a body cools down from temperature t  30 og 2
i to f in t seconds, and 0 is the temperature of 
30 og 3 / 2
surroundings.
Applying Newton’s Law of cooling,  og 2 
According to Newton’s Law of cooling. t = 30  1   81.28 s
 og 3 / 2 
d
  K    0  ; 0 = 45C Time from  = 50C to  = 50C is (t – 30)
dt
 d = (81.28–30) = 51.28 s
  K dt (k is a constant.)
   45
 Alternate Method : (for approximately answer)

From t = 0C to t = 30s,  charges from 60C d 

   0     av  0 
to 55C. dt t
55
30 60  55  60  55 
 d   45 
 K  d t . . . . . . .(i) 30 2
 
   45  
0
60
50
55  50  55  50 
t   45 
 d t  2 
  K  dt

   45 . . . . . . . (ii) Divide to get :
30
55
5 / 30 57.5  45
  t  50s
5/t 52.5  45
Divide (ii) by (i) to get :

50  45
t  30 og
 55  45
30 55  45
og
60  45

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Illustration - 26 Three discs A, B and C having radii 2, 4 and 6 cm respectively are coated with carbon
black. Wavelengths for maximum intensity for the three discs are 300, 400 and 500 nm respectively. If QA,
QB and QC are power emitted by A, B, and C respectively, then :
(A) QA will be maximum (B) QB will be maximum
(C) QC will be maximum (D) QA = QB = QC
SOLUTION :
Q Q Q
By Wien’s Law,  2 A 4  2 B 4  2 C 4
max T = constant r1 T r2 T2 r3 T3
1
  1T 1 =  2T 2 =  3T 3 34 QA 4 4 QB 54 QC
 
Let 3T1 = 4T2 = 5T3 = a 22 a 4 42 a 4 62 T3 4
By Stefan’s Law, 625
81QA  64 QB  QC
Q =  AT4  Q  r2T4 9
 QB is maximum

Illustration - 27 Two bodies A and B have thermal emissivites of 0.01 and 0.81 respectively. The outer
surface areas of the two bodies are the same. The two bodies radiate energy at the same rate. The wavelength
B, corresponding to the maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from B, is shifted from the wavelength
corresponding to the maximum spectral radiancy in the radiation from A by 1.00 m. If the temperature of
A is 5802 K :
(A) the temperature of B is 1934 K (B) B = 1.5 m
(C) the temperature of B is 11604 K (D) the temperature of B is 2901 K
SOLUTION :
TA = 5802 K. By Wien’s Law,
By Stefan’s Law, ATA = B TB
3A = B
Energy radiated per sec =  AT 4
We also have B – A = 1 m
 A  AT 4  B  ATB4
A  3 A –  A = 1
0.01 TA4  0.81 TB4  A = 0.5 m
TA = 3TB  TB = 1934 K. and B = 1.5 m
Hence A and B are correct answers.

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Illustration - 28 A body cools in a surrounding which is at a

constant temperature of 0. Assume that it obeys Newton’s law of
cooling. Its emperature  is plotted against time t.Tangents are
drawn to the curve at the points P( = 1) and Q( = 2). These
tangents meet the time axis at angle of 2 and 1, as shown :
tan 2   tan 2  
(A)  1 0 (B)  2 0
tan 1  2  0 tan 1 1   0

tan 1  tan 1 
(C)  1 (D)  2
tan 2 2 tan 2 1

SOLUTION :
d
tan  = slope of tangent = = rate of cooling d 
dt   2   0 
dt  at Q
d
By Newton’s Law of cooling, is proportional
dt tan  2  2  0
to temperature difference between body and  
tan 1 1  0
surroundings.
 B is correct.
d 
 1  0 
dt  at P

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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ELASTICITY Section - 5
The deforming force is the external force applied to a body which tends to change the size or shape of the
body. Under the action of deforming force, a body opposes any change it its shape and size due to the net
effect of internal molecular forces. The resulting force which opposes the deformation is know as restoring
force.
Illustration the concept :
When one tries to stretch a spring
 The force acting on the spring (F1) is the deforming force
 The force exerted by the spring to oppose the deforming action is the restoring force (F2).
 By Newton’s third Law, we can say that F1 and F2 are equal and opposite forces ; forming an
Action- Reaction pair.
The property of a body due to which it opposes the action of the deforming forces is called as Elasticity.
 A material is said to be elastic if it returns back to its original shape or size, when the deforming forces
are removed. Plastic materials on the other hand, remain permanently distorted when the deforming
forces are removed.
 There are a number of elastic modulii (young’s modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus) that measure
the response of an elastic solid which is acted upon by the deforming forces.
 The deforming force is measured (described) in terms of a physical quantity, the stress, that it develops
in the body. The deformation of the solid is described in terms of a physical quantity the strain, that is
created in the body as a result of deformation force.
 First, we will define the mathematical meaning of the stress and strain.

Stress and Strain

Longitudinal Stress and Longitudinal Strain :
Consider a rod (or a string) of length ‘’ and cross-sectional area A. Suppose that a force F is applied at the
ends parallel to the length so as to stretch the rod by 
The rod is said to be under tension. The tensile stress is defined as the ratio of the force of tension to the
cross-sectional area.
Tensile stress = F/A
The resulting tensile strain in defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length :
Tensile strain = /
If the ends of a rod are subjected to equal pushes, the rod is said to be under compression.
Compressive stress = F/A
Compression strain = /

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Tensile and Compressive Stress and Strains are also known as Longitudinal
stress and Longitudinal strains.

Illustrating the concept :

A bob of mass m is suspended from a light steel wire of length  and
radius r. Assume the mass of the wire to be negligible.
Let T be the tension developed is the steel wire. As the bob is stationary,
T = mg
Longitudinal stress = T/A
= mg/r2
If the length of length of wire increases by , then the longitudinal strain/

Volume stress and Volume Strain :

Sometimes, the deforming forces acting on the body tend to change its
volume. If the deforming force changes the volume of a body form V to
V + V (V is negative if volume decreases), we define volume strain
as the ratio of change in V to V :

V
i.e. volume strain =
V
The stress associated with the volume strain is called as volume stress. It
equals the deforming forces acting on a unit area. It is usually called
aspressure P = F/A

Illustration the concept :

A cube is subjected to pressure of 5  105 N/m2. Each edge of the cube is shortened by 1%.
Volume stress = P = 5  105 N/m2
volume strain = ?
Let ‘’ be the length of cube (underformed)
3
 99 
 Distorted length =    V = Vf – Vi
 100 
3
 99 
V =   –  3
 100 
V  99 3
or volume strain =
Vi
=  1
 100 
  0.03

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Shear Stress and Shear Strain :

If the deforming force tries to change the shape of a body, a shear
stress is developed in the body. In the diagram, we sea a force F
parallel to the surface ABCD of area A, deforming the rectangular area
ABPQ into a parallelogram.
[Let AA‘ = x and AQ = y ]
Hence due to F, the shape of the body is altered.
shearing force
Shear stress 
area of ABCD
F
=
A
Shear strain is defined as :
x
Shear strain = = tan  =  ( is very small)
y

Illustration the concept :

A block of weight 15 N slides across a horizontal table, the coefficient
of sliding friction = 0.4. The area of the block is contact with table is
0.05 m2.
Shear stress = mg /A
0.4 15
=
0.05
= 120 N/m2

Hooke’s Law :
If the deforming forces are within a limit (known as elastic limit), the stress created in the body is proportional
to the resulting strain
i.e. stress  strain.

stress
The ratio is known as modulus of Elasticity
strain
According to various types of stresses, we have three modulii of elasticity.

1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

Longitudinal stress
Y = Longitunal strain

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F/A
Y=
 / 

F
 Y = A 

The following forms of the result must be carefully noted

F 
 = A Y and F = YA


2. Bulk Modulus (K)

volume stress
K=
volume strain

p
 K=
V / V

pV
 K=
V
 the reciprocal of K is known as modulus of compressibility

3. Shear modulus ( )
shear stress
 = shear strain

F/A
  =
A

F
 =
A
 is also called as modulus of rigidity

Relation between Y, k and  :

The three modulii of elasticity are related as 3  1  1

Y  3k

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Elastic Energy
When an elastic body is deformed, work is done by the applied force. This work is stored as elastic
potential energy and is released when the body returns back to its original shape or size.
We have already come across an example of elastic potential energy in case of a compressed or stretched
spring.
The general expression for the elastic potential energy is a unit volume of a deformed body is given by :
Elastic energy stored per unit volume
= 1/2 (stress) (strain)
= 1/2 (modulus of elasticity) (strain)2

In the case of a longitudinal stress (compressive of tensile)

2
Energystored 1   
 Y  
volume 2   

 1   2 
 total energy stored =  Y     volume of the body 
 2    

2
1   
= Y   .  A  (V = A.)
2   
1 YA 2
Total energy = .    . Compare it with the energy stored is a spring = 1/2 kx2.
2 
F
Also, Y = A   Substituting is above expression

1
Total energy = F 
2

Torsion
Consider a cylinder whose upper end is rigidly fixed and the other end
is twisted through an angle  about the axis of the cylinder. The twisted
cylinder exerts a restoring torque given by :

1  r 4
  
2 
where  is the modulus of rigidity, r is the radius and  is the length of the cylinder.
If we express torque as  = C

 r 4
where C = is known as the torsional rigidity..
2

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Illustration - 29 (a) A metal wire 75 cm long and 0.13 cm is diameter stretches o.035 cm, when a load of 8
kg is hung on its ends. Find the stress, strain and Young’s modulus.
(b) A solid cylindrical steel column is 4m long and 9 cm in diameter. What will be its decrease is length
when carrying a load of 80, 000 kg ? Y = 1.9  1011 N/m2.
(c) A box shaped piece of gelatine dessert has a top area of 15 cm2 and a height of 3 cm. When a shearing
force of 0.5 N is applied to the upper surface, the upper surface is displaced 4.0 mm relative to the
bottom surface. What are the shearing stress, shearing strain and shear modulus ?
(d) Compute the volume change of a solid copper cube, 40 mm on each edge, when subjected to a
pressure of 2  107 N/m2. The bulk modulus of copper is 1.25  1011 N/m2.
SOLUTION :
F 8  9.8 tangential force 0.5
(a) Stress =  (c)Shear stress  
2
A Area of face 1.5  104

 6.5  104  = 333 N/m2
= 5.9  107 N/m2

Strain =
 0.035
 = 4.67  10–4 Shear strain =  = x   displacement 
 75 y height
7
stress 5.91  10 0.4
Y= = =  0.133
strain 4.67  104 3
= 1.27  1011 N/m2
shear stress
(b) Crossection area of cylinder = r2  (shear modulus) = shear strain
=  (0.045)2 = 6.36  10–3 m2
333
=
F


8  10  9.8 4 4
 0.133
 = AY

6.36  103 1.9  1011   = 2500 N/m2
(d) Volume stress = p = 2  107 N/m2
= 2.6  10–3 m V V
volume strain = 
= 2.6 mm V  0.043
p
K (bulk modulus) =
v / v

 V 
 pV


 2  107  0.04   3

K 1.25  1011
=  1.024  108 m3
=  10.24 mm3

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Illustration - 30 A wire elongates by 1.0 mm when a load W is hanged from it. If this wire goes over a pulley
and two weights W each are hung at the two ends, the elongation of the wire will be :
(A) 0.5 m (B) 1.0 mm (C) 2.0 mm (D) 4.0 mm
SOLUTION :
The tension in the wire will be same in both the cases.
Hence elongation will be same. B is the correct answere.

Illustration - 31 A heay uniform rod is hanging vertically from a fixed suport. It is stretched by its own
weight.
The diameter of the rod is :
(A) smallest at the top and gradually increases down the rod
(B) largest at the top and gradually decreases down the rod
(C) uniform everywhere
(D) maxium in the middle
SOLUTION :
Tension at a point P is : Hence the parts of the rod near the top end
Mg will be elongated more than the parts near the
Tp  x bottom. As volume of each part should remain

same,
Tension is maximum at the (area of cross section)  = constant
top and zero at the free end
1 1
 Area   Area 
 T
TL
    T Hence the diameter will be least at the top and
AY maximum at the bottom.

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Illustration - 32 Assertion & Reasoning Type :

(A) If Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True ; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) If Statement-2 is True, Statement-2 is True ; Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for
Statement-1
(C) If Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
(D) If Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True
(i) Statement 1 : Steel is more elastic than rubber.
Statement 2 : Under given deforming force, steel is deformed less than rubber.
(ii) Statement 1 : A hollow shaft is found to be stronger than a solid shaft made of the same material.
Statement 2 : The torque required to produced a given twist in hollow cylinder is greater than that
required to twist a solid cylinder of same size and material.
SOLUTION :
(i) Ysteel > Yrubber  r 4
(ii) 1  for solid shaft causing unit angular
2
1 1
 twist.
YSteel Yrubber
For hollow shaft of same material :
For a deforming force F,

F F 2 

 r24  r14  where

AYs AYr 2

 s   r  
 r22  r12    r 2
(for equal volume of material)
(Reason is correct)
As it is difficult to deform steel, it can be said
that steel offers greater opposition to changes in  
 r22  r12   r22  r12   r 4 2
  r2  r12 
length. Hence steel is more elastic than rubber. 2 2
The correct answer is (A).
 2r 2 
 1  1  1 
 r 2 


  2  1
 The correct answer is (A).

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Illustration - 33 The length of a metal wire is 1 when the tension in it is T1 and is 2 when the tension is T2.
The natural length of the wire is :
1   2 1T2   2T1 1T2   2T1
(A) (B) 1  2 (C) (D)
2 T2  T1 T2  T1

SOLUTION : (C)
Let the free length = 
T 1   T1  1T2   2T1
     
AY  2   T2 T2  T1

Illustration - 34 A student plots a graph from his readings on the determina-

tion of Young’s modulus of a metal wire but forgets to put the labels. The quanti-
ties on X and Y-axes may be respectively :
(A) weight hung and length increased
(B) stress applied and length increased
(C) stress applied and strain developed
(D) length increased and the weight hung
SOLUTION : (ABCD)
(A) For a straight line graph, the two quantities Stress
should be proportional (C) Y 
Stain
F  stress  strain
   F  
AY Hence C is correct
Where F = weight hung.
Hence A is correct (D) Same as A. This is also correct.

(B) Stress = F/A = Y (Strain)

Y
 

 Stress   . Hence B is correct

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Illustration - 35 A load of 981 N is suspended from a steel wire of radius 1 mm. .What is the maximum
angle through which the wire with the load can be deflected so that it does not break when the load passes
through the equilibrium position. Breaking stress is 7.85  108 N/m2 .
SOLUTION :
Let  = maximum angular deflection. For maximum , T/A must be 7.85 108 N/m2.

 1/2 mv2 = mg (   cos ) 3mg  2mg cos 

 7.85  108
2
and T – mg = mv2/  
 103
 T = 3 mg  2mg cos   cos  = 0.243   = cos–1 (0.243)

Illustration - 36 A copper rod of length 2 m is stretch by 5mm of the energy stored is the stretched rod is
converted into heat, calculate the rise in the temperature of the rod. Y copper = 1.2  1011 N/m2, SCu = 0.1
cal/gm/C, dCu = 9.09 g/cc.
SOLUTION :
Total elastic energy stored 1
1     4.2 
= 1/2 (stress) (strain) volume  = Y  
2    ds
= 1/2 Y (strain)2 volume
= 1/2 Y (/)2 V
=
1.2  1011   5  103 
 
2
 4.2 1
Energy stored = heat created 2 
 2 
 9  103   0.1  103 
1/2 Y (/)2 V = (ms) 4.2 J /cal [S = 0.1  103 cal/kgC]
[1cal = 4.2 J ]
  = 0.099C
1/2  ( /)2 V = (V ds ) 4.2 J /cal

Illustration - 37 A steel rod of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2 is held between two fixed supports. If the
tension in the rod is negligible and it is just taut at 20C , determine the tension when the temperature falls to
0C. Ysteel = 21  1010 N/m2, steel = 12  10–6/ C. Assume the distance between the supports remains same.
SOLUTION :
As the ends of the rod are rigidly fixed, its length
can not change. The rigid supports, now, have a
tendency to pull the rod creating a tensile stress.
As the temperature drops (20  C) the rod Let 1 = change is length due to temperature
tends to contract. drop

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2 = change is length due to tensile stress.  1 + 2 = 0

(1 is ve and 2 is +ve) (    ) + TAY = 0 [T = tension is rod]
As, there is no net change in length,  T=YA
[The stress created like this in called as Thermal = (21  1010) (0.5  106) (12  106) (20)
stress]
T = 25.2 N

Illustration - 38 A cylinder of length 1.5 m and diameter 4 cm is fixed at one end. A tangential force of 4 
105 N is applied at the other end. Calculate the twist produced in the cylinder if the modulus of rigidity is 6 
1010 N/m2.
SOLUTION :
In equilibrium, applied torque = restoring torque. 2  Fr 2  1.5  4  105
  = 
4
 r
 r 4 
 6  1010   0.02 3
Fr = 
2 = 0.796 radians (  45.5)

Illustration - 39 A rod 1.05 m long, whose weight is negligible, is supported at

its ends by wires A and B of equal lengths as shown. The cross-section of A is 1
mm2 and that of B is 2 mm2. The Young’s modulus for wire A is 2.4  1011 N/m2
and for B is 1.6  1011 N/m2.
At what point along the rod should a weight be suspended in order to produce
(a) equal stress in A and B, (b) equal strain in A and B.
SOLUTION :
(a) Let x = distance of the point P where an weight (b) One equation is same i.e. F1 x = F2 (105 –x)
is suspended from wire A.
Y1 A1 Y2 A2
Let F1 and F2 be the tension in A and B. equal strain  
F1 F2
Balancing torques about P, F1 x = F2 (105– x)
As the rods have equal stress F1 2. 4 1 3
   
F2 1.6 2 4
F1 F2
  2 F1  F2
A1 A2 105  x 3
 
x 4
105  x 1
Solving for x we get : 
x 2  x = 60 cm (From A).
 x = 70 cm (form A)

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Vidyamandir Classes Properties of Matter

SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A copper and a tungsten (W) plate having a thickness  = 2 mm each are riveted together
so that at 0C they form a flat bimetallic plate. Find the average radius of the curvature of this plate at t =
200C. The coefficient of linear expansion for copper and tungsten are Cu = 1.7 × 10–5/K and W = 0.4 ×
10–5 /K.
SOLUTION :
The average length of copper plate at a tempera- Consequently,
ture
 (R +  /2) =  (1 + c T) . . . . . .(i)
0
T = 200C is c = 0(1 + cT),
 (R –  /2) =  (1 + t T) . . . . . .(ii)
0
where 0 is the length of copper plate at 0C.
To eliminate the unknown quantities,  and 0
The length of the tungsten plate is we divide the equation (i) by (ii) term wise :
t = 0 (1 + t T).
 R   / 2  1   cT 
 
 R   / 2  1  t T 

 2   c   t  T 
 R 
 2  c   t  T 

 R
 c   t  T
We shall assume that the edges of plates are not
displaced during deforming and that an increase Neglecting ( c – t) in the numerator as
in the plate thickness due to heating can be (c –t) < 1
neglected.
Substituting the values in above relation we get :
From figure we have :
R = 0.769 m.
c =  (R +  /2)
t =  (R –  /2)

Example - 2 A sinker of weight W0 has an apparent weight W1 when placed in a liquid at a temperature
T1 and W2 when weighed in the same liquid at a temperature T2. The coefficient of cubical expansion of the
material of the sinker is . What is the coefficient of volume expansion of the liquid ?
SOLUTION :
Let  = T2 – T1 and  = coefficient of volume  1 = 2 (1 + ) . . . . . .(i)
expansion of liquid. Let V1 and V2 be the volumes of the sinker at
temperatures T1 and T2 respectively.
Let density of liquid at temperatures T1 and T2
be 1 and  respectively.  V2 = V1 (1 + ) . . . . . .(ii)
2

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The loss in weight at T1 = V1 1 g Using (i) and (ii) we get :

 W0 – W1 = V1 1 g . . . . . .(iii) W0  W1 1   

The loss in weight at T2 = V2 2 g W0  W2 1   

 W0 – W2 = V2 2 g . . . . . .(iv) W  W1  W  W1 
 1 +  = 0   0 
W0  W2  W0  W2 
Dividing (iii) and (iv) we get :
 W W  1  W  W1 
W0  W1 V     2 1   0 
 1 1  W0  W2  T2  T1  W0  W2 
W0  W2 V2 2

Example - 3 A vessel is filled completely with 500 gm of water on top of 1000 gm of mercury. When
21200 cal of heat is given to it, water of mass 3.52 gm overflows. Calculate the coefficient of volume expan-
sion of mercury. The expansion of the vessel may be neglected. Coefficient of volume expansion of water =
1.5 × 10–4/ C, density if mercury = 13.6 g/cc, density of water = 1 g/cc and specific heat of mercury = 0.03
cal/g/ C.
SOLUTION :
Let  = coeff. of volume expansion of Hg and Now water overflow
w = coeff. of volume expansion of water
3.52 gm 3.52
and = d = (1 + w )
 = rise in temperature. final 1
Water overflow = (final volume of water) + (final = 500 (1 + w )
volume of Hg) – (final volume of vesel) 1000 1000 
 1       500   . . .(i)
Initial volumes of water and mercury are 500/1 13.6  13.6 
and 1000/13.6 ml respectively.
Another equation can be formed by calorimetry :
 water overflow
Heat gained by water and Hg = 21200 cal.
500 1000  500 × 1 ×  + 1000 × 0.03 ×  = 21200
 1   w    1    
1 13.6   = 40C
 500 1000  Substituting the value of  in equation (i), we get :
  
 1 13.6  1000
3.52 (1 + 40 w) = 500  40 w +  (40)
Note that the volume of vessel remains same 13.6 !
as its expansion is neglected.
 3.52  1.006  3  13.6
  
40000
  = 1.84  10–4 (C)–1

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Example - 4 A U tube contains mercury. The left limb of the tube is maintained at a temperature of
T1C and the right limb at a temperature of T2C. The heights of mercury columns in the left and right limbs
are h1 and h2 respectively. Find the coefficient of volume expansion of Hg. Neglect the expansion of tube.

SOLUTION :
Let d1 and d2 be the densities of mercury in the left and right limbs respectively.

By hydrostatic conditions : h1 d2
 
PA = PB h2 d 2 1    
Patm + h1 d1 g = Patm + h2 d2 g h2
 1 +   =
h1 d 2 h1
 
h2 d1 h2  h1
     h 
1

Example - 5 The rods of copper, brass and steel are welded together to form a Y–shaped structure.
The cross-sectional area of each rod is 4 cm2. The end of copper rod is maintained at 100C and the ends of
the brass and steel rods at 0C. Assume that there is no loss of heat from the surfaces of the rods. The lengths
of rods are: copper 46 cm, brass 13 cm and steel 12 cm.
(a) What is the temperature of the junction point ?
(b) What is the heat current in the copper rod ?
K (Cu) = 0.92, K (steel) = 0.12 and K (brass) = 0.26 C.G.S. units.
SOLUTION :
Let  be the temperature of the junction. KCu A 100    K1 A   0 

Let H = Heat flow per second in copper rod. d d1

H1 = Heat flow per second in steel rod. K 2 A   0 


d2
H2 = Heat flow per second in brass rod.
 H = H1 + H2 0.92  4  100  
46

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0.12  4   0.26  4  
  KCu A 100  
12 13 Hcu =
d
  = 40 C
0.92  4  100  40 

46
= 4.8 cal /s.

Example - 6 A steam pipe 1 m in length with an outside diameter of 5.00 cm has a uniform temperature
of 100C.The pipe is insulated with a 6.00 cm layer of asbestos fibre. If the room temperature is 20C, what
is the heat loss to room per hour per meter of pipe length ? What is the temperature in the middle of the layer
of insulation ?
K(asbestos) = 0.19 × 10–4 cal/s/ C/m.
SOLUTION :
The system has cylindric symmetry, so we
r
conclude that the isothermal surfaces are og  
concentric cylinders and that heat flows radially r = 1 – (1 – 2)  r1 
outward along lines parallel to the normal vectors. r 
og  2 
Using the expression for rate of heat transfer per  r1 
second :  5. 5 
og  
d Q 2  L K 1   2   2.5 
  r = 100 – (100 – 20)
dt r  8.5 
og 2 og  
r1  2.5 
 r = 48.457 C
d Q 2   1  0.19  104  100  20 
  To derive the expression for r , equate the rate
dt 8.5
og of heat flow in the region r = r1 to r = r2 with the
2.5 rate in the ragion r = r1 to the radial distance r.
dQ
 d t = 7.80  10–3 cal/s = 28.1 cal /hr.. 2 KL 1   2  2 KL 1   r 

log r2 / r1 log r / r1
To find the temperature in the middle of layer of
insulation, we will use the following relation. Let
r be the temperature of the isothermal surface
at a radial distance r.

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Example - 7 The rate at which the radiant energy reaches the surface of earth from the sun is about
1.4kW/m2. The distance from earth to the sun is about 1.5 × 1011 m, and the radius of sun is about 0.7 × 109
m.
(a) What is the rate of radiation of energy, per unit area, from the sun’s surface ?
(b) If the sun radiates as an ideal blackbody, what is the temperature of its surface ?
SOLUTION :
Let D = distance from SUN to the earth P P
= 1.5 × 1011 m. = 
area of big sphere 4 D 2
Let R = radius of SUN = 0.7 × 109 m.
P
Let power of SUN = P = energy radiated from = 1.4  103 W m–2
the surface of SUN per second. 4 D 2
(a) Hence in every one second, P joules of energy  P = 4 (1.5  1011)2  1.4  103 W
are radiated from the surface of SUN and this
P = 3.96  1026 W
energy passes through a big sphere of radius D
centred at SUN. Rate of radiation of energy per sec. per unit area
of SUN’s surface is given by :
Hence at the circumference of this big sphere (i.e.
near the surface of the earth), the energy cross- P P
 7 –2
ing through a unit area per sec.
area of sun 4 R 2 = 6.43  10 W m
(b) If SUN is an ideal black body,  = 1.
 E =  T4
1/ 4 1/ 4
E  6.43  107 
 T=   
8
   5.67  10 
= 5803 K

Example - 8 An ice cube of mass 0.1 kg at 0C is placed in an isolated container which is at 227C. The
specific heat capacity c of the container varies with temperature T according to the empirical relation c = A
+ BT, where A = 100 cal/kg-K and B = 2  10–2 cal/kg-K2. If the final temperature of the container is 27C,
determine the mass of the container.
(Latent heat of fusion for water = 8  104 cal/kg, specific heat capacity of water = 10–3 cal/kg-K).

SOLUTION :
Heat gained by ice in converting into liquid water at Heat gained by liquid water in raising its temperature
0C is from 0C to 27C is
q1 = mL = (0.1 kg) (8  104 cal/kg) = 8  103 cal q2 = mc T = (0.1 kg) (103 cal kg–1 K–1) (27 K)
= 2.7  103 cal

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Total heat gained by water is Substituting the given data, we get :

q = q1 + q2 = 8  103 cal + 2.7  103 cal q’ = m [(102 cal kg1 K1) (500 K – 300 K)
= 10.7  103 cal . . . . . . .(i) + (2  10–2 cal kg1 K2/2){(500 K)2 –
Heat lost by the container in cooling from (300 K)2}
T1 (= 500 K) to T2 (= 300 K) is = m [2  104 cal kg1 + 1.6  103 calkg–1 ]
T2 T2 = m (2.16 104 cal kg–1) . . . . . . .(ii)
q'   mc dT  m   A  BT  dT From equations (i) and (ii), we can write
T1 T1
m (2.16  104 cal kg–1) = 10.7  103 cal
= m  A T2  T1    B / 2  T22  T12  
10.7  103 cal 
 m  0.495 kg
 2.16  104 cal kg 1 

Example - 9 Oil at temperature T is continuously circulating

through an insulating container as shown in the figure. A lid of
thickness 6 mm, conductivity 0.16 J/(s m C) and emissivity 0.6
closes the top of the container. The temperature at the top of the lid
is steady at 127C while the surroundings have a temperature of
27C. Calculate (a) the rate of heat lost per unit area due to the
radiation from the lid, and (b) the temperature of the oil.
Given : Stefan-Boltzmann constant, is  = (17/3)  10–8 W/m2 K4.
SOLUTION :

The rate of heat lost per unit area of the lid The above heat lost is supplied by the circulat-
ing oil through the lid whose one side tempera-
1 dQ ture is 127C and the other side is T.
=  e  T24  T14 
A dt The rate of heat flow through the lid
= (0.6)  17/3  10–8  {(273 + 127)4 1 dQ T T  127 
– (273 + 27)4} = k   0.16 
A dt l  6  103 
= (0.6) (17/3) (10–8) (2.56  1010 – 8.1  109) = 25 (T  127)
W/m2
Equating this to 595 W/m2, we get :
= 595 W/m2
 595 
T   127  C  150.8C
 25 

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Example - 10 A wire of radius r stretched with out tension, along a

straight line is tightly fixed at A and B. A mass m is suspended from the
mid point of the wire. Due to the weight of mass, the wire is pulled into
the shape ACB. Find the depression ‘d’ in the wire.
The length of the wire is 2 and its young’s modulus is Y.
SOLUTION :

1/ 2
 d2  d2
 1   1
  2  2 2


d d
Let T be the tension is the wire. As sin  =  (neglecting d2,
d 2  2 
2T sin  = mg
because d2 << 2)
mg
 T= mg 
2 sin   Stress =
2  r 2d
T mg mg
Stress    mg 
A 2 A sin  2  r 2 sin 
stress 2  r 2 d
 Y = 
d 2  2   strain d 2 / 22

 Strain =  1/ 3
  mg 3  mg 
 Y   d   
 r 2d 3   r 2Y 

Example - 11 A wire of length  and radius r has a weight W and the Young’s modulus Y. It is suspended
vertically from a fixed point. Calculate the increase in length of wire produced due to its own weight W.
SOLUTION :
As tension is non-uniform along the wire, we have The total change in length of the wire is the sum
variable stress Consider an infinitesimal element of the changes in length of infinite such elements
of length dx at a distance x from bottom end A. along the wire.

mgx 
The tension at this position in the wire = mgx dx
 Total charge in length =  =  d   

 YA
Let d = increase in length of the element. 0
2
d mg  mgl
 strain =  =   
dx YA 2 2Y  r 2

 Y 
mgx / A
 d 
mgx dx
 Δ 
 stress at mid pt.
d  / dx Y A Y

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Example - 12 Two rods of different metals having the same area of cross-section
A and same length ‘ ’ are placed end to end between two massive walls as shown.
The values of Young’s modulus, length and coefficient of linear expansion for the
rods are given.
The temperature of both the rods is now raised by T degrees
(a) Find the force with which the rods act on each other.
(b) Find the length of the rods at higher temperature
SOLUTION :
Let 1 = change in length due to thermal expansion Final length of rod 1 = 1 + 1 + L1
in rod 1.
F 1
L1 = change in length due to elastic forces in rod = 1 + 1 1 T +
AY1
1.
Let 2 and L2 be the respectiv values for rod 2.
 1 
Y11  Y2  2  T
(Note that a decrease in length will mean negative  Y1 Y2 
change in length). As the walls are fixed,   
 1  2 
Net change in length of rod 1 + Net change In length
of rod 2 = 0 Final length of rod 2 = 2 + 2 + L2

 (1 + L1) + (2 + L2) = 0 F2

= 2 + 2 2 T +
AY2
 F 1   F2 
 1 1 T     2 2 T   0
 AY1   AY2  Y11  Y2  2  T
= 2 –
Where F is the force of compression between  Y1 Y2 
  
rods.  1  2 
Y1 Y2 AT  1 1   2  2 
 F = Note that the displacement of the function of rods
Y11  Y21 is :

Y11  Y2 2  T (towards right if + ve).

 Y1 Y2 
  
 1  2 

NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Two bodies of masses m1 and m2, specific heats s1 and s2 and at temperatures 1 and 2 are brought in
contact with each other. Assuming 1 > 2, heat will flow from body 1 to body 2. If  is the common
temperature of two bodies at the state of thermal equilibrium, then (assuming no heat is gained or lost from
or to the surroundings):
Heat lost by body 1 = Heat gained by body 2
m1 s1 (1  ) = m2 s2 (  2) (2 <  < 1)

2. Heating a metallic scale :

A metallic scale (linear) expands in length when heated. As a result all the markings are displaced from their
usual (correct) positions.
 actual length = reading (1 +  )

3. Time period of pendulum :

If there is a rise in temperature by , length of the pendulum increases and hence the time period increases.
As a result, the clock supporting such a simple pendulum slows down.

1  1
 Time lost in one day =     =      86400 s
2  2 

4. Heat Conduction through a Composite Slab (rod)

A  A   B 
H 
d1 d
 2
K1 K 2

K1 K
A  A    = 2 A    B 
d1 d2

K1 K
 A  2 B
d d2
  1
K1 K 2

d1 d2

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5. Conduction of Heat through a Cylindrical Shell

2 L 1   2 
H= r
og 2
r1

6. Heat Conduction through a Spherical Shell

4 1   2 
H=
11 1
  
K  r1 r2 

7. Growth of Ice on the Surface of a Lake

If the thickness of ice layer changes from x1 to x2 in t seconds, then :

x22  x12 K t

2  L

8. Stefan’s Law :
The energy emitted per second per unit area of a black body
(emissive power = 1) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
i.e., E =  T4  : Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10–8 J/m2/s/K4.
For any other body :
E =   T4  : emissivity of body ( = 1 for a black body)
9. Net Heat Loss from the Surface of a Body
For a body at a temperature of T1, surrounded by walls at a temperature T2 (as in figure), the net rate of loss
(or gain) of energy per sec by radiation is

Hnet = A   T14  A   T24

Hnet = A   T14  T24 

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10. Newton’s Law of Cooling :

It states that the rate of heat loss from a hot body to the surroundings (dQ/dt) is given by:

dQ
= kA ( – 0) A : surface area ; k : constant
dt

 : absolute temperature of body 0 : temperature of surroundings

 – 0 : difference in temperature

dQ d
 Ms
dt dt
M : mass of the body s : specific heat of body
d /dt = rate of fall of temperature (rate of cooling)

d
 Ms  A   0 
dt
11. Wien’s Law :
m T = constant
where m = wavelength corresponding to maximum energy at a particular temperature
12. Hooke’s Law :
(i) Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y)

Longitudinal stress
Y = Longitunal strain

F/A F
Y=  Y = A 
 / 
The following forms of the result must be carefully noted

F 
 = A Y and F = YA

(ii) Bulk Modulus (k)
volume stress
K=
volume strain

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p
 K=
v / v
pv
 K=
v
 The reciprocal of k is known as modulus of compressibility
(iii) Shear modulus ( )
shear stress
 =
shear strain
F/A
 =
A
F
 =
A
 is also called as modulus of rigidity

Relation between Y, k and  :

The three modulii of elasticity are related as

3 1 1
 
Y  3k
13. Elastic Energy
Elastic energy stored per unit volume
= 1/2 (stress) (strain)
= 1/2 (modulus of elasticity) (strain)2
14. Torsion
Consider a cylinder whose upper end is rigidly fixed and the other
end is twisted through an angle  about the axis of the cylinder. The
twisted cylinder exerts a restoring torque given by :

1  r 4
  
2 
where  is the modulus of rigidity, r is the radius and  is the length of the cylinder.

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SOLUTIONS - IN - CHAPTER EXERCISE - A

1. AB : Melting at constant temperature (melting point)

CD : Vaporisation at boiling point.
CD = 2 AB  Lvap. = 2 LFusion
dT
Slope is inversely proportional to specific heat.
dQ
Slope (OA) > Slope (BC)
 Thermal capacity in liq. state (BC) is greater than that in solid state (OA).

A  
H  A (2k1  2k2 )
2. d d ; H  

2k1 2k2 4 d
2k1 k2 k  k2
 k  ; k  1
k1  k2 2
 k > k

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Vidyamandir Classes Magnetic Effect of Current

Magnetic Effect of Current

SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD Section - 1

Biot Savart Law :

BiotSavart Law gives the magnetic induction due to an infinitesimal current element of length d carrying a
current i. According to BiotSavart Law :

0 i  d   r 
dB 
4 r3
where d vector points in the direction of current i. The vector r goes from the current element to the point
where the field dB is to be calculated. The constant 0 is the known as the permeability of the free space
and has a value of 4  × 10–7 TmA–1.
If the medium is other than air or vacuum, the magnetic induction is

  i d   r 
dB  r 0 where r is the relative permeability of the medium and is a dimensionless
4 r3
quantity.

Magnetic field for some important cases :

1. Field of a straight infinite current wire :
The magnetic field due to a current carrying straight wire of infinite length at a distance r from the wire is
 i
B= 0
2 r
The magnetic lines of force for a long straight wire are concentric circles
centred at the wire and lying in the plane perpendicular to the wire. If the
wire is gripped in the right hand with the thumb in the direction of current,
the curling fingers give the direction of lines of force in circles.

2. Field of a straight current carrying wire of finite length.

Consider a straight wire PQ carrying a current i as shown. The magnetic
induction at a distance r from the wire is given by :
0 i  cos   cos  
B = 2 r  
 2 

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where  ,  are the angles between the wire and the lines joining the end
points of wire to the point A where the field is to be calculated.

3. Field due to a circular current loop

Consider a circular loop of radius r carrying a current i and having N turns.
(a) Field at Centre :
0 i N
B
2r
(b) Field at axis :
0 i r 2 N
B 3/ 2

2 x2  r2 
4. Field at the centre of a current arc
The magnetic field at the centre of a wire PQ of length l bent in a shape
of a arc of radius r is :
 i   0 i
B 0    l
2 r  2  4  r2

5. Field inside a long solenoid

Consider a solenoid of length l and radius of cross section r (r << ) having N turns. If I is the current passing
through the solenoid, the magnetic induction inside the solenoid is given as :
 I N
B 0 or B =  0 In
 i i
where n is the number of turns per unit length.

Illustration - 1 Derive an expression for the field due to an infinitely long wire carrying a current I at a
point P lying at a distance R from the wire.
SOLUTION :
Consider an infinitesimal current element of length
dx at a distance x from the point O. The angle
between dx vector and position vector r is ( – ).
Using Biot Savart Law, the field due to this element
can be written as :
0 Idx sin   
dB =
4 r 2

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
directed into the plane of paper. 0 Idx R
B   dB   .
As the field contributions by all elements along the  
4 R 2  x 2  R 2  x2
wire are in same direction (inwards at P), the net
 I
field is fast the scalar sum of all the dB vectors. On evaluating the integral, we get : B  0
2 R

Illustration - 2 A circular loop of radius R carries a current I. Find the magnetic field along the axis of the
loop at a distance z from the center.
SOLUTION :
Since d l and r are perpendicular, it follows that
| d l  r |  rdl . Therefore, the component of dB
along the axis is :
 Id R
dBaxis  dB sin    0 
 4  r 2   r 
 
The total field strength is given by the integral of this
The figure shows the infinitesimal contribution to the expression over all elements. Since the only variable
field dB from an arbitrary current element Idl. (Use is l, the integral reduces to a sum of length elements.
the right-hand rule to confirm the direction of the
0 I R 2 R  IR 2
field). The field increment dB has components both Baxis   dBaxis   dl  0
along and perpendicular to the axis. However, if we 4 r3 0 2r 3
consider the contributions of current elements that
are diametrically opposite, we see that their compo 0 IR 2
B 3/ 2
nents normal to the axis will cancel. 
2 x2  R 2 
Note : Substitute x = 0 to get the field at the centre of a
circular loop.

Illustration - 3 Two long wires carrying equal and opposite currents i are placed normal to XY plane and
passing through the points P (0, l, 0) and Q (0, l, 0). Find the net magnetic induction at the point A (x, 0, 0).
SOLUTION :
The wires are placed parallel to z axis.
Let the current in wire through P be towards
positive z axis.
Field of wire through P at A
0 i 0 i
BP  
2   PA  2  x 2  l 2

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Field of wire through Q at A Bnet = BP cos  + BQ cos 

0 i 0 i 2 0 i l
BQ  
2   QA  2  x 2  l 2 =
2 x2  l 2 x2  l 2

Let  be the angle made by BP and BQ with X axis. 0 i l

= towards + X -axis
 
 x2  l 2 
 For APQ , cos  =
l 2  x2 The Y component of BP and BQ balance each other.

Illustration - 4 A current i flows through a loop ABCDEF as shown.

Find the magnetic induction at the point D if ABCD is a square of side a.

SOLUTION : B  B AB  BBC  BEF

(Note that field due to AE and CF is zero at D be-
cause D is collinear with AE and CF)
BAB = BBC
0 i
0 i  i 
= cos 90  cos 45  0 inwards  a outwards.
4 a 4 a 2
B = BEF – (BAB + BBC )
0 I  0 i 
BEF   cos 45  cos 45 
0 i
 2  
0 i  1 
 a  a a 1  
4    4 a 2   2 2
2 2

Illustration - 5 A thin dielectric disc of radius R has a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface. The
disc is rotated with a constant angular velocity about its axis. Find the magnetic field at the centre of the disc
and its magnetic dipole moment.
SOLUTION :
Let us divide the disc into infinite ring-shaped elements This element makes /2 revolutions per sec.
and consider one such element of inner radius x and Hence its motion is equivalent to a circular cur-
outer radius x + dx. rent of (dq) /2.
2
dq = charge on the element = Q/R    dq 
 field at centre = dB  0  
(area of element) 2 x  2 
Q  2
=   x  dx    x 2 
2  
R

Q  2  d x 2Qxdx
  (neglecting (dx)2)
 R2 R2

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R
 The net field =  dB 0 2Qxdx
B =  4 x
0 dq 0 R2
B =  2 x  2 
0 Q
B=
2 R

Illustration - 6 Find the magnetic induction of the field at the

point O of a loop with current I, whose shape is illustrated.
(a) In figure (a), the radii a and b, as well as the angle  aree
known ;
(b) In figure (b), the radius a and the side b are known.

SOLUTION :
(a) B  Bc1  Bc2 
0 I  2  

0 I 
.
2a 2 2b 2
0 I 3  I  cos 90  cos 45  
(b) B  Bcircle arc  Bsquare portion  2 0  
2a 4  2 b  2 
 

IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE - A
1. Two long straight horizontal parallel wires, one above the other carry equal currents and are sepa-
rated by a distance
2a. What is the field in the plane of wires at a point:
(a) half-way between them (b) at a distance a above the upper wire ?
Consider both cases: currents in opposite directions and in same directions.
Find the magnetic induction at the centre of a regular hexagon of side 5 cm and carrying a current of
2A.
2. Two identical circular coils having a radius 6 cm and 60 turns each, have a common axis and are 16
cm apart. Find the strength of the magnetic induction at a point mid-way between them on their axis
when a current of 0.1 A is passed through them in :
(a) Opposite direction (b) Same direction
(c) Also find the magnetic induction at centre of each coil.
3. You are given a length l of a wire in which a current I may be established. The wire may be bent into a
circle and a square. Which of the two shapes yields larger value of B at the centre ?
4. Any two points A and B on a uniform circular loop are connected across the terminals of a cell. Show
that the total magnetic induction at the centre of the loop is zero.

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5. A pair of stationary and infinitely long bent wires are

placed in X-Y plane as shown. The wires carry currents
of I = 10A each. The segments L and M are along the
X-axis. The segments P and Q are parallel to the Y-
axis such that OS = OR = 0.02 m. Find the magnitude
and direction of the magnetic induction at the
origin O.

6. Two long straight parallel wires P and Q are 10 m apart. (The wires
are perpendicular to the plane of the paper). The current in P is I1 =
6A coming not wards.
(a) Find the direction and magnitude of current I2 in Q for a
null point at D (i.e., zero field at D)
(b) Then find the magnetic induction at C and E.

7. The ends of a semicircular loop carrying a current I are connected to

three wires that lie along the sides of a square (see figure).What is
the field at the centre of the circular section ?

MAGNETIC FORCE ON MOVING CHARGES Section - 2

Magnetic field exerts its influence on moving charged particles or current carrying conductors. The charged
particles at rest do not experience any force in a magnetic field.

Force on a moving charged particle

The force exerted by a magnetic field of induction B on a charged particle q moving with a velocity v is given
by
or F  q v  B 
F = | qvB | sin 
where  is the angle between the B vector and the velocity of the charge. Note carefully that force on a
positive charge is in the direction of v  B but the force on a negative charge is opposite to the vector
v  B.

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Motion of a charged particle q in a uniform magnetic field

CASE : I (Straight line motion)
If a charged particle q is projected into a uniform magnetic field B with a velocity which is parallel to the field
lines, the force experienced by the charge is zero and hence it travels in a straight line with uniform velocity.

F  q  v  B   O for v || B
CASE : II (Uniform circular motion)
If a charged particle q is projected into a uniform magnetic field B
with a initial velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, it gets
trapped in a circular path.
The force exerted by the field provides the necessary centripetal
force.
Mathematically, we have

mv 2 mv
qvB   r
r qB
The time period of revolution is
2 r 2 m
T  T 
v qB
Note that the plane of the circular path is perpendicular to the lines of force.
CASE : III (motion in a helical path)
If the charge particle’s initial projection velocity makes an angle  (  0, 90) with the magnetic field B,
it moves in a helical path. The axis of the helix is parallel to the lines of force.
Resolving the velocity of particle, parallel and perpendicular to the field direction,
 v|| : Velocity parallel to field 
v11 = v cos  and v = v sin   
 v : Velocity perpendicular to field 
The v sin component is responsible for rotation of particle and hence,
(a) the radius of the helix is
mv
r
qB
(b) the time period of revolution is
2 m
T
qB

(c) the pitch of the helix (the displacement parallel to axis during one circular revolution)
2 m
P = v| | T P  v||
qB

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Illustration - 7 A long straight wire carries a current of 50 A. An electron moving at 107 m/s is 5 cm
from the wire. Find the force acting on the electron if its velocity is directed
(i) towards the wire (ii) parallel to the wire
(iii) perpendicular to directions defined by (i) and (ii).
SOLUTION :
Magnetic Induction at the point A,
0 I 2  107  50
B 
2 r 0.05
= 2  10–4 T
The field is directed inwards.
(i) Force on electron = qv1B sin
(ii) Magnitude of force = qv2B sin 90
= (1.6 × 10–19 × 107 × 2 × 10–4) sin 90
= 3.2 × 10–16 N
= 3.2 × 10–16 N
This force is directed away from the wire.
The direction of force is opposite to v1  B i.e.
(iii) Force = 0 because velocity is collinear with
parallel to wire and in direction of current.
field and hence v3  B  0 .

Illustration - 8 An electron gun G emits electrons of energy 2 keV

travelling in the positive X direction. The electrons are required to hit
the spot S where GS = 0.1 m and the line GS makes an angle of 60
with the X-axis. A uniform magnetic field B parallel to GS exists in
the region outside the gun. Find the minimum value of B needed to
make the electron hit S.
SOLUTION :
Let u be the speed of electron  2 m 
u cos 60  l
 1/2 mu2 = 2000 e  eB 
e 2 m  m
 u  4000 B  4000
m eB l e
The electrons move in a helix as they come out.
To reach S, pitch of helix = GS = l  4000  9.1  1031
B
V| | T = l 0.1 1.6  1019

= 4.738  10–3 T

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Illustration - 9 A charged particle of mass m and charge q moves from a region I and to another region II
crossing the interface normally. There is a uniform magnetic field B (inwards) present in the region II. There is
no magnetic field in the region I and III.
(a) What is the maximum speed vmax of the charged particle so that it
is able to return back in the region I ?
(b) Analyse the motion of particle if it is projected into the field as in
(a) with a velocity v = 2 vmax ?
SOLUTION :
(a) (b)

The charged particle starts moving in a uniform cir- For v > vmax , the particle is able to penetrate through
cular motion as it enters the region II. It can come the field over to the region III following a circular
back to the region I if it follows a semi-circular path trajectory in region II. Let  be the angle through
as shown. Hence the radius of path should be less which the particle is deviated. Let O be the centre
than the width d of the field. of the circular path. For  OMN,
 r<d d
sin   where r = radius
r
mv
d mv dBq
qB r  sin  
qB mv
qBd
v 1 dBq
m Angle of deviation =   sin
mv
qBd  q Bd  
vmax 
m  sin 1  
 m  2vmax   6

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Illustration - 10 A particle of mass 1  10–26 kg and charge +1.6  10–19 C travelling with a velocity 1.28
 106 m/s in the +X direction enters a region in which a uniform electric field E and a magnetic field of
induction B are present such that Ex = 0, Ez = 102.4 kV/m and Bx = Bz = 0, By = 8  10–2 Wb/m2. The particle
enters this region at the origin at time t = 0. Determine the location (x, y, z coordinates) of the particle at t =
5  10–6 s. If the electric field is switched off at this point or instant (with the magnetic field still present) what
will be the position of the particle at t = 7.45  10–6s.
SOLUTION :

F  qE  q  v  B   q  E  v  B 

F  q  102.4  103  1.28  8  10 4  kˆ  0

 
Hence particle moves in straight line with constant
velocity.
At t1 = 5 s, it is at P.
 OP = vt1 = 6.4 m. At t2 = 7.45 s, the particle is at Q.

After t1 = 5s, E = 0 t t  t2  t1  qB
angular disp. = 2 1  2 
Hence it moves in circle in ZX plane (perpendicular T m
to B).  the charge is at Q where PQ = 2r
2 m mv
T = Period =  4.9 s where r = radius =  1.0 m .
qB qB
 its coordinate are (6.4 , 0, 2).

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MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTS Section - 3

1. Force on a current element in a magnetic field

The force exerted on a current element of length dl carrying current I placed in a magnetic field at a point
where the magnetic induction is B is given by :


dF  I d l  B 
The force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is calculated by dividing the con-
ductor into infinite current elements

F   I  dl  B 

2. Force on a straight current carrying wire in uniform field

Consider a straight wire of length l carrying a current I. The wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field B. The
force acting on the wire is
F   I  dl  B   I   dl   B

F  I l  B 
where l is the vector whose magnitude is l and the direction is same as that of current.
The magnitude of force is F = BIl sin, where  is the angle between the B vector and the direction of current
in the wire.
(a) If the wire is placed perpendicular to the field direction, the force is F = BIl.
(b) If the wire is placed parallel to the field direction, no force is experienced by the wire.

3. Force between two parallel current carrying wires

Consider two long straight wires 1 and 2 carrying currents i1 and i2
respectively and placed parallel to each other with a distance r
between them.
The magnetic field of wire 1 exerts a force on wire 2 and that of wire
2 exerts an equal and opposite force on wire 1. This mutual force of
interaction is attractive if the currents are in same direction and re-
pulsive if the currents are opposite. The magnitude of force experi-
enced by each wire on a unit length is given as force per unit length
0 i1 i2
= 2 r .

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Illustration - 11 A loop of flexible conducting wire of length 0.5 m lies in a perpendicular magnetic field of
1.0 T perpendicular going inwards to the plane of the loop. Show that when a clockwise current is passed
through the loop, it opens into a circle. Also calculate the tension developed in the wire if the current is 1.57
amp.
SOLUTION :
Now we consider an infinitesimal portion AB of the
circular loop subtending an angle d at the centre.
We isolate this portion and draw forces acting on it.
In the force diagram, the resultant of two tensions
When current passes through the loop, any small (at A and B) balances the outward magnetic force
portion (like P and Q) of the loop experiences mag- Bi(rd ).
netic force. Hence there is tendency to expand and  d 
loop opens up into a circle. 2T    Bi (rd  )
 2 
 d   d d 
2T  d using  sin
 = B ird  
 2   2 2 
T = B ir
= 1  1.57  0.5/2 = 0.125 N

Illustration - 12 Two horizontal parallel conductors are suspended by light vertical threads 0.75 m long.
Each conductor has a mass 4 × 10–2 k g/m. In the absence of any current, the conductors are parallel and are
0.5 cm apart. Equal currents in the two wires result in the separation of 1.5 cm between them. Find the
magnitude and the direction of the currents.
SOLUTION :
Let  be the angle between the threads and vertical. (taking tan   sin  for small  )
2 l sin  + 0.5 = 1.5
sin  = 1/150
If F is the force per unit length and m is the mass
per unit length, then
T cos  = mg and T sin  = F
 F = mg tan  2  rmg sin 
i
0
 0i 2
 = m g sin 
2 r

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As the force is repulsive, currents should be in



2 1.5  102   4  102 g   14 A opposite directions.
150  4  107 

Illustration - 13 A straight conductor PQ of weight 1 N and length 0.4 m,

located in a plane making an angle 30 with the horizontal, so that it is
perpendicular to a uniform horizontal magnetic field of induction B = 0.109
T. Given that the conductor carries a current I = 10A and the coefficient of
static friction = 0.1. Find the force needed to be applied parallel to the plane
to sustain the conductor at rest.
SOLUTION :
The magnetic force on the wire is BIl directed Minimum value of force (wire PQ tends to slip down).
vertically downwards.
Maximum value of force (wire tends to slip up)

Fapp + s N = (mg + BIl) sin 

N = (mg + BIl) cos  ]

Fapp = s N + (mg + BIl) sin  Fapp = (mg + BIl) (sin  – s cos )

( mg + BIl) (sin  – s cos  )  F
N = (mg + BIl) cos 
 (mg + BIl) (sin  + s cos ).
Fapp = (mg + BIl) (s cos  + sin ).

Illustration - 14 A thin conducting rod of mass 0.1 kg and length 0.25 m lies on a horizontal rough table
with its length normal to a uniform horizontal field of induction 0.2 T. If a current of 10 A is passed through
the rod, find :
(a) The horizontal force required to be applied perpendicular to the length of the rod to keep it in uniform
velocity over the table.
(b) If the magnetic field is vertically downwards, find the current I in the rod so that it moves with uniform
velocity over the table. Take  = 0.1   0.1
SOLUTION :
(a) The magnetic force can be up or down de- N = mg  Bil
pending on the direction of i and B. Fapp. = N =  (mg Bil)

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(b) Bil = mg

 mg
 i=
B

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-C BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

MAGNETIC DIPOLE Section - 4

A closed current loop, a solenoid or a bar magnet have similar pat-

tern of lines of force. The lines of force originate from one face and
enter into another face. Such arrangements are known as magnetic
dipoles. The face from which the lines of force comes out is known
as North pole and the face into which lines of force enter is known
as South Pole.
Let us consider a closed loop of N turns and area A carrying a
current i. The magnetic dipole moment of this magnetic dipole is
defined as
m  i AN
The direction of dipole moment is normal to the plane of loop. If we
curl the fingers of right hand along the current in loop, the direction
of thumb gives the direction of dipole moment.

Dipole in a uniform magnetic field

When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, it experience a torque given by,

 mB    mB sin 

where  is the angle between the dipole moment vector m and the vector B .
The force on the dipole is zero in a uniform magnetic field. The torque also becomes zero for the two positions
of the dipole. These positions are the equilibrium positions of the dipole.

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(a) Stable equilibrium

When the dipole moment vector m is in the direction of the magnetic lines of force,  = 0 and
hence  = 0. The dipole is in the position of stable equilibrium.

(b) Unstable equilibrium

When the dipole moment vector m is opposite to the direction of magnetic field,  = 180 and hence
= 0. This is the unstable equilibrium position.

Potential Energy of the dipole

When placed in the uniform magnetic field, the dipole possesses potential energy given by
U  mB cos    m . B

where  is the angle between m and B . The potential energy is minimum when the dipole is in stable
equilibrium ( = 0 ). The potential energy is maximum when the dipole is in unstable equilibrium ( = 180).

Illustration - 15 For the rotating disc of illustration 5, calculate the magnetic dipole moment.

SOLUTION :
The net dipole moment is

 dq
M   dm    x2
2
R
 x 2 2Qxdx
M   2 R2
0

 Q R4 Q  R2
 
R2 4 4

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Illustration - 16 A coil in the shape of an equilateral triangle of side 0.02 m is suspended from a vertex such
that it is hanging in a vertical plane between the pole pieces of a permanant magnet producing a permanent
magnetic field of 5 × 10–2 T. Find the couple acting on the coil when a current of 0.1 A is passed through it
and magnetic field is parallel to its plane.
SOLUTION :

Torque acting on the loop is

 = m B sin 

 3a 2  3 2
Magnetic moment of the loop is m = iA
=  i 4  B sin 90  4 ia B
Substituting the area of the equilateral triangle,  
we get :
3
3 2 = ( 0.1 ) (0.02)2 5 10–2 Nm
mi a 4
4
The vector m is directed outwards in the figure. = 5 3  107 Nm  8.65  107 Nm

Illustration - 17 A cooper wire with cross-sectional area A is bent to

make a square loop. One side of the square is fixed along a horizontal line
AB and the loop can rotate about AB. The system is kept in a vertically
upwards uniform magnetic field B. Find the angle of the plane of the loop
with vertical in equilibrium position if the loop carries a current I.
SOLUTION :
Let  = angle of loop with vertical.
 90 – = angle of normal (to the loop) with
vertical.
Torque acting of loop due to magnetic forces is
1 = mB sin (90 –) (m : magnetic moment)
= B I a2 cos  (a : side length of loop)
In equilibrium, 1 = 2
Torque due to gravity about AB
BIa2 cos  = 2a2 Ag sin 
2 = (Mg sin ) a/2 where M is the mass of loop.
= (4Aa ) g sin  a/2 2A g tan 
B
I

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Illustration - 18 A current I flows through an infinitely long conducting strip of width b. Calculate the
magnetic induction at a point located symmetrically at a perpendicular distance r from the strip.
SOLUTION :
Let us divide the current strip into a collection of Magnetic induction dB due to this element at P is
infinite long wires. We consider one such wire located directed as shown and has the magnitude
at coordinate x from mid point O and having a width
0 dI
dx. The current passing through this element is dB 
2 r 2  x 2
I
dI  dx It can be easily seen by symmetry or by direct
b
integration of dB sin  that the net vertical field is
zero.

0 dI r
B   dB cos    .
2 r 2  x 2 r 2  x2

b/ 2
0 I r dx 0 I b
   tan 1
b / 2 2 b  r 2  x2  b 2r

in horizontal direction (parallel to the strip)

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 The long straight wire PQ in the figure carries a current

I1 = 20 A. A rectangular loop abcd ‘whose longer sides are parallel to PQ,
carries a current I2 = 10 A. Find the magnitude and direction of the force
on ab, bc, cd, da. Hence find the net force on the loop .
SOLUTION :
 i i dF = B(x) I2 dx. (B is inwards)
Fad  0 1 2  0.2  8 106 N towards left.
2 1 0 I1
= I 2 dx (upwards)
 i i 2 x
Fbc  0 1 2  0.2   7.27 106 N xb
2 1.1 0 I1 I 2 dx 0 I1 I 2 x
towards right. Fab    og b
2 x 2 xa
xa
Force on ab and cd (upwards)
Fab   dF 1.1
Fab  2  107   20  10  log  3.8  106 N
1
Where dF is the force on an infierimal element of Fcd   Fab
length dx at a distance x form PQ.
because cd carries equal and opposite current and
is located in a similar position.
Fcd = 3.8  10–6 N downwards.

New force on loo = F ad  Fbc

Fnet = 8  10–6 N – 7.22  10–6 N
= 0.73  10-6 N towards PQ.

Example - 2 Derive an expression for the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a solenoid having on
N turns & length l carrying a current I. The radius of the cross-section of solenoid is r. What is the field at mid-
point of axis and at the ends ?
SOLUTION :

Let us Calculate the field at a point O which lies on

the axis at distances a and b from the ends.
dB = field due to an element of length dx located at
a distance x from O

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0 Ir 2 where ,  are the angles subtended by the end-

= 3 / 2  no. of turns.

2 x2  r 2  radii on the point O. Note that for points inside the
coil, the angle  will be obtuse while  will be acute.
The element can be considered as a current loop of
At mid point of axis
Ndx
turns dN = (no. of turns per unit length) dx =
l
0 I r 2  N d x 
 dB = 3/ 2 directed along the axis.

2 x2  r 2  l
b
0 I r 2 N d x cos  
l/2 ,
B = 3/ 2 2
a 2l  x2  r 2  l
4
 r2
b
0 I r 2 N 1 x l/2 0 IN
= 2 cos     B
2l r x2  r 2 a l2 l 2  4r 2
 r2
0 I N  b a  4
=   
2l  b 2  r 2 a 2  r 2  At the ends  = 90 ,
0 I N  cos   cos   l 0 I N
B=   cos  =  B
l  2 
l2  r2 2 l 2  4r 2

Example - 3 A particle of mass m = 1.67 × 10–27 kg and charge q =

1.6 × 10–19 C enters a region of uniform magnetic field of strength 1.0 T
along the direction shown in the figure. The speed of the particle is 107 m/s.
(a) The magnetic field is directed along the inward normal to the plane
of the paper. The particle leaves the region at point F. Find EF
(b) If the direction of the magnetic field is along the outward normal to
the plane of the paper, find the time spent by the particle in the re-
gion of the magnetic field after entering it at E.
SOLUTION :
(a) We have to calculate E F and . The particle moves along a circular arc and comes out of F. Let O be the
centre of the circle. From the geometry of figure we can see that  = 45
 mv 
EF  2r sin 45  2   sin 45

 qB 

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(b) The circle descried now is clockwise

3T 3  2 m 
t    
4 4  qB .

Example - 4 A straight segment OC (of length 1 cm) of a circuit car-

rying a current 1A is placed along the X-axis. Two infinitely long straight
wires A and B, are fixed at y = + a y = – a respectively as shown in the
figure. If the wires A and B are each carrying a current of 1 A into the plane
of paper, obtain the expression for the force acting on the segment OC.
What will be the force on OC if the current in the wire B is reversed ?
SOLUTION :
 i
Bnet  x   2  0  cos  Force o n OC   dF   B  x  . i dx sin 90 di-
 2 r 
rected into the paper.
 i a 0 ia
 0  down words.
 0i 2 a 1  a 2  l 2 
 r 2

 a2  x2  F ln 
 a  a 2 


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If current in B is reversed, magnetic magnetic be- Hence no force acts on wire OC because. Current
comes parallel to x-axis. is also along x-axis.

Example - 5 A current I = 5.0 A flows along a thin wire, shaped as shown.

The radius of a curved part of the wire is equal to r = 120 mm, the angle  is 30. Find
the magnetic induction of the field at the point O.

SOLUTION :
0 I  2  2  0 I   
Bnet = Bcurve + Bsegment =   cos     
2 R  2  2 R cos    2 

Example - 6
A thin insulated wire forms a plane spiral of N = 100 tight turns
carrying a current I = 8 mA. The radii of inside and outside turns are equal to a = 50
mm and b = 100 mm. Find :
(a) the magnetic induction at the centre of the spiral ;
(b) the magnetic moment of the spiral with a given current.
SOLUTION :
Consider a ring shaked element of inner radius x and outer radius x + dx.
The no. of turns contained in this ring are :
dN = (no. of turns per unit radial distance) dx
N
= dx .
ba

 
m   dm   I  x 2 dN 
b
a I  x
2
 bNdx
a
NI  2
m ( a  b 2  ab)
3
b
 I  I N dx
Bcentre   dB   0 dN   0
2x 2x b  a 
a

0 IN b
B log
2(b  a) a

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Example - 7 A wire is formed into the shape of square of edge length l.

When the current in the loop is I, find the magnetic field at point P a distance x
from the centre of the square along its axis.
SOLUTION :
Field due to one side = B
0 I  cos   cos  

2 r  2 
  
 l 
Net field at P is :  cos   
 2 2
If ABCD is the square, let M be the mid point of AB.


 l  2x 
 
 
2 

l/2 l/2
 cos    l/2
l 2 / 4  r2 l2 l2 Bnet = 4B cos  = 4 B
  x2 r
4 4
l/2 4 Bl
4B 
l 2 / 4  x2 l 2  4 x2

 
0 I l 1  l
4 .
 2 l 2 / 4  x2 l 2  2 x2 2 l 2  4x2
 

2 2 0 I l 2
=

 l 2  4 x2  l 2  2x2

Example - 8 A charge q is uniformly distributed over the volume of a uniform ball of mass m and radius
R which rotates with an angular velocity  about the axis passing through its centre. Find the respective
magnetic moment and its ratio to the mechanical moment. (Angular momentum)
SOLUTION :
In example -15, we proved that magnetic moment of a rotating disc of charge Q is
Q wR 2
. Charge in a thin disc of thickness dx at a distance x above the centre of
4
QV
the sphere is dq 
4 / 3 R 3
3Q
dq 
4 R 3  
.  R 2  x 2 dx (where radius of disc = r R2  x2 )

 dq   r 2 
3Q  R 2  x 2 dx  
magnetic moment of this element is dm 
4

4 R 3
. . R2  x2
4
 

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R
3Q 2 Q R 2
 16 R3  R 
2 2
m   dm  x dx 
5
R
2 2
we have L  MR 
5
M Q
ratio  
L 2M

NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET TO COMPLETE THIS EBOOK

THINGS TO REMEMBER
Magnetic Effect of Current
1. Biot Savart Law :
BiotSavart Law gives the magnetic induction due to an infinitesimal current element of length d carrying a
current i.
According to BiotSavart Law :
 i (d   r )
dB 0
4 r3
2. Field of a straight infinite current wire :
The magnetic field due to a current carrying straight wire of infinite length
 i
at a distance r from the wire is B  0
2 r
Field of a straight current carrying wire of finite length
The magnetic induction at a distance r from the wire is given by :
0i  cos   cos  
B  
2 r  2 
Where  ,  are the angles between the wire and the lines joining the
end points of wire to the point A where the field is to be calculated.

3. Field due to a circular current loop

Consider a circular loop of radius r carrying a current i and having N turns.

 iN 0 i r 2 N
(a) Field at Centre : B  0 (b) Field at axis : B 
2r 3/ 2

2 x2  r 2 

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4. Field at the centre of a current arc

The magnetic field at the centre of a wire PQ of length l bent in a
shape of a arc of radius r is :
0 i    o i
B   l
2r  2  4 r 2

5. Field inside a long solenoid

Consider a solenoid of length l and radius of cross section r (r  ) having N turns. If I is the current
passing through the solenoid, the magnetic induction inside the solenoid is given as :
 IN
B 0 or B  0 In

Where n is the number of turns per unit length.
6. Force on a moving charged particle
The force exerted by a magnetic field of induction B on a charged particle q moving with a velocity v is
given by
or 
F  q v B 
F  qvB sin 
where  is the angle between the B vector and the velocity of the charge. Note carefully that force on a
positive charge is in the direction of v  B but the force on a negative charge is opposite to the vector v  B.
7. Motion of a charged particle q in a uniform magnetic field
CASE : I (Straight line motion)
If a charged particle q is projected into a uniform magnetic field B with a velocity which is parallel to the field
lines, the force experienced by the charge is zero and hence it travels in a straight line with uniform velocity.

F  q (v  B )  O for v || B

CASE : II (Uniform circular motion)

If a charged particle q is projected into a uniform magnetic field B with
a initial velocity perpendicular to the lines of force, it gets trapped in a
circular path. The force exerted by the field provides the necessary
centripetal force.

mv 2
qvB 
r
2 m
T
qB
Note that the plane of the circular path is perpendicular to the lines of force.

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CASE : III (motion in a helical path)

If the charge particle’s initial projection velocity makes an angle  (  0,90) with the magnetic field B, it
moves in a helical path. The axis of the helix is parallel to the lines of force.

(a) the time period of revolution is T  2 m

qB
(b) the pitch of the helix (the displacement parallel to axis during
2 m
one circular revolution) P  v||T  P  v||
qB

8. Force on a current element in a magnetic field

The force exerted on a current element of length dl carrying current I placed in a magnetic field at a point
where the magnetic induction is B is given by :
d F  I (d I  B)
The force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is calculated by dividing the
conductor into infinite current elements
F   I (d I  B)

9. Force on a straight current carrying wire in uniform field

Consider a straight wire of length l carrying a current I. The wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field B.
The force acting on the wire is
F  I (d l  B )  I   dl   B

F  I (l  B )
where l is the vector whose magnitude is l and the direction is same as that of current.
The magnitude of force is F  BIl sin  , where  is the angle between the B vector and the direction of
current in the wire.
(a) If the wire is placed perpendicular to the field direction, the force is F  BIl.
(b) If the wire is placed parallel to the field direction, no force is experienced by the wire.
10. Force between two parallel current carrying wires
Consider two long straight wires 1 and 2 carrying currents i1 and i2
respectively and placed parallel to each other with a distance r between
them.

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The magnitude of force experienced by each wire on a unit length is

0 i1 i2
given as force per unit length  .
2 r

11. Dipole in a uniform magnetic field

When a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, it experience a torque given by,
  m B    mB sin 
Where  is the angle between the dipole moment vector m and the vector B.
The force on the dipole is zero in a uniform magnetic field. The torque also becomes zero for the two positions
of the dipole.
These positions are the equilibrium positions of the dipole.
(a) Stable equilibrium
When the dipole moment vector m is in the direction of the magnetic lines force,   0 and
hence   0. The dipole is in the position of stable equilibrium.
(b) Unstable equilibrium
When the dipole moment vector m is opposite to the direction of magnetic field,   180 and hence
  0. This is the unstable equilibrium position.
Potential Energy of the dipole
When placed in the uniform magnetic field, the dipole possesses potential energy given by
U  mB cos   m  B where  is the angle between m and B . The potential energy is minimum when
the dipole is the stable equilibrium (  0). The potential energy is maximum when the dipole is in unstable
equilibrium (  180).

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SOLUTIONS - IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A

0 I 0 I
1. Same direction of current : (a) B  0
2 a 2 a
 I 1 1 
(b) B  0     Outwards 
2  a 3a 
 I
Opposite direction of current : (a) B  2  0   Inwards 
 2 a 
 I 1 1 
(b) B  0    (Outwards)
2  a 3a 
 6 0 I  cos 60  cos 60  
For hexagon : B    
 2  a sin 60   2  
2. (a) B=0
0 Ir 2 N
(b) B2 where r = 0.06 m : x = 0.08m ; N = 60; I = 0.1A
3/ 2
 2
2 r x 2

 I 0 Ir 2 N
(c) For Ist case : B   0  N  ,
 2r  2 3/ 2
 2
2 r   2x 
 I 0 Ir 2 N
For IInd case : B   0  N  3/ 2
 2r 

2 r 2  2x
2

0 I  cos 45  cos 45  
 I 0 I  I BSquare  4.   where a 
Bcircle  0   0 a 2 4
3. 2r 2   / 2   2    
2
 
 BSquare > BCircle

4. Let 1, 2 be the lengths of the two parts of circular loop. These two parts are connected in parallel for current
i.
         r      r  2     
 i1  1   i2  2   i1    i2  
 A   A   A  A 
 
    i     i  2   
B at centre  B1  B2  0 1  
02
  0
2r  2  2r  2 

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 0i   1  0   0 i   1  0  0 i
5. B0 = B1 + B2 =       104 T
 2 r  2   2 r  2  2 r

6. BP = BQ for null point at D. [Current in P is coming outwards]

 Current in Q should be inwards if current in P is outwards
 0 iP 0iQ i
   iQ  P  2 A  Inwards 
2 15  2  5  3
 0  6  0  2 8 0
At C : B = BP – BQ = 2 5  2 15  15
   
02  36 4 
At E : B  BP2  BQ2   –1
2  36 64  at tan 4 with PE.
4
[E is a point in the plane of paper]

B2




0 I  cos 90  cos 90      0 I  cos   cos   1  0 I 
7. 2 a  2  2  2a   2   2  2a 
   
 

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Vidyamandir Classes Liquids

Liquids
A fluid is a substance, such as a liquid or a gas that has no rigidity like solids. Liquids are distinguished
from the gases by the presence of a surface in liquids. As the fluids have no rigidity, they fail to support a
shearing stress. When a fluid is subjected to a shearing stress, the fluids layers slide relative to one other.
This characteristic gives fluid the ability to flow or change shapes.

PRESSURE AND THRUST Section - 1

Pressure in a stationary liquid :

The hydrostatic pressure in a liquid increases with the depth. For a liquid of density , the total pressure at
a depth h is given by
P (pressure at the surface P0) + (pressure due to liquid column)
P = P0 + hg
In the figure,
total pressure at A = P0 + h1 g
total pressure at B = P0 + h2 g
Note : The pressure due to liquid column = hg
h : height of liquid column above the reference point.
(i) If the pressure at the surface (P0) is changed an equal change in pressure is felt at all depths, that is
through out the liquid. This fact is also known as Pascal’s principle. Suppose the pressure at the liquid
surface is altered by p, then the pressure at A and B in the above figure (or even at any other point
in the liquid) is changed by, p.
(ii) Along any horizontal line in a stationary liquid, the pressure must be same.

THRUST (FORCE) ON A SURFACE BY A LIQUID :

Liquids exert (thrust) on all surfaces in contact with them. They exert a pushing force in a direction
perpendicular (normal) to the surface is contact.
Consider a surface in contact with the liquid. Let A be the area of surface in contact.
UNIFORM PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
If the liquid pressure P on this area is same every where (uniform), then thrust on the surface is given by
F  PA
NON-UNIFORM PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
F   PdA

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Illustration - 1 A tank of square cross-section (2m  2m) is filled with water upto a height of 2.5m. Find
the thrust experienced by the vertical and bottom of the tank (g = 10 m/s2)
SOLUTION :
Consider vertical surface ABCD (   h) in
contact with liquid of height h.
Divide the vertical surface ABCD into
rectangular strips of height dx and area l dx.
h
 g h 2
Thrust at the bottom surface F   PdA    x g   dx  2
0
The pressure is uniformly distributed over the
bottom surface.
h 
Thrust = Pressure  area Expressing F as F    g  h
2 
= (2.5 g) A
= 2.5  (1  103) (10) (2  2) F = [pressure at CG of vertical surface]
= 1  105 N  [area of surface]
 2. 5 
Thrust at the vertical surface     g   2  2.5 
 2 
On a vertical surface in contact with liquid, the
pressure is not same at all points. Points at greater 2. 5
  103  10  5
depth experience large pressures and hence 2
greater thrust. = 6.25  104 N

Illustration - 2 A vertical U tube of uniform cross-section contains mercury in both of its arms. A glycerine
(d = 1.3 g/cm3) column of length 10 cm is introduced into one of the arms. Oil of density 0.8 g/cm3 is poured
in the other arm until the upper surfaces of the oil and glycerine are in the same horizontal level. Find the
length of oil column. Density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm3.

SOLUTION :
Equating pressure at horizontal level BE in both
arms,
Poil + PHg = Pglycerine

xd oil g + (10 – x) Hg g = 10dgly.g

x (0.8) + (10 – x) 13.6 = 10 (1.3)

Let the length of oil column = CD = x cm
Length of glycerine = AB = 10 cm 136  13
x  9.6 cm
DE = (10 – x) cm 12.8

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Illustration - 3 Two communicating cylindrical tubes contain mercury. The diameter of one vessel is four
times larger than the diameter of the other. A column of water height 70 cm is poured into the narrow vessel.
How much will the mercury level rise in the other vessel and how much will it sink in the narrow one ? How
much will the mercury level rise in the narrow vessel if a column of water of the same height is poured in to
the broad vessel ?

SOLUTION :
70  1  g = (x + y)  13.6  g
70
x y 
13.6
Solving the equations, we get :
x = 0.3 cm, y = 4.8 cm.
Let x = rise of Hg level in broad vessel, If 70 cm water column is poured into broad
y = drop of Hg level in narrow vessel. vessel, then following the same pattern, we get
x A1 = y A2 the equations
16x = y x  16 y and  x  y   13.6  70  1
(because volume displaced will be same)
 x = 4.8 and y = 0.3 cm.

Illustration - 4 In a simple hydraulic press, the cross-sectional area of the two cylinders are 5  104 m2 and
102 m2 respectively. A force of 20 N is applied at the small plunger.
(a) What is the pressure produced in the cylinders ?
(b) What is the thrust exerted on the large plunger ?
(c) How much work is down by the operator if the smaller plunger moves down 0.1 ?
SOLUTION :
 A2 
Hence, the thrust on A2 magnified  A  times
 1
F1 20
(a)  = 40000 N /m2
A1 5  104

 A2   102 
In a hydraulic press, a force F1 applied to the (b) F2  F1    20    400 N
4 
smaller plunger (creates a pressure (F1/A1) in the  A1   5  10 
liquid and this pressure is transmitted equally (c) Work done by F1 = F1 d1 = 20  0.1 = 2 J.
throughout the liquid and acts on the larger Note that the displacement d2 of the large
plunger. The thrust acting on the larger plunger
 A2 
 F1  plunger = d1  
upwards due to this pressure is F2 = A2  A   A1 
 1 The displacement of larger plunger is less.

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ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE Section - 2

Consider an irregularly shaped object at rests with in a fluid. Liquid exerts a thrust on sides of the solid
surface in contact with it due to its pressure. Because the liquid pressure increases with depth the force
exerted by the liquid on the surface of the object is greater for those portions which are more deeply
immersed. In the figure, liquid thrust at point B is greater than that at A. The net effect on the entire body is
an upward or lifting force which is called the buoyant force.
The magnitude of this upward buoyant force (B) is given by Archimedes principle.
B = v g
v = volume occupied by the solid inside the liquid
p = density of the liquid

Archimedes Principle
A body that is partially or entirely submerged in a fluid, feels an upward force equal in magnitude to the
weight of the displaced fluid.

Illustrating the concept :

In the figure, A body is partially dipped in the liquid.
Let v = volume of the liquid displaced.
= space occupied by the body in the liquid
= volume of the shaded portion
 B = v g  : density of liquid

Floating Body :
Whenever the buoyant force on a body equals its weight, the net force acting on the body becomes zero
hence the body floats in equilibrium.
Let a body of total volume V and density d be floating on a liquid of density .
Let v be the volume of the body inside the liquid.
B = mg for a floating body
vg = Vdg  v = Vd

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Note : (i) When a body is in air, the net downward force on it is due to earth’s gravity only.
This net force = mg =Vdg
This force is known as weight of the body.
(ii) When the same body is immersed in a liquid of density  the net downward force on it is :
= mg  B B : buoyant force
= Vdg – Vg
This downward force is also known as apparent weight in the liquid.
(iii) When a body is immersed in a liquid it feels lighter due to buoyant force. Hence the Buoyant force is
also known as loss in weight (= v g)

Illustration - 5 What fraction of an ice berg lies beneath the surface of the sea ? Density of sea water
() = 1.028  10 kg/m3 density of ice (d) = 0.917  103 kg/m3.
3

SOLUTION :
Vdg = vg
v d

V 
d 0.917  103
For floating conditions : 
 1.028  103
weight of the ice berg = buoyant force
v
Let V be the total volume of the ice berg and v = 0.892.
be the volume inside the sea water V
About 89.2% of the iceberg remains inside

Illustration - 6 A plastic sphere floats in water with 0.5 of its volume submerged. This same sphere floats
in oil with 0.4 of its volume submerged. Determine the densities of the oil and the sphere. (Density of water
= 1 gm/cc)

SOLUTION :
In water : In oil :
wt. of the sphere = buoyant force (water) Wt. of the sphere = buoyant force (oil)
Vdg = v w g Vdg = Voil g
40
Vd = V/2 w = Vd  V oil
100
 d = 1/2 g/cc 0.5
oil   oil = 1.25g / cc
0. 4

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Illustration - 7 A piece of an alloy is made up of two metals A and B whose specific gravities are 11.4 and
7.4. The alloy weighs 96 gm in air and loses 10 gms when immersed in water. Find the % composition of the
alloy

SOLUTION :
Let m = mass of metal A (in grams) in the alloy Assuming that alloy piece is fully immersed
96 – m = mass of metal B in the alloy.  m 96  m 
10 g     1.g [dw = 1 g/cc]
Total volume of the piece = VA + VB  11.4 7. 4 

m 96  m Solving for m, we get :

Total volume = 
11.4 7.4 m = 62.7 gm = mass of A
Loss in weight = buoyant force  mass of B = 33.3 gm
% of A = 65.3% and % of B = 34.7%

Illustration - 8 A cubical block of wood 10 cm along each side floats at the interface between an oil and
water with its lowest surface 2 cm below the interface. If the heights of oil and water columns are 10 cm each
and oil = 0.8 g/cc, find :
(a) the mass of the block (b) the liquid pressure at the lower surface of the block

SOLUTION :

m = 640 + 200
m = 840 gm
(b) The pressure at the lower surface of the cube
= Poil + Pw
10 2
(a) For the floating cube : 
100

 0.8  103 9.8  
100

 1  103 9.8 
Weight of cube = buoyant force
N
mg = Boil + Bwater  980
m2
2 2
mg = 8  10  oil g + 2  10 w  g (hoil = 10 cm)
 m = 800  0.8 + 200  1 (hw = 2 cm above the lower surface)

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Illustration - 9 A cube of wood supporting a 200 gm mass just floats is the water. When the mass is
removed the cube rises by 2 cm. What is the size of the cube ?

SOLUTION :

The cube “just floats”  means that it is fully under When the mass is removed
water while floating.
mg = ( – 2) l 2 g . . . .(ii)
Let m be the mass of the cube
Subtracting (ii) from (i)
 (m + 200) g = l3 g . . . .(i)
200 =  [l 3 – (l – 2) l 2]
 l = 10 cm (using  = 1g/cc for water)

Illustration - 10 A glass sphere has a cavity inside it. When placed in water, it floats with 20 % of its volume
above the water surface. Find the volume of the cavity as a fraction of total volume.(density of glass = 2.5
g/cc)

SOLUTION :
Let the total volume of the sphere = Vcc
wt. of the sphere = buoyant force
80
(mass of glass) g  V g
100
80 V
Volume of glass  d =
100
If the volume of the cavity in v cc
then the volume of the glass = (V – v) cc
(V – v) d = 0.8 V
V v
 0.32
V
v
 0.68
V
volume of the cavity is 68% of total volume.

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Illustration - 11 A glass stopper weights 2.5 gm in air, and 1.5 gm in water and 0.7 gm in sulphuric acid.
What is the density of the acid ?

SOLUTION :
Let V be the total volume of the glass stopper dg In acid :
be the density of glass. Let w and a be the Apparent wt. = 0.7 gm
densities of water and acid respectively.
Vdg – Vag = 0.7 g
wt. in air = 2.5 gm . . . . (i)
Vag = 2.5g  0.7 g
In water :
Va g = 1.8 g . . . . (iii)
Apparent wt. = 1.5 gm
Vdg – B = 1.5 g From (ii) and (iii)

Vdg – Vw g = 1.5 g a

 1. 8
w
From (i)
 a = 1.8 g/cc
Vw g = 2.5 g  1.5 g
Vw g = 1 g . . . . (ii)

Illustration - 12 A steel ball of mass 0.25 kg is dropped on the surface of water is tank. If the depths of the
water in the tank is 3 m, find the time after which the ball touches the bottom of the tank. (density of steel =
8.0 g/cc)

SOLUTION :
Let ‘a’ be the acceleration of the ball
mg  B = ma
Vdg Vg = Vda
 
a  1   g
 d
 1
a  1   g
 8
7
Thus a g
8
Using S = ut + 1/2 at2
1 7
30   g t2
2 8
 
48
t t = 0.836 s
7g

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Illustration - 13 A hydrometer consists of a spherical bulb and a cylindrical stem of cross-section 0.4 cm2.
The total volume of bulb and stem is 13.2 cm3. When immersed in water the hydrometer floats with 8 cm of
the stem above the water surface. In alcohol, 1 cm of the stem is above the surface. Find the density of the
alcohol.

SOLUTION :

Let V = total volume of hydrometer = 13.2 cm3

A = area of cross - section of stem = 0.4 cm2
W = weight of hydrometer,
 = density of hydrometer,
1 = density of alcohol

In water :
Weight = buoyant force
W = (V8A) g . . . .(i)
In alcohol :
Weight buoyant force
W = (V – 1A) 1g . . . .(ii)

From (i) and (ii),

(V – 8A)g = (V – 1A)1g

 13.2  3.2 
   1g  1g 1 = 0.781 g/cm3
 13.2  0.4 

Note : In general, if x1 the length of stem above surface in liquid 1 and x2 is the length of stem above the surface in
liquid 2, enter (V – x1A) 1 = (V  x2A)2

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HYDRODYNAMICS Section - 3

Bernoull i’s Theorem

At all the points along a streamline of an ideal liquid (incompressible and non viscous), the sum of pressure
head the gravitational head and the velocity head remains constant.

P v2
  h = constant
 g 2g

Venturi Meter :
This is an instrument for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid and gases [fluids]
The instrument is connected horizontally in the tube in which the rate of flow is to be measured.
If PA is pressure at A and PB is pressure at B
PA – PB = h g
[h : difference of heights of liquids of density  in vertical tubes]
V1 : velocity at A; V2 : velocity at B

Equation of Continuity :
Rate of flow (Q) = (Area of crossection)  (velocity) = Av
For streamline flow at any two points 1 and 2, Q is same.
i.e. Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
(A1 and A2 are area of cross – section at A and B)
This is called equation of continuity.
Now applying Bernoulli’s equation at A and B in two cases (i.e. liquid, gas) separately.

For Liquids :
V2 V2
PA   1  PB   2
2 2
2 2
V22  V12   PA  PB   h g
 
2 2
 V2 – V1 = 2hg (Q = AV)
2hg
 Q  A1 A2
A12  A22

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For Gases :
Let d be the density of gas
PA – PB = hg

V2 V2
PA  d 1  PB  d 2
2 2
2h  g
V22  V12 
d

2h g
Q  A1 A2

d A12  A22 
Pitot Tube :
Pitot tube is used for measure the speed of flow of a fluids.
The cross-section of tube at B is perpendicular to the direction of flow and tube is at rest, so that at B,
velocity of fluid becomes zero, i.e. VB = 0.
Let V be velocity of fluid at A and PA and PB are pressure.
 PB  PA = gh where  is density of liquid in vertical.
For liquids :
If points A and B are in the same horizontal line and area of cross-section is same at A and B , gravitational
head is same and the pressure difference is due to difference is velocity.
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem at A and B.
1
PA  V 2  PB  0
2
2  PB  PA 
V2

2  PB  PA 
V

 2gh

V  2 gh

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For Gases :
Let  be density of liquid in vertical tube
PB  PA = hg
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem at A and B
1
PA  dV 2  PB
2
2  PB  PA 
V2 
d
2h  g
V2 
d
2h  g
V
d

Velocity of Efflux
Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out of a hole at a depth below the liquid surface.
Using Bernoulli’s’ theorem,
1 1
PA  V A2   ghA  PB  VB2   ghB
2 2
1 1
Patm  V A2   gh  Patm  V 2  0
2 2
(Note : PB = Patm, because we have opened the liquid to atmosphere)
V 2 = VA2 + 2 gh
We also have AVA = av (using equation of continuity)
A : area of cross-section of vessel
A : area of hole

a2
 V2  V 2  2 gh
2
A

2 gh
 V  2 gh (if the hole is very small)
1  a 2 / A2

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Illustration - 14 If water flows horizontally through a pipe of varying cross-section and pressure of water
equals 10 cm of Hg at a point where the velocity of flow is 40 cm/s, what is the pressure at another point,
where the velocity of flow is 50 cm/s ?

SOLUTION :
For horizontal pipe, gravitational head is same at [Dhg = 13.6 g/cc]
two points, so using Bernaullis theorem,
V2 = 50 cm/s
P 1V2 P 1 V22 and  = 1 g/cc
h 1  1  h 2 
g 2 g g 2 g
10  13.6  980 1 2 P 1 2
(P1 and P2 : Pressure at two points. V1 and V2 :    40   2   50 
1 2 1 2
Velocities of water at two points)
P2 = 1.328  105 dynes/cm2
P1 1 2 P2 1 2 P2 = 9.97 cm of Hg
 V1   V2
 2  2
P1 = 10  13.6  980 CGS units

Illustration - 15 A pipe is running full of water. At a certain point A it tapers from 60 cm diameter to 2.0 cm
diameter at B. The pressure difference between A and B is 100 cm of water column. Find the rate of water
through the pipe.

SOLUTION :

Using the formula :

2  PA  PB 
Q  A1 A2
 A12  A22 
Diameter of tube of A = 60 cm Substitute the values
radius at A = rA = 30 cm 2  100  1  980 
Q = (900) (100)
radius at B = rB = 10 cm
area of cross-section at A =  (30)2 cm2 = A1
9002  2 1002  2 
area of cross-section at B =  (10)2 cm2 = A2 Q = 4.42 m2/s
PA  PB  100 cm of H2O
= 100  1  980 dynes/cm2

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Illustration - 16 A pilot tube is fixed in a water pipe of diameter 10 cm, and difference of pressure by the
gauge is 9.8 cm of water column. Calculate the rate of flow of water.

SOLUTION :
In pilot tube, velocity of liquids is given by 2gh Q = Av = r2v
= 3.14  52  138.6
V  2  980  9.8
= 10.88 lt/s
= 138.6 cm/s

Illustration - 17 Water is used as the manometeric liquid in a pilot tube mounted in aircraft to measure air
speed. If the maximum difference in height between the liquid columns is 0.1 m, what is the maximum airspeed
that can be measured ? ddir = 1.3 kg/m3

SOLUTION :
For gases, velocity is given by

2h g 2  0.1  1000  9.8

v   38.83 m / s
d 1.3

Illustration - 18 Water stands at depth H in a tank whose sides are vertical. A

hole is made in one of the walls at a depth h, below the water surface.
Calculate :
(i) range of emerging stream
(ii) value of h for which this range is maximum.

SOLUTION :
(i) When liquid stream emerges out of the hole, it (ii) From previous part,
goes along a parabolic path. So time taken by Horizontal range
water to fall through a height of (H – h) is given
R  4h  H  h 
as :

 H  h  0  t 
1 2
gt  4hH  4 h 2  H 2  H 2
2 2
 H 2   2h  H 
2 H  h
t For the range to be maximum,
g
Horizontal range = V  t (2h – H)2 = 0

2 H  h 2h – H = 0
 2 gh  4h  H  h  h = H/2
g

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Illustration - 19 A vessel contains water upto a height H.A small hole is made in the side wall at a depth h
below the water level. Find :
(a) The value of h for which the water jet coming out hits the ground at a maximum distance from the
vessel.
(b) The reaction force exerted on the vessel by the water jet.

SOLUTION :

(a) Velocity of efflux at a depth h below the free surface

= V  2 gh

2  H  h
range = R = vt  v
g
 
4 Hh  h 2 
Hh – h2 is maximum for h = H/2
(b) Momentum of water coming out per sec.
= reaction (back) force on vessel

P m
 F  v   A v   v = av2  = 2 Agh
t t
Illustration - 20 Water flows out of a big tank along a tube bent at right angles;
the inside of the tube is of radius r = 0.5 cm. The length of the horizontal portion is
l = 22 cm. The water flows rate is Q = 0.5 lt/sec.
Find the moment of reaction force of flowing water, acting on the tubes walls
relative to the point O.

SOLUTION :

Velocity of flow V  Q Torque about O = Fl

 r2
Reaction force = Av2  Q2
=  0.7 Nm
2 2  r2
 Q  Q
 F   r2    
2
r   r2

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SURFACE TENSION Section - 4

Angle of Contact :
If a plate of glass is dipped in water with its side vertical, then water is drawn up along the plane and assumes
the curved shape as shown.

If the glass plate is immersed in mercury, the surface is curved and the mercury is depressed below.
If the plate is dipped in water with its side vertical, the water is drawn-up along the plane and assumes the
curved shape as shown.
The angle between the tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface
inside the liquid is called the “angle of contact”.
When a capillary tube is put inside a liquid :
When a glass tube is put in water, then forces acting upon a mol-
ecule A of the liquid have been shown in diagram.
Fa : adhesive force between solid and liquid
Fc : cohesive force between liquid molecules
( may be taken at 45 with wall of tube)

Case - I :
Fa = Fc sin 45
The resultant is drawn downwards and the surface will be plane.

Case - II :
Fa > Fc sin 45 resultant R lies outside the liquid.
The liquid surface being perpendicular to R is concave.
(e.g. H2O)

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Case - III :
Fa < Fc sin 45, resultant R lies inside the liquid.
The liquid surface, being perpendicular to R is convex.
(e.g. Hg)

Pressure Difference across a liquid surface :

Due to surface tension, pressure difference exists on the two sides of a liquid surface.

If surface is plane If surface is concave If surface in convex

P1 = P2 P1 > P2 P1 < P2
Pressure difference = 0
Note : Whenever we cross a convex surface (from convex to concave side),
2
we get a rise of pressure equal to .
r
P3 > P2 > P1
2
P3 – P2=
r
2 4
P2  P1   P3  p1 
r r

2
 excess pressure across the liquid surface (ONE SURFACE) =
r
where r : radius of curvature of surface
 : surface tension of liquid.

 for a soap bubble, there are two surfaces

4
 excess pressure (p) =
r

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Capillarity :
When an open capillary (glass tube of very small diameter) is put
into a liquid, liquid either rises or falls.

Reason : When the liquid comes is contact with solid, surface

tension forces make the surface curved. The pressure outside is
atmospheric whereas the pressure just below the curved surface of
liquid is larger (for convex surfaces) orsmaller (for concave surfaces)
than atmospheric. Thus liquid falls (convex surface) or rises (concave
surface) till the pressure is equalised.

 If a capillary of radius R be immersed in a liquid of surface tension , the liquid rises (or falls) to height
(or depth) h.
If r : radius of curvature of meniscus ,  : density of liquid and Patm atmospheric pressure.
PA = PB (in same horizontal line)

2
Patm   h g  Patm
r

2σ
 h=
r ρg

In terms of R (radius of tube)

C : centre of curvature of meniscus
 : angle of contact

R
 r 
cos 

2σ
h=
r ρg

2  cos 
 h
R g

Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :

If the actual height to which a liquid will rise in a capillary tube is ‘h’ then a
capillary tube of length less than ‘h’ can be called a tube of “insufficient length”.

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In such a case, liquid rises to the top of the capillary tube of length  ( < h)
and adjusts the radius of curvature of its meniscus until the excess pressure is
equalised by the pressure of liquid column of length . (Note liquid does not
overflow)
2σ
 =g . . . . .(i)
r
r: new radius of curvature
If r were the actual radius of curvature,
2σ
 =hg . . . . .(ii)
r
Comparing (i) and (ii)

2
 g = r = hr   r = h r


hr
 r  i.e. radius of curvature r can be calculated.


Note : In case of mercury, calculations are same.

Illustration - 21 Calculate the work done in blowing a soap bubble of radius 10 cm, surface tension being
0.03 N/m. What additional work will be performed in further blowing it so that its radius is doubled ?

SOLUTION :
In forming bubble, a free surface is created and therefore work has to be done. The free surface area of a
bubble of radius r is (2  4 r2) : twice due to two free surfaces.
 Work done is blowing a bubble of radius r ;
W1 = (8   r2)  ( : surface tension)
= 8    (0.1)2  0.03
= 7.45  10 3 N/m
 Work done is forming a bubble of radius 20 cm ;
W2 = 8    (0.2)2  0.03
= 30.16  103 N-m
 Addition work = W2  W1 = 22.62  10 3 N-m

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Illustration - 22 Find the work done in spraying a spherical drop of 1 mm radius into 106 droplets of equal
size, of water = 0.072 N/m.

SOLUTION :
1 drop  106 small drops  Increase in surface area
 there will be an increase in surface area = 4 (106. r2  R2 )
Work done =   increase in surface area
= 4 [106  (10 5)2  (10 3 )2 ]
If r be radius of one drops (small) and R be the
radius of bigger drop = 3.96  10 4  m2.
4 4   Work done =   (3.96  10 4) 
  R 3    r 3   106
3  3 
= 0.072  3.96  10– 4  3.14
R3 10 3 3
 r3   = 1015 = 8.96  10– 5 J.
106 106
 r = 10 5 m.

Illustration - 23 Find the difference in air pressure between inside and outside of a soap bubble 5 mm in
diameter.  (soap solution) = 1.6 N/m.

SOLUTION :
4
Excess Pressure (P) = for soap bubble
r
4  1.6
 P=5 = 2560 N/m2
 10 3
2

Illustration - 24 The pressure of air in a soap bubble of diameter 0.7 cm is 8 mm of water above atm.
Calculate the surface tension of soap solution.

SOLUTION :
P = (8  10 3)  (1  103) (9.8) N/m2. [P = hdg]
4 Pr
Excess pressure P =  σ =
r 4

  =
8  10 3  1  103   9.8  0.7


 102 
4  2 
= 0.0686 N/m.

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Illustration - 25 What would be the pressure inside a small air bubble of 104 m radius situated just below
water surface ?  water = 0.072 N/m ; 1atm = 1.013  105 N/m2.

SOLUTION :
Excess pressure in air bubble

2 2  0.072
=  = 1440 N/m2
r 10 4
As bubble is just below water, so total pressure inside the bubble
= 1440 + atm. pressure
= 1440 + 1.013  105 = 102740 N/m2

Illustration - 26 What is the pressure inside a vapour bubble of radius 10 3m in boiling water ?  water at
100C = 0.059 N/m.1 atm. pressure = 1.01325 105 N/m2.

SOLUTION :
Proceeding in same manner as done is last example.
As bubble is in boiling water, external pressure on it will be equal so atmospheric pressure.
 Pressure in vapour bubble
2
= + Patm
r
2  0.059
= + 101325 = 101443 N/m2
10 3

Illustration - 27 A ring is cut from a platinum tube 8.5 cm internal and 8.7 cm external diameter supported
horizontally from the pan of a balance so that it comes in contact with water in a glass vessel. It is found that
an extra weight of 3.97 gm is required to pull the ring out of water. Find  of water.

SOLUTION :
As force of surface tension acts along the length force of surface tension = extra weight
so,
L =W
 8.5 8.7 
L = 2    = 2 (8.6) cm.  (2 (8.6)   = 3.97  981)
 2 2 
CGS units

  = 0.72 N/m.

[converted to SI units]

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Illustration - 28 A soap film is formed on a rectangular frame of length 7 cm dipped into soap solution. The
frame work hangs from a balance and an extra weight of 0.4 gm is placed to balance the pull of the film. Find
the surface tension.

SOLUTION :
 Force of surface tension =  L
  L = extra weight in the par
 2 L = W

W 0.4  981
 =  = 28 dynes/cm
2L 72
Length of soap film = Length of frame = L
= 0.028 Nm–1.

Illustration - 29 If a number of little drops of water, all of same radius r cm, coalesce to form a single
3 1 1 
drop of radius R cm, show that the rise in temperature of water will be given by    . J = me-
J r R
chanical equivalent of heat.

SOLUTION :

Let there are n number of drops. 
= 4   n r 2  R 2 J
The decrease in surface area = 4 [nr2  R2]
3  n r 2 1
  = J  3  R
 Work done =  4   n r 2  R 2     R 
4 4
4 Find n. n .   r 3    R3

J
 nr 2  R2   m s  (Using W = JH) 3 3
3
R
4 2   n 
m =   R .   ; s =1 for water ; r
3 
 = 1 for water. 3  R3  r 2  1  3 1 1 
 =  3  3     r  R 
4  J r  R  R J
3
   R . 
3 

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Illustration - 30 Two spherical soap bubbles unite to form one spherical soap bubble without any leak-
age of air. Show that : 3Pdv + 4ds = 0.P : atmospheric pressure ; dv and ds are the resulting change in
volume and surface area respectively and  is surface tension.

SOLUTION :
r1 and r2 = radii of soap bubbles ;  4   4 3   4   4 3 
  P     r1    P    r 
 r1   3   r2   3 2 
R = radius of big bubble
 4   4 3
P1 and P2 = pressures in side the two bubbles  P    R 
 R  3 
4 4
P1 = P + r ; P2 = P + r 4 4 4 
1 2  P   r13   r23   R3 
3 3 3 
4
P3 = pressure inside new bubble = P +
R 4
  4 r12  4 r22  4 R 2  = 0
4 4 3
V1   r13 ; V2   r23 ;
3 3  Pdv + (4/3)  ds = 0
4 3 4 [dv = change in volume and ds
V3   r3   R 3
3 3 = change in surface area]
 3 Pdv + 4 ds = 0
At constant temperature, Boyle’s Law is applied.
 P1V1 + P2V2 = P3V3

Illustration - 31 Water rises to a height of 10 cm in a certain capillary tube. In the same tube, the level of
Hg is depressed by 3.42 cm. find the ratio of surface tensions of water and Hg. The angle of contact for water
is zero and that for Hg is 135.

SOLUTION :
10
2 cos  1
Rise (or depression) in height = h = r  g 1   1 
  cos 135  
3.42  2
r gh 13.6 
  cos 135
2 cos 
1 h1 (For depression h2 =  3.42 cm)
1 cos 1 1
    0.1522
2 2 h2 2
cos  2

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Illustration - 32 A glass tube of 1 mm diameter bore is dipped with its lower end 2 cm below the surface of
mercury. What must be the gauge pressure of air to blow a hemispherical bubble at its lower end ? ( for Hg
= 0.49 N/m.)

SOLUTION :
2
 Pair  = Patm + h g
r
2
 Pair for bubble = Patm + hg +
r
 Gauge pressure of air required
= Pair  Patm
 2 
Going to point A from inside the tube, =  Patm  h  g    Patm
 r 
2 2
PA = Pair  = h g 
r r
2  0.49 
Going to point A from inside the mercury, =  2  102  13.6  103  9.8 
0.5  103
PA = Patm + hg
= 4625.6 N/m2

Illustration - 33 A glass vessel has a minute hole of diameter 0.1 mm at the bottom. What is the maximum
depth of water which the vessel can hold without leakage.( = 72 dynes/cm)

SOLUTION :

2
PA + h g  = PB
r
But PA = PB = Patm
2σ
Hence hρg=
r
Starting from A and moving downwards to B, 2
 h= = 29.4 cm
while adding algebraically the pressure changes, r g
we get :

Note : When we cross a meniscus from concave to convex side, a pressure drop of 2/r occurs (and vice-versa).

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Illustration - 34 What is the maximum height of water column which a capillary of diameter 2r can hold
without leaking ? The capillary is open at both ends.

SOLUTION :
When water is filled in the open capillary, two
meniscuses are formed one at top and the other
at bottom end. Again going from A to B and
adding pressure changes, we get :
2 2
PA   h g  = PB
r r
and PA = PB = Patm.
2 2
 h g  
r r

4
 h
r g

Illustration - 35
A U - tube is such that the diameter of one of the limbs is 0.4 mm and that of the other is
0.8 mm.
(a) Find the pressure just below the meniscus in both limbs.
(b) Compute in which limb the level of liquid would be higher and
by how much if the liquid density in 103 kg/m3. for water,  = 0.07 N/m

SOLUTION :
 more liquid goes to B (low pressure) and
hence level is higher in B (i.e. narrow
limb)
Equating pressures at bottom of each limb,

2 2
Patm   h1  g  Patm   h2  g
r1 r2
2 2  0.07  1 1
PA  Patm   Patm    h2  h1   g  2   
r1 0.8  103  r2 r1 
2 2  0.07  2  1 1 
PB  Patm   Patm   h2 h1=level difference =   
r2 0.4  103  g  r2 r1 
PA > PB (Note that if liquid is Hg i.e. convex menis-
cus, level is higher in wider limb)

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Illustration - 36 Two soap bubbles (radii a, b) combine to form a single bubble of radius r. If external

p  r 3  a 3  b3 
pressure is p0, show that   0   . (Assume isothermal process)
4  a 2  b2  r 2 

SOLUTION :
P1V1 + P2V2 = PV

 4  4 3  4 4 3  4  4 3
  P0    a   P0    b   P0   r
 a  3  b 3  r  3

VISCOSITY Section - 5

The property by virtue of which a liquid opposes relative motion between its different layers is called
viscosity.
 The resistive viscous force exerted by the liquid is given by :
dv
F   A
dx
Where  : coefficient of viscosity (eta)

dv
: velocity gradient; [] = ML1 T–1 Units of  = poise (CGS) = Nm–2s (SI)
dx
A : area of layer
  is defined as tangential force (viscous) per unit area acting between layers of liquid is which unit
velocity gradient is maintained.
 1 Poise is the tangential force per unit area offered by a liquid layer to create a unit velocity gradient.

Steady flow :
When liquid velocity at any point is constant is magnitude and direction at all times, the motion of the liquid
is said to be steady.
 Every particle of a steadily flowing liquid follows exactly the same
path that has been followed by the particles preceding it, the flow is
said to be stream-lined. The path is known as a “stream line”.
 1, 2, 3 : streamline ; if a liquid follows a path ABC, particles follow-
ing it move along the same path.

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Turbulent flow :
When the velocity exceeds a certain value, the nature of flow becomes
complicated. Random, irregular, local circular currents (called
VORTICES) develop throughout the fluid. The resistance to the flow
increases tremendously. This type of flow is called Turbulent flow.
Reynold Number
VD
NR 

 : coefficient of viscosity
NR : Reynold Number
 : density of liquid
D : diameter of tube
V : Velocity of liquid
 If NR > 3000, flow is said a be turbulent
 If 2000 < NR < 3000, flow is streamlined.
 If NR < 2000, flow is called laminas flow
 In non-viscous liquids, velocities of all layers are equal.

 In viscous fluids, if the velocities are not too large, flow is laminar. The layers at the centre have
maximum velocity. Layers is contact with tube have minimum velocity (zero)

Poisseuille’s Formula
In a horizontal pipe of uniform cross sectional area, to maintain the flow of a various liquid, a pressure
difference is required across the ends of the tube. The liquid flow is given by :

 P1  P2  r 4
Q
8 

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Stoke’s Law
The viscous force on a sphere of radius r, velocity, v through a liquid having coefficient of viscosity  is
called Stoke’s Force and its magnitude is given by F = 6  rv .
 The terminal velocity v of the sphere (when sphere is moving down with zero acceleration) is given
2 r2
by v  d    g
9
where d : density of material of sphere and  : density of fluid.

Illustration - 37
A square metallic plate having 5 cm length is placed on a layer of oil having a thickness of
0.1 cm. Calculate the value of the tangential force required to move the plate with a velocity of 5 cm/s.The
coefficient of viscosity  is 0.8 N-s/m2 (MKS units).

SOLUTION :
The force required to move the plate is equal to dv relative velocity of plate
Here, 
the viscous drag on the plate : dx thickness of oil layer
dv
F =  A 5  102
dx
= = 0.5 per sec
“ve sign for viscous drag” 0.1  102
dv
= velocity gradient A = (side)2 = (5  10 2)2
dx
A = area of surface  F =  0.8  (5  10 2)2  50
=  1  10 1 N
 Viscous drag is 1  10 1 N

Illustration - 38 In a certain to study the flow of liquid out of a capillary, following data were obtained :
Volume of liquid coming out of tube per sec = 15 cc ; head of liquid (h) = 30 cm ; length of tube = 25 cm ;
radius of tube = 1.0 mm, density of liquid = 2.3 g/ml. Find the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid flowing in
the tube.

SOLUTION :
The purpose of example is to explain ‘Poiseuille’s r = 1 mm = 0.1 cm ;  = 25 cm ;
formula’ for liquid flow. V = 15 mL ; t = 1 min. = 60 sec.
 p r 4t
  3.14  30  2.3  980   0.14  60 
8v   
8  15  25
P = hdg = 30  2.3  980 (CGS units)  = 0.4247 CGS units.

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Illustration - 39 Water flows in a horizontal tube of length 13.6 cm and radius 0.1 mm. The pressure
difference between the two ends of the tube is balanced by 10 cm of Hg column. dhg = 13.6  103 kg/m3, 
(water) = 0.1 MKS units, find the volume of water flowing out of the tube in l min

SOLUTION :
P = 0.1  13.6  103  9.81  P r 4t  P r4t
   V 
8V  8 
r = 1  10 4 m ; t = 60 sec.
Substitute the values to find V = 23.10  10 10
 = 0.136 m ; V = ?
m3

Illustration - 40 Find the terminal velocity obtained by a rain drop of radius 3 mm falling through air of
viscosity. 8  10 8 S.I Units . Neglect density of air.

SOLUTION :
Stoke’s Law is applied here. w = 1  103 kg/m3.

4 3 2 r2
6   r v =  r     g  v g
3 9
2
Neglecting “”
=

2 310
3

1 103  9.8 
 = 1.8  10 8 ; r = 3 mm 9 1.8  108
= 3  10 3 m = 1.088  106 m/s.

Illustration - 41 Find the terminal velocity of steel ball, 2 mm in diameter, falling through glycerine
(glycerine = 1.3 g/cc) steel = 8.3 g/cc, (glycerine) = 8.3 poise

SOLUTION :
2 2   
v gr  
9   

(  ) = (8.3  1.3) = 7
 = 8.3
r = 0.1 cm
2
2 980   0.1  7
 v 
9 8.3
= 1.83 cm/s.

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Illustration - 42 An air bubble of radius 1 cm rises steadily through water of density 1 g/cc at the rate of 0.2
cm/s. Calculate the coefficient of viscosity of water. (Neglect the density of air) [ g = 981 cm/s2]

SOLUTION :
2       = neglected.
 g r2  
9  v  r = 1 cm.
 = 1 g/cc
2 981  1
   
9 0.2
= 1.09  103 poise.
Illustration - 43 Two drops of water of the same size are falling through air with terminal velocities of 10
cm/s. If the two drops combine to form a single drop, what will be the terminal velocity ?

SOLUTION :
Volume of new drop = vol. of two drops.
4 4
3
 R3  2   r 3
3
  R : radius of new drop

r : radii of each small drop

 R3 = 2r3 . . . . .(i)

Each drop acquires a velocity equal to its terminal velocity, when viscous force (6 rv) acting on it
equals its effective wt. let V and v be the velocities of new and old drops respectively
6  rv = 4/3 r 3 (   ) g . . . . .(ii)
6RV = 4/3 R3 (   ) g . . . . .(iii)

RV R3
 
r r3

RV
 2 [From equation (i)]
r
V 2
   22 / 3
 21/ 3

 V = 22/3 : v = 22/3  10 = 15.9 cm/s.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-C BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 Find the net downward thrust on the curved surface of a bucket full of water of height h
and radii a and b.

SOLUTION :
Consider an element of ht. dx. at depth x below surface.

Area = 2  r (AB)
dx  ba 
 2 r  where tan   
cos   h 

 b  a 
AD  BC  2r  2 b    x
  h  

thrust  F   dF sin 

h
2 r
 x g dx sin 
cos 
0

 bh 2  b  a  h3 
 2 tan      g
 2  h  3 

b  2a
 2 gh b  a 
6

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Example - 2 The figure shows a cross-sectional view of a

masonry dam whose length perpendicular to the diagram in 30
m. The depth of water behind the dam is 10 m, The masonry of
which the dam is constructed has a density of 3000 kg/m3.
(a) Find the dimensions x and 2x if the weight of the dam is
to be 10 times the horizontal force exerted on it by water.
(b) Check the stability of the dam with respect to its
overturning about the edge through point O.

SOLUTION :
(a) Weight of dam = volume  density Anticlockwise torque exerted by weight of dam
1   11  11
=   x  2 x 12  30  3000 kg  W  x   162  162 104  x 2 g
2  9  9
= 1620000  kgf = 169.78  106 g
Horizontal thrust due to water in kgf Clockwise torque due to liquid thrust about O,
(on a vertical surface) = pressure at G  area
o    dF 10  x 
1 3
=  10  g  10  (30  10) 10
2
= 15  106 kgf.    x  g  30dx 10  x 
According to problem, 0

1620000 x = (15  106)

 x = 9.26 m and 2x = 18.52 m.
(b) Let G be the centre of gravity of dam. Taking O
as origin and left as + X-axis,
A x A x
x 1 1 2 2 10
A1  A2 x3
 30  g 5 x 2 
3x 2x 3
12 x   6 x  0
x 2 3  11 x
12 x  6 x 9 = 5000 g
= 5  106 g
As the torque due to liquid thrust is less than
that due to weight of dam, the dam is stable.

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Example - 3 A rod of length 6m has a mass of 12kg. It is hinged at one end of the rod at a distance of
3m below the water surface.
(a) What must be the weight (Point mass) of a block that is attached to the other end of the rod so that 5
m of the rod’s length is under water ?
(b) Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the hinge on the rod. The specific gravity of
the material of rod is 0.5.

SOLUTION :

(5A) g (2.5) = (6A) dg (3) + W (6)

6W
103 (5  1  2.5) = 103 (6  0.5  3) +
Ag

mass of rod = 12 kg = (6A) 0.5  103

4m2
 A
Let w = weight attached at the end Q. 1000
X, Y = components of force exerted by hinge P 3.5  4  9.8
 W
on the rod. 6
= 2.33  9.8
B = buoyant force acting at the centre of
buoyancy B0 (mid point of submerged portion) = 22.83 N (or 2.33 kg)
G = weight of rod, acting at centre of gravity G0 Y=G+WB
( = angle of rod with vertical) = (6A dg) + 2.33g  (5A g)
=  5.66 g
Balancing forces :
 The horizontal component of force by
B + Y = G + W and X = 0 hinge = X = 0 and vertical component
Balancing torque about P = 5.66 kg acting downwards.
B sin  (PB0) = G sin  (PG0) + W sin  (PQ)
B sin  (2.5) = G sin (3) + W sin  (6)

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Example - 4 A horizontally oriented tube AB of length l rotates with a

consant angular velocity  about a stationary vertical axis passing through the
end A. The tube is filled with an ideal liquid and the end a is open. Find the
pressure just inside the tube at B as function of the length of liquid column h.

SOLUTION :
Pressure force = ( A dx) 2 x
PB l
 dp  A     A 2 xdx
PO l h

Consider element of length dx at distance x from  2  2

PB  P0  l  (l  h)2  [ P0  Patm ]
centre. Let p and P + dp be the pressures at its 2  
left and sides.
This is the pressure just inside the tube at B.

Example - 5 A cylinder containing water is rotated about its vertical axis with a constant angular
velocity . Find.
(a) the water pressure distribution over the bottom of the vessel along its radius provided the pressure at
the central point is P0.
(b) the shape of the surface of water.

SOLUTION :
dp = x2dx
P r

 dp    dx
P0 0
P = P0 + 1/2 2r2
(b) We can see that pressure at a distance r from
axis at a point A is : P = P0 + y g
(a) Consider a cylindrical shall of radius x and where y is height of free surface of liquid above
thickness dx as shown. Let P and P + dP be the pt. A
pressure on the inner and outer surfaces of this
element. 2 2
 P0 + yg = P0 + 1/2 2x2  y  x
Let A = c.s. area of element 2g
= 2xh (h : hight) which is the equation of parabola will vertex at
pressure force inwards = (dp)A O. Hence free surface of liquid is a parabola or
= centripetal force requird strictly speaking it is the paraboloid of revolution
(dp) A = (dm)2 x (surface generated by rotating a parabola around
(dp) A = (Adx) 2x its axis).

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Example - 6 A cylindrical vessel of area of cross-section A is filled with a liquid upto a height H. A very
small hole of area of cross-section a is made at the bottom of vessel. Find the time taken by the vessel to
become empty.

SOLUTION :
At the hole, volume escaping per sec.
 av  a 2 gy
dy
The liquid expanse with a velocity  2gh   2 gy   A
dt
which varies with the level of liquid. Hence we 0 t
have to use integral. Let y be the height of the dy a 2 g
liquid at an instant.
  y  A  dt
H 0
This height changes by dy in time dt. A
 t 2 H (assuming a  A )
Volume per second leaving out = –Ady/dt a 2g

Example - 7 A wide vessel with a small hole in the bottom is filled with water and kerosene. Find the
velocity of water flow if the thickness of water layer is h1 =30 cm and kerosene is h2 = 20 cm.

SOLUTION :

1
1 V12  Patm  0 =
2
1
1 V22  Patm   h2  2 g  h11g 
2
and av1 = Av2
Let A = area of the vessel
1  a2   h  
a = area of the hole  1 V12 1     h1  2 2  1g
Apply Bernoulli’s theorem at cross-section
2  A2   1 

1 and 2
 h  
(Just outside and just inside the Hole)  v1 ~ 2 g  h1  2 2 
 1 

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Example - 8 The side wall of wise vertical of height h = 75 cm has a narrow slit (vertical) running all
the way down to the bottom of the vessel. The length of the slit is l = 50 cm and width is b = 1 mm with the slit
closed water is filled to the top. Find the resultant reaction force of water coming out as the slit is opened.

SOLUTION :

Total relation force =  dF

h
=  2 g  b  x dx 
h
Let us consider an infinitesimal portion of length
dx of the slit at depth x below water level. 2 g b  2 2
= h  l  h 
Reaction force due to this portion 2  
= dF = Av2 = (bdx) 2gx  = g bl (2h – )

Illustration - 9 A horizontally oriented tube AB of length l rotates

with a constant angular velocity about a stationary vertical axis O1
O2 passing through the end A. The tube is filled with an ideal fluid.
The end A is open and end B has a very small hole. Find the velocity
of the fluid from hole as a function of the length of liquid column h.

SOLUTION :
We apply Bernoulli’s theorem taking two points-
one just inside the end B and other just outside
the end B.

1 2

B
From Example - 4 1 2 1
 v1  P1   v22  P2
2  2 2 2
2
PB  P0  P l   l  h   [P0 = Patm] where P1 = PB and P2 = P0 and av2 = Av1
2  
This is the pressure inside the tube at B. 1
The pressure just outside the tube at B, (in the

2
 
 v22  v12  P1  P2

liquid jet) is P0
1 2 a2  2
2
 v2 1 



A 
2 2
2hl  h2  
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1 2 dh

2
 v22  
2

2hl  h 2  A
dt
 a 2hl  h 2

t 0
 V22 2
  (2 hl  h ) 2  Adh
  dt  
0 h a 2hl  h 2
V2   2hl  h 2 Note that ‘h’ decreases with time.
Time required to empty the tube can also be
calculated

Example - 10 A horizontal cylinder of length l contains water. On the

left a constant force F pushed on the piston and on the right there is a small
hole of area a. What is the velocity of the piston ? Hence calculate the work
done in emptying the vessel in time t.

SOLUTION :

Let A = area of piston and v1 be its velocity

 F  1 2 1 2
  P0    v1  P0   v2
A  2 2

Av1 = a V2

F 1  A2 
  v12  1  
A 2  a 2 

F v12 A2

A 2 a2

2Fa 2
V1 
A3 
Now work done = F (distance) = F
 V 2 A3 
W  1 l
 2a 2 
 

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Example - 11 Two separate soap bubbles (radii = 0.002 m and 0.004 m) formed of same liquid ( = 0.07
N/m) come together to form a double bubble. Find the radius and the sense of curvature of the internal film
surface common to both the bubbles.

SOLUTION :
 P = P1  P2

4 4 4
 
r r1 r2

rr 0.002  0.004
r = radius of curvature of joint commons surface r 1 2   0.004 m
r1 and r2 be two radii (see figure on next page) r2  r1  0.004  0.002 
4 So radius of internal film surface = 0.004 m.
P1 = r
1 As the excess pressure always acts towards the
4 concave surface and the pressure in the smaller
P2 = r bubble (of radius r1) is greater than the pressure
2
in the larger bubble (of radius r2), therefore the
4
Pressure different = P = r common joint surface will be “CONCAVE”
towards the centre of the smaller bubble.
(r : radius of new curvature)

Example - 12 A fine rubber band which is in its un-stretched condition forms a circle of diameter 7.5 cm
is dropped on a soap film formed over a wire frame. When the film inside the band is broken, it stretches into
a circle of diameter 8.1 cm. If the band when cut and used as a single strand can be stretched to double its
length by a 3 gm wt, calculate the surface tension of soap film.

SOLUTION :

Elongation produced by the forces of surface

tension =  (8.1)   (7.5) cm.
 Tension in the band
3  981
= (8.1  7.5) 7.5 
K = equivalent spring constant for band i.e. force
2
3  981 T   3  981 dynes.
per unit elongation =  7.5 dynes/cm. 25
 

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By force diagram of a very small element of length (twice because film is pulling from two sides)
r d, 2
 2 r   3  981
T d = 2 (r d) 25

 T=2r 1 2 1
     3  981  dynes/cm
2 25 4.05
where  = surface tension
= 29.066 dynes/cm

Example - 13 Calculate the force required to separate two glass plates of area 0.01 m2 with film of
water 0.0 5 mm thick between them. Given : = 0.07 N/m. (Assume angle of contact is zero)

SOLUTION :
General relation :

If the radii of curvature along two mutually per-

pendicular directions are r1 and r2 then :
Pressure inside the liquid film = 1 1
p =     (concave radii are taken
   r1 r2 
Patm   Patm 
r d/2 ve)
Attractive force due to low pressure in liquid For this situation,
1 1   2
   p =      (ve means
= (p) A =   A  R d / 2  d
d / 2
these is a pressure drop inside the liquid).
 Attractive force between plates
(ii) Hence for a cylindrical surface,
2  A 2  0.07   0.01
= d   28 N
0.05  103
1 1
Note : (i) For the liquid film between the plates, the  p    
 r1 r2 
2 
pressure difference is not but 1 1  
r 2     
r  r
because it is not spherical.

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Example - 14 Two identical vessels with their bases at same level, each contains a liquid of density  .
The height of liquid in one vessel is h1 and that in the other is h2. The area at either base in A. What is the work
down by gravity is equalising the levels when the two vessels are connected ?

SOLUTION :
Let h be the level of liquid in the two vessels h1  h2
h
after being connected. In the initial position. i.e., 2
before connecting the two vessels, the sum of 2
h  h 
potential energy of the liquids in two vessels will  U 2  A g  1 2 
 2 
be given by :
A g  2 2
U1 = (Ah1 g  h1/2) + (A h2 g  h2/2)   h1  h2  2 h1h2 
4  

A g  2 2  Work done by gravity = U1  U2

U1 = h1  h2 
2  

Potential energy of the liquid, when levels are A g  2

2 h  2 h22  h12  h22  2h1h2 
equal 4  1 
A g
 h  h 2
U 2 =  A h  g     Ah  g    A  h g
=  h1  h2 2
2  2 4


Example - 15 Three capillaries of same length but internal radii 3r, 4r, 5r are connected in series and a
liquid flows through them in stream line condition. If the pressure difference across the third capillary is 8.1
mm, calculate the pressure difference across the first capillary.

SOLUTION :
4
By poiseuille’s formula  p2 r2 4   2  4r 
Q2  
8  8 
 p r4
Q 4
8v   p3 r34  3  5r 
Q3  
Let us express the volumes of liquid flowing 8  8 
through three capillaries.
Since the capillaries are connected in series, the
4
 p1 r14  1  3r  volume of liquid flowing through the three
Q1  
8  8  capillaries in same,
 V1 = V2 = V3
4 4 4
 1  3r    2  4r   3  5r 
  
8  8  8 

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 P1  81 r4 = P2  256 r4 = P3  625 r4  625 

 P1 = 8.1 
 81 
P  625 r 4 625 (P3 = 8.1 mm given)
 P1 = 3  P3 .
81 r 4 81
 P1 = 62.5 mm.

Example - 16 A conical glass capillary tube A of length 0.1 m has diameters 103 m and 5  10-4 m at
the ends. When it is just immersed in a liquid at 0C with larger diameter in contact with it, the liquid rises
to 8  10-2 m in the tube. In another cylindrical glass capillary tube B, when immersed in the same liquid at
0C, the liquid rises to 6  102 m height. The rise of liquid is tube B is only 5.5  102 m when the liquid is
at 50C. Find the rate at which the surface tension changes with temperature considering the change to be
linear. The density of the liquid is 0.72  109 mg/m3 and the angle of contact is zero. Effect of temperature
on the density of liquid and glass is negligible.

SOLUTION :
In Tube A, In Tube B
Radius at height 8 cm (r) 0 6  1012 12
 
 12
0.5  0.25  50 5.5  10 11
= (0  5  103 )   103  0.8
0.1 11 11
 103   50   0  0.084   0.077 N / m.
12 12
[Using similar triangles concept] Now rate of change of surface tension with
temperature = P
r = 0.3  10–3 m
 50   0 0.077  0.084
  per K
2 0  g hr ΔT 50
  gh or  0 
r 2
   14  105
0.72  10  9.8  0.08  0.3  103  Surface tension of liquid decreases
=
2 linearly by 14  10-5 N/m per K rise of
temperature.

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Example - 17 A glass capillary sealed at the upper end is of length 0.11 m and internal diameter
2  105 m. The tube is immersed vertically into a liquid of surface tension 5.06  102 N/m. To what length
the capillary has to be immersed so that the liquid level inside the capillary is same as outside. What happens
if the seal is now broken ?

SOLUTION :
Let capillary of tube length ‘L’ is immersed in the liquid upto length ‘‘ .
Now, the levels of liquid inside and outside the capillary will become equal only when.
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = initial pressure in the capillary = Patm
P2 = final pressure in the capillary = gas pressure
V1 = initial volume = A  L
V2 = final volume = (L  ) A

Now P1 = Patm
2
and P2 = Patm  r : radius (internal)
r
As P1V1 =P2V2

 2 
 Patm LA   Patm    L   A
 r 
 
 L 
 =  
 1  Patm r 
 2 
Substituting values :
L = 0.11,  = 5.06  102 ,
r = 1  105 , Patm. = 1.01  105
 = 10.09 mm
Now, if the seal of capillary tube is broken, then the level of water in the tube will rise further.

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Example - 18 A bubble having surface tension T and radius R is formed

on a ring of radius r (r << R). Air is blown inside the tube with velocity v as
shown in the figure. The air molecules collide perpendicularly with the wall
the wall of the bubble and stops. Derive the expression of radius of bubble
separating from the ring.

SOLUTION :
Mass of air blown per unit time is
m = r2v

Force exerted by air is

Fair = ( r2v) v

Force of surface tension acting around the tube of radius r is

(for two surfaces)

Fsurface tension = (2r) (2T sin )

r 4π r 2T
=  2πr  2T =
R R
In the limit, bubble breaks away when
Fair = Fsurface tension

4π r 2T
i.e.  r2v2  =
R

4T
 R
 v2

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THNGS TO REMEMBER

1. Pressure in a stationary liquid :

The hydrostatic pressure in a liquid increases with the depth. For a liquid of density , the total pressure at
a depth h is given by
P (pressure at the surface P0) + (pressure due to liquid column)
P = P0 + hg

2. Thrust (force) on a surface by a liquid :

(i) Uniform pressure distribution
If the liquid pressure P on this area is same every where (uniform), then thrust on the surface is given
by
F  PA

(ii) Non-uniform pressure distribution

F   PdA

3. Archimedes Principle
A body that is partially or entirely submerged in a fluid, feels an upward force equal in magnitude to the
weight of the displaced fluid.
B = v g
v = volume occupied by the solid inside the liquid
p = density of the liquid

4. Apparent Weight
When the same body is immersed in a liquid of density  the net downward force on it is :
= mg  B
= Vdg – Vg
5. Bernoulli’s Theorem
At all the points along a streamline of an ideal liquid (incompressible and non viscous), the sum of pressure
head the gravitational head and the velocity head remains constant.

P v2
  h = constant
 g 2g

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6. Velocity of Efflux
The velocity with which liquid comes out of a hole at a depth h below the liquid surface is given by

V  2 gh (If hole is very small)

7. Pressure Difference across a liquid surface :

Due to surface tension, pressure difference exists on the two sides of a liquid surface.

If surface is plane If surface is concave If surface in convex

P1 = P2 P1 > P2 P1 < P2
Pressure difference = 0

2
 excess pressure across the liquid surface (ONE SURFACE) =
r
where r : radius of curvature of surface
 : surface tension of liquid.
 for a soap bubble, there are two surfaces
4
 excess pressure (p) =
r

8. Capillarity :
When an open capillary (glass tube of very small diameter) is put into a liquid, liquid either rises or falls.

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2  cos 
h
R g

9. Viscosity
The property by virtue of which a liquid opposes relative motion between its different layers is called
viscosity.
 The resistive viscous force exerted by the liquid is given by :
dv
F   A
dx
10. Reynold Number
VD
NR 


11. Poisseuille’s Formula

 P1  P2  r 4
Q
8 

12. Stoke’s Law

The viscous force on a sphere of radius r, velocity, v through a liquid having coefficient of viscosity  is
called Stoke’s Force and its magnitude is given by F = 6  rv .
 The terminal velocity v of the sphere (when sphere is moving down with zero acceleration) is given
2 r2
by v  d    g
9
where d : density of material of sphere and  : density of fluid.

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Illustration - 1

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Gaseous State and Thermodynamics

FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC THEORY OF GASES Section - 1

1. All gases consist of molecules which are considered as rigid, perfectly elastic, solid spheres. These
molecules are extremely small i.e., the volume occupied by the molecules of the gas is taken negligible
as compared to the volume of the containing vessel.
2. The molecules are in a continuous random motion. They are moving in all directions with all possible
velocities. There is no particular direction of motion of the particles.
3. The molecules during their motion collide with one another and also with the walls of the vessel. At
each collision, their velocities change both in magnitude and direction; however in the steady state,
molecular density remains uniform throughout the gas and does not change with time.
4. No forces of attraction or repulsion are exerted on a gas molecule by other molecules or by the
container except during collisions. This means, the energy of the gas is purely kinetic.
5. The collisions among the molecules or with the walls of container are purely elastic. A collision is said
to perfectly elastic if the energy of the molecules remains same before and after the collision.
6. Molecules travel in a straight line with a uniform velocity in between the collisions. The average distance
travelled by the molecules between the successive collisions is called as mean-free path of a molecule.
The time spent during a collision is assumed to be negligibly small as compared with the time taken by
the molecule in traversing a mean-free path.

Note : A gas which satisfies all of above set of assumptions of kinetic theory of gases under all conditions of
temperature and pressure is called as an ideal gas or perfect gas.

A real gas shows appreciable deviations from the perfect gas. At low temperature and high pressure, gases
show deviation from the ideal behaviour.
Evidences In Support of Molecular Motion
Diffusion :
The phenomenon of diffusion presents a remarkable evidence of molecular motion of matter. The particles
of one substance diffuse into another against gravity due to the molecular motion. H2 diffuses into CO2 when
a jar filled with H2 is held mouth to mouth over a jar filled with CO2, though H2 is lighter than CO2.

Evaporation :
The phenomenon of evaporation is related with the motion of molecules. The molecules of liquid are quite
free to move about. At any temperature, all the molecules don’t move with the same velocity, some move
faster than the others. Evaporation involves the escape of fast moving molecules (having speed greater than
average speed). This results in lowering of average speed, which in turn results in lowering of temperature,
and thus producing a cooling effect.

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Brownian Motion :
Botanist Robert Brown observed the irregular motion of plane spores floating in water. Such motions are
called as Brownian Motion. Here the motion of each particle is due to inequality of the impact of surrounding
molecules on it. For example: motion of smoke particles in air is a case of Brownian motion. This
supports the view that the molecules of a substance are in constant motion.

Ideal gas equation :

For n moles of an ideal gas at pressure P, absolute temperature T occupying a volume V, the following
equation holds:
PV = nRT (R : Ideal gas constant)
The gas equation can also be written in the following form.
PM = dRT
where M is the molecular weight and d is the density of the gas at pressure P and absolute temperature T.
Pressure Exerted by a Gas
Consider a container of volume V occupied by a gas.
Let m = mass of the gas in the container
N = number of molecules in the container
If m0 is the mass of one molecule,
m = m0N
If N0 is the Avogadro number and M is the molecular weight of the gas,
M = m0N0
If the molecules are moving speeds c1, c2, c3, ................., cN ;
then the root mean square speed of the gas is defined as :

c12 +c 22 + c32 + .........+cN

2
c2 = crms =
N
The pressure exerted by the gas is :

1 m0 N 2 1 2 m N
P crms or P  crms where  = density of gas = 0
3 V 3 V
Root Mean Square Velocity (crms)
crms can be calculated with any of the following results.

3P 3 RT 3kT
crms =  
 M m0

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For the same gas at two different temperatures T1 and T2, crms will be different.
crms 1 T
 1 (as Crms  T)
crms  2  T2

For two gases at different temperatures T1 and T2 ;

c rms (1) T1 M 2
=
c rms (2) T 2M 1

Average Speed : (cav)

c1  c2  c3  .....  cN
cav =
N

8RT
cav =
pM

Kinetic Energy of Molecules

Degrees of Freedom :
The degrees of freedom of a dynamical system are defined as
the total number of independent quantities required in order to
describe the position or motion of the system completely.

Mono-atomic gas molecule :

The molecules of a mono-atomic gas (He, Ne, Ar) consist of
one atom only. It is capable of only translatory motion in free
space which has three compo nent s namely: X, Y
and Z directions. Hence it will have three degrees of freedom
per molecule.

Di-atomic gas molecule :

Each molecule of a diatomic gas (H2, N2, O2, Cl2, etc.) consists of two atoms. In the given diagram, a
diatomic molecule A2 (A-A) is shown. A2 is capable of translatory motion in space and thus possess three
degrees of freedom. Beside this the molecule may rotate about YY’ axis (perpendicular to the molecular
axis and the plane of the paper) or ZZ’ axis (perpendicular to the molecular axis and the plane of the paper).
Rotation about molecular axis (XX’) is neglected (because the size of atom is negligible). Thus due to
rotational motion, the molecules have two degrees of freedom. Hence a diatomic molecule has five
degrees of freedom.
Note : A triatomic molecule (CO2, H2O, SO2 etc) has six degrees of freedom (three of them for translatory and
three for rotational motion).

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Kinetic Energy of Translation per molecule :

The average kinetic energy or kinetic energy per molecule due to translatory motion is also known as mean
KE of translation.
1 1 1
m0 c12  m0 c22  .....  m0 cN
2
(KE) mean = 2 2 2 1 2  3  1 m c2 
 m0 crms  0 rms 
N 2 23 
3  PV  3
=    kT as PV = NKT
2 N  2
3
 (KE)mean = kT
2
3 3
KE of translation per mole = (KE)mean N0 = kN 0T  RT
2 2
3  3
KE of translation in n moles of a gas = n  RT  = PV
2  2

Equipartition of Energy
The Law of equipartition of energy states that for a dynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy
of the system is equally divided amongst the various degrees of freedom.
The share of each degree of freedom is 1/2 kT.

For monoatomic gas :

Total energy per molecule = 3/2 kT
Total energy per mole = 3/2 RT

For diatomic gas :

Total energy per molecule = 5/2 kT
Total energy per mole = 5/2 RT

For triatomic gas :

Total energy per molecule = 3kT
Total energy per mole = 3RT

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Illustration - 1 Calculate the root mean square speed of argon atoms at room temperature (25°C). At
what temperature will the root mean square speed will be half that value ?

SOLUTION :
MAr = 0.040 Kg and R = 8.3 J/mol/K Crms 1 T
 1
Crms  2  T2
3 RT 3  8.3 273  25
Crms = 
M 0.040 1 T1
 
= 430.7 m/s 2 298

For the same gas : T1 = 74.5 K

=  198.5 C

Illustration - 2 Calculate the pressure of Hydrogen in a cylinder of capacity 10 lt given that the total
kinetic energy of translation is 7.5 × 103 J. What is the total kinetic energy of molecules in the cylinder ?
(1 atm pressure = 105 N/m2)

SOLUTION :
The total KE of translation in n moles for a  P = 5 × 105 N/m2
diatomic gas is : 5
Total KE for diatomic gas = PV
3 3 2
nRT  PV
2 2 5
 KE = × 5 × 105 × 10 × 10–3 J
3 2
Hence 7.5 × 103 J = P (10 × 10–3m3 )
2 = 12500 J

Illustration - 3 An Oxygen storage tank has a capacity of 0.05 m3. The gas pressure is 100 atm. at 27°C.
Determine :
(a) the total KE of translation of molecules, (b) the average KE of translation of molecules and
(c) the total KE.

SOLUTION :
(a) Total KE of translation = 3/2 PV (c) The total KE (for diatomic gas) = 5/2 nRT
5 5
= 3/2 (100) x 10 x 0.05 = 7.5 × 10 J = 5/2 PV
(b) Average KE = 3/2 kT = 3/2 (1.38 × 1023) KE = 5/2 (100) × 105 (0.05)
(300) = 6.21 × 1021 J = 1.25 × 106 J.

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Illustration - 4 Find the number of Hydrogen molecules in 1 cm3 if the pressure is 200 mm Hg and the root
mean square velocity of hydrogen is 2400 m/s in these conditions.

SOLUTION :
200 1 m0 N 2
P = 200 mm Hg × 1.01 × 105 N/M2 Substituting these values P  crms
760 3 V
3 PV
V = 1 cm3 = 106 m3 N
2
m0 crms
M
m0 = N N0 = 6.023 × 1023 200 1.01  105  1 10 6  6.023 10 23
0 N  3 
760 0.002  2400  2400
= 4.17 × 1018 molecules.

Illustration - 5 What is the energy of the rotational motion of the molecules contained in 1 Kg of nitrogen
at a temperature of 7°C ?

SOLUTION : 2
n = moles = 1000/28 Rotational Energy = nRT
2
T = 273 + 7 = 280 K
1000
For a diatomic gas, 2 degrees of freedom are for =  8.3  280 J = 8.3  104 J
28
rotational motion.

Illustration - 6 A vessel A with a capacity of V1 = 3 lt contains gas at a pressure of P1 = 2 atm and a vessel
B with a capacity of V2 = 4 lt contains the same gas at a pressure of 1 atm. The temperature is 0°C in A and
27°C in B. What will be the pressure in the vessels if they are connected by a tube ?

SOLUTION :
The vessels are initially at temperatures : where x = 3 or 5 according to whether the gas
T1 = 273 K and T2 = 300 K is monoatomic and diatomic.
 T = final temperature = 283.2K
Let n1 and n2 be the moles in A and B respectively.
 n1  n2  RT
Initial total energy = Final total energy Final pressure = P =
V1  V2
x x x
n1 RT 1  n 2 RT 2   n1  n 2  RT  6 4  283.2
2 2 2  P  = 1.43 atm.

 272 300  7
Note : It may be useful to remember the following :
PV  P V nT n T
P 1 1 2 2 and T= 11 2 2
V1  V2 n1  n2

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GAS LAWS Section - 2

Before moving ahead let us recapitulate important gas laws.
Boyle’s Law :
At a certain temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of any gas varies inversely with the volume.
1
P (for given n and T)
V
PV = constant
If P1 is the pressure when volume is V1 and P2 is the pressure when the volume is V2 (T is constant), then:
P1V1 = P2V2

Charles’ Law :
At a constant pressure the volume of a given quantity of any gas varies directly with the absolute temperature.
V  T (for given n and P)
V/T = constant
If V1 and V2 are volumes of a gas at T1 and T2 and the pressure is kept constant, then:
V1 V2

T1 T2

Avogadro Law :
It states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of
molecules.
If volume V1 of one gas contains N1 molecules and volume V2 of another gas contains N2 molecules at same
pressure and temperature conditions, then:
V1 V2

N1 N2
Dalton’s Law of partial pressures :
The total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of partial pressures of each gas. The
partial pressure of a gas is defined as the pressure it would exert if it were alone in the container at same
temperature.
If PT is the total pressure, p1, p2, p3, ......... are the partial pressures of a number of gases in the container,
then according to Dalton’s Law of partial pressures:
PT = p1 + p2 + p3 + ...........
If n1, n2, n3, be the respective number of moles of the gases :
RT
PT   n1 2 .....
V

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Boltzmann Constant (k) :

In the gas equation PV = nRT, the values of R can be taken as:
R = 8.314 J/mol/K = 0.082 l-atm/mol/K = 2 cal/mol/K
If N0 is the Avogadro number then, k = R/N0 is known as Boltzmann constant.
k = 1.38 × 10–23 J per molecule per degree kelvin .

Gas equation in terms of k :

R
PV = nRT = n N0 T = n N0 kT
N0
PV = NkT N = nN0 = number of molecules

Illustration - 7 10 gm of oxygen are subjected to a pressure of 3 atm. at a temperature of 10°C. Heating

at a constant pressure, the gas is expended to 10 lt. Find :
(a) the volume of the gas before expansion (b) the temperature of gas after expansion
(c) the density of gas before expansion (d) the density of gas after expansion.

SOLUTION :
nRT1 10  0.0821 283 mass 10
(a) V1   = 2.42 L (c) density = d1 =  = 4.13 g/L
P1 32  3 V1 2.42

(b) As pressure is constant : mass 10

(d) density = d2 =  = 1 g/L
V1 V2 V V2 10
  T2  2 T1 = 1169.4 K
T1 T2 V1

Illustration - 8 A vertical cylinderical tank 1 m high has its top end closed by a tightly fitted frictionless
piston of negligible weight. The air inside the cylinder is at an absolute pressure of 1 atm. The piston is
depressed by pouring mercury on it very slowly. How far will the piston descend before mercury spills over the
top of cylinder ? The temperature of the air inside the cylinder is maintained constant.
SOLUTION :
P1 = initial air pressure = 1 atm = 76 cm Hg
P2 = final air pressure = (76 + x) cm Hg
V1 = initial volume = 100 A
V2 = final volume = (100  x) A
76 (100 A) = (76 + x) (100  x)A
Let A = area of cross-section of cylinder.
7600 = 7600  76x + 100x  x2
As the temperature is constant,  x = 24 cm
Use P1 V1 = P2 V2 for air inside the cylinder.  The piston descends by 24 cm.

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Illustration - 9 An air bubble is released from the bottom of a lake at a depth of 11 m. The temperature at
the bottom is 4°C and that at the surface is 12°C. What is the ratio of the bubble’s radius at the surface to its
radius at bottom ? Assume density of water = 1000 Kg/m3, atmospheric pressure = 75 cm of Hg and density
of mercury = 13600 Kg/m3.

SOLUTION :
Let P1 = pressure at the bottom of lake P1 = 75 + 80.88 = 155.88 cm Hg.
= P2 (pressure at surface)
PV PV
+ P (due to water column) Using 1 1  2 2 for the air inside the bubble
T1 T2
Taking cm of Hg as the unit of pressure,
where V1,V2, are the bottom and surface ;
P1 = 75 cm Hg
T1 and T2 are temperatures at bottom and surface
Pressure of water column of height h = h rw g
155.88  V1 75V2
P = Hwg 
273  4 273  12
 h  h 
P   w  ( ) g   w  cm of Hg. V2 r2 1/ 3
  Hg  Hg   Hg   2.138,   2.138  1.288
    V1 r1

1100  1
= cm Hg = 80.88 cm Hg
13.6

Illustration - 10 A vessel containing 1 gm of oxygen at a pressure of 10 atm and a temperature of 47°C. It

is found that because of a leak, the pressure drops to 5/8 th of its original value and the temperature falls to
27°C. Find the volume of the vessel and the mass of oxygen that has leaked out.

SOLUTION :
The pressure, temperature and number of moles n1 RT1
volume of vessel = V 
of oxygen in the vessel change due to leak while P1
the volume remains fixed.
Hence using PV = nRT
mass leaking out = 1  n2 (32)
we have : = 1  2/3
P1 P = 1/3 gm.
 2
n1T1 n2T2
1 0.082  320
320 5 1 1  V = 0.082 L
n2     moles 32 10
300 8 32 48

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Illustration - 11 A bulb of 500 cm3 is joined by a narrow tube of another bulb B of 250 cm3 and the whole
system is initially filled with air at S.T.P. and sealed. If the temperature of the bulb A is now raised to 100°C
and that of B is kept constant, find :
(a) the new pressure in the system.
(b) mass of air which is transferred from one bulb to another during heating.
(density of air at S.T.P. = 1.29 g/l)

SOLUTION :

(a) Let P be the final pressure of air in the bulbs. As the bulbs are connected, pressure will be equal in both bulbs.
Let TA and TB be the final temperatures of the bulbs.
 TA = 373 K, TB = 273 K

If P0 , T0 are the S.T.P. conditions, then :

Initial moles in the system = Final moles in the system
P0VA P0VB PVA PVB
  
RT0 RT0 RTA RTB
Using P0 = 1 atm, T0 = 273 K,
 500 250  1
P    500  250 
 373 273  273
P = 1.22 atm.
(b) M = molecular weight of air
M = (dSTP) (22.4)
= 1.29  22.4
= 28.896 gm.
Mass transferred = moles  M
 PV PV 
= B  0 B   M
 RTB RT0 
250  103
= (1.22  1)  28.896
0.082  273
 mass transferred = 0.0709 gm.

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Illustration - 12 A thin tube sealed at both ends, is 100 cm long. It lies horizontally, the middle 0.1 m
containing mercury and the two ends containing air at standard atmospheric pressure. If the tube is turned to
a vertical position, by what amount will the mercury be displaced ?

SOLUTION :

Let P0, V0 be the pressure and volume of the air columns initially.
Let P1, P2 be the final pressures in cm of Hg and V1, V2 be the final volumes.
Applying Boyle’s Law on both air columns, we get :
P0 V0 = P1 V1 and P0 V0 = P2 V2
PV P (45)
 P1  0 0  0
V1 45  x
PV P (45)
and P2  0 0  0
V2 45  x

Balancing forces on Hg columns in vertical position, we get :

P (below Hg column) = P(above Hg column ) + 10 cm
P2 = P1 + 10 (if P1, P2 are in cm of Hg)

Substituting to get :

45 P0 45 P0
+ 10 =
45 + x 45 x

Using P0 = 76 cm Hg, we get :

x2 + 684 x  2025 = 0
On solving, x = 2.95 cm.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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THERMODYNAMICS Section - 3

Temperature :
It may be defined as that thermal property which attains the same value for all bodies placed in thermal
contact with each other.
Heat Energy :
The transfer or flow of internal energy caused by the difference of temperatures between two bodies is
called as Heat Energy.
Zeroth Law of thermodynamics :
It two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with another body C, then they are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
Thermodynamical system :
It is a collection of an extremely large numbers of atoms or molecules so that they together have some
pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature (T). Examples: a gas, vapour, steam, vapour in contact with the
liquid.

Work Done and Internal Energy

Work Done By a Gas During Expansion
Let us consider an ideal gas enclosed in a perfectly insulated cylinder
fitted with a non-conducting and frictionless piston. Let P be the pressure
exerted by the gas and V be the volume of the gas at any particular
instant. Let A be the area of crossection of the piston.
The force exerted by the gas on the piston = P A
If the piston moves through an infinitesimal distance dx, this force can
be assumed constant, and the work done (dW) is given as :
dW = (PA) dx = P dV
(A dx = dV = infinitesimal change in volume)

W =  PdV

(a) If volume is kept constant the piston is not displaced.

 W =0

(b) If pressure is kept constant,

V2 V2
W  PdV  P  dV  P V2  V1 
V1 V1

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 W = PV for constant pressure and we also have W = PV2 – PV1 = nRT2 – nRT1
W = nRT for constant pressure

Work Done From P-V Diagram

An ideal gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a massless and rictionless
piston can be considered as a thermodynamical system. Its state can be
represented by variables (P, V, T ). If P and V are known, T can be
calculated (PV = nRT).

The system’s state at any instant of time can be specified by two variables (P, V). The relation between
pressure P and volume V can be studied on a pressure - volume (P-V) graph known as indicator diagram or
a P-V diagram.
On such a graph, each equilibrium state of a thermodynamical system can be represented by a point whose
x-coordinate represents volume (V) and y-coordinate represents pressure (P).
A process can be represented by a curve on the P-V diagram. If the gas goes from initial state A (P1,V1) to
the final state B (P2, V2), the work done W is given by :
W = area under the curve AB above the X-axis (shaded portion)
Internal Energy
Internal energy (U) of a system is the total of all kinds of energy
possessed by the atoms and other particles that comprise the system.
The change in internal energy U depends only on the temperature
difference of initial and final states and not on the process between the
states.

First Law of Thermodynamics

If some heat is supplied to a system capable of doing some work, the quantity of heat absorbed by the
system is the equal to the sum of external work done by the system and increase in its internal energy.
If Q is the heat gained by the system, W is the work done against external pressure and U is the change
in internal energy, then
 heat energy given    increase in   work done 
 to the system   internal energy    by the system 
     
Q = U + W.

Note : First Law of thermodynamics is a direct consequence of Law of conservation of energy.

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In Thermodynamics :
1. Work done by a system is taken as positive (+). Work done on the system is taken as
negative (–).
2. Heat gained by a system is taken as positive (+) and the heat lost by the system is taken as
negative (–).
3. Increase in internal energy is taken as positive (+) and decrease in internal energy is taken as
negative (–).

Specific Heat of a Gas

The specific heat of gas is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of
substance through 1K. Its unit in S.I. system is J/Kg/K. When the unit mass is 1 mole, the specific heat is
known as molar specific heat and its units are J/mol/K or cal/mol/K.
Molar specific heat = molecular weight (specific heat in J/gm/K)
In gases, on giving heat to the gas, besides temperature, its pressure and the volume may also change. Thus
specific heat of a gas depends upon the conditions under which the heat is given to the gas. Hence we will
define two principal types of specific heats of a gas.

Specific Heat at constant volume (Cv) :

Cv of a gas is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of that gas through
1K, provided that the volume of the gas remains constant. It is also known as molar specific heat at
constant volume.
In general, if n moles of a gas are heated at constant volume to increase the temperature by T,
Heat required = Q = n Cv T

Specific Heat at constant pressure (Cp) :

Cp of a gas is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of that gas through
1°K, provided that the pressure of the gas remains constant. It is also known as molar specific heat at
constant pressure.
In general, if n moles of a gas are heated at constant pressure resulting in a temperature rise by T,
Heat required = Q = n Cp T

Note : Cp is greater than Cv (Cp > Cv).

When we heat the gas at constant volume, the heat is supplied to raise the temperature of gas only. When we
heat the gas at constant pressure, the volume of the gas apart from temperature of the gas rises. When the
gas expands, it does some external work for increasing the volume. So in this case, the heat is supplied :
(a) to raise the temperature of the gas (b) to do the mechanical work for expansion

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As a result more amount of heat is required to increase the temperature of the gas through the same amount
when the pressure is kept constant. Hence Cp is always greater than the value of Cv.

Cp Cp
The ratio of is denoted by  i.e.  = ( >1)
Cv Cv

Specific Heat Relation :

Consider n moles of an ideal gas. If its temperature is raised by T at constant volume, then the heat
transferred is n Cv T, where Cv is the specific heat at constant volume.
W = 0 (as no volume change is there)
By first law of thermodynamics :
Q = U + 0  n Cv T = U . . . . (i)
Next, let us heat the same gas at constant pressure. The heat Q required to change the temperature by T
will be n Cp T, where Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure.
W = P V where V is the change in volume.
By first law of thermodynamics :
Q = U + P V  n Cp T = U + P V . . . . (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get :
n Cp T = n Cv T + P V
From gas equation :
PV = nR T  n Cp T = n Cv T + nR T
 Cp = Cv + R  Cp  Cv = R

Combining Cp – CV = R and Cp /Cv = , we set :

R R
CV  and CV 
 1  1

Cp and Cv for Gases :

Consider 1 mole of a gas heated to raise the temperature by 1°C. When the gas is heated at constant
volume, all heat is converted to increase in internal energy. The work done is zero, i.e. Cv = U for 1°C (or
1 K) rise in temperature for 1 mole of a gas.

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For mono-atomic gas :

3
Internal energy per mole = RT
2

3 3 3
Cv = V = R  T  1  RT  R
2 2 2

3 5 Cp 5
 Cv = R and Cp = R (as Cp  Cv = R)    
2 2 Cv 3

For di-atomic gas :

5
Internal energy per mole = RT
2
5 5 5
Cv = U = R  T  1  RT  R
2 2 2
5
 Cv = R
2

7 Cp 7
 Cp = R (as Cp  Cv = R)   = 
2 Cv 2

Illustration - 13 One mole of oxygen is heated at constant pressure from 0°C. What must be the quantity of
heat that should be supplied to the gas for the temperature to be doubled ? If the same heat is supplied to the
gas at constant volume, what will be the final temperature ?

SOLUTION :
T 1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K = 7930.6 J
Temperature is to be doubled If heating is done at constant volume :
 T 2 = 2T1 = 546 K Q = n Cv T
Q at constant pressure = n Cp T nR
Q =   1 ΔT
7 
Hence Q = n Cp T = n  R   T
2  1  8. 3
7  7930.6 = 1.4  1 (273)
 Q = 1   8.3  (546  273)
2  T = 655 K

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Illustration - 14 When water is boiled under a pressure of 2 atm., the heat of vapourisation is 2.20 × 106
J/Kg and the boiling point is 120°C. At this pressure 1 Kg of water has a volume of 10–3 m3 and 1 Kg of
steam has a volume of 0.824 m3.
(a) Compute the work done when 1 Kg of steam is formed at this temperature.
(b) Compute the increase in the internal energy.

SOLUTION :
(a) Work done = P (V) (at constant pressure) (b) U = Q  W
 W = 2 atm  (0.824  0.001) m3 U = m L  W
 W = 2  1.013  105 N/m2  0.823 m3  U = 1 kg  2.20  106 J/kg  166.74 kJ
= 166.74 kJ = (2200  166.74) = 2033.26 kJ

Illustration - 15 The temperature of 3 kg of krypton gas is raised from 20°C to 80°C.

(a) If this is done at constant volume, compute the heat added, the work done and the change in internal
energy.
(b) Repeat if the heating process is at constant pressure.
(for mono-atomic gas Kr, Cv = 0.0357 cal/g/K, Cp = 0.0595 cal/g/K)

SOLUTION :
(a) At constant volume : (b) At constant pressure :
W =0 Q = m Cp T = 3000 × 0.0595 × 100
Q = m Cv T = 3000  0.0357  100 ; = 17.85 kcal
T = 80  (20) = 100°C W = P (V2  V1) = nR (T2  T1)

Q = 10.7 kcal  3000 

W =   8.3  100 J = 30 kJ
U = Q  0 = 10.7 × 103 × 4.18 J  83.8 
U = n Cv T = 44.8 kJ
= 44.8 kJ

[Note : U is same for both processes as it is a

State Function]

Note : (i) It can be verified that Q = U + W.

(ii) Q is usually measured in calories and U and W are measured in Joules.

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Illustration - 16 A system is taken from state i to the state f (refer to the

fig.). Along path “i a f ”, it is found that Q = 50 cal, W = 20 cal. Along the
path “i b f ”, Q = 36 cal. Calculate :
(a) W along the path “i b f ”
(b) If W =  13 cal for curved path “ f i ”, what is Q for this path ?
(c) Taking Ui = 10 cal, what is Uf ?
(d) If Ub = 22 cal, what is Q for the process “ i b” and for the process
“b f ” ?

SOLUTION :
Path “ i a f ”
Q = 50 cal ; W = 20 cal
 U = Q  W
U = 50  20 = 30 cal
 Uf  Ui = 30 cal.
As internal energy change is a State function, U will be same for any path from i to f.
(a) Path “ i b f ”
W = Q  U
W = 36  (Uf  Ui) = 36  (30) = 6 cal
(b) Path “ f i ”
Q = U + W = (Ui  Uf) + W
= (30) + (13) =  43 cal.
(c) Uf  Ui = 30 cal
 Uf = Ui + 30 = 40 cal
(d) Process “i b”
Q = U + W
Q = (Ub  Ui) + (W)ibf
{(W)ib = (W)ibf because (W)bf = 0}
Q = (22  10) + 6 = 18 cal
(d) Process “b f ”
Q = U + W
Q = (Uf  Ub) + 0 = 40  22 = 18 cal.

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THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES Section - 4

In a thermodynamic process, the initial and final states are important, but the manner in which the system is
taken from initial to final state must also be taken into account. Hence it is important to distinguish between
the following processes.

Isothermal process :
An isothermal process is one in which the temperature remains constant.
A gas under going an isothermal process should remain in perfect thermal contact with a constant temperature
heat reservoir. The gas obeys Boyle’s Law, during an isothermal process, i.e. PV = constant
As the temperature remains constant internal energy of the system remains constant.
i.e., U = 0 (for isothermal process)
From Ist Law : Q = W

(a) Isothermal Expansion :

 If the gas expands, it takes heat from the heat
reservoir and does positive work, i.e. in equation
Q = W, both Q and W are positive.
 The process takes place slowly. As the pressure
on the piston is reduced, the gas tries to
expand.
 In expansion, it tends to cool down, but the heat
reservoir gives heat input to keep temperature
constant.

(b) Isothermal Compression :

 If the gas is compressed isothermally, it gives heat
to the reservoir and the work done is negative, i.e.,
in the equation Q = W, both Q and W are
negative.
 To do a perfectly isothermal process, pressure is
increased in very small steps. As the gas is
compressed slowly, its temperature tends to rise,
but the reservoir extracts the heat from the
system to keep the temperature constant.

Adiabatic process :
In an adiabatic process, no heat enters or leaves the
system. Such a situation is achieved by heavily insulating
the system.
From Ist Law of thermodynamics : Q = U + W

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In adiabatic process Q = 0
 U+W=0
The gas in this process obeys the relation :
PV = constant ( = Cp /Cv)
 
 P1V1 = P2V2

Note : The adiabatic curve in P-V diagram is much steeper than the isothermal curve.

(a) Adiabatic Expansion :

As the pressure on the piston is reduced, the gas pushes the piston
upwards. Due to the expansion, the temperature of the system falls down.
The molecules of the gas lose speed after colliding with a receding (moving
away) piston. The loss in the speed causes a fall in the temperature. The
gas does positive work and its internal energy decreases. In the equation
of Ist law :
U + W = 0, U is negative and W is positive.
(internal energy of the gas is being converted into work done)

(b) Adiabatic Compression :

As the pressure on the piston is increased, it moves downwards
compressing the gas. Due to compression, the temperature of the gas
rises. The molecules of the gas gain speed after colliding with an incoming
piston. The gain in speed causes a rise in temperature. Work is done on
the gas and its internal energy increases.
In the equation : U + W = 0, U is positive and W is negative.

Isochoric process :
A process in which the volume remains constant is known
as isochoric process.
For an isochoric process, an ideal gas is taken in a container
with rigid walls so that neither expansion nor compression occurs.
The gas obeys the relation : P  T
In isochoric process, W = 0. So from Ist Law of
thermodynamics : Q = U.
(a) If heat is given to the gas, its temperature and pressure rise.
Its internal energy also rises. U and Q are both positive.

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(b) If heat is taken out from the gas, its temperature and pressure fall.
Its internal energy also decreases. Q and U are both negative.

Isobaric process :
A process in which the pressure is kept constant is called as isobaric
process.
For isobaric process, the external pressure on the piston is kept
constant.
The gas obeys Charles’ Law : V  T
The work done : W = P (V2  V1)
= n R (T2  T1)

(a) Isobaric Expansion :

If heat is given to the gas, isobaric expansion occurs. The volume
and the temperature both rise. The gas expands doing positive
work.
In equation :
Q = U + W, all the three terms :
Q, U and W are positive in the isobaric expansion.

(b) Isobaric Compression :

If heat is taken out of the gas, isobaric compression occurs.
The temperature falls and the gas contracts causing negative work.
In the equation :
Q = U + W, all three terms :
Q, U and W are negative in the isobaric compression.

Expressions for U, W, and Q for Different Processes

Internal Energy Change : (U)
U = nCv T for every process.
It is state function and depends only on the difference of initial and
final temperatures.
nR
U = n Cv T = T
 1

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Process Work Done : (W) Heat Exchange : (Q)

V2 V
Isothermal Process : W  2.303 nRT log10 Q  2.303 nRT  og10 2
V1 V1

PV  P V nR T1  T2 
Adiabatic Process : W 11 2 2  Q = 0
 1  1

Isochoric Process : W=0 Q = n Cv T (use definition of Cv)

Isobaric Process : W = P V = P (V2  V1) Q = n Cp T (use definition of Cp)
W = nR (T2  T1)

Relations for Thermodynamic Processes (State Variables P, V, T)

Isochoric process :
P1 P2
Volume remains constant.  P  T  
T2 T2
Isothermal process :
Temperature remains constant  P  1/V  P1 V1 = P2 V2
Isobaric process :
V1 V2
Pressure remains constant.  V  T  
T2 T2

Adiabatic process :
No heat transfer takes place.
P1 V1 = P2 V2 T1 V1  1 = T2 V2  1 T1 P11   = T2 P21  

Illustration - 17 An ideal gas undergoes an isothermal expansion at 0°C from 0.010 m3 to 0.200 m3. For 5
moles of gas, compute the work done, the heat added, and the change in internal energy.

SOLUTION :
Let V1 = 0.01 m3 ; V2 = 0.2 m3 ;
T1 = T2 = 273 K ; n = 5 moles
V2
W = 2.303 nRT1 log 10 V
1
W = 2.303  5  8.3  273 log10 20 = 33.946 J.
As U = 0 for isothermal process, Q = W = 33946 J.

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Illustration - 18 A gasoline engine takes in 5 moles of air at 20°C and 1 atm., and compresses it adiabatically
to 1/10th of the original volume. Find the final temperature and pressure. Assume air to be diatomic. Also
find the work done and change in internal energy.

SOLUTION :
Let P1 = 1 atm. n = 5 moles T1 = 293 K
 V2 = V1/10
Using P1 V1 = P2 V2
 1
 V1 
 P2 = P1   = 1 (10)1.4 = 25.12 atm.
 V2 

Using T1V1  1 = T2V2  1

 1
 V1 
 T2 = T1   = 293(10)0.4 = 736 K
 V2 

nR  T1  T2  5  8.3   293  737 

Work done = 
 1 0. 4
=  46 kJ
U = Q  W = 0  W = 46 kJ

Illustration - 19 How much work is done by an ideal gas is expanding isothermally from an initial
volume of 3 L at 20 atm to a final volume of 24 L ?
SOLUTION :
In isothermal process at temperature T :
V2
W = 2.303 nRT log10 V
1
V2
W = 2.303 (P1V1) log10 V (using P1V1 = nRT)
1
24
= 2.303 (20  3) log10 L atm.
3
= 2.303  60  log10 8 (101) J
= 1.26  104 J

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Illustration - 20 In a cylinder, 2.0 moles of an ideal monoatomic gas initially at 1.0 × 106 Pa and 300 K
expands until its volume doubles. Compute the work done if the expansion is :
(a) isothermal (b) adiabatic (c) isobaric

SOLUTION :
Let P1 = 1× 106 Pa = 106 N/m2 ;
T1 = 300 K ; n = 2 moles
and Final volume = 2 (initial volume)
 V2 = 2 V1

(a) Wisothermal = 2.303 nRT log (V2 /V1)

= 2.303 × 2 × 8.3 × 300 log10 2 = 3452 J
nR  T1  T2 
(b) W(adiabatic) =
 1
For adiabatic process: T1V1 –1 = T2 V2 –1
5 / 31
 V2  1
T2 = T1 =     1  300   
 V1  2
 T2 = 189 K

nR  T1  T2  2  8.3   300  189 


W=  1 5
1
3
= 2764 J
(c) W(isobaric) = P (V2  V1)
P1 V1 = nRT1
nRT1 2 x 8.3 x 300
 V 1= =
P1 106
 V1 = 4.98 × 10–3 m3
and W = P (V2  V1) = P (2V1  V1) = P V1
 W = 106 × 4.98 × 103 J = 4980 J.

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Illustration - 21 2.0 moles of an ideal gas are carried round a cycle as

shown. If the process b  c is isothermal and Cv = 3 cal/mol/K.
Determine:
(a) work done
(b) change in internal energy
(c) heat supplied to the system during processes
a  b b  c and c  a.

SOLUTION :
(a) Process a  b is clearly isobaric at P = 4 atm. Process b  c :
W = P (Vb  Va) = 4 (16.4  8.2) = 32.8L atm Isothermal, T = 0  U = 0
 Wa  b = 32.8 × 101 J = 3313 J Process c  a : U for complete cyclic process
is zero because it depends on initial and final
Process b  c is isothermal (given)
States i.e. temperature difference only.
Vc
W = 2.303 nRT log10 V (U)ab + (U)bc + (U)ca = 0
b
1200 + 0 + (U)ca = 0
Vc
W = 2.303 (Pb Vb) log10 V
b  (U)ca = 1200 cal.
8.2 (c) Using first law of thermodynamics:
W = 2.303 (4  16.4  101) log10
16.4 (Q)ab = (U)ab + Wab
Wb  c = 4592.5J
= (1200 + 3313/4.18) cal
Process c  a is isochoric (volume is constant)
= 1992.5 cal
 Wc  a = 0 J
(Q)ab = 1992.5 cal
(b) Process a  b (Q)bc = (U)bc + Wbc
U = n Cv T = (0  4592.5/4.18) cal = 1098.7 cal
 PbVb PaVa   (Q)bc = 1098.7 cal.
U = nCv   PV = nRT
 nR nR  (Q)ca = (U)ca + Wca
Cv 3 = 1200 + 0 =  1200 cal
=  PbVb  PaVa  
R 0.0821  Q =  1200 cal.
(4  16.4  4  8.2) = 1200 cal.

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Illustration - 22 Figure shows three processes for an ideal gas. The

temperature at “a” is 600K, pressure 16 atm and volume 1L.The volume at “b”
is 4 L. Out of two processes, ab and ac, one is adiabatic and other is isothermal.
The ratio of specific heats of the gas is 1.5.
(a) Which of the processes “ab” and “ac” is adiabatic ? Why ?
(b) Compute the pressure of the gas at “b” and “c”.
(c) Compute the temperature at “b” and “c”.
(d) Compute the volume at “c”.

SOLUTION :
(a) The process ab is adiabatic because it steeper
than ac.
(b) Pa = 16 atm Vb = 4 L Va = 1 L Ta = 600K
Process “ab” (adiabatic)
 Pa Va = Pb Vb
 1.5
V  1
Pb  Pa  a   16   
 Vb   4
 Pb = 2 atm.
As bc is isobaric, Pb = Pc = 2 atm.
(c) Tc = Ta = 600K because ac is isothermal.
Process “ ab ” (adiabatic)
Tb can be calculated using Ta Va  1 = Tb Vb  1
PaVa PbVb
or 
Ta Tb
 1 0.5
 
Hence Tb = Ta  Va  1
 600    300 K
 Vb  4

(d) Process “ac” (isothermal)

 Pa Va = Pc Vc
P V 16  1
 Vc = a a = =8 L
Pc 2

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Illustration - 23 6 grams of hydrogen gas at a temperature of 273K were isothermally expanded to five
times its initial volume and then isochorically heated so that the pressure in the final state becomes equal
to that in the initial state. Find the total amount of heat absorbed by the gas during the entire process.

SOLUTION :
Represent the processes on the PV diagram by the curve 1 to 2 (isothermal) and the line 2 to 3 (isochoric).
P1 = P3
For the process 1 to 2 (isothermal)
T2 = T1 = 273 ; V2 = 5 V1
Q = U + W = 0 + W
V2
 Q = 2.303 nRT1 log10
V1
6
  Q = 2.303   8.3  273  log10 5
2
= 10942.4 J
State 1 and state 3 are at the same pressure.
V1 V3 V3
   T3 = V T1 = 5  273 = 1365 K
T1 T3 1

Process 2 to 3 (isochoric)
Q = U + W
Q = n Cv T + 0

6 5
 Q =  R   T3  T2 
2 2
 Q = 7.5  8.3  (1365  273) J = 67977 J

Thus total heat absorbed

= Q 1  2 + Q2  3 = 78919.4 J

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Illustration - 24 One mole of a perfect gas, initially at a pressure and temperature of 105 N/m2 and 300K
respectively expands isothermally until its volume is doubled and then adiabatically until its volume is again
doubled. Find the final pressure and temperature of the gas. Find the total work done during the isothermal
and adiabatic processes.
Given  = 1.4. Also draw the P-V diagram for the process.

SOLUTION :
Let (P1 V1 T1) be the initial pressure, volume and
the temperature of the gas.
For isothermal expansion (1 to 2)
We have : V2 = 2V1
Using, P1 V1 = P2 V2
 P2 = P1(V1/V2) = P1/2 = 0.5 × 105 N/m2.
and T2 = T1 = 300 K
For adiabatic expansion (2 to 3) Hence final pressure and temperatures are
Using P2 V2 = P3 V3 and V3 = 2 V2 1.9 × 104 N/m2 and 227.35 K
 Work Done :
 V2 
 P3 = P2   = 0.5  105  (0.5)1.4 W = W1  2 + W2  3
 V3   W = 2.303 nRT1
4 2
= 1.9  10 N/m V2 nR T2  T3 
1 1 log10 
Also, T2 V2 = T3 V3 V1  1
 -1 0.4  W = R (2.303  300  log10 2) +
 v2  1
 T3 = T 2   = 300   = 227.35 K
 v3  4 R  300  227.35 
= 3233.56 J
0.4

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A flask of volume 2l, provided with a stopcock contains oxygen at 300 K and atmospheric
pressure. The system is heated to a temperature of 400 K, with the stopcock open to the atmosphere. The
stopcock is then closed and the flask is then cooled to its original temperature.
(a) What is the final pressure of oxygen in the flask ? (b) How many grams of oxygen remain in the
flask ?

SOLUTION :

Let V = 2 L (remains constant)

When the flask is heated open to the atmosphere its pressure remains the same at P atmosphere .
Hence using PV = nRT, we apply :
n1T1 = n2T2 for the heating process.
n1(300) = n2(400)
3n1 = 4n2
For the cooling process(taking place at constant volume and given moles)
P2 P P3
 3  P3  T3
T2 T3 T2

P 3
 P3  at  300   atm.
400 4
Loss of grams of O2 = (n1  n2)  32

 3 
=  n1  n1  32 = 8n1
 4 

P V  8 1 2 
= 8  at  = 0.6504 gm
 RT1  0.082  300

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Example - 2 A tube closed at one end contains a mercury column 15 cm long inside it. The length of air
column trapped between the closed end and mercury is 40 cm when the tube is horizontal. Find the length of
air column if:
(a) the tube is made vertical with open end downwards.
(b) the tube is kept inclined at 60° with the vertical with open end downwards.(Patm = 75 cm Hg)

SOLUTION :

Let A be the crosssectional area and x be the length of Hg column. Let P1, P2 be the pressures in air column
in the vertical and inclined positions respectively.
Let y1, y2 be the lengths of the corresponding air columns.
Applying Boyle’s Law : P0 V0 = P1 V1 = P2 V2
Where P0 = atm. pressure,
V0 = 40 A, V1 = y1 A, V2 = y2 A
Balancing forces on Hg columns :
P1 + x = P and P2 + x cos 60° = P0
P0 V0 = P1 V1
75 (40 A) = (75  15) y1
 y1 = 50 cm.
P0 V0 = P2 V2
75 (40 A) = (75  15 cos 60°) (y2 A)
 y2 = 44. 4 cm

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Example - 3 An open glass tube is immersed in Hg in such a way that a length of 8 cm extends above
the Hg level. The open end of the tube is then closed and the tube is raised vertically up by 44 cm. What
will be the length of the air column above Hg in the tube now ?

SOLUTION :

Let A be the area of crosssection of the tube.

P0 = atm. pressure = 76 cm Hg
x = length of the air column in the final position.
P1 = air pressure (final)
As the tube is raised, the volume of the air column trapped between the closed end and Hg increases and
hence pressure drops. Due to drop in pressure,
Hg rises in the tube.
Height of Hg column = (8 + 44)  x = 52  x
Due to hydrostatic conditions : PA = PB
 P1 + (52  x) = Patm.
 P1 = 76  (52  x) = 24 + x
Applying Boyle’s Law on air column :
P0 V0 = P1 V1
 76 (8A) = (24 + x)(x A)
 76 (8) = 24 x + x2
On solving, we get :
x = length of air column = 15.42 cm

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Example - 4 A barometer tube contains some air above the Hg level

inside it. The atmospheric pressure is 76 cm of Hg. The Hg level in the
barometer tube is 74 cm high and the tube has a length of 100 cm above
Hg level outside the tube as shown. The tube is raised vertically upwards
by a distance of 10 cm. What is the height of Hg level inside the tube after
it has been raised ?

SOLUTION :
Let P1 and P2 be the initial and final pressures in the air column above Hg inside the tube. Let x be the height
of Hg column after the tube has been raised.

From Hydrostatic conditions :

P1 + 74 = Patm  P1 = 76  74 = 2 cm Hg.
P2 + x = Patm  P2 = 76  x.
Applying Boyle’s Law :
P1 (26 A) = P2 (110  x) A
where A is crosssectional area.
2 (26) = (76  x) (110  x)
x2  186 x + 8308 = 0
On solving, we get :
x = 74.53 cm.

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Example - 5 A cylinder fitted with a movable piston contains hydrogen at a pressure of 3.5 × 105 N/m2
and a temperature 366 K. Hydrogen expands adiabatically until the pressure in the cylinder falls to 0.7 ×105
N/m2. The piston is then fixed and the gas is heated until the temperature becomes 366 K. The pressure in the
cylinder is now found to be 1.1 × 105 N/m2. Determine the molar specific heats of hydrogen.

SOLUTION :
Represent the processes on P-V diagram by curve
1 to 2 (adiabatic) and the line 2 to 3 (isochoric).
Hence P1 = 3.5 × 105 N/m2
P2 = 0.7 × 105 N/m2
T1 = 366 K T2 = ?
5 2
P3 = 1.1 × 10 N/m T3 = 366 K
Process 2 to 3 (isochoric)
P2 P3
 T = T
2 3
P2 0.7
 T2 = P T3  1.1  366  232.90 K
3

Process 1 to 2 (adiabatic)
T1 P11   = T2 P21  

 T1   1 1  11 

1
1
         
 T2   5  7 5

  (log10 11 log10 7) = ( 1) log10 5

log10 5
  = log 5  log 7 - log 11  1.39
10 10 10

R R
Thus Cp = = 29.58 J mol1 K1 and Cv = = 21.28 J mol1 K1
 1  1

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Example - 6 The rectangular box shown in fig. has a partition which can slide without friction along
the length of the box. Initially each of two chambers of the box has one mole of a monoatomic ideal gas
( = 5/3) at a pressure of P0, volume V0 and temperature T0. The chamber on the left is slowly heated by an
electric heater. The walls of box and partition are thermally insulated. Heat loss through lead wires of heater
is negligible. The gas in the left chamber expands by pushing the partition until the final pressure in both
chambers becomes (243/32) P0. Determine :
(a) the final temperature of the gas in each chamber, (b) the work done by the gas in the right
chamber.

1/  3/ 5
 P0   32  8V
V1  V0    V0    0
 P1   243  27
SOLUTION :
and T0 V0  1 = T1 V1  1
Let P1, V1, T1 and P2, V2, T2 be the final pressure,
volume, temperature in the right and left chambers  1 2/3
V   27  9
respectively.  T1  T0  0   T0    T0
 V1   8  4
It is very important to observe that P1 = P2
because the partition is in equilibrium and V1 + In left chamber :
V2 = 2V0 because total volume remains same. 8 46
We have : V2 = 2V0 V1 = 2V0  V0  V0
The process in the left chamber is none of the 27 27
PV P0V0 P2V2
four standard processes, so we will use =  
T T0 T2
constant.
P2V2 243 46 207
The process in the right chamber is adiabatic.  T2 = T0   T0  V0
P0V0 32 27 27
243
We have P1 = P2 P 207 9
32 0 Hence the final temperatures are T0 and T0
16 4
Work done :
Considering adiabatic compression in right
chamber :
P0V0  PV
1 1
 W=
 1
In right chamber :
P0V0  243 8  15
We have : P0 V0 = P1 V1  W= 1     P0 V0
  1  32 27  8

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Example - 7 An ideal mono-atomic gas is confined in a

cylinder by a spring loaded piston of cross-section 8 × 10–3 m2.
Initially the gas is at 300 K and occupies a volume of 2.4 × 10–3
m3 and the spring is in its relaxed (unstretched, uncompressed)
state. The gas is heated by a small electric heater until the piston
moves out slowly by 0.1 m. Calculate the final temperature of
the gas and the heat supplied in joules by the heater. The force
constant of the spring is 8000 N/m, atmospheric pressure is
1 × 105 N/m2. The cylinder and the piston are thermally insulated.
The piston is massless and there is no friction between the piston
and the cylinder. Neglect heat loss through the lead wires of the
heater. The heat capacity of the heater coil is negligible. Assume
the spring to be massless.
SOLUTION :
The process taking place in the cylinder is none Applying PV/T = constant, we get :
of the four standard processes. 
Hence, we will use PV/T = constant. T1 P2 V2 300  2 105  3.2 103
T2  
Let (P1, V1, T1) and (P2, V2, T2) denote the initial P1 V1 105  2.4 103
and the final pressure, volume and temperature
= 800 K
respectively.
P1 = Patm = 105 N/m2 ; Heat supplied = Q = U + W
We have U = n Cv T
V1 = 2.4 × 10–3 m3 ;
PV 3
T1 = 300 K = 1 1  R  T2  T1 
RT1 2
Balancing forces on the piston :
105  2.4  103  3
kx =  500  600 J
We have : P2 = Patm + 300  2
A
W = work done against atmosphere + work
Here, x = 0.1 m ; A = 8 × 10–3 m3
done against spring
and k = 8000 N/m
W = Patm (V) + 1/2 kx2
5 5 5 2
 P2 = 10 + 10 = 2 × 10 N/m
 W = 105 (0.1 × 8 × 10–3) + 0.5 × 8000 ×
0.01
and V2 = V1 + x A = 3.2 × 103 m3
= 120 J
Hence Q = U + W = 600 + 120 = 720 J.

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Example - 8 Two moles of an ideal monatomic gas, initially at pressure p1 and volume V1, undergo an
adiabatic compression until its volume is V2. Then the gas is given heat Q at constant volume V2.
(a) Sketch the complete process on a P-V diagram
(b) Find the total work done by the gas, the total change in its internal energy and the final temperature of
the gas.
[Give your answers in terms of P1, V1, V2, Q and R.]

SOLUTION :
(a) Figure displays the PV diagram of the gas Work done by the gas on heating at
undergone the given two processes. constant volume
Since the volume is held constant
 W2 = 0
The total work done by the gas is
2/ 3 
3 P1 V1   V1 
W = W1 + W2  1    
2   V2  

(ii) Total change in Internal Energy :

(b) Change in internal energy in adiabatic
(i) Total Work Done by the Gas : compression
Work done by the gas in adiabatic
U1 =  W1
compression
 V 2/3 
In an adiabatic process : 3 P1 V1 
U1   1   1
P1 V1  P2V2 2  V2  
W1 
 1 and U2 = Q (given)
For a gas undergoing adiabatic process : The total change in internal energy of the gas is
 
We have : PV
1 1  P2 V2 2/3
3 P1 V1  V1  
U = U1 + U2 =     1 Q
PV 
 1 1 
PV 
V
2  V2 
 
1 1 2
V2 (iii) Final temperature of the Gas :
 W1 
 1 Change in temperature in adiabatic
compression
PV   V  1  Since U = CV T,
W1  1 1 1  1 
   1   V2   U1
 
We get : T = C
2/3  V
3P V   V 
Hence, W1  1 1 1   1    V 2/3 
2   V2   3 P1 V1 
 T2 – T1 = 2 C  1   1
V  V2  
[For a monatomic gas,  = 5/3]

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 V 2/ 3 
3 P1 V1  Q = CV T = CV (T3 – T2)
  1   1
3   V2   2/3
2 n R  Q Q PV V 
2  T3 =  T2   1 1 1 
CV      n R n R  V2 
P1 V1  V 2 / 3 
 1   1 Since n = 2 mol, we get :
 T2 = n R  V2  
  2/3
Q p V  V1 
T3   1 1  
Change in temperature on heating the gas 3R 2R  V2 

Example - 9 Two moles of an ideal monatomic gas is taken through

a cycle ABCA as shown in the P–T diagram. During the process AB,
pressure and temperature of the gas vary such that PT = constant. If
T1 = 300 K, calculate
(a) the work done on the gas in the process AB and
(b) the heat absorbed or released by the gas in each of the processes.
Give answers in terms of the gas constant R.

SOLUTION :
In the process AB, we will have The negative sign implies that the work is done
on the gas.
PV = nRT and PT = K . . . . (i)
(b) The change in energy of the gas in the process
nRT 2 AB is
Eliminating P, we get : V 
K
3 
U AB  n CV T   2   R  T1  2T2 
dV 2nRT 2 
  . . . . (ii)
dT K
= 900 R
(a) The expression of work done by the gas is :
Now from the first law of thermodynamics,
W   P dV QAB = UAB + WAB = 1200 R – 900 R
TB = – 2100 R
  K   2nRT 
W     dT  The negative sign implies that the heat is released
TA
T  K 
in the process AB. The process BC takes place
[Using Equations (i) and (ii)] at constant pressure. Hence
T1 WBC = P V = (2P1) (VC – VB)
 WAB   2nR dT  nRT1 nRT1 
2T1 =  2 P1    
 P1 2 P1 
= 2 nT1R
= nRT1
=  2  2 (300 K) R = – 1200 R
= 2  300 R = 600 R

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Now, V
W AC  nRT ln A
3  VC
U BC  n CV   2  R  TC  TB 
2  (where T = 2T1)
= 3 (R) (2T1 – T1) = 3(R) 300 = 900 R = 2  R  2  300 log10 2
= 1200 R log10 2
The positive sign implies that the heat is absorbed
in the process BC. UCA = 0
The process CA takes place at constant QCA = UCA + WCA
temperature. Hence = 0 + 1200 R log10 2

Example - 10 A cubical box of side 1 metre contains helium gas (atomic weight 4) at a pressure of 100
2
N/s . During an observation time of 1 second, an atom travelling with the root-mean-square speed parallel
to one of the edges of the cube, was found to make 500 hits with a particular wall, without any collision
25
with other atoms.Take R  J/mol-K and k = 1.38 10–23 JK.
3
(a) Evaluate the temperature of the gas. (b) Evaluate the average kinetic energy per atom.
(c) Evaluate the total mass of helium gas in the box.
SOLUTION :
(a) We have :
1000 2  4  103 kg mol 1   160 K
Distance travelled by the atom in successive hit 
to one of the edges of the cube is l = 2m 
3  25 / 3 J 1 mol 1 
Number of hits with the wall in one second is
(b) The average kinetic energy per atom is
N = 500/s

3 3

KE  kT    1.38 1023 J K 1 160 K 
2 2

= 3.31  10–21 J
(c) Using the expression
m
Hence, distance travelled in one second, i.e. root PV  nRT    RT
M 
mean square speed of atom, is
PVM
Vrms = l N = (2 m) (500/s) = 1000 m/s We get : m 
RT
Since the root mean square speed of gaseous
atoms is given by vrms  3 RT / M , we get : 100 Pa  1 m3   4  103 kg mol 1 

v2 M
T  rms
 25 / 3 J K 1 mol 1 160 K 
3R = 3.0  10–4 kg

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Vidyamandir Classes Gaseous State and Thermodynamics

THINGS TO REMEMBER
1. (a) If the molecules are moving speeds c1, c2, c3, ................., cN ;
then the root mean square speed of the gas is defined as :

c12 +c 22 + c32 + .........+cN

2
c 2 = crms =
N
(b) crms can be calculated with any of the following results.
3P 3 RT 3kT
crms =  
 M m0

2. The pressure exerted by the gas is

1 m0 N 2 1 2 m N
P crms or P  crms where  = density of gas  0
3 V 3 V
3. Kinetic energ of a gas :
For monoatomic gas :
Total energy per molecule = 3/2 kT
Total energy per mole = 3/2 RT
For diatomic gas :
Total energy per molecule = 5/2 kT
Total energy per mole = 5/2 RT
For triatomic gas :
Total energy per molecule = 3kT
Total energy per mole = 3RT
4. (a) Work done
W =  PdV
(b) Work Done From P-V Diagram

W = area under the curve AB above the X-axis (shaded portion)

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5. Internal Energy
Internal energy (U) of a system is the total of all kinds of energy possessed by the atoms and other particles
that comprise the system. The change in internal energy U depends only on the temperature difference of
initial and final states and not on the process between the states.
U = Uf – Ui
6. First Law of Thermodynamics
 heat energy given   increase in   work done 
 to the system    internal energy    by the system 
     

Q = U + W.

7. Combining Cp – CV = R and Cp /Cv = , we set :

R R
CV  and CV 
 1  1

8. Cp and Cv for Gases :

(a) For mono-atomic gas :
3 5
Cv = R and Cp = R
2 2

Cp 5
  
Cv 3

(b) For di-atomic gas :

5
 Cv = R
2

7 Cp 5
 Cp = R   
2 Cv 3

9. Relations for Thermodynamic Processes (State Variables P, V, T)

Isochoric process :
P1 P2
Volume remains constant.  P  T  
T2 T2
Isothermal process :
Temperature remains constant  P  1/V  P1 V1 = P2 V2

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Isobaric process :
1 V2 V
Pressure remains constant.  V  T  T T
2 2
Adiabatic process :
No heat transfer takes place.
P1 V1 = P2 V2 T1 V1  1 = T2 V2  1 T1 P11   = T2 P21  

10. Expressions for U, W, and Q for Different Processes

Internal Energy Change : (U)
U = nCv T for every process.
It is state function and depends only on the difference of initial and final temperatures.
nR
U = n Cv T = T
 1
Process Work Done : (W) Heat Exchange : (Q)

V2 V2
Isothermal Process : W  2.303 nRT log10 Q  2.303 nRT  og10
V1 V1

PV  P V nR T1  T2 
Adiabatic Process : W 11 2 2  Q = 0
 1  1

Isochoric Process : W=0 Q = n Cv T (use definition of Cv)

Isobaric Process : W = P V = P (V2  V1) Q = n Cp T (use definition of Cp)

W = nR (T2  T1)

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Electromagnetic Induction
MAGNETIC FLUX Section - 5

The magnetic flux through a circuit is a measure of the number of lines of force passing through the circuit
when it is placed in an external magnetic field. Mathematically, we define flux as follows :

  B .d A

where B : magnetic field vector A : area vector of loop

If the external field is uniform, then :

B. A
  = B A cos  where  : angle betwen B and A .

Units : The unit of magnetic flux is Weber (Wb).

1 Wb = 1 T m2.

Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction :

According to Faraday’s Law, whenever the magnetic flux through a circuit changes, an emf is induced in the
circuit.
The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate at which flux changes with time.
d
Magnitude of the induced emf =
dt
If  represents the flux through a single turn, and the loop has N turns, then

d
Induced emf = N
dt
This induced emf creates an induced current in the circuit whose magnitude is given as

induced emf 1 d
i 
net resistance of circuit R dt
The direction of induced current (and hence that of induced emf) is obtained by Lenz’s Law.
Lenz’s Law :
According to Lenz’s Law, the induced current always opposes the flux change that creates it. In other words,
if the flux decreases, then the induced current tries to support the existing magnetic field and if the flux in-
creases, the induced emf tries to balance the existing magnetic field.

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Induced Charge Flow :

When a current is induced in the circuit due to the flux change, charge flows through the circuit and the net
amount of charge which flows along the circuit is given as :

1 d 1
q   i dt  R dt
dt 
R  d
|  | |  |
 q and qN for N turns.
R R

Heat dissipation :
The heat dissipated due to induced current

d
H   Vi dt   i dt   i|d |
dt
If the induced current is kept constant, then heat dissipated

 i  |d  |  i|  |

Illustration - 19 A conducting rod AB makes contact with the metal rails AD and BC which are 0.5 m
apart. If uniform magnetic field of induction 0.5 Wb/m2 acts perpendicular to the plane of the figure.,
(a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the induced emf when
the rod is moving to the right with speed 4 m/s.
(b) If the resistance of the circuit ABCD is 0.2 ohm, calculate the force
required to maintain the motion assuming smooth contacts.
(c) Compare the rate at which mechanical work is done by the force
with the rate of heat dissipated in the circuit.
SOLUTION :
(a) Let AB = l and AD = BC = x at some instant. magnetic force acting on AB = B i l
  =Blx = 0.5 × 5 × 0.5 = 1.25 N towards left.
d dx The applied force to maintain constant velocity
 induced emf =  Bl  Bl v must be of same magnitude but opposite
dt dt
direction i.e., towards right.
 induced emf = 05  0.5  4 = 1 volt.
(c) Rate of work done = Fv
(b) Induced current = i = 1.25 × 4 = 5 Watts.
= induced emf/R = 1/0.2 = 5 A
Rate of heat dissipation in resistance i2 R

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= 52 × 0.2 = 5 Watts.
Hence the work done by force applied to the rod is completely converted to heat in the resistance.

Illustration - 20 Space is divided by line AD into two regions. region - I is field free and region - II has a
uniform magnetic field B directed into the plane of the paper. ACD is a semicirular conducting loop of radius
r with centre at O, the plane of loop being in the plane of the paper. The loop is now made to rotate with a
constant angular velocity  about an axis passing through O and perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The
effective resistance of the loop is R.
(i) Obtain an expression for the magnitude of the induced current in the loop.
(ii) Show that the direction of current when the loop is entering into region II.
(iii) Draw a graph between the induced current in the loop and time t.

SOLUTION :
(i) Flux through the loop is  = B (1/2 r2  ) at the (iii) After half cycle rotation, the flux starts decreasing
instant when AD has rotated through angle  . and hence current takes the clockwise direction.
Induced current The direction of the induced current reverses after
every half cycle i.e. after every  / seconds.
1 d B r 2 d
I= 
R dt 2 R dt

Br 2 
 I
2R
(ii) As the flux is increasing when A is entering into
region - II, the induced field must oppose the
existing field i.e., it should be outward. Hence
the induced current must be anti-clockwise.

Illustration - 21 A conducting rod AB of length l slides smoothly on two

metal rails placed parallel to a long wire carrying current I as shown. A
resistance R is connected between two ends of the rails as shown. The ve-
locity of the rod is kept constant at v by applying a force.
(a) Find the induced current in the resistance.
(b) What force has to be applied on the rod to keep the speed constant ?

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SOLUTION :
(a) Let us first calculate the flux through the circuit. 1 0 I a  l  dx 
i log  
Let d = flux through an infinitesimal area R 2 a  dt 
element of width dr at a distance r from wire.
0 I v a  l
0 I  log  
d = xdr 2R  a 
2 r
where x = instantaneous position of rod (b) Let dF = force on an infinitesimal element of
al
width dr at a distance r from wire.
0 I  dr 0 I
    d   dF  i dr
2 r 2r
a
al
0 I
 Fapplied   dF   i dr
2 r
a
2
v  0 I  a  l 
 Fapplied   log  
R  2  a 
1 d
induced current = [Substitute i from part (a)]
R dt

Illustration - 22 A rectangular loop of N turns of area A and resistance R rotates at a uniform angular
velocity  about Y-axis. The loop lies in a uniform magnetic field B in the direction of X-axis. Assuming that
at t = 0, the plane of the loop is normal to the lines of force, find an expression for the peak value of the emf
and current induced in the loop. What is the magnitude of torque required on the loop to keep it moving with
constant  ?
SOLUTION :
As  is maximum at t = 0, after time t : (a) Peak value of emf = BA N
 (t) = NBA cos t peak value of induced current = BA N/R
(b) Power input = heat dissipation per sec
magnitude of induced emf  d / dt
   = I 2 R
= BAN | sin t |
magnitude of induced current B 2 A2  N 2
  = sin  t
BA  N R
= sin  t
R

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Illustration - 23 A flexible circular loop 10 cm in diameter lies in a

magnetic field of 1.2 T, directed into the plane of the diagram. The loop
is pulled at the points indicated by the arrows, forming a loop of zero
area in 0.2 sec.
(a) Find the average induced emf in the circuit.
(b) What is the direction of current in R.
(c) What amount of charge will flow through R during this time if R = 10 ohms (neglect the resistance of
the loop).
SOLUTION :
i = BA cos0 = BA
f = 0 (b) As the flux decreases, induced field must support
the existing field i.e., inwards. Hence current must
| f – i | = 0  BA = BA be clockwise.
(a) Average emf induced 2
|  | BA 1.2    0.05 
(c) Charge =  
2 R R 10
|  | BA 1.2    0.05 
    0.047 Volts = 9.42 10–4 C
time t 0.2

Illustration - 24 A magnetic flux through a stationary loop with a resistance R varies during the time
interval  at = ( – t). Find the amount of heat generated in the loop during that time. The inductance of
the loop is to be neglected.
SOLUTION :
 2 2
|d  / dt| a   2t  2 a   2t  4a 2  3
i  . Heat   i R dt   R dt 
R R R2 0
R 3

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MOTIONAL EMF Section - 6

When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, it cuts the magnetic lines
of force and an emf is hence induced across its ends which is known as
motional emf.
If a conductor cuts the lines of force in uniform magnetic field, charges
in the conductor experience a force q (v  B ) and opposite polarities
are formed by accumulation of negative charges at one end.
In steady state, qE  q v  B  0
where E = induced electric field

 E  v  B
Q
VQ – VP = motional emf =   E . dl   (v  B ) . dl
P
(i) As a particular example, let us consider a straight conducting rod of length l moving with a speed v in uniform
magnetic field B and cutting the lines normally.
 induced emf =  (v  B ) . dl   B v dl  Bvl

(ii) Consider a rod of length rotating l with a constant angular velocity  about one
of its ends. A uniform magnetic field B normal to the plane of rotation of rod
exists.
Emf induced across the ends of an element of dx at a distance x from the centre
of rotation
= B (dx) x  (where x is the speed of that element)
l
B  2
Net emf across ends of rod =  B  dx  x  
2
0

Illustration - 25 In the figure shown, a copper rod moving with a velocity

v parallel to a long straight wire carrying a current I is shown. Calculate
the induced emf in the rod, assuming that v = 5.0 m/s, I = 100 amp, a = 1.0
cm and b = 20 cm.
SOLUTION : = B (x) v dx
Motional emf induced across an infinitesimal
element of length dx located at a distance x
from the wire

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Net emf across the rod =  B  x  v dx

b
0 I
=  2 x vdx
a
0 Iv b
= log
2 a

IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE - D

1. A search coil used to measure the magnetic fields in to be made with a radius of 2 cm. It is to be
designed so that flipping it 180 in a field of 0.1T causes a total charge of 1  10–4 C to flow in a
charge measuring instrument when the total circuit resistance is 50 ohm. How many turns should the
coil have ?
2. The current in the wire AB of infinite length in given figure is upward
and is increasing steadily at a rate dI/dt.
(a) At an instant when the current is I. What are the magnitude
and direction of the magnetic field B at a distance r from the
wire ?
(b) What is the flux d through the narrow shaded strip ?
(c) What is the total flux through the loop ?
(d) what is the induced emf in the loop ?
(e) Evaluate the numerical value of the induced emf if a = 10 cm, b = 30 cm,
l = 20 cm, dI/dt = 2A /s.
3. A uniform magnetic field of induction B is changing in magnitude at a constant rate dB/dt. You are
given a mass m of copper which is to be drawn into a wire of radius r and formed into a circular loop
of radius R. If  is the specific resistance and  is the density of the wire, show that the induced current
in the loop does not depend on the size of the wire or of the loop and , assuming B perpendicular to the
m dB
loop, is given by i 
4 dt
4. A rod of length d and a rectangular loop of width d are released
together and fall in a uniform field, as shown in figure. Is there
any difference in their motion ? (Assume the loop is never totally
within the field.)

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-D FOR REMAINING QUESTIONS IN THIS EBOOK

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INDUCTANCE Section - 7

Whenever the current through a circuit changes, flux due to that current also changes. An emf is hence induced
and is known as self inducted emf because there is no external field but only the field due to the circuit’s own
current that is responsible for the flux change. This process is known as self induction.
If i is the current in the circuit, then the flux due to that current is
 i
=Li
where L is known as the self-induction of the circuit and its unit is Henry (H).
d di
Self induced emf = L
dt dt
Energy stored in a circuit if current changes from 0 to i
di
=  E i dt   L i dt
dt
i
1
=  L i di  Li 2
2
0
1
 U L i2
2

Self Induction of a Coil :

Consider a coil of N turns and area of crossection A carrying a current i.
The length of the coil is  ( A).
 0 i N 
  NBA N   A
 l 

0 N 2 A
  i
l
Comparing with  = L i, we get :

0 N 2 A
L
l

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Combination of Inductors
(i) Series combination :

dI dI dI
V1  L1 V2  L2 V3  L3
dt dt dt
dI
V L
dt
V XY  V1  V2  V3
dI dI dI dI
L  L1  L2  L3
dt dt dt dt
L  L1  L2  L3
In general Leff   Li in series

(ii) Parallel Combination :

dI1 dI dI dI
V XY  L1  L2 2  L3 3 and V XY  L
dt dt dt dt
I  I1  I 2  I3
dI dI1 dI 2 dI3
  
dt dt dt dt
V V V V
   (V  V XY )
L L1 L2 L3

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1 1 1 1
  
L L1 L2 L3
1 1
In general  in parallel.
L Li

RL CIRCUIT :
(a) Growth of Current :
Let us connect a coil of self-induction L with a resistance R across a cell of emf E as shown. If the switch S
is thrown in contact with point 1 at t = 0, current i in the circuit tends to grow. Hence an emf is induced
across the coil in such a direction as to oppose this current as shown.
By Kirchoff’s voltage law, we have :
di
E–iR – L =0
dt
di dt
 
E  iR L
i t
 R di  R dt
  E  iR  
L
0 0
i Rt E
 log  E  iR  
0

L
 i t  
R
1  e Rt / L 

The current grows exponentially with time and tends to attain the steady
state value E/R.
The time after which current has grown upto almost 63 % of steady state
value is known as time constant  .
L E  1 E
Here   and i    1    0.63
R R e R

(b) Decay of Current :

Let i0 be the steady state current in the coil and the switch at that instant is
thrown in the contact with point 2 so that there is no cell in the circuit. The
current, hence tends to decrease and an emf is induced across L to support
this current.
 di 
  L   iR  0
 dt 

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Note that di/dt is negative quantity

i t
di  R dt
     i = i0 e–Rt/L
i L
0 0
The current decays exponentially with time.

LC Circuit :
An ideal capacitor fully charged is connected to an ideal inductor and switch is closed at t = 0.

From Kirchoffs low

dI q
L  0
dt C

d 2q 1 1
 q0 2 
dt 2 LC LC

d 2q
  2q  0
2
dt
Solution of equation (similar to SHM) is
q  q0 cos (t   )
dq
i   q0 sin(t   )
dt
t 0 I 0   0
 q  q0 cos t
i  i0  sin t
At any time t
q q0
VC   cos t
C C
dI
VL  L   2 Lq0 cos t
dt

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1 2 1
UB  LI  L 2 q 2 sin 2  t
2 2

q 2 q02 cos 2 t
UC  
2C 2C

q02
Total energy  U B  U C  which is constant
2C

This system can be compared with a spring mass system is SHM. x  x0 cos( t   ) and can be analyzed
accordingly.

Illustration - 26 A series circuit having a self-induction 3 H, a pure resistor 10 ohm and a source of con-
stant voltage 3 V is closed at time t = 0. Find :
(a) time constant of the circuit.
At the end of 1 time-constant, find :
(b) the current in the circuit,
(c) the rate at which the current in the circuit is increasing,
(d) the rate at which joule’s heating is produced,
(e) the rate at which energy is stored in the magnetic field,
(f) the rate at which energy is delivered by the source.
Is the total energy conserved ?

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SOLUTION :
i = 3/10 (1 – e–10 t/3) (f) Rate at which cell delivers energy = E i = 3
(0.19) = 0.57 Watts.
(a)  = L/R = 0.3 sec
di
(b) i (0.3) = 0.3 (1 – 1/e) = 0.19 A It is earily seen that E i = i2 R + L i
dt
(c) di/dt = e–10t/3 = 1/e = 0.37 A/s
(d) P = i2R = (0.19)2 10 = 0.361 Watts

dU d 1 2 di
(e)   Li   Li
dt dt  2  dt
= 3  0.19  0.37 = 0.21 W

MUTUAL INDUCTION :
Consider two coils C1 and C2 placed as shown. By varying current i1 in coil C1, we change the flux not only
through C1 but also through coil C2. The change in flux 2 through C2 (due to change in current i1) induces
an emf in the coil C2. This emf is known as mutually induced emf and the process is known as mutual
induction.
2  i1   2 = M i1

where M is called as mutual inductance of the pair of coils. The coil C1 in which i varies is often called
primary coil and the coil C2 in which the emf is induced is called secondary coil.
induced emf in coil C2 = E2

d2 di1
E2  M
dt dt

The mutual inductance is maximum when the coils are wound up on the same axis. It is minimum when the
axes of coils are normal to each other.

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Illustration - 27 A long solenoid of length 1 m, cross sectional area 10 cm2, having 1000 turns has wound
about its centre a small coil of 20 turns. Compute the mutual inductance of the two circuits. What is the emf
in the coil when the current in the solenoid changes at the rate of 10 Amp/s ?
SOLUTION :
Let N1 = number of turns in solenoid ; Comparing with 2 = M i1, we get :
N2 = number of turns in coil
0 N1 N 2 A2
A1 and A2 be their respective areas of Mutual inductance = M 
crossection. l
(A1 = A2 is this problem) 4   107  1000  20  10  104
M
Flux 2 through coil created by current i1 in so- 1
lenoid is 2 = N2 (B1 A2) = 2.51 × 10 H –5

 0 i1 N1  di1
2  N2   A2 Magnitude of induced emf = E2  M
 l  dt

 0 N1 N 2 A2  E2 = 2.51  10–5  10 = 2.51  10–4 V.

2    i1
 l 

Illustration - 28 (a) Calculate the mutual inductance between two coils when a current of 4 amp. changes
to 12 amp. in 0.5 sec. and induces an e.m.f. of 50 milli-volts in the secondary.
(b) Also calculate the induced e.m.f. in the secondary if current in the primary changes from 3 amp. to 9
amp. in 0.02 secs.
SOLUTION :
di 12  4 di 93
(a)   16 amp / sec (b)   300 amp / sec
dt 0.5 dt 0.02
 di  Now emf = (3.125 × 10–3) (300)
Induced emf = M  
 dt  = 0.9375 volt

 M 
 50  103 
= 3.125 × 10 –3
Henry..
16

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Illustration - 29 Calculate the length of a thin wire of uniform cross section to manufacture a solenoid of
length l0 = 100 and the self-induction 1 mH. (Assume the cross section diameter of solenoid to be negligible
with respect to its length).
SOLUTION :
2
0 N 2 A  N 2 r 2    rN 
L  0  0 . Calculate rN taking l = 1m and L = 10–3 H..
l l l
Length of wire required = 2rN.

Illustration - 30 A coil of 100 turns and 1 cm radius is kept coaxially within a long solenoid of 8 turns per
cm and 5 cm radius. Find the mutual inductance.
SOLUTION :
The magnetic field B in the primary of solenoid The mutual inductance is therefore,
given by N s
B = m0 Np i M  0 N p N s As
i
The magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil
Substituting the given values, we get :
is given by
Ns  = Ns B As = Ns (m0 Np i) As M = (4× 10–7) weber/amp–m) (8000/m)
where As is the cross sectional area of second- × 100 × (× 10–7m2)
ary of solenoid. = 3.15× 10–5 henry.

Illustration - 31 A long solenoid having 1000 turns per cm carries an alternating current of peak value 1
ampere. A search coil having a cross-sectional area of 1× 10–4 m2 and 20 turns is kept in the solenoid so
that its plane is perpendicular to the axis of the solenoid. The search coil registers a peak voltage of 2.5×
10–2 volt. Find the frequency of the current in the solenoid.
SOLUTION :
We know that the magnetic field of the solenoid Substituting the value of B from eq. (i) eq. (ii),
is given by we get :
B =  i N, . . . . (i)  = (0 i N) A Ns
where i is the current and N is the number of
turns per metre. d di
Now  0 A N N s
The magnetic flux-linked with the search coil is dt dt
given by
 = B A Ns . . . . (ii) where i (t )  i0 sin t

where A = area of search coil and Ns is the total d

= 0 A N Ns (i0  cos  t) . . . . (iii)
number of turns in the search coil. dt

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The peak value is given by Solving for , we get :

 d  = 99.47 per sec.
   0 A N N s i0 
 dt  peak  99.47
 f    15.8 / sec
Substituting the given values, we have 2 2  3.14

2.5× 10–2 = (4× 10–7) × (1× 10–4)

× (105) × (20) × (20) × 1 × 

IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE - E

1. Two coils are wrapped around cylindrical forms, as shown in figure. One coil is in series with a battery,
a switch, and a variable resistance. The other is connected to an ammeter. State the direction of the
induced current measured by the ammeter (x to y, or y to x) in the following circumstances :
(a) when the switch is first closed ;
(b) with the switch closed, the resistance is decreased
(c) with the switch closed, the coils are moved apart.

2. Two loops lie side by the side on a table. If a clockwise current suddenly starts to flow in one, what is
the sense of the induced current in the second ?
3. Can there be an induced emf in an inductor even if the current through it is zero ?
4. A real inductor has some resistance. Can be potential difference across the terminals of the inductor be
(a) greater than the induced emf ;
(b) less thant the induced emf ?
5. The self-induced emf in a solenoid of length 25 cm and radius 1.5 cm is 1.6 mV. When the current is 3A
and increasing at the rate 200 A/s.
(a) What is the number of turns ?
(b) What is the magnetic field within the solenoid at the given instant ? Ignore other effects.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-E FOR REMAINING QUESTIONS IN THIS EBOOK

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INDUCED EMF AND ELECTRIC FIELDS Section - 8

A changing magnetic field gives rise to an induced electric field. This electric field created in the conductor as
a result of changing flux is non conservative, time varying and is mutually perpendicular to the magnetic
fields. Hence the electric field lines representing the induced electric field form closed curves.
A conducting loop of radius r is kept in a time varying magnetic field.
d B
 
dt

The induction of current in the loop implies presence of induced electric field. The work done in moving the
 
test charge along the loop is qE (2 r ) or E 
2 r
Hence we can write
  d
 E  ds   dtB

Illustration - 32 A uniform magnetic field of induction B fills a cylindrical volume of radius R. A rod PQ of
dB
length 2 is placed as shown. If B is changing at a rate . Find the emf produced by the changing magnetic
dt
field that acts between the end of the rod.
SOLUTION :
Consider a circle of radius r ( R)

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d B  d
 
dt

dt

 r2B 
dB
   r 2
dt
dB
E 2 r   r 2
dt
1 dB
E   r2
2 dt
AB  d 
dW  ( E cos  )d 
AN  rd  d  cos 
 1 dB 
 dW   r  rd
 2 dt 
1  dB
dW   r 2 d 
2  dt
1 2
Area of OAB  r d
2
dB
Total work done from P to Q = Area OPQ 
dt
dB 1
 PQ    2 R 2   2
dt 2
dB
 PQ    R2  2
dt

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 Two long parallel horizontal rails, a distance d apart

and each having a resistance  per unit length, are joined at one end by a
resistance R. A perfectly conducting rod MN of mass m is free to slide along
the rails without friction. There is a uniform magnetic field of induction B,
normal to the plane of paper and directed into the paper. A variable force
F is applied to rod MN, such that as the rod moves, a constant current I
flows though R.
(i) Find the velocity of the rod and the applied force F as a function of distance x of the rod from R.
(ii) What fraction of work done per second by F is converted into heat ?
SOLUTION :
(i) Instantaneous flux =  = B x d 2 mI 2 
 F (x) = B I d +  R  2x  
1 d B2d 2
induced current 
R  2  dt using (i)
(ii) (Work done per sec by F) = F v
Heat dissipated per sec = I2 (R + 2 x  )
2
Heat dissipated per sec I  R  2 x 

work done per sec Fv

I 2  R  2x  
Bvd =
I
2m  I 3
R  2 x I 2 R  2 x  3 3
 R  2 x  2
B d
I
 v(x) = (R + 2 x ) . . . .(i)
Bd B3d 3
Magnetic force acting on the rod = B I d = 3 3
B d  2m  I  R  2 x  
dv
 F – B I d = mv
dx

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Example - 2 A horizontal copper conductor of mass m slides down two smooth parallel vertical copper
bars, due to gravity. At the top, the bars are connected through a resistor of resistance R. The distance
between two bars is l and the system is placed in a vertical uniform horizontal magnetic field of induction B
directed normal to the plane of the loop so formed. Find the maximum velocity attained by the copper
connector, assuming bar to be smooth and of negligible resistance and neglecting self-induction of the loops.
SOLUTION :
Let x be the instantaneous position of the con- From the force diagram :
nector PQ from the top.
mg – Bil = m dv/dt
The flux through the circuit is  = B l x
 induced current B2 l 2 v dv
 mg  m . . . .(i)
1 d Blv R dt
=I= 
R dt R  dv/dt decreases and v increases as the
connector PQ comes down.
 By taking t  , dv/dt  0,
we get the terminal velocity.

B2 l 2 v
Mg  0
R
mg R
 terminal or maximum velocity = v 
B2 l 2
B2 l 2 v Note that we can get the expression of velocity v as
 magnetic force on PQ = B i l = a function of time by solving the differential
R
By Lenz’s law, the induced current is clockwise and equation (i).
magnetic force tends to retard the connector.  B2l 2 
mg R  t
By using F  i (l  B), we get the direction of V t    1  e mR 
B2 l 2  
force B i l.  

Example - 3 A wire bent as a parabola y = ax2 is located in a uniform magnetic field of induction B, the
vector B being perpendicular to the plane X-Y. At the moment t = 0 a connector starts sliding translation wise
from the parabola apex with a constant acceleration  . Find the emf of electromagnetic induction in the
loop thus formed as a function of y.
SOLUTION :
y
Let P : (x, y) induced emf = Bvl  B 2wy  2 x   B 2 wy 2
a
[Note that for constant acc., v2 = 02 + 2wy]

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Example - 4 A square frame with side a and a long straight wire carrying a current I are located in the
same plane as shown in figure. The frame translates to the right with a constant velocity v. Find the emf
induced in the frame as a function of distance x.
SOLUTION :

xa
0 I  Ia xa
   d   . adr  0 log
2 r 2 x
x

d  Ia x   a  dx
emf   0 . . 2 
dt 2 x  a  x  dt

 0 Ia 2 v (Negative sign indicates that  is decreasing)


2 xx  a Alternatively, emf induced = B1va  B2va
0 I  1 1 
= (B1  B2) va = 2  x  x  a  va
 

Example - 5 A conducting rod AB of mass m slides without friction over two long conducting rails
separated by a distance l. At the left end the rails are interconnected by a resistance R. The system is located
in a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
At the moment t = 0 the rod AB starts moving to the right with an initial velocity v0. Neglecting the resistances
of the rails and the rod AB, as well as the self - inductance, find :
(a) the distance covered by the rod until it comes to a standstill ;
(b) the amount of heat generated in the resistance R during this process.
SOLUTION :

B 22
Let k
mR
dx  v mR v0
 v0e kt  x 0 v0e kt  0 
dt k B 2l 2
Bv  mdv 1
i and bil  Heat dissipation = loss in KE  mv02
R dt 2
B 2l 2v mdv 2 2 Also try finding out heat dissipation by
  v  V0e  B l / mR
R dt  2
0
i R dt
and check if answer comes out to be same.

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

[B] Electromagnetic Induction & AC Circuit

1. Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux through a circuit is a measure of the number of lines of force passing through the circuit
when it is placed in an external magnetic field. Mathematically, we define flux as follows :
   B d A
where B : magnetic field vector A : area vector of loop
If the external field is uniform, then :
  BA
   BA cos  where  : angle between

2. Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction :

According to Faraday’s Law, whenever the magnetic flux through a circuit change, an emf is induced in the
circuit. The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate at which flux changes with time.
d
Magnitude of the induced emf 
dt
This induced emf creates an induced current in the circuit whose magnitude is given as
induced emf 1 d
i 
net resistance of circuit R dt

3. Len’s Law :
According to Len’z Law, the induced current always opposes the flux change that creates it. In other words,
if the flux decreases, then the induced current tries to support the existing magnetic field and if the flux
increases, the induced emf tries to balance the existing magnetic field.

4. Induced Charge Flow :

When a current is induced in the circuit due to the flux change, charge flows through the circuit and the
net amount of charge which flows along the circuit is given as :
1 d 1
q   idt   dt   d
R dt R
 
 q and q  N for N turns.
R R

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5. Heat dissipation :
d
The heat dissipated due to induced current H   vi dt   i dt   i d
dt

If the induced current is kept constant, then heat dissipated  i  d  i 

6. Motional EMF
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, it cuts the
magnetic lines of force and an emf and an emf is hence
induced across its ends which is known as motional emf.
vQ  vP  motional emf   v  B  dl
(a) As a particular example, let us consider a straight
conducting rod of length l moving with a speed v in
uniform magnetic field B and cutting the lines normally.
(b) Consider a rod of length rotating with a constant angular
velocity  about one of its ends. A uniform magnetic
field B normal to the plane of rotation of rod exists.

B  2
Net emf across ends of rod 
2

7. Inductance
Whenever the current through a circuit changes, flux due to that current also change. An emf is hence
induced and is known as self inducted emf because there is no external field but only the field due to the
circuit’s own current that is responsible for the flux change. This process is known as self induction.
If i is the current in the circuit, then the flux due to that current is
 i
  L i where L is known as the self-induction of the circuit and its unit is Henry (H).
d di
Self induced emf  L
dt dt

8. Energy stored in a circuit if current changes from 0 to i

1 2
U Li
2

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9. Self induction of a Coil :

Consider a coil of N turn and area of crossection A carrying a current i.
The length of the coil is l (l  A ).

10. RL CIRCUIT :
(a) Let us connect a coil of self-induction L with a resistance R across a
cell of emf E as shown. If the switch S is thrown in contact with
point 1 at t = 0, current i in the circuit tends to grow.
E
i (t ) 
R

1  e Rt / L 
The current grows exponentially with time and tends to attain the
steady state value E/R.
The time after which current has grown upto almost 63% of steady
state value is known as time constant  .
L E  1 E
Here  and i ( )  1    0.63
R R  e R

11. Decay of Current :

Let i0 be the steady state current in the coil and the switch at that
instant is thrown in the contact with point w so that there is no cell in
the circuit.
The current, hence tends to decrease and an emf is induced across
L to support this current.
i  i0 e  Rt / L
The current decays exponentially with time.

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12. Mutual Induction

Consider two coils C1 and C2 placed as shown. By varying current i 1 in coil C 1, but also through coil
C 2 . The change in flux  2 through C 2 (due to change in current i 1 ) induces an emf in the coil C 2 . This
emf is known as mutually induced emf and the process is known as mutual induction.
2  i1    M i1

where M is called as mutual inductance of the pair of coils. The coil C 1 in which i varies is often called

primary coil and the coil C 2 in which the emf is induced is called secondary coil.
Induced emf in coil C 2  E 2
d 2 di
E2  M 1
dt dt
The mutual inductance is maximum when the coils are wound up on the same axis. It is minimum when the
axes of coils are normal to each other.

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SOLUTIONS - IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-D

N |   qR
1. q  N  20 turns [ =  –  = +(–Br2) – (Br2) = –2Br2]
R 2 B r 2 f i

0 I 0 I  0 I  b
2. (a) (b) dr (c) n
2 r 2 r 2 a
0 b dI
(d) n (e) 8.83 × 10–8 V
2 a dt
3. m = [A(2R)] ; [A = r2 ]
2
emf  dB / dt   R RA dB m dB
m i   . 
 AR   resistance   2 R  2  dt 4 dt
2
A
 Bdv 
4. There is an induced current in the loop  i   and hence it experiences an upward magnetic force. The
 R 
loop will not fall with acceleration = g but the rod will fall with acceleration ‘g’. Loop will fall with an acceleration
less than ‘g’.

SOLUTIONS - IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-E

1.

2. A clockwise current produces field in the other loop going into the table. To oppose the increase in flux, a
clockwise current is induced in second loop.
di
3. Yes because induced emf = L
dt
4. (a) Yes, for increasing i
(b) Yes, for decreasing i.
di 1.6  103  N2A
5. 1.6  103  L  L  8 106 H ; L  0
dt 200 
0 IN
 Solve for N and B  ( = 25 cm ; I = 3A)


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Illustration - 1

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Electrostatics

Electrostatics
ELECTRIC FIELD Section - 1

Coulomb’s Law and the Electric Field

How a charge can be produced ?
All bodies consist of atoms which contain equal amount of positive and negative charges in the form of
protons and electrons respectively. The number of electrons being equal to the number of protons as an
atom is neutral. If the electrons are removed from a body it gets +vely charged.

Ways of charging a body :

Charging by Friction :
When two bodies are rubbed together, a transfer of electrons take place from one body to another. The
body from which electrons have been transferred is left with an excess of +ve charge so it gets positively
charged and the body which receives the electrons becomes -vely charged. The +ve and –ve charges
produced by rubbing are always equal in magnitude.
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, it loses its electrons and gets a +ve charge. While the piece of silk
acquires equal –ve charge.
An ebonite rod acquires a –ve charge, if it rubbed with wool (or fur). The piece of wool (or fur) acquires an
equal +ve charge.

Charging by electrostatic induction :

If a +vely charged rod is brought near an insulated conductor, the –ve charges (electrons) in the conductor
will be attracted towards the rod. As a result, there will be an excess of –ve charge at the end of the
conductor near the rod and the excessive +ve charge at the far end. This known as electrostatic induction.
The charges thus induced are found to be equal and opposite to each other. When the positively charged
rod is removed, the conductor will again become electrically neutral.

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When a positive rod is brought near the conductor, –ve charge is induced at the near end and equal +ve
charge is induced at the far end of the conductor. Now if we touch the far end with a conducting wire
connected to the earth, the positive charge here will be canceled by negative charge coming from earth
through the conducting wire. Now, if we remove the wire first and then rod, the induced –ve charge which
was held at the outer end will spread over entire conductor. It means that the conductor has been negatively
charged by induction. In the same way one can induce a +ve charge on a conductor by bringing a –ve
charged rod near it.

Charging by conduction :
Take two conductors, one charged and other uncharged. Bring the conductors in contact with each other.
The charge (whether –ve or +ve) under its own repulsion will spread over both the conductors. Thus the
conductors will be charged with the same sign. This is called as charging by conduction (through con-
tact).

How a charged body (+ve or –ve) attracts an uncharged body :

When an uncharged body is brought near the charged body, electric induction takes place. As a result, the
near end of the uncharged body acquires opposite charge and hence attraction takes place between the two
unlike charged bodies. The other end (far end) of the uncharged body acquires the similar charge, hence
there is force of repulsion between two like charges, but this force is weak enough because of larger
distance. So the net force between a charged and uncharged body is attractive. e.g. after combing dry
hair with a plastic comb if we take it near the small pieces of paper, they are attracted by it.

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Conservation of charge :
Electric charge can neither be created nor be destroyed i.e. it is always conserved. This is known as
principle of conservation of charge.

Conductors :
The conductors are materials which allow electricity (electric charges) to pass through them due to presence
of free electrons. e.g. metals are good conductors.

Insulators :
The materials which don’t allow electricity to pass through them as there are no free electrons in them. e.g.
wood, plastics and glass etc.

Electrostatic Interaction :
It is the interaction between two bodies by virtue of their electric charges. The force of electric interaction
between two bodies is given by Coulomb’s Law, which is stated as :

The force between two point electric charges (q1 and q2 separated by a distance r) is :

1 q1 q2 1
F  2
where = 9  10 9 Nm2 C–2
4  0 r 4  0

0 is known as the permittivity of free space. If the medium between the charges is other than air or vacuum,
0 is replaced by k 0, where k is known as the dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the medium
(i.e. k = 1 for air or vacuum).

S.I. unit of charge :

S.I. unit of charge is Coulomb (C). One Coulomb is that quantity of charge which will repel an equal and
similar charge placed at a distance of 1 meter from it with a force of 9 × 109 N.

Principle of Superposition :
According to principle of superposition, the force on a charge at any point due to a number of other charges
is the vector sum of the forces which would be exerted by the individual charges on the charge at that point.
For example: in the case of three charges shown in the fig., the net force exerted by the charges q2 and q3
on q1 is the vector sum of forces independently exerted by q2 and q3 on q1. If F1 is total force on q1 due to
q2 and q3, F12 is the force on q1 due to q2 and F13 is the force on q1 due to q3.

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  
F1  F 12  F 13

Note : The gravitational and electrical interactions are very similar to each other but differ in some fundamental
aspects. For both the interactions, the force is proportional to the product of the interaction charges, in
versely proportional to the square of distance between them and acts along the straight line joining the two
charges. But while there is only one kind of gravitational charge (mass), there are two opposite kinds of
electric charges (–ve and +ve).

Electric Field :
An electric field is defined as a region in which there should be a force upon a charge brought into that
region. In simple terms, we can also say that an electric field exerts force on any charge that is brought inside
its region.

Electric fields that we will study are usually produced by different types of charged bodies - point charges,
charged plates, charged sphere etc. We can also define the electric field of a charged body as its region of
influence within which it will exert force on other charges.
If two point charges are placed as shown, we describe the forces on them in two ways :
(i) The charge q2 is in the electric field of charge q1. Thus the electric field of charge q1 exerts force on
q2 .
(ii) The charge q1 is in the electric field of charge q2. Hence the electric field of charge q2 exerts a force
on q1.

exerts force on
Electric field   charges inside it
is created by
Electric field   charged bodies
Electric field can easily be compared to gravitational fields which are produced by bodies having mass. For
example, the region surrounding earth is under the influence of earth’s gravitational field. This gravitational
field of earth exerts forces on any other body inside this field. This force we usually call as the weight of a
body. While the gravitational field acts on any body having mass, the electric field exerts force on charged
bodies only.

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Electric Field Intensity :

Electric field intensity is the vector quantity E which measures the electric field strength and its direction.
(i) The magnitude of electric field intensity at a point A is the force experienced by a unit positive charge
placed at A.
(ii) The direction of electric field intensity at a point A is the direction in which the electric field exerts force
on a (unit) positive charge placed at A.

Force exerted by a field on a charge inside it :

If we know the electric field intensity at a point in a field, we can calculate the force acting on a charge q
placed at that point using the relation :

F  qE

If q is a +ve charge, force F on it is in the direction of E .

If q is a –ve charge, F on it is opposite to the direction of E .

Electric Field created by a point charge :

The electric field produced by a point charge q at a distance r from it is given as E (the force on a unit +ve
charge).

q
E
4  0 r 2

It is easily seen that it is simply another statement of Coulomb’s Law. The above equation gives the magni-
tude of field intensity. The direction of field intensity is away from q if it is positive and towards q if it is
negative. Hence in vector from

q q
E rˆ  r
2
4  0r 4  0 r 3

Electric field due to a group of point charges :

Since electric field is vector quantity, the resultant of two or more field intensities is obtained by taking the
vector sum. When there are a number of charges, the net field intensity is the vector sum of the individual
intensities of each charge.
E  E1  E2  E3  . . . .

Units of electric field intensity are N/C (Newton per Coulomb).

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Electric field Lines

Electric lines of force are imaginary lines that we draw to aid our visualisation of the properties of the
electric field. The tangent to these lines of force at any point represents the direction of field intensity.
 The electric lines of forces are continuous curves in an electric field starting from a positively charged
body and ending on a negatively charged body.
 The tangent to the curve at any point gives the direction of the electric field intensity.
 Lines of forces never intersect each other.
 The lines of forces are always normal to the surface of a conductor while leaving the conductor or
ending on it.
 At points where the intensity is low, the lines of forces will be widely separated and where the intensity
is higher, the lines of forces will be closely packed.

Electric lines of forces due to two equal +ve charges (field is zero at O)  O is a null point

Electric lines of forces due to eaual +ve charges bodies

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Charged Particle in an Electric Field :

1. Force on the charged particle
If a particle carrying a charge q is placed at a point where electric field strength is E, it experiences a
force given by :
F=qE
Hence :
 q tends to move in direction of field if q is positive.
 q tends to move opposite to field if q is negative.

2. Motion of a charged particle in uniform electric field

In a uniform electric field, the intensity E has same magnitude and direction everywhere. Due to the
constant force qE, the charged particles moves with uniform acceleration.
(i) If initial velocity is zero or parallel to the field, it moves in a straight line along the field with
constant acceleration (a)
qE
a
m
(ii) If initial velocity is at an angle with the field, the trajectory is parabola. Let the initial velocity be
u at right angles to the field E.

qE ˆ
Let E  E ˆj and u  uiˆ and a  j
m
After time t :
Velocity Position
Vx = u x =ut

qE 1 qE 2
Vy  t y  t
m 2  m 

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Equation of trajectory :
2
1 qE  x
y   
2  m  u

Electric Dipole :
An arrangement of two equal and opposite charges separated by a fixed distance is known as an electric
dipole.

Let q and –q be two charges separated by distance 2. The dipole moment of the dipole is :
p  2ql
It is a vector quantity and is directed from –ve charge towards the +ve charge. The line through q and –q is
known as the axis of the dipole.
Electric field at axis :
Electric field of a short dipole on its axis at a point A at a distance r from dipole ( << r) :
q q
EA  2
 2
4 0  r    4 0  r   

4qr
EA 
2

4   0 r 2  2 
2p
EA 
4   0r3

Electric field at equator :

Electric field at a point distance r from the centre of the short dipole ( << r)

q
EB  2 cos 

4   0 r 2  2 
2q 
EB 

4   0 r 2  2  2  r 2

p
EB 
4   0r3

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Electric field at any point A (r,  ) due to short dipole :

Let A be a point at a distance r from the mid-point O of the short dipole. Let  be the angle between OA
and the dipole moment p.

In order to find the field at A, we resolve the dipole moment p into its components along OA and perpen-
dicular to OA. These two components are p cos and p sin respectively. The point A now lies on the axis
of the dipole p cos and on the right bisector of the dipole p sin .

E| | = field component along OA (created by p cos ) E = field component  to OA created by p

sin 

2 p cos  p sin 
= along OA =  to OA
4 0 r 3 4 0 r 3

p
EA = E||2  E2  1  3 cos 2 
3
4 0 r

EA makes an angle  with OA such that :

E 1  tan  
tan     tan     tan1  
E|| 2  2 

Electric field at A
p
E = 1  3 cos 2 
3
4   0r

Dipole in an external uniform electric field :

If a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E,
1. force on the dipole is zero.
2. torque on the dipole is given as  = qE (2 sin)

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 = p E sin  or   p  E

where  is the angle between p and E .

3. Potential energy of the dipole :
Taking U = 0 at  = 2,
U () = work done by an external agency  = /2 to .

=   d
 /2

=  p E sin d
 /2
= – pE cos 

 U( ) =  p Ecos   p . E .

4. (a) When  = 0, the dipole moment p is in the direction of the field E and the dipole is in stable
equilibrium. If it is slightly displaced, it performs oscillations.
(b) When  = 180, the dipole moment p is opposite to the direction of the field E and the dipole is in
unstable equilibrium.
Dipole in a Non-uniform electric field :
When a dipole is placed in a non-uniform Electric field, the net force as well as the net torque on it may not
be zero. The net force or torque can be calculated by considering the two force acting on the charges –q
and +q of the dipole.

Illustration - 1 It is required to hold four equal point charges +q each in equilibrium at the corners of a
square. Find the point charge that will do this if placed at the centre of the square ?
SOLUTION :
Let us first calculate the net force on any of these Considering the forces on the charge at D,
charges.
F  FA  FB  FC

 q2  q2
F  2 cos 45  
 4   a2  2
 0  4 0 a 2  

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Q .q q2  1
q2  1 
F   2   outwards along BD 2 2  2  2 
4   0 a2  2 
4 0 a / 2  4   0a

The charge Q placed at the centre must be negative 1 2 2

 Q  q
so that it exerts an opposite force which is equal to 4
F.
1  2 2 
 Q    q
 4
 

Illustration - 2 Two identical charged spheres are suspended by strings of equal length. The strings makes
an angle of 30 with each other. When suspended in a liquid of density 800 kg/m3, the angle remains the
same. What is the dielectric constant of the liquid ? The density of the material of the sphere is 1600 kg/m3.
SOLUTION :
Let T , T be the tensions in the string when spheres are in air and in liquid respectively.

F = electrostatic repulsion in air

q2
F 
40 a 2
In liquid this force is F  and is given as :
q2
F  where k is dielectric constant
4  0 k a 2
T sin = F
T cos = mg 1
 F  F
 F = mg tan k

from force diagrams ;

F mg
 where B is buoyant force
F  mg  B

vd g d
 k 
vdg  v  g d  

1600
T sin  = F  k  2
1600  800
B + T cos = mg
 F = (mg – B) tan 

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Illustration - 3 The electric field between the plates of a cathode ray oscillograph is 1.2 × 104 N/C. What
deflection would an electron experience if it enters at right angles to the field with kinetic energy of 2 keV, the
length of the assembly being 1.5 cm ?
SOLUTION :

Let u = speed of electron when it enters 1  eE  2

   ut and y   t
1 2 m 
mu 2  2000 e
2
1 eE 2
 y
 u
4000e 2 m u2
m
1 e E 2 m
Let t = time taken to cross the field  y
2 m 4000 e
The components of acceleration are :
eE 2
ax  0, a y 
m  y
E 2


1.2  104  1.5  102 
(taking downward direction as + Y) 8000 8000

 deflection = y = 3.375  10–4 m

Illustration - 4 A metal sphere is held fixed on a smooth, horizontal insulated plate and another metal
sphere is placed some distance away. If the fixed sphere is given a charge, how will the other sphere react ?

SOLUTION :

If the fixed sphere is given a charge, it will attract the uncharged sphere due to electrostatic induction.
The uncharged sphere will go and collide with fixed sphere. After collision, charge will be equally shared and
the spheres will then repel each other.

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Illustration - 5 An electric dipole consists of two opposite charges of magnitude 1  10–6 C separated
by a distance 2 cm. The dipole is placed in an external field of 1  105 N/C .
(a) What maximum torque does the field exert on the dipole ?
(b) How much work must an external agent do to turn the dipole end for end starting from a position
of alignment  = 0.
SOLUTION :
max = pE sin 90°

W = Vf – Vi = (–pE cos180°) – (– pE cos0°) = 2pE

Illustration - 6 An electron moving with a speed 5  108 cm/s is shot parallel to an electric field of
strength 1.0  103 N/C arranged so as to retard its motion.
(a) How far will the electron travel in the field before coming to rest ( momentarily) ?
(b) How much time will elapse ?
(c) If the electric field ends abruptly after 0.8 cm, what fraction of its energy will the electron loose in
traversing it ?
SOLUTION :
loss in KE = work against field 0 u2
 s = 7.1 cm = 0.071 m.
1 2a
mu2 – 0 = eEd
2
vu 0u mu
2 time = t =  
mu a  eE / m eE
 d = = 0.071 m
2eE
Energy lost in tranversing field
Alternatively = eEx where x = 0.8 cm
eE eEx eEx x
a = accelemtion = fraction lost = =   0.11
2 eEd d
m 1 / 2mu
v2 – u2 = 2aS

Illustration - 7 Two positive point charges a distance b apart have sum Q. For what values of the charges
is the Coulomb force between them a maximum ?
SOLUTION :
(q1  q2 )2  (q1  q2 )2 Q 2  (q1  q2 )2
q1 + q2 = Q. We have to maximise q1q2  
4 4
 q1q2 is maximum for (q1 – q2) = 0
 q1 = q2 = Q/2.

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Illustration - 8 The water molecule has a dipole moment p = 6.2  10–30 cm. Find the force on an ion of
charge +e at a distance of 0.5 nm : (a) along p; (b) normal to p. (Use the far field approximation)

SOLUTION :

2p 4 pe p  pe
(a) E along p   force  (b) E   F
3 3 3
4 0 r 4 0 r 4 0 r 4 0r 3

CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS Section - 2

Electric field due to a continuous charge distribution :

To find the field of a continuous charge distribution, we divide the
charge into infinitesimal charge elements. Each infinitesimal charge
element is then considered as a point charge and its field is given
by :
dq
dE 
4   0r 2
at a point distant r from the element. The net field at this point is
the summation of fields of all the elements.

 E   dE
Taking dE  dEx ˆi  dE y ˆj we have ;

Ex   dEx and E y   dE y

Because of the vector nature of the integration, the mathematical procedure must be carried out with care.
Fortunately, in the cases we consider, the symmetry of the charge distribution will usually result in a simpli-
fied calculation.
Each type of charge distribution is described (in the table given below) by an appropriate Greek-letter
parameter:  ,  , or . Note the units for each.
How we choose the charge element dq depends upon the particular type of charge distribution.

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Illustration - 9 A uniform line charge  (in coulombs per meter) exists along the X-axis from x = –a to x
= +a. Find the electric field E at point P a distance r along the perpendicular bisector.

SOLUTION :
In all the problems which involve distributions of charge, we choose
an element of charge dq to find the element of field dE’ produced at
the given location. Then we sum all such dE’s to find the total field E
at that location.
You must note the symmetry of the situation. For each element dq
located at positive X, there is a similar dq (see mirror-images in origin)
located at the same negative value of x. The dEx produced by one dq
is cancelled by the dEx in the opposite direction due to the other dq.
Hence, as we sum all the dq’s along the line, all the dEx components add to zero. So we need to sum only
the dEy components, a scalar sum since they all point in the same direction. The element of charge is dq =
 dx.
1 dq  dx
dE  
4  0
r 2  x2  
4  0 r 2  x 2 
E x   dE x   dE sin   0 (by symmetry)

E y   dE y   dE cos 

 dx r r dx
4 0 
E = 
4  0 r  x 2 2
 r 2  x2
3/ 2
 r 2  x2 
The integral on the right hand side can be evaluated by substituting x = r tan  and dx = r sec2  d 

dx r sec 2  d cos  sin 

 3 / 2
  3 3
  2 d  2
 r 2  x2  r sec  r r

dx 1 x
  3/ 2

r2
 r2  x2  x2  r 2

a
r x r 2a
Ey = 
4 0 r 2 x 2  r 2 4 0 r 2 a 2  r 2
a

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The net field at P is E = Ey

 a
E
2 0 r a2  r 2

Note : In case of an infinite line charge, the field is everywhere perpendicular to the line of charge. The field at a
distance r from the line is calculated by taking a 
  in the above result.

E (infinite line charge)

 a
Lt
= a   2 0 r
a2  r 2


 E  2 r
0

Illustration - 10 Derive an exposition for the field at the centre of an arc of radium R and having a charge
Q uniformly distributed on it. The arc subtends an angle  at the centre.
SOLUTION :

 ( Rd )
dE = field due to the element =
4 0 R 2

Another mirror image element in M located in

the left half of the arc produces d E as shown.
The horizontal components of these d E vec-
tors balance each alter. Thus the net field at cen-
tre is produced by adding up the recital compo-
nents only.
 / 2
 Rd
Let M be the mid point of the arc AB and O be its E   dE cos    2
cos 
centre. We take OM as the reference for defining  / 2 4 0 R
angular coordinates of points of the arc. Consider 
an element locked between points whose angular E sin  / 2
2 0 R
coordinates measured from OM are 
and  + d as shown. Q sin  / 2
 E
Charge on this element = d =  (Rd) . 2 /2
4 0 R

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Illustration - 11 Two long straight parallel wires carry charges 1 and 2 per unit length. The separation
between their axes is b. Find the magnitude of the force exerted on unit length of one due to the charge on the
other.
SOLUTION :

 1 
Force on 2 per unit length = 2 (field due to 1) = 2 E1 2  2  b 
 0 

Illustration - 12 Two infinite line of charge with equal linear charge densities
 C/m are placed along the x and y axes. What is the electric field strength at an
arbitrary point (x, y) ?

SOLUTION :
 
E  E12  E22 where E1  ,E2 
2 0 y 2 0 x
 E x
 E x 2  y 2 directed at tan 1 1  tan1 with X-axis
2 0 xy E2 y

Illustration - 13 A semi-infinite line of charge has a uniform charge

density  C/m. Find the field strength at a distance R from its end :
(a) along the axis ; (b) perpendicular to the axis.

SOLUTION :

 dx 
(a) Ealong axis   
2 4 0 R
R 4 0 x

(b) E   E x ˆi  E y ˆj

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
 dx x 
E x   dE sin   4 
2 2
0 0 (R x ) R 2  x2 4 0 r
 
 
4 0r E 2 at 45° with x-axis.
4 0 r

 dx R
E y   dE cos   4 2
0 0 (R  x2 ) R2  x2
(Solve both integrals by substitution x = R tan
 and dx = R sec2 d)

Illustration - 14 A total positive charge Q is distributed uniformly around a thin, circular, non-conducting
ring of radius R. Find the electric Field E at a point P along the axis of the ring, a distance x from the center
as shown in figure below.
SOLUTION :
1 dq
dE  rˆ
4 0 r 2
whose magnitude is
1 dq
dE 

4  0 R2  x2

The X-component is
1 dq
dE x   cos  

4   0 R 2  x2

Note the symmetry of this situation. Every ele-
ment dq can be paired with a similar element on  
1 dq  x 
the opposite side of the ring. Every component =
dE perpendicular to the x axis is thus cancelled 
4 0 R2  x2   R2  x2 
 
by a component dE in the opposite direction. 
In the summation process, all the perpendicular  1 x dq
Ex   dE x 
components dE add to zero. Thus we only add  4 0 3/ 2
the dEx components, which all lie along the +X

  x2  R2 
direction, and this is a simple scalar integral. From As we integrate around the ring, all the terms
Coulomb’s Law in vector form,
remain constant and  dq  Q

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So the total field (Ex) is Do yourself

1 x A flat circular, non-conducting disk of radius R

4 0 3/ 2  dq has a uniform charge per unit area  on one side
x 2
R 2
 of the disk. Show that the electric field E at a
point P along the axis of the disk, a distance x
 1  xQ from the centre of the disk is
=  3/ 2
 4  0 
 x2  R2   

1
x


.
2 0  R2  x2 
 

Illustration - 15 Where will the electric field intensity be maximum along the axis of a charged ring of
radius R ?
SOLUTION :
Qx
E (x) =
4 0 ( x  R 2 )3 / 2
2

dE
For E(x) to be maximum, 0
dx
3/ 2 3 2
dE

Q  x2  R 2   x
2
x  R 2 (2 x)
dx 4 0 3 =0
 x2  R2 
3
 x2 + R2 – 2x2 =0
2
R
 x= . (For maximum E)
2

Note that for x = 0, E = 0 and as x  , E 

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ELECTRIC FLUX AND GAUSS’S LAW Section - 3

Electric flux
The electric flux through a surface placed in a electric field is a measure of the number of field lines passing
through that surface. The flux (represented as ) can be calculated by the scalar product of field intensity
E and the area A vector normal to the surface.
(a) Flux through a flat surface in a uniform field

In a uniform field E , the flux through a flat surface of area A can be easily calculated as:

  E  A  E A cos 

where  is the angle between the field E and the normal area vector A . The area vector A is perpendicu-
lar to the surface and is usually assumed so that 0    90°.

The electric flux through a closed surface S in a field E is given by

  E . d A
where the integral is taken over the complete surface. The area vectors of different elements are taken
normally outwards. In case of a closed surface, the flux is proportional to the net charge enclosed by the
surface. The relation is given by Gauss’s Law :
q
 E . d A 
0

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where q is the net charge enclosed by the surface S.

In case of a continuous charge distribution with volume density charge per unit volume)

 dV
 E . d A  0

where integral on the right hand side is taken over the entire volume enclosed by the surface S.
Electric flux through a curved surface

In case of a curved surface all the area vector of small elements are in different directions. The flux in such
situations is evaluated by summing up the volumes of flux from different area elements using an integral.

   d   E  d A

Illustration - 16 A uniform positive charge density  (in units of charge per volume) exists throughout a
sphericalvolume of radius R. Find the electric field
(a) outside the sphere and (b) inside the sphere.
SOLUTION :
By symmetry , we conclude that the field E can
only be radially outward, both inside and outside
the sphere. Moreover, for a given value of r, E
has the same magnitude everywhere. To match
this symmetry, we choose a Gaussian surface in
the form of a sphere of radius r, centred on the
spherical volume.

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(a) For r > R : (b) For r < R :

The total charge qin inside the spherical volume
(surface a) is To match the symmetry of E, we choose a
Gaussian surface in the form of a sphere of radius
R 4  r < R (surface b). Gauss’s Law involves only
Q    dV    4 r 2 dr     R 3  .
0 3  the charge qin inside this surface. From part (a),
Applying Gauss’s Law and noting that r
this is the integral qin =   dV , where the
0

2
upper limit is r instead of R.
 E . dA   E dA  E  dA  E (4 r ),
4 3
q Thus , qin =    r  .
we find  E . dA  in0 3 
q
E (4r2) =
Q  E . dA  in0
0
Q  4 r3
Solving for E gives E = E (4r2) =
4 0r 2 3 0
This is just the inverse-square-law field for a
point charge Q concentrated at the center of the   
For r < R : E =   r ( radially outward)
sphere. To obtain the answer in terms of the  3 0 
given parameters, we substitute Thus, inside the sphere of uniform charge, the
4  field is directly proportional to the distance r from
Q     R 3  to obtain
 3  the center.
For r > R : Do yourself :
4  In steady state, the charge resides on the outer
   R3   3  surface of a conductor and there is no field inside
E= 
3    R  1
2  3 0  r 2 the conductor. Show that the field outside (r >
4 0 r   R) a conducting sphere carrying a charge Q is E
(radially outward) Q
= .
4  0 r 2

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Illustration - 17 Derive an expression for the field of an infinite charged sheet having a charge density .
SOLUTION :

 E .d A   E .d A   E .d A
top and vertical
bottom faces

=  E d A  0 ( E is parallel to d A at top
and bottom faces)
= E  dA
= E (2A)
qenclosed
By Gauss’s Law  E .d A  0
The field lines due to the sheet emerge
perpendicular to the sheet and go away if the A
  (2 A) 
sheet is positively charged. Consider a Gaussian 0
surface in the form of a cuboid of cross-section
area A and to tal height 2r. 
 E 
The sheet passes through the middle of the 2 0
cuboid. The field lines are parallel to the vertical
faces of the cuboid and E .d A  0 through these
four vertical faces.

Illustration - 18 An infinitely long, straight line of uniform positive charge has a charge per unit length of  C/m.
Find the electric field E at an arbitrary distance r from the line using Gauss’s Law.
SOLUTION :
From each infinitesimal element of charge along
the line, an electric field emanates equally in all
directions. However, by symmetry, the
superposition of the fields from all of the
infinitesimal elements of charges results in a
cancellation of fields parallel to the line of charge.
The result is a net field directed radially outward
from the line. At all points at a given distance r
from the line (in any direction), the field has the
same magnitude.

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q
 E . dA  in0
L
curved E.dA  end E.dA 
side caps 0

(cos 0 = 1, cos 90 = 0)

L
E (2rL) + 0 = 
Therefore, we match this symmetry with a 0
Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of radius
Solving for E gives
r and length L whose axis is the line of charge.
At every point on the curved side of the cylinder, 
E = (radially outward)
E is parallel to the area elements dA, and it has 2 0r
the same magnitude everywhere. On the end caps
of the cylinder, E is perpendicular to dA
everywhere. The net charge qin inside the
cylinder is  L. Applying Gauss’s Law, we obtain

Illustration - 19 An isolated metal shell has a uniform surface charge density –  on its inner surface of
radius a and a uniform surface charge density +  on its outer surface of radius b. What can you deduce from
this information ?
SOLUTION :

The net charge enclosed by a Gaussian surface

S through the metal shell must be zero because
the surface is passing through a field-free region.
Hence a positive charge q =  (4a2) must be
present inside this shell.

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Illustration - 20 A uniform electric field E is parallel to the central axis

of a hemisphere of radius R, as shown in Fig. What is the flux through the
hemisphere ?
SOLUTION :

O
 E.d A   E .d A 
0
Curred Circular
Surface Plate

cs + EA cos 180° = O

Let us close the hemisphere by the adding a
circular plate the bottom. Applying Gauss’s Law cs = – EA cos 180°
on this closed hemisphere :
= EA
q
 E .d A  encl
0 = ER2

Illustration - 21 A square plate of side 12 cm lies in the xy plane. What is the flux through the plate due to
a uniform field E = 70 î + 90 k̂ N/C ?
SOLUTION :
Area of plate = A  (0.12) 2 m 2 kˆ 2
= (70î  90kˆ ) . (0 .12) kˆ

 E . A (uniform field) = 90 (0.0144) Nm2/C = 1.296 Nm2/C

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Illustration - 22 A cube of side L has one corner at the origin and its sides lie along the x, y, and z axes,
respectively. There is a field given by Ê = (a + bx) î .
(a) What is the net flux through the cube ? (b) What is the net charge enclosed by the cube ?

SOLUTION :
The flux will be non-zero only through the faces
which are normal to E . Through the faces
parallel to E ,  E .d A  0 as E  d A .
 = coming out +  going in
= E(x = 0) . L2 cos 180° + E(x = L).L2 cos 0°.
= – aL2 + (a + bL)L2
= bL3

Also, qencl = bL3 . 0

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL Section - 4

The work done in taking a unit positive charge from infinity (point of zero potential) to a point A is known as
the electric potential at A. This work done gets stored in the form of potential enery.
If VA and VB are the electric potentials of two points A and B, the potential difference between A and B is
equal to VB – VA.
work done in taking a charge q from A to B is W A to B = q (VB – VA)

Relation Between E and V

Let F ext be the force which balances qE while transferring the charge q from A to B.
(a) The work done in taking charge q from A to B can also be calculated as :

W F . dr
ext
B
=   qE .d r
A

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B
 q(VB – VA) =  q  E .d r
A
B
 V A  VB   E .d r
A

(b) 
If the charge q is given infinitely small displecement dr, the work done dW by F ext   qE by is 
given by :
dW = q dV = – qE dr

dV
 E 
dr
This is another relation between field intensity E and potential V. Electric field intensity E may be called as
the negative of potential gradient i.e. the rate of decrease of potential with distance.

Electric Potential in the field of a point charge :

The electric potential at a point A in the electric field of a point charge q given by V(r) can be evaluated using
the above equation by taking A at a distace r and B at infinity.

V(r) – V () =  E .d r
r

q
 V (r) =  dr
2
r 4 0r
q
V(r) = (taking V () = 0)
4 0r
q
VA = where r : distance of A from the point charge q.
4  0 r
Note that in calculating potential, we substitute the charge q with its sign (+ or –). Hence if q is negative, VA
will be negative.

Electric potential due to a group of point charges :

The potential at any point due to a group of point charges is the algebraic sum of the potentials contributed
at the same point by all the individual point charges.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . . . . . .

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Electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution :

The potential due to a continuous charge distribution is the sum of potentials of all the infinitesimal charge
elements in which the distribution may be divided.

V =  dV

dq
V =  4  r
0

Potential difference in a Uniform field

B
VA – VB = E .  d r
A

In case of a uniform electic field,

 V A  VB  E . A B

Equipotential Surfaces
If we join the points in an electric field which are at same potential, the surface (or curve) obtained is known
as equipotential surface (curve).

Note : (i) The lines of forces are always normal to equipotential surfaces.
(ii) The net work done in taking a charge from A to B is zero if A and B are on same equipotential surface.

EXAMPLES :
1. In the field of a point charge, the equipotential surfaces are spheres centered on the point charge.
2. In a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces are planes which are perpendicular to the field
lines.
3. In the field of an infinite line charge, the equipotential surfaces are co-axial cylinders having their axes
at the line charge.
Properties of a Conductor in an electric field :
(a) The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface and the inside of a conductor is equipotential
space.
(b) There is no electric field (and charge) inside the conductor’s surface.
(c) The lines of forces are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
(d) Any charge given to a conductor always resides on the conductor’s surface and not in the interior.

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Electrostatic Potential Energy

Potential Energy in an Electric Field :
If a charge is moved between two points in an electric field, work is usually
done against the field or by the field. In the figure, if a charge +q is moved
from B to C in the electric field of charge +Q, the work will have to be done
by some outside agency in pushing the charge +q against the force of field of
+Q.
This situation is very similar to that of a mass moved in gravitational field of earth away from it. Work done
against the gravitational pull of earth is stored in GPE and be recovered back. Similarly in electric field,
work done against an electric field is stored in the form of electric potential energy and can be recovered
back. If the charge +q is taken back from C to B, the electric force will try to accelerate the charge and
hence to recover the PE stored in the form of KE.
As the work done against an electric field can be recovered back, electrostatic forces and fields fall under
the category of conservative forces and fields. Another property of these fields is that the work done is
independent of path taken from one point to the another and the work done a closed path is zero.
Potential Energy of a system of two point charges :
The potential energy possessed by a system of two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is the
work required to be done bring them to this arrangement from infinity. This electrostatic potential energy is
given by :

q1 q2
U
4   0r

Electric Potential Energy of a system of point charges :

The electric potential energy of such a system is the work done in assembling this system starting from
infinite separation between any two point charges.
For a system of point charges q1, q2, . . . . . . qn , the potential energy is

qi q j 1 n n qi q j
U   4   0 ri j
or U  
2 i  1 j  1 4   0 ri j
(i  j )
1 i j  n

It simply means that we have to consider all the pairs that are possible.
Note the following :
1. Work done required by an external agency to move a charge q from A to B in an electric field with
constant speed
WA to B = q (VB – VA)

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2. When a charge q is let free in an external electric field, it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy.
If it goes from A to B, then
Total energy at A = Total energy at B

1 1
mV A2  qV A  mVB2  qVB
2 2
3. Energy stored in an electric field per unit volume is given by

1 2
energy per unit volume =  0 k E
2
where E is the electric field intensity and k = dielectric constant of the region

1
total energy stored in a region U    0 kE 2dV
2
where dV is the volume of an infinitesimal region in electric field E

Illustration - 23 Two point charges q and –2q are placed at a distance 6a apart. Find the locus of the point
in the plane of charges where the field potential is zero.
SOLUTION
Let us take the charges on X-axis ;
q2 4q 2
q at A (0, 0) and –2q at B (6a, 0)  
x2  y 2  x  6a  2  y2
Potential at a point P (x, y) is
q 2q  the locus is (x – 6a)2 = 4x2 + 3y2
V = 
4  0 x 2  y 2 4  0  x  6 a 2  y 2
V = 0

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Illustration - 24 A ball of mass 10–3 kg and charge 10–4 C is let free to move in an electric field . It goes
from A whose potential is 600 V to a point B whose potential is 0 V. What is the velocity of the ball at the point
A, if at point B, it is 20 m/s ?
SOLUTION :
A charge goes to minimize its potential energy if Total energy at A = Total energy at B .
it is let free to more on its own. The potential
energy associated with a charge q is qV where 1 2 1 2
 qV A  mv A  qVB  mvB
V is the potential at the point where q is located. 2 2
Solve to get vA = 16.73 m/s.

Illustration - 25 Two fixed equal positive charges, each of magnitude 5 ×

10–5 C are located at points A and B, separated by a distance of 6 m. An
equal and opposite charge moves towards them along the line COD, the
perpendicular bisector of line AB. The moving charge, when it reaches the
point C at a distance of 4 m from O, has a kinetic energy of 4 joules. Calculate
the distance of the farthest point D which the negative charge will reach
before returning towards C.
SOLUTION :
The kinetic energy is lost and converted to electrostatic potential energy of the system as the negative charge
goes form C to D and comes to rest at D instantaneously. The total energy (TE) is conserved.

TE at D = TE at C
 
0 + (–q) VD = 4 + (–q) VC 4 =2(5 10–5)2 (9 109) 1  1 
5 2 
9x 
4 = q (VC – VD) 
45
  4 = 9–  x = 72 = 8.48 m
2
2q  1

1  9  x2
4=
4 0  5 2 
9x 


Illustration - 26 As one follows a given field line in the direction of the field, does the potential increase,
decrease, or stay fixed ?
SOLUTION : dV
E = = positive
If we go in the direction of field E dr
dV
 = negative
dr
 V decreases with r.

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Illustration - 27 Is it possible to move a charge in an electric field without doing work ? If so, how ?

SOLUTION :
Along an equipotential surface (curve), work done = q (Vf – Vi) = q (0) = 0

So we can more a change along equipotential path (  to E ) without any work.

Illustration - 28 What is the shape of an equipotential surface for an infinite line of charge ?

SOLUTION :

Open cylinders having a common axis at the line charge are the equipotential surface. The field lines are cutting
these at 90°.

Illustration - 29 A metal shell of radius 10 cm is charged till its potential is 70 V .

(a) What is the potential at the center ? (b) What is the electric field at the center ?
SOLUTION :
(a) Vcentre = 70 V (all points on or inside a metal surface are same potential).
(b) E = 0 at all points in a conductor.

Illustration - 30 A uniform electric field is given by E = –180 k̂ V/m.

(a) What is the change in potential from zA = 5 cm to zB = 15 cm ?

(b) How far apart along the z axis are two points that differ in potential by 27 V ?
SOLUTION :

(a) VA – VB = E . AB  (– 180kˆ ) . (15 – 5) kˆ  1 V / m  18V

102

(b)  
27  E . AB  180 kˆ  kˆ    0.15 m

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Illustration - 31 Given the following electric fields, find the corresponding potential functions V (x) :

(a) E = (a/x) i . Take V = 0 at x = x0 ; (b) E = a exp (–Bx) i . Take V = 0 at x = 0 .

SOLUTION :
x0 
a x
(a) V ( x)  0   dx  a log 0 
B
x x 
x
0  using VA VB   E .d r
a 
B

(b) V ( x)  0   ae  Bx dx  e  Bx 1 

 A

Illustration - 32 Four charges +q, +q –q , –q are placed respectively at the corners A, B, C and D of a
square of side a arranged in the given order. Calculate the electric potential and the intensity at O, the centre
of the square. If E and F are mid-point of the sides BC and CD , what will be the work done in carrying
charge e from E to F ?
SOLUTION :

WEF = e (VF – VE)

2q 2q

where VE = 0, VF = 4
0  5a / 2  4 0a / 2

q qqqq
V0   0, 2qe  2 
4 0a / 2 4 0a / 2 W = eVF – 0 = 4 a   2
0  5 
 
 2q 
E0  2  cos 45
2

 4 0 a / 2  

Electric Field and Potential for Some Charge Distributions

1. Line charge of infinite length : ( = linear charge density)
(a) Field at a distance r from the line


E
2   0r

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(b) Potential difference between two points A and B at distances a and b respectively from the line.
B
V A  VB   E dr
A
b

VA  VB   dr
2 0r
a

 log b / a.
2 0


V A  VB   og b / a
2 0

2. Line charge of f init e lengt h  : ( = charge density)

(a) Electric field at a distance r on the right bisector
 
E
2   0r  2  4r 2

(b) Electric field at a point collinear with the line charge and at a distance r
from the nearer end
 
E
4  0 r r  

3. Charged ring of radius R :

Let Q = total charge on the ring
(a) Electric field at centre is zero.
(b) Electric field at a point P on axis at a distance x from the centre is

Qx
E
3/ 2

4   0 x2  R 2 
(c) Electric potential at the same point P is

Q
V (for x = 0, we get the potential at centre)
4  0 x2  R2

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4. Arc of a circle charged uniformly :

Let Q = total charge ;  = angle subtended at centre by the arc ; R = radius of arc
(a) Electric field at centre
Q sin  / 2
E =
4  0 R2 /2

E is directed along the bisector of angle  .

(b) Potential at centre

Q
V =
4 0 R

5. Spherical conductor of radius R :

Let Q = total charge on conductor’s surface
(a) Electric field (at a distance r from the centre)

0 for r  R
E (r) =  Q for r  R
2
 4   0 r

(b) Electric potential (at a distance r from centre)

 Q
 4  R for r  R
V (r) =  0
 Q
for r  R
 4   0 r

Note : The same results apply for a charged thin spherical shell of radius R.

6. Uniformly charged non-conducting sphere :

Let  = volume charge density throughout the sphere
Q = total charge =  (4/3  R3)

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(a) Electric field at a distance r from centre

 Qr r
  for r  R
3 3 0
4 0R
E (r) = 
 Q  R3
  for r R
2
 4   0 r 3 0 r 2

(b) Electric potential (at a distance r from centre)


 Q 3R 2  r 2
  for r  R
 4   2 R3
V (r) =  0
 Q
for r  R
 4   0 r

Note carefully that spherically symmetric charge distributions behave like point charge (placed at centre)
for the region outside their surface (i.e., for r > R).

7. Infinite thin charged sheet :

Let  = charge contained in a unit area of the sheet.
(a) Electric field at a distance r from the sheet


E
2 0

(b) Potential difference between the two points A and B at distances a and b from the sheet.
b
VA  VB   E dr
a
b

 dr
2 0
a

 (b  a )
2 0

V A  VB  (b  a )
2 0

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A system consists of a ball of radius R carrying a spherically symmetric charge and the
surrounding space filled with a charge of volume density  = a/r where a is a constant, r is the distance from
the centre of ball. Find the ball’s charge at which the magnitude of the electric field is independent of r outside
the ball. How high is this strength ?
SOLUTION :
Let us consider a spherical surface of radius r (r 0 E (4  r2 ) = Q + 2  a (r2 – R2)
> R) concentric with the ball and apply Gauss’s
Law.  Q  2 a R 2  1 2 a
q  E=   
 4 0  r2 4  0
 E . dA   0  

For E to be independent of r,
Let Q = total charge on the ball
r Q = 2  aR2
2
0 E (4  r2 ) = Q +   4 x dx
and the value of E is
R
r a
a 2 E=
0 E (4 r2 ) = Q + 4  xx dx 20
R

Example - 2 Two particles of mass m and 2m carry a charge q each. Initially the heavier particle is at
rest on a smooth horizontal plane and the other is projected along the plane directly towards the first from a
distance d with speed u.
Find the closest distance of approach.
SOLUTION :
As the mass 2m is not fixed, it will also move Hence at closest approach, v1 = v2
away from m due to repulsion. The distance By conservation of momentum
between the particles is minimum when their
relative velocity is zero i.e., when they have equal mu = mv1 + 2 mv2
velocities. v2 = v1 = u/3
By conservation of energy
loss in KE = gain in PE

1 2 1 2 1  q2  1 1 
mu   mv1  2mv22     
2 2 2  4  0  x d 

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1 2 1 u2 q2  1 1 
mu  m 1  2    1 1 4   0 mu 2
2 2 9 4   0  x d   
x d 3 q2
1 2 q2  1 1 
mu   3q 2 d
3 4   0  x d  x
3q 2  4   0 mu 2 d

Example - 3 Find by direct integration the electric field at the centre of a hemispherical surface of
charge having uniform surface density  .

SOLUTION :
Field at O due to this infinitesimal element = dE
 dq   R sin  
dE = 3/ 2

4   0 R 2 sin 2  + R 2 cos 2  
(using the result for the field at axis of a ring)

Consider a ring-shaped element on the surface

 E   dE 
 
 / 2 R sin  2  R 2 cos 
dq
of the hemisphere at an angle  above the base  4  0 R2
as shown. 0
AB = the radius of the ring = R sin   /2  /2
  sin2 
distance of centre of ring B from O = R cos  =
20  sin cos  d  2  0 2 0
0
charge on the element = dq =  (area)
dq =  (2 R sin  ) Rd 
=
40

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Example - 4 A charge q is distributed uniformly over the volume of a ball of radius R. Find :
(a) the energy stored in the ball (b) the energy in the surrounding space
(c) hence or otherwise, find the total energy of the system.
SOLUTION :
To calculate the energy stored in an electric field, 2
  
we can use energy per unit volume = 1/2 k 0E2 U2 = 1 Q 2
1
 2  4   r 2  4 r dr
 0 
k  0 E 2 dV R  0 
 U =
2 
Q2 dr
Assuming k = 1, U2 = 8  
0
 r2
R
1
 U =  0 E 2 dV Q 2
2 U2 =
8  0R
Let us recall the expression for the field of a
uniformly distributed charge in a non-conducting (c) total energy = U1 + U2
sphere.
Q2 Q2
 Qr  U1 + U2 = 
 for r  R 40   0 R 8   0 R
 4 0 R 3
E = Q 3 Q2
 for r  R  U1 + U2 =
 4 r 2 20   0 R
 0
Alternatively :
(a) Energy inside the ball
total energy = work done to assemble the parts
1 2 of the ball starting from infinity
U1 =   0 E dV
2 The potential at the surface of the ball at the instant
Consider an element of radius r and thickness dr when it has a radius x is
R 2
1  Qr  charge on ball Q x2
U1 =   0   4 r 2dr V = 
2  4   R3  4 0 x 4   0 R3
0  0 
R The work done to add a charged layer of
Q2 4 thickness dx from infinity is
U1 =
8   0 R6 0
r dr
Q x2
dW = V dq =   dV 
Q 2 4   0 R3
U1 =
40   0 R  
 2
Qx Q 
(b) Energy outside the ball 4 x 2dx
dW = 4 R3 4 3 

1 2 0  R 
U2 =   0 E dV 3 
2

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Total work done = W =  d W

3 Q2
R Hence total energy of the system =
3 Q2 3 Q2 20   0 R
W = x 4 dx 
6 20   0 R
0 4 0R

Example - 5 A cube of edge a metres carries a point charge q at each corner. Calculate the resultant
force on any one of the charges.
SOLUTION :
Let us take one corner of cube as origin O (0, 0, q
0) and the opposite corner as P (a, a, a). We =   
 ajˆ  akˆ  aiˆ  ajˆ  aiˆ  akˆ 
3    
will calculate the electric field at P due to the other 
4  0 2 2a 
seven charges at corners.
q
=  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ 
4  0 2a 2  

(iii) Field at P due to O

OP = a3

q
E3  OP
Expressing the field of a point charge in vector 3
form
4  0 a 3  
q q  aiˆ  ajˆ  akˆ 
 E  r E3   
4  0 r 3
4  0 3 3 a 3

(i) Field at P due to A, B, C q
E3   ˆi  ˆj  kˆ 
q  
 E1 
 AP  BP  CP 
4   0 a3  
4  0 3 3 a 2

q Resultant Field at P
  ajˆ  akˆ  aiˆ 
3   E  E1  E2  E3
4 0 a

(ii) Field at P due to D, E, F


q ˆi  ˆj  kˆ   1 1 
Note that DP = EP = FP = a2  E  2 1   
4  0 a  2 3 3
q
E2   DP  EP  FP 
3   outward along OP

4  0 a 2 

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Force on charge at P is F = q E Note :In this problem, we have non-coplanar point

charges and hence it is best to use vector ap-
q2 3  1 1  proach in general form.
 F 1   
2 2 3 3
4  0 a 

outwards along diagonal OP

Example - 6 Point charges +q, +q, –q, –q are located at the vertices A, B, C and D respectively of a
square with diagonals of length 2. Find the electric field intensity at a point located symmetrically with
respect to the vertices of the square at a distance a from its centre .

SOLUTION :
Let the square be in XY plane with its centre at
origin at O. Let us further take the diagonals of q
EA  3
AP
the square as X and Y axes. 4  0  AP 

q

3/ 2   î  akˆ 

4  0 2  a 2 
q
EB  3
BP
4  0  BP 

q

3/ 2   ˆj  akˆ 

4  0 2  a 2 
Hence the vertices are : Similarly we have ;
A (, 0, 0), B  (0,  , 0) q
C  (– , 0, 0) D  (0, – , 0)
EC 
3/ 2  ˆi  akˆ 
We have to calculate the field at a point P (0, 0,

4  0  2  a 2 
a ) on Z-axis. The field at P is the vector sum of q
the fields contributed by charges at A, B, C and ED 
3/ 2  ˆj  akˆ 
D. 

4  0  2  a 2 
E  E A  EB  EC  ED  E  E A  EB  EC  ED
Observing that AP = BP = CP = DP
q  2   ˆj  ˆi  
  E  3/ 2  
= 2
 a 2

4  0   a 2 2

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q
 E Directed mid- way between –ve X and –ve y
3/ 2
 2
2  0   a 2
 axis i.e, || to sides AD and BC.

Example - 7 Two concentric spheres of radii R1 and R2 (R1 < R2) have charges q1 and q2 respectively
distributed uniformly over their surfaces .
(a) Find the potential difference between the two surfaces .
(b) Find the charges on all the surfaces of the shells.
(c) What will happen if the spheres are connected by a conducting wire ?
SOLUTION : (b)

(a) Potential of inner sphere :

V1 = potential due to q1 + potential due to q2

q1 q2
V1 = 
4   0 R1 4   0 R2 (b) By passing a Gaussian surface through the inner
shell. We see that by Gauss’s Law,
Potential of outer sphere : qencl
V2 = potential due to q1 + potential due to q2
(i)  E .d A  0

q1 q2 q
V2 =  0  encl (as E = 0 is a conductor)
4   0 R2 4   0 R2 0

Potential Difference :  qencl = 0

Hence there is no charge on the inner most
q1  R2  R1  surface. So the charge q, lies entircly on the outer
V1 – V2 =  
4   0  R1 R2  surface of the inner shell.

Note :That potential difference does not depend on

the charge of the outer sphere.

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(ii) By passing another Gaussian surface through the (c) When the shells are connected, they attain equal
outer shell. potential by redistributing their charges. Let x
and y be the final charges on them.
qencl
 E .d A  0 x + y = q1 + q2

q x y x y
0  encl (as E = 0 is a conductor)   
0 4 0 R1 4 0 R2 4 0 R2 4 0 R2

 qencl = 0 (as V1 = V2)

As there is charge q1 inside this Gaussian surface, Solve to get x = 0 and y = q1 + q2

there must be a charge –q1 also on the inner Hence all the charges from inner shell flows to
surface of another shell. the outer shell.
Hence charge on outer surface of outer shell.is
q 1 + q 2.

Example - 8 Three parallel plates each of area A are kept as

shown in figure and charges Q.-2Q and 3Q are given to them as
shown :
(a) Find the resulting charge distribution on all the six surfaces.
(Neglect the edge effect).
(b) Draw the graph of Electric Field as the function of x.
(Take x  0 at P)
(c) Draw the graph of Electric Potential as the function of x.
(Take V = 0 at P)
SOLUTION :
 qa  qb  Q
 qc  qd   2Q
 qe  q f  3Q

 qa  qb  qc  qd  qe  q f  2Q
As P lies inside the conductor, electric field at
point P is zero.
At P, charge qa will given an electric field
towards right. All other charge qb , qc .....etc.
As the total charge on each plate remains the will give the electric field towards left. So,
same.
Ep  0

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1 q
(b) As E 

ZA0
 
qa  qb  qc  qd  qe  q f  0 2 A0

1
  2qa  2Q   0  qa  Q
ZA0
 qb  0
By considering a gaussian at P and Q, we can
show that qb   qc .
 qc  0  qd   2Q

Similarly qc   qd  2Q
(c) As V   E . r
 qf  Q

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Electric Field Intensity :

Electric field intensity is the vector quantity E which measures the electric field strength and its direction.
(i) The magnitude of electric field intensity at a point A is the force experienced by a unit positive charge
placed at A.
(ii) The direction of electric field intensity at a point A is the direction in which the electric field exerts force
on a (unit) positive charge placed at A.

2. Force exerted by a field on a charge inside it :

If we know the electric field intensity at a point in a field, we can calculate the force acting on a charge q
placed at that point using the relation : F  qE

If q is a +ve charge, force F on it is in the direction of E .

If q is a –ve charge, F on it is opposite to the direction of E .

3. Electric Field created by a point charge :

The electric field produced by a point charge q at a distance r from it is given as E (the force on a unit +ve
charge).

q
E
4  0 r 2
The direction of field intensity is away from q if it is positive and towards q if it is negative. Hence in vector from
q q
E rˆ  r
2
4  0r 4  0 r 3

4. Electric Dipole :
An arrangement of two equal and opposite charges separated by a
fixed distance is known as an electric dipole.
Let q and –q be two charges separated by distance 2. The dipole
moment of the dipole is : p  2ql

(a) Electric field at axis :

Electric field of a short dipole on its axis at a point A at a distance r from dipole ( << r) :

2p
Eaxis 
4   0r3

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(b) Electric field at equator :

Electric field at a point distance r from the centre of the short dipole ( << r) on its right bisector.

p
E
4   0r3

(c) Electric field at A

p
E = 1  3 cos 2 
3
4   0r

5. Dipole in an external uniform electric field :

If a dipole is placed in a uniform electric field E,
1. force on the dipole is zero.
2. torque on the dipole is given as  = pE sin 
3. Potential energy of the dipole :
Taking U = 0 at  = 2,

U( ) =  p Ecos   p . E .

6. (a) Flux through a flat surface in a uniform field

In a uniform field E , the flux through a flat surface of area A can be easily calculated as:

  E  A  E A cos 
(b) Gauss’s Law :

q
 E . dA 
0

where q is the net charge enclosed by the surface S.

7. Electric Potential
(a) If VA and VB are the electric potentials of two points A and B, the potential difference between A
and B is equal to VB – VA.
work done in taking a charge q from A to B is W A to B = q (VB – VA)

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(b) Relation Between E and V

B
dV
(i) V A  VB   E .d r (ii) E 
dr
A
(c) Potential difference in a Uniform field

In case of a uniform electic field, V A  VB  E . A B

8. Properties of a Conductor in an electric field :

(a) The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface and the inside of a conductor is equipotential space.
(b) There is no electric field (and charge) inside the conductor’s surface.
(c) The lines of forces are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
(d) Any charge given to a conductor always resides on the conductor’s surface and not in the interior.

9. Potential Energy of a system of two point charges :

The potential energy possessed by a system of two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r is the
work required to be done bring them to this arrangement from infinity. This electrostatic potential energy is
given by :
q1 q2
U
4   0r

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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Classes Dynamics of a Particle

Dynamics of a Particle
NEWTON’S LAWS Section - 1

Newtons 1st Law

Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to
change that state by the forces impressed on it. Any object at rest or moving with uniform velocity is an
example of Newton’s first law of motion. The net force on such an object is zero. Such objects are said to be
in equilibrium.

Linear Momentum & Newton’s Second Law

The product of mass and velocity for moving body is known as momentum (or linear momentum). It is a
vector quantity whose direction is same as that of velocity and is denoted by P.
momentum = mass  velocity (Units in SI system are Kg m/s)

 P  mv

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The rate of change of linear momentum of a body with time is proportional to the net force acting on it.
dp d dv
F   mv   m
dt dt dt

 F  ma

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Whenever one body exerts a force on another body, the second always exerts
on the first a force that is equal in magnitude, is opposite and has the same line of
action.
 A single isolated force is therefore an impossibility.
 The two forces involved in any interaction between the two bodies are
often called as an action and a reaction.
 Either force may be considered as the action and the other the reaction
to it.

Example : Two blocks A and B are placed on a table.

Identify ACTION - REACTION pairs.

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Let mA and mB be the masses of two blocks.

Draw the force diagrams of A and B.

R = force exerted by A by B (in force diagram of B)

R = force exerted by B on A (in force diagram of A)
These two equal and opposite forces form Action- Reaction pair.
mBg = force on B by earth, hence B will exert an equal and
opposite force on earth.
These two forces will form an Action-Reaction pair.
N = force on A by the table,
Hence A will exert an equal and opposite force on the table forming an Action - Reaction pair.

Note : Any two forces acting on same body can not from an Action-Reaction pair.

Example : A block of mass is suspended at the end of a massless string which is fixed to the ceiling with
the help of a hook. Identify the ActionReaction pairs.

Illustration - 1A
A ball of mass m moving with speed u collides with the floor at an
angle  with the vertical. If it rebounds at the same angle  and with the same speed,
the change in momentum is
(A) 2 mu (B) 2mu cos  (C) 2mu sin  (D) zero

SOLUTION : (B)
Initial momentum :
Px = mu sin 
Py =  mu cos 

Final momentum :
Px = mu sin 
Py = + mu cos 

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Change in momentum :
Px = mu sin   mu sin  = 0
Py = mu cos   ( mu cos ) = 2 mu cos 
 change in momentum is 2 mu cos  a long the vertical direction i.e.,
 P  2 mu cos  ˆj

Illustration - 1B A ball was in contact with the floor for 0.1 sec. The mass of the ball m = 200 gm, u = 2 m/
s and  = 60. These two forces form an action reaction pair. Which of the following is (are) true ?
(A) force on the ball is 4N upwards (B) force on the ball is 4N downwards
(C) force on the floor is 4N upwards (D) force on the floor is 4N downwards

SOLUTION : (AD)
Fx = 0
2  0.2  2 1 / 2 
 Py  4N
Using Fy  0.1
t Hence force on the ball by the floor is 4 N
2mu cos  upwards. The force on the horizontal floor by
F  Fy  the ball is 4 N downwards.
t

Illustration - 2 A liquid of density  is flowing with a speed V through a pipe of

cross-sectional area A. The pipe is bent in the shape of a right angle as shown. What
force should be exerted on the pipe at the corner to keep it fixed ?

SOLUTION :
Volume flowing per sec = AV
Mass flowing per sec = (AV)  = AV
Momentum flowing per sec = (mass per sec) V = AV2
Momentum flowing per sec towards the corner
= AV 2  towards right
Momentum flowing per sec away from corner = AV2 downwards
Force on liquid = change in momentum flow per sec.
 AV 2      AV 2    

 AV 2      AV 2    

 2 AV 2  at 45 with horizontal as shown.

Hence the pipe must be pushed at the corners with force 2 AV 2  at an angle of 45 with the horizontal.

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Illustration - 3 A chain hangs on a thread and touches the surface of a table by its lower end. Show that
after the thread has been burned through, the force exerted on the table by the falling part of the chain at any
moment is twice the weight of the part already resting on the table.
SOLUTION :
Let y be the length of the part of the chain already resting on the table. The point P which is hitting the table
at this instant has fallen through a height y as shown.

Hence the velocity of this point P is

V  2 gy
Force on chain = momentum per sec rebounding after impact  momentum per sec hitting the table.


 0   AV 2  
 AV 2   A  2 gy  
F = 2 (Ay ) g = 2 (weight of resting part)

APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW-I Section - 2

The vector equation F  ma can be split into two scalar equations:

 One for the X-components and the other for the Y-components.
Fx = m ax
Fy = m ay

Where  Fx = sum of all the X-components of the forces on the body.

Fy = sum of all the Y- components of the forces on the body.
ax = X - component of acceleration.
ay = Y - component of acceleration.

 To simplify the analysis, one axis (usually X-axis) is taken along the direction of acceleration of the
body and the other perpendicular to it. In that case :
Fx = max and Fy = 0 as ay = 0.

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Analysis of a problem :
The following example illustrates the general approach for the problems involving the application of IInd law.
The main steps while analysing such problems are :
(i) Draw the force diagram of each body, showing all the forces acting on it.
(ii) Identify the direction of acceleration for each body and show it by an arrow (dotted or double-lined)
drawn slightly away from the force-diagram. We can call it ‘acceleration diagram’.
(iii) Taking one axis along the direction of acceleration and the other perpendicular to it, resolve the forces
into respective components.
(iv) Form two equations from each force diagram :
net force in the direction of acceleration = ma
forces which are perpendicular to the direction of acceleration must balance each other.

Illustration - 4 Two masses m1 and m2 are connected by a light string passing over a
fixed pulley as shown. The system is suspended in a vertical plane. Find the tension in the
string connecting m1 and m2 and acceleration of masses if m1 = 3 Kg and m2 = 5 Kg. Also
find the tension in the rope connecting the centre of pulley to the ceiling.

SOLUTION :
As m2 is heavier, it moves down and m1 moves
up.
Let the magnitude of acceleration = a m2  m1
(same for both as they are connected by  a g 
m2  m1
same string which passes over a fixed pul-
g
ley). a  2.45 m / s 2
4
Let T be the tension in the string.
2m1m2
Draw the force diagrams and acceleration dia- and T g  36.75 N
grams of both masses. m2  m1

Force Diagram of Pulley :

1. Net force in the direction of acceleration = m1a

 T  m1g = m1a . . . . (i)
T0 = tension in the rope tied to the centre of
2. Net force in the direction of acceleration = m2a pulley
 m2g  T = m2a . . . . (ii) T0 = T + T = 2T
Adding (i) and (ii), we get : T0  2  36.75  73.5 N
m2g  m1g = m1a + m2a

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Illustration - 5 Two blocks connected by a cord passing over a small

frictionless pulley rest on a smooth plane as shown.
(a) Which way will the system move ?
(b) What is the acceleration of the block ?
(c) What is the tension in the cord ?

SOLUTION : For B :
The effective component of gravity on
A (100 g sin 30) is more than that on B(50
g sin 53)

So A slides will slide down and B goes up.

Drawing the force diagrams of A and B :
For A :
T – 50g sin 53 = 50a . . . . .(ii)
R2 = 50g cos 53
Adding (i) and (ii), we get :
– 50 g sin 53 + 100g sin 30 = 150 a
Solve to get :
a = +0.65 m/s2.
100g sin 30 – T = 100a . . . . .(i) From (i) T = 100 g sin 30 – 100 a
R1 = 100g cos 30 = 100  9.8  1/2 – 100  (+0.65)
 T = 425 N

Illustration - 6 A block hangs from a spring balance supported from the ceiling of an
elevator.
(a) If the elevator has an upward acceleration of 2.45 m/s2 and balance reads 50 N,
what is the true weight of the body ?
(b) Under what circumstances will the balance read 30 N ?
(c) What will be the reading in the balance if the cable of the elevator breaks ?

SOLUTION :
(a) Reading in the spring balance is equal to the tension in the spring = 50 N.
As the elevator is accelerating in upward direction with 2.45 m/s2,
The acceleration of the block = a = 2.45 m/s2 = g/4
T  mg = ma
50  mg = m(g/4)
mg = 40 N = true weight

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Note : When the elevator has an upward acceleration, reading is greater than the actual weight.

(b) Reading of balance = T = 30 N.

As T < mg (actual weight), the block and elevator must have a

downward acceleration a.
mg  T = ma
a = 2.45 m/s2 is in downward direction. It is possible in two ways:
(i) The elevator is going up and slowing down or
(ii) The elevator is going down and its speed is increasing.

Note : The reading of balance is less than actual weight if elevator has a downward
acceleration.

(c) If the cable breaks, the acceleration of the block and the elevator = g
(downwards).
Net force = mass × acceleration
mg  T = mg
T=0
The reading of the balance = 0 N

Note : (i) If a block is placed on a weighing machine lying on the floor of an

accelerating lift, the force acting on the block are mg and normal
reaction(N). In that case reading of the weighing machine = N
(ii) Inside a lift having upward acceleration of magnitude a,
Reading = mg + ma
(iii) Inside a lift having downward acceleration of magnitude a,
Reading = mg – ma

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Illustration - 7 A homogenous rod with length L is acted upon

by two collinear forces F1 and F2 (F1 > F2) applied to its ends
and directed oppositely. What is the tension force F at a cross
section P, at a distance  from F1 end ?
SOLUTION :
Let a be the acceleration of the rod.
To find the tension at P, we have to split the rod in two parts : AP and PB.

M
(Mass of the part AP) = (mass per unit length)  
L
From the force diagram of part AP,
M 
F1  F   a
 L 
From the force diagram of the rod AB :
F1  F2  Ma

M M   F1  F2 
Hence F  F1  a  F1   
L L  M 


 L    F1  F2
L
NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

FORCE OF FRICTION Section - 3

Whenever two rough surfaces are in contact, sliding between the surfaces is opposed by the force of friction which
the surfaces exert on each other. The force of friction acts parallel to the surfaces in contact and on both the
surfaces.
1. Static Friction :
If the tendency to slide against each other is too small to cause actual sliding motion, the force of friction is
called as the force of static friction. The magnitude of this force balances the net applied force. Hence if
there is no sliding between the surfaces,
Force of static friction = net applied force parallel to the surfaces
2. Critical Point (Maximum Static friction) :
If the sliding between the surfaces is about to begin, the static friction is at its maximum value which is equal
to sN, where N = normal reaction between the surfaces and µs = coefficient of static friction. In this

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situation, we say that the surfaces are at their point of sliding and are exerting a force µsN on each other so
as to oppose sliding.
3. Kinetic Friction :
If actual sliding is taking place between the surfaces, the force of friction is called as force of kinetic friction
or the force of sliding friction (fk).
f k = µ kN where µk = coefficient of kinetic friction

Note : Force of friction on a body always acts against the sliding tendency.

Illustration - 8 A block of weight 100 N lying on a horizontal surface is pushed

by a force F acting at an angle 30 with horizontal. For what value of F will the
block begin to move if s = 0.25 ?

SOLUTION :
Consider the force diagram of the block at the
moment when it is just to start moving.

Balancing the forces :

N = mg + F sin 30
F cos 30 = sN s mg 0.25 100  2
F 
F cos 30 = s (mg + F sin 30) cos 30  s sin 30 3  0.25

F = 33.74 N

Illustration - 9 Two blocks of masses m and M are connected to the ends

of a string passing over a pulley. M lies on the plane inclined at an angle 
with the horizontal and m is hanging vertically as shown. The coefficient of
static friction between M and the plane is s. Find the minimum and maxi-
mum values of m so that the system is at rest.

SOLUTION :
If m is much heavier than M, then the block M will move upwards.
If m is much lighter than M, then the block M will move downwards.
We will consider the following situations :
(i) m is at its maximum value so that M is about to start sliding upwards.
(ii) m is at its minimum value so that M is about to start sliding downwards.

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Case 1 : Upward slipping tendency of M As M is about to start sliding down, the fric-
(for maximum value of m) tional force is sN upwards.

As M is just at the point of sliding up, frictional

force on M is sN down the plane.

Balancing forces :
N = Mg cos 
Balancing forces : T + sN = Mg sin 
N = Mg cos  T = mg
T = Mg sin  + sN
Hence mg + s Mg cos = Mg sin 
T = mg
Hence mg = Mg sin  + s Mg cos  minimum value of m = M (sin  s cos )
Maximum value of m = M (sin +s cos  ) Therefore the blocks are at rest if :
M (sin  scos) < m < M (sin + scos)
Case 2: Downward slipping tendency of M
(for minimum value of m)
Illustration - 10 A block of mass m is placed on another block of mass M lying
on a smooth horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction between m and
M is s. What is the maximum force that can be applied to M so that the blocks
remains at rest relative to each other ?

SOLUTION :
Draw the force diagrams of blocks at the R = normal reaction between M and
moment when F is at its maximum value and the surface.
m is about to slide relative to it.
Frictional force between m and M = s N
(N: normal reaction between the blocks)
Due to the friction, M will try to drag m to-
wards right and hence frictional force will act
on m towards right.
Let a = acceleration of each block
(same as there is no rubbing From force diagram of m :
between the blocks)
N = mg
sN = ma

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From force diagram of M : Fmax  sN = Ma

Combining these two equations, we get :
Fmax = s (m + M) g
Hence s (m + M)g is the critical value of
force F.
 If F is greater than this critical value, m
begins to slip relative to M and their
accelerations will be different.
 If F is smaller than this critical value, m
N + Mg = R and M move together without any rela
tive motion.

Illustration - 11 A block of mass m is placed on another block of mass M

lying on a smooth horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction between
m and M is s. What is the maximum force that can be applied to m so that
the blocks remains at rest relative to each other ?

SOLUTION :
Imagine the situation when F is at its maximum
value so that m is about to start slipping
From forces on m :
relative to M.
F  sN = ma
The mass m tries to drag M towards right due
to friction. N = mg
From forces on M :
sN = Ma
R = N + Mg
Solving these equations, we get :
  m  M  mg
Fmax  s
M
Hence frictional force on M exerted by m will  If F is less than this critical value, the
be towards right. blocks stick together without any rela
Let a = magnitude of acceleration of blocks tive motion.
towards right.  If F is greater than this critical value, the
blocks slide relative to each other and
their accelerations are different.

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Illustration - 12 In the last example, take m = 2 Kg, M = 4 Kg and

s = k = 0.2. Find the acceleration of the blocks if the force F is
(a) 5N (b) 10 N (take g = 10 m/s2).
(c) If the force applied is 10 N as in (b), after what time will the block
m fall off the surface of M ? Assume that the size of block m is
negligible and it is placed at a distance  = 4 m from the right
edge of M.

SOLUTION :
From the result of last example, From force diagram of m :
s  m  M  mg N = mg
critical value of Fc 
M
F  kN = ma1
F=6N (substituting the values)
Solve to get,
(a) As F = 5 N
 F < critical value, blocks will stick to- a1 = 3 m/s2
gether. From force diagram of M :
Let acceleration of both = a. N + Mg = R
Taking (m + M) as a single body,
kN = Ma2
k mg = Ma2
F 5
a   0.833 m / s 2
mM 6 Solve to get,
a2 = 1 m/s2
(b) F = 10 N
 F > critical value (c)  = 1/2 ar t 2 ; where ar is the acceleration of
m relative to M.
Hence blocks will slip against each
other and their acceleration will be ar = a1  a2 = (3  1) m/s2 = 2 m/s2
different.
2 2  4
Let a1 = acceleration of m and a2 =  t 
acceleration of M ar 2
The frictional force = 2 seconds.
= kN (due to kinetic friction)

Illustration - 13 Find the least pulling force which acting at an angle of 45 with the horizontal, will slide a
body weighing 5 Kg along a rough horizontal surface. The coefficient of friction s = k = 1/3. If a force of
double this value is applied along the same direction, find the resulting acceleration of the block.

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SOLUTION :
Balancing forces in horizontal direction :
P cos 45 = sR
P cos 45 = s (mg  P sin 45)
 s mg
 P  17.32 N
cos 45   s sin 45

If applied force is 2P :
When the block is about to start sliding, fric-
then R = mg  2P sin 45
tional force is at its limiting value = sR.
and 2P cos 45  kR = ma
Balancing forces in vertical direction :
2P cos 45  k (mg  2P sin 45 ) = ma
R + P sin 45 = mg  a  3.28 m / s 2
R = mg  P sin 45

Illustration - 14 Find the time required by a block to come to rest from a speed of 10 m/s moving on a
horizontal surface where k = 0.2. What is the distance covered before stopping ?
SOLUTION :
If the block is moving towards right and slowing, the force of friction and hence acceleration is directed
towards left.

force  k mg
a    k g towards left.
mass m

Now u = 10 m/s, v = 0 m/s, a  g

v = u + at
Let displacement = s
0 = 10  k g t
v2  u 2 02  102
s   25.5 m
 t = 5.10 seconds 2a 2   k g 

Illustration - 15 The blocks of masses m and M are not attached to each other but are
in contact. The coefficient of static friction between the blocks is  but the surface
beneath M is smooth. What is the maximum magnitude of the horizontal force F
required to hold m against M ?
m  M  m g m  M  m g M  M  m g
(A) (B) (C) (D) m (M + m)g
M M M
SOLUTION : (B)
If m and M are sticking together they will have same acceleration.

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Let a = acceleration of blocks

Solve to get :
F  R = ma MF
f = mg and R
f = mg M m
For no slipping, f  s R
MF
mg 
R = Ma M m
f  Mg  N mg  M  m 
 F
s M

Illustration - 16 A 5 kg block is projected upwards with an initial speed of 10 m/s from the bottom of a plane
inclined at 30 with horizontal. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the plane is 0.2.
(a) How far does the block move up the plane ?
(b) How long does it move up the plane ?
(c) After what time from its projection does the block again come back to the bottom ? With what speed
does it arrive ?

SOLUTION : the magnitude of acceleration

Analysis of Upward Motion
 While the block is moving up, the frictional mg sin 30   mg cos 30

force acts downward. m
 As the block is slowing down, the velocity = g (sin 30 +  cos 30)
and acceleration must be in opposite direc-  a =  g (sin 30 +  mg cos 30)
tions.
=  6.6 m/s2
 Velocity in this case is upwards, so
acceleration is in downward direction
Calculation of Time and displacement :
and hence negative.
u = + 10 m/s,
Using v2 = u2 + 2as, we get :
02 = 102 + 2 (-6.6) (s)
 s = 7.58 m
v = u + at
0 = 10  6.6  t
t = 1.5 seconds

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Hence the block moves up the plane for 1.5 As acceleration is in downward direction,
sec covering 7.58 m. a = 3.2 m/s2
For the motion of block down the plane : Calculation of Time :
s =  7.58 m (down the plane) and
u = 0 m/s
s = ut + 1/2 at2
7.58 = (0) + 1/2 (3.2) t2
 t = 2.18 sec.
So the total time taken to come back :
tup + tdown = 1.5 + 2.18 = 3.68 seconds
The magnitude of acceleration
v = u + at
mg sin 30   mg cos 30
 v = 0 + (3.2) (2.18) =  6.8 m/s
m v =  6.8 m/s.
= g (sin 30   cos 30)
So the block arrives at the bottom with a
 a = 3.2 m/s2 speed of 6.8 m/s.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

DYNAMICS OF CIRCULAR MOTION Section - 4

Force on the Particle

For a mass m to have an acceleration, a force given by F = ma is always required. In uniform circular
motion, acceleration is of magnitude v2/r and is directed towards centre. Hence a force of magnitude mv2/
r and directed towards centre is required to keep a particle in circular motion. This force (acting towards
centre) is known as the centripetal force. After studying the following examples, you should carefully note
that the centripetal force is not an extra force on a body. Whatever force is responsible for circular motion
becomes the centripetal force.
For example, when a satellite revolves around the earth, the gravitational attraction of earth becomes the
centripetal force for the circular motion of the satellite; when an electron revolves around the nucleus in an
atom. the electrostatic attraction of nucleus becomes the centripetal force for the electron’s circular motion;
in case of a conical pendulum (see the article), T sin  (component of tension) becomes the centripetal
force.

Main steps for analysing forces in uniform circular motion :

Take one axis along the radius of circle (i.e. in direction of acceleration) and other axis perpendicular to
the radius. Resolve all the forces into components.
Net force along perpendicular axis = 0

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mv 2
Net force along radial axis (towards centre) =  m 2 r
r
Main steps for analysing forces in Non-Uniform Circular Motion :
After resolving all the forces along tangential and radial axes :
net tangential force = Ft = m at
net radial force = Fr = m ar = mv2/ r
The most common example of non-uniform circular motion is the motion of particle in vertical circle. If a
particle is revolved in a vertical circle with the help of a string, the forces are: tension (T) towards centre and
weight (mg). In case of a particle moving along the outside surface of a circular track (or sphere), the forces
are: normal reaction (N) away from the centre and weight (mg).

Illustration - 17 A small mass m is attached to a rubber cord and revolves in a

horizontal frictionless plane with a constant frequency f. The cord lies in the plane
of the circle. The unstretched length of the cord is 0. The tension in the cord
increases in direct proportion to its elongation, the tension per unit elongation
being k. Find :
(a) the radius of the uniform circular motion. (b) the tension T in the cord.

SOLUTION :
As the tension in the cord is proportional we get :
to elongation,
T = kx where x = elongation. 4 2 f 2 m 0
x
Radius of the circle = elongated length of k  4 2 f 2 m
cord .k  0
r = 0 + x radius   0  x 
k  4 2 f 2 m
and the net force towards centre = m 2r
4 2 f 2mk  0
T kx
T = m (2 f )2 (0 + x) k  4 2 f 2 m
Solving T = kx and T = m(2 f )2 (0 + x),

Illustration - 18 A disc rotates at 30 rev/min around a vertical axis. A body lies on the disc at the distance of
20 cm from the axis of rotation. What should be the minimum value of the coefficient of friction between the
body and the disc, so that the body will not slide off the disc ?

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SOLUTION :

As the disc rotates, the body will tend to slip At the point of slipping, friction = sR
away from axis. sR = m 2r where R = mg
Due to this tendency to slip, force of static fric-  2
s =  r/g
tion arises towards the centre. where  = 2 (30/60) =  rad/s
The centripetal force required for the circular r = 0.2 m
motion is provided by this frictional force.  s = 0.2

Conical Pendulum
A small block of mass m is rotated in a horizontal circle with the help of
a string of length  connected to m. The other end of the string is fixed to
a point O vertically above the centre of the circle so that the string is
always inclined with the vertical at an angle . This arrangement is known
as a conical pendulum.
From the force diagram of the block :
Along the vertical : T cos  = mg . . . . (i)
Net force towards centre : T sin  = ma
T sin  = m2 . . . . (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we have,

g tan  g tan  g
2   
r  sin   cos 

2  cos 
 time period = T   2
 g

Note : (i) If h is the height of point O above the centre of the circle, then time period = 2 h / g
(ii) For a conical pendulum, 2 cos  = g
  g /  (Because cos  < 1)

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Illustration - 19 A 4 kg block in given figure is attached to a vertical rod by means

of two strings. When the system rotates about the axis of rod, the strings are extended
as shown.:
(a) How many rev/min must the system make in order that the tension in the
upper cord shall be 60 N ?
(b) What is then the tension in the lower cord ?

SOLUTION :
Let  be the angular velocity of rotation of rod.

1. Along vertical :
T1 cos  = mg + T2 cos  . . . . (i) Substituting the values of cos , sin , r and

2. Net force towards centre : T1 = 60 N, m = 4 kg in (i) and (ii),

T1 sin  + T2 sin  we get :
= m  2r (centripetal force) . . . (ii)  = 3.77 rad/s ;
Given : cos = 1/1.25 = 4/5 n =  /(2) = 36 rev/s and
sin  = 3/5 T2 = 10 N
 r = 1.25 sin  = 0.75 m
T1 = 60 N and m = 4 kg

Illustration - 20 A small block of mass m moving on the inside of a smooth fixed hollow hemisphere of
radius r, describes a horizontal circle at a distance of r/2 below the centre of the sphere. Find the time period
and the force with which the block pushes against the hemisphere.

SOLUTION :
Let O be the centre of hemisphere and the block be at A.

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Balancing vertical forces ;

N cos  = mg
 N = 2 mg . . . . . . (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get :
2 mg = m 2 r
OB = r/2 and OA = r
 cos  = 1/2 2g
 
  = 60 r
Take one axis along the radius of circle (AB) r
i.e. horizontal and the other axis vertical.  T  2
2g
Net force towards centre = N sin 
Force with which the block pushes the
= m 2(AB) hemisphere = 2 mg
N sin 60 = m 2 r sin 60
Note that this situation is very similar to a
 N = m 2 r . . . . . . (i) conical pendulum.

Illustration - 21 (CAR ON A LEVEL CURVE) A flat curve on a highway has a radius of 100 m and a car
goes around this curve with a constant velocity. If the coefficient of static friction is 0.2, what should be the
maximum speed of the car to prevent sliding ?
SOLUTION :
Let v be the maximum speed of the car. When
the car goes around a curve, it has a tendency
to skid sideways i.e. away from the centre of
the curve. Due to this tendency, static friction
acts towards the centre and provides the
centripetal force necessary to go around the
curve. From force diagram :
The force of static friction has a maximum value s R = mv2/r
of sR. This corresponds to maximum speed s mg = mv2/r
of the car.  v   s r g  14 m / s

Illustration - 22 (CAR ON A BANKED CURVE) A highway curve of radius r is to be banked so that a car
travelling at speed v will have no friction acting on the tyres. At what angle should it be banked ?

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SOLUTION :
When a car goes on a level curve (as in last
Ex.), the centripetal force required for motion
along the arc must be provided by the force of
friction. This causes a great wear and tear on
the tyres. To reduce this strain on the tyres and
not have to rely upon friction, the curves on
the roads are banked as shown.
(ii) N sin  : (horizontal) towards the centre of the
curve.
N cos  = mg . . . . . . (i)

N sin provides the necessary centripetal force

AB = width of road. The figure shows back and hence friction is not required.
view of the car taking a turn towards left.
mv 2
Due to banking, the normal reaction between N sin   . . . . . . (ii)
r
car and the road is not vertical now and has
v2
two components: From (i) and (ii), we get : tan  
rg
(i) N cos  : (vertical)
 v2 
   tan1  
 rg 
Illustration - 23 A small sphere of mass m is tied to the top of the smooth inclined
plane with the help of a string of length  . The string and the inclined plane make an
angle  with horizontal. The inclined plane is rotated with a constant angular velocity
 about the vertical axis passing through the end of the string fixed to the plane.
(a) Find the maximum value of  so that the sphere maintains contact with the inclined
plane.
(b) Find the ratio between the tension in the string and the normal reaction between
sphere and the plane if  = 37,  = 2 rad/s, = 2.45 m. (g = 10 m/s2)

SOLUTION :
The forces acting on the sphere are : tension, (ii) The vertical components of T and N balance
weight (mg) and the normal reaction. the weight of sphere.
Take a horizontal axis passing through the
sphere and the centre of the circle which it de-
scribes.
Take the other axis passing vertically through
m.
(i) The components of tension (T) and normal
reaction (N) along radial axis combine
to provide the centripetal force.

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T = mg sin + m 2 cos2 

Multiplying (i) by cos and (ii) by sin and
Along vertical axis : subtracting, N = mg cos – m 2  cos  sin
T sin  + N cos  = mg . . . . (i) 
(a) To maintain contact, N must be positive :
N > 0  mg cos  – m 2  cos  sin  > 0
g
    sin 

(b)  = 2 rad/s,  = 2.45 m

 2  4  2.45  9.8  g
Along radial axis :
Hence
T cos   N sin  = m2 ( cos ) . . . . (ii)
T mg sin   m 2 cos 2  31
Multiplying (i) by sin and (ii) by cos  
2
N mg sin   m  cos  sin  8
NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-C BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

APPLICATION OF NEWTONS LAWS-II Section - 5

While analysing problems which involve multiple accelerating pulleys and strings, we have to set up separate equations
relating accelerations of various blocks. This is done by relating coordinates of moving blocks and pulleys with the
lengths of the strings. As the lengths of the strings are constant, the accelerations are related to each other with an
equation. Study the following illustrations carefully.

Illustration - 24
Find the acceleration of blocks in the figure. The pulley and the strings are massless.

SOLUTION :

Let A = acceleration of block M and pulley. L=X+Xx

a = acceleration of m.
L=2Xx
Let x, X be the co-ordinates of m and pulley as Differentiating twice with respect to time,
shown. O = 2A  a
 a = 2A . . . . (i)
Note: We can generalise this result. If one end of a
string passing over a moving pulley is fixed,
the acceleration of other end is twice the
acceleration of pulley.
From force diagrams of m and M, we have
Length of string passing over the pulley is:

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T = ma . . . .(ii) 2F
F
A and a  M  4m
and F – 2T = MA . . . .(iii) M  4m  
Comparing (i), (ii) and (iii) we get :

Illustration - 25 In the arrangement shown in the figure, the bodies have

masses ; m0 = 2 kg, m1 = 4 kg, m2 = 1 kg. Find the accelerations of blocks m0,
m, and m2 assuming no frictional forces and massless pulleys and strings.

SOLUTION :
Let a1 and a2 be the acceleration of m1 and m2 respectively
in downward direction.
Let a0 be the acceleration of m0 towards right

m1 g  T = m1 a1 ; m2 g  T = m2a2 ; 2T = m0 a0 . . . . . . (i)

Let us now try to find a relation between the

acceleration of blocks (m1, m2) and the For the other string, x0  X  
acceleration of hanging pulley.
Eliminate X to get : x1  x2  2 x0  L  2
Taking the horizontal table as the reference,
let X, x0, x1 , x2 be the position of pulley and On differentiating this equation twice with
blocks as shown. The total length L of the respect to time we get :
string passing over the hanging pulley is sum a1  a2  2a0  0 . . . . (ii)
of the left and right portions Note that the second derivative of x0 is
substituted as a0 because x0 decreases as
the block m0 moves towards right. The
derivatives of decreasing coordinates are
substituted as a while the derivatives of
increasing coordinates are substituted as +a.
On combining (i) and (ii), we can solve for T,
a1, a2 and A.

a1 = 11g/13 m/s2
a2 = 5g/13 m/s2
L = (x1  X) + (x2  X) (see figure)
A = 8g/13 m/s2
 x1 + x2  2X = L

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Illustration - 26 Find the acceleration of the blocks :

If m1  1 kg , m2  2 kg , m3  0.6 , m4  4 kg , g  10 m / s 2

SOLUTION :
Let a1, a2, a3 and a4 be the downward accelerations
of m1, m2, m3 and m4 respectively.
From Newton’s Second law on masses :
Eliminating XP and XQ, we get :
1g  T  1a1 . . . .(i)
x1  x2  x3  x4 = constant
2g  T = 2a2 . . . .(ii)
0.5 g  T  0.5a3 . . . .(iii) Differentially twice we get :

4 g  T  4 a4 . . . (iv) a1  a2  a3  a4  0 . . . . (v)

Where a1  a2  a3  a4 are downward accelera-

tion of respective masses.
Let l1, l2, L be the length of strings connecting of Solving these five equations, we get :
blocks and pulleys. g 7g 17 g 11g
a1  ,a2  , a3  , a4 
x1  X P  x2  X p  l1 15 15 15 15
2 14
x3  X Q  x4  X1  l2  a1  m / s 2 up , a2  m / s 2 down
3 3
X P  XQ  L 34 22
a3  m / s 2 up , a4  m / s 2 down
3 3

PSEUDO FORCES Section - 6

Consider an observer S standing inside a compartment which is moving with an acceleration of magnitude A.
Observer S cannot apply Newton’s second law of motion (F = ma) on a mass m directly without any
modification. If S applies the equation F = ma on a mass m, then,
a = acceleration of m relative to the compartment where S is standing.

F = net force on m which includes all the real forces (tension, weight, normal reaction, friction, . . . etc.) plus
an extra force called as pseudo force.
Pseudo Force arises as an effect of acceleration of the reference frame in which observer is standing. Its
direction is opposite to the direction of acceleration A. Its magnitude is the product of mass m and the
acceleration A.

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Important Notes on Pseudo Forces

 Pseudo Forces will arise only in the situation when we try to analyse the forces acting on the body
relative to an accelerating reference frame.
 Any problem involving application of Newton’s laws can be solved without the method of pseudo
forces. The method of pseudo forces should be used only when it offers some distinct advantage.

Illustration - 27 An observer is standing inside a lift moving upwards with an acceleration A. A mass m is
lying on the floor of the lift. Find the normal reaction between the block and the floor.
SOLUTION :
Analysis of motion of mass m by the ob-
server S : Force diagram of m from inside the lift will
include normal reaction, weight and a pseudo
force of magnitude mA acting opposite to the
acceleration of the lift.
As block is at rest relative to lift, these forces
must balance each other.
upward force = downward force
For the observer S : R = mg + mA
The acceleration of mass m = acceleration of
m relative to the lift = 0 m/s2

Illustration - 28 A block of mass m is placed on a wedge of mass M. What

force should act on the wedge towards right so that m does not slide on the
surface of the wedge ? Assume all surfaces are smooth.
SOLUTION :

Let A = acceleration of wedge and the block

towards right. Method 2 : (Analysis from the Wedge)
Both will have same acceleration as there is If the motion of m is analysed from the view
no relative slipping between them point of an observer standing on the wedge
Method 1 : (Analysis from Ground) (i.e. relative to the wedge),

R cos  = mg Its acceleration is 0 m/s2 and the forces act-

R sin  = mA ing on it are :
its weight, the normal reaction and
 A = g tan a pseudo force of magnitude mA towards
left.

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R cos  = mg
R sin  = mA
Dividing, we get :
A = g tan 
The force required to impart the accelera-
tion A is :
F   M  m  A   M  m  g tan 
As m is at rest, forces must balance each other
along both directions.

SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A block of mass m is placed on the inclined surface of wedge

of mass M as shown. Find the acceleration of wedge if the frictional forces
are negligible.
SOLUTION :
As the block (m) is all the time in contact with
the wedge (M), their relative motion should be 
The net acceleration of block a  abw  aw 
parallel to the surfaces which are in contact. is the vector sum of its relative acceleration ar
Let ar be the (down the incline) acceleration of and the acceleration of wedge A. For the block,
block m relative to the wedge and A be the we take X-axis along the incline and Y-axis
acceleration of wedge (relative to ground) normal to the incline.
towards left. The wedge experiences a normal
reaction (push) R from the block. The
horizontal component (R sin ) of this normal
reaction causes the wedge to accelerate
towards left.

Fx = max  mg sin 
= m(ar – A cos ) . . . . (ii)

Fy = may  mg cos  – R

R sin  = MA . . . . . . (i) = m (A sin  ) . . . . (iii)

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We can solve (i), (ii) and (iii) to get :

A
mg sin  cos   m  M  g sin 
and ar 
M  m sin 2  M  m sin2 

Example - 2 Two blocks in contact with each other are sliding down on an inclined
board. The mass of first block is m1 = 2 Kg and that of second block is m2 = 3 Kg. The
coefficient of friction between the block and the board is 1 = 0.1 for the block 1 and 2
= 0.2 for the block 2. The angle of inclination of the board is  = 45. Determine :
(a) acceleration of blocks and
(b) force F with which the blocks press against each other.
SOLUTION :
Consider the force diagrams of m1 and m2.

R = normal reaction between m1 and m2

N1, N2 are normal reactions between blocks   m  m2  sin    1m1  2 m2  cos  
a 1 g
and the inclined plane  m 1  m2 
Balancing forces perpendicular to the a = 5.82 m/s 2

plane :
Substituting the expression for a, we get :
N1 = m1g cos N2 = m2g cos
R
 2  1  m1m2 g cos   0.83 N
For forces parallel to the plane :
m1  m2
m1g sin  – R – 1N1 = m1a
m2g sin  + R – 2N2 = m2a Note : In this question, if 1 > 2 then R will come
(m1 + m1)g sin  – 1m1g cos  out to be negative. This implies that the blocks
will slide down without touching each other.
– 2m2g cos  = (m1 + m2)a
They will get separated.

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Example - 3 A mass A (600 gm) is placed on a smooth table with a string at-
tached to it.The string goes over a frictionless pulley and is connected to another
mass B (100 gm). At t = 0, the mass A is at a distance of 100 cm from the end and
moving with a speed of 90 cm/s towards left. After what time and with what speed
will the mass A reach the pulley at the right edge of the table ? (g = 980 cm/s2)

SOLUTION :
From the force diagrams of A and B, accel-
When A reaches the edge of the table after
erations of A and B can be calculated.
time t, its displacement is s.
s = + 100 cm ;
a = g/7 ;
u = – 90 cm/s
 100 = –90 (t) + 1/2 (g/7) (t2)
 t = 2 seconds
N = m1g
Also v = u + at = –90 + g/7 (2) = 190 cm/s
m2g  T = m2a
T = m1a So the block will reach the edge of the table
after 2s with a speed of 190 cm/s.
m2 g 100 g g
 a  
m1  m2 700 7

Example - 4 Two 100 gm blocks hang at the ends of a light flexible cord passing over a small frictionless
pulley. A 40 gm block rests on the block on right and removed after 2 seconds.
(a) How far will each block move in the first second after 40 gm block is removed ?
(b) What was the tension in the cord before the 40 gm block was removed ?
(c) What was the tension in the cord supporting the pulley before 40 gm block was removed ?
SOLUTION :
When two blocks of masses m1 and m2 are hanging from the ends of a string passing over a fixed pulley, their
acceleration is :
m  m1  M  m   M g  40 g  g
a 2 g and the tension is : a
m2  m1 M m M 40  200 6

2m1m2 v = u + a t = 0 + (g/6) (2)

T g
m1  m2 = 980/3 cm/s

From t = 0 to t = 2 : Hence at t = 2, left block is moving up with

980/3 cm/s and right block is moving down
(M = 100 gm, m = 40 gm) with 980/3 cm/s.
Tension in the string during this interval

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The distance covered = s

2M  m  M  g
T  1.143 N = (980/3)  1 = 326.6 cm = 3.226 m.
m  2M
Tension in the cord = weight of each block × 2
From t = 2 to t = 3 :
= 2 Mg = 1.96 N
When m is removed, blocks move with a constant
velocity.

Example - 5 In the figure, M moves on a plane inclined at  = 30 with

the horizontal. The masses are M = 16 Kg, m0 = 5 Kg and m = 4 Kg. The
system is released from rest at t = 0. The string connecting m and m0 is cut
at t = 1 second. Find the further time taken by M to come back to its original
position on the inclined plane.

SOLUTION :
From t = 0 to t = 1 :
As M sin  < m + m0, Velocity of M at t = 1 is v = 0 + at = g/25.
M moves up the plane and (m + m0) move After t = 1 :
down.
When the string connecting m and m0 is cut,
M sin  > m
 M will have a downward acceleration.
The magnitude of acceleration is :
M sin   m g
a g downwards.
M m 5
To reach back to its original position,
T  Mg sin  = Ma
Displacement = s = –g/50 and u = g/50
(m + m0)g  T = (m + m0)a
s = ut + 1/2 at2
a
 m  m0  M sin   g  g –g/50 = (g/25) t – (g/10) t2
m  m0  M 25 5t2 – 2t – 1 = 0
d = 1/2 at2 = g/50  t = (1 + 6)/5 = 0.69 seconds

Example - 6 Two blocks of masses m = 5 kg and M = 10 Kg are connected by a

string passing over a pulley B as shown. Another string connects the centre of pulley B
to the floor and passes over another pulley A as shown. An upward force F is applied at
the centre of pulley A. Both the pulleys are massless.
Find the acceleration of blocks m and M if F is :
(a) 100 N
(b) 300 N
(c) 500 N (take g = 10 m/s2)

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SOLUTION : As T < mg and T < Mg, both the blocks will

remain stationary on the floor.
Let T0 = tension in the string passing over A
(b) T = F/4 = 75 N.
T = tension in the string passing over B
As T < Mg and T > mg, M will remain station-
ary on the floor, whereas m will move.
Acceleration of m
T  mg 75  50
=   5 m/s2 up.
m 5
(c) T = F/4 = 125 N.
2 T0 = F and 2 T = T0
As T > mg and T > Mg, both the blocks will
 T = F/4 accelerate upwards.
 The tension acting on the blocks is F/4 T  mg
Acceleration of m =  15 m/s2
(a) T = F/4 = 25 N. m
Weights of blocks are : mg = 50 N T  Mg
Acceleration of M =  2.5 m/s2
Mg = 100 N M

Example - 7 At the moment t = 0, the force F = at is applied to a small body of

mass m resting on a smooth horizontal plane (a is a constant). The permanent
direction of this force forms an angle  with the horizontal (see figure). Find :
(a) the velocity of the body at the moment of its breaking off the plane ;
(b) the distance traversed by the body up to this moment.

SOLUTION :
 t = t0 = mg/(asin ) at break-off.
From (i), we have m dv = at cos  dt.

Integrate both sides.

v t
m  dv   a cos  tdt
0 0

at 2 cos 
 v t   . . . .(ii)
2m
At break-off, velocity
Along horizontal :
a cos   m2 g 2 
at cos  = m dv/dt . . . .(i)  v0   
2 m  a 2 sin2  
Along vertical :
 mg 2 cos  
R + at sin  = mg  v  t0    
2
 2a sin  
At break-off, R = 0

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dx at 2 cos  a cos  3 a cos  m3 g 3

From (ii), we have v  t    x  t0   t 
dt 2m 6m 0 6m a3 sin3 
x t a cos  2
 0 dx  0 2m
t dt m2 g 3 cos 
x  t0  
6a 2 sin3 

Example - 8 A small bar starts sliding down an inclined plane forming an angle  with the horizontal. The
friction coefficient depends on the distance x covered as  = kx, where k is a constant. Find the distance
covered by the bar till it stops, and its maximum velocity over this distance.

SOLUTION :
V  2 x sin   kx 2 cos   g
It can be seen that the velocity again becomes
2 tan 
zero after covering a distance x =
k
To find the maximum velocity, we can maximise
the expression under the square root sign by
treating it as a quadratic polynomial in terms of
x.
Along the incline,
[For y = ax2 + bx +c, y(max)
mg sin   kx mg cos  = ma
= (4ac  b2)/4a]
where a is the acceleration of bar.
We will write a = v dv/dx, as the acceleration 4 sin2 
is expressed as a function of x.  Vmax .  g
4k cos 
v x
0 v dv  
0
 g sin   k x g cos   dx g
  sin  tan  
k

Example - 9 A small monkey of mass m = 20 kg is climbing up a rope with an

acceleration 2 m/s2 relative to rope. The rope passes over a fixed pulley and carries
a wooden bar of mass M= 5 kg as shown in the figure. Find the acceleration of
monkey and the bar.
SOLUTION :
Let T = tension in the rope
A = acceleration of bar in upwards direction.
It means that the rope gripped by monkey will have a downward acceleration of
A m/s2. The monkey will have a net downward acceleration of (A – 2) m/s2.

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Solving these equations, we get :

A = 7.6 m/s2

The acceleration of monkey

= (7.6 – 2) m/s2
= 5.6 m/s2 downwards

T – Mg = MA
mg – T = m (A – 2)

Example - 10 Find the acceleration of wedge in the following figures.

Assume frictionless contacts.

SOLUTION :
The acceleration a r of block relative to
wedge will be parallel to the horizontal con-
tact plane between them. Solving these equation we get :
The net acceleration of block will be the sum
of ar and acceleration A of wedge.
M g sin + Rsin = MA
mg – R = m (A sin)
0 = m (ar  Acos)

 M  m  g sin 
A
M  m sin 2 

Example - 11 At the moment t = 0 a stationary particle of mass m experiences a time-dependent force F =

at (  t), where a is a constant vector,  is the time during which the given force acts. Find :
(a) the momentum of the particle when the action of the force discontinued:
(b) The distance covered by the particle while the force acted.
SOLUTION :
We can see that F = 0 at t = 0 and at t = 
The force acts from t = 0 to t = 
(a) From Newton’s Second Law, we have :

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dp/dt = F dx
 m
dt

 a t 2 / 2  t 3 / 3 
 dp   Fdt

 
P   a t   t  v  t3 
0 m  dx  a   t 2   dt
0  2 3

 0
 t 2  t3  a 3
 a    
 2 3 6   t4 
0 mx    a t 3  
(b) F = at (  t) = m dv/dt  6 12  0
v t
m  dv  a  t   t  dt a 4
0 0  x   
12m
 
mv  t   a t 2 / 2  t 3 / 3 
Example - 12 A block of mass m lying on a horizontal surface (coefficient
of static friction = s) is to be brought into motion by a pulling force F. At
what angle  with the horizontal should the force F be applied so that its
magnitude is minimum ? Also find this minimum magnitude.
SOLUTION :
Let us first calculate the force F required to s mg s mg
 F  
bring m into motion in terms of angle . cos    s sin  1   s2 cos    
Proceeding along the steps of example 13, we
get, Where tan  = s and cos(  ) = cos cos
+ sin sin (from trigonometry)
F is minimum if cos (  ) is maximum. Hence
F is minimum for
 = tan1s and Fmin = mg sin
To bring m into motion with least effort, force
should be applied at an angle tan1s and
should have a magnitude equal to :
N = mg  F sin 
 mg
F cos  = sN Fmin  mg sin   s
F cos  = s (mg  F sin ) 1  s2

Example - 13 What is the minimum value of force F that can be

applied to the bar C to keep bodies A and B stationary relative to the
bar C ? The masses of the bodies A and B are equal, and the coefficient
of friction between the bar and the bodies is equal to . The masses of
the pulley and the threads are negligible, the friction in the pulley is
absent. There is no friction between C and the floor.

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SOLUTION :
For the blocks to be stationary relative to M,
they must have acceleration which is same as
that of M.
For block B
Let a(min) be the minimum acceleration for
which blocks remain at rest relative to M. It N2 = ma
means that for a < a(min), the block A will mg = T + f2
slip right and block B will slip down relative to
M. Hence at a = a (min), the slipping ten- For the system (A + B + C)
dency is as shown. Fmin   M  2m  a

At slipping point :
a = a (min), f1 =  N1, f2 =  N2

On combining all the equations, we get :

1   
Fmin   M  2m  g
1   
Exercise
Find the maximum force Fmax so that the
blocks do not slip relative to M.
(Hint : For Fmax, the slipping tendency is reversed
For block A
and hence frictional forces are also reversed).
T – f1 = ma
1   
N1 = mg Ans : Fmax   M  2m  g  
 1  

Example - 14 A car moves with a constant tangential acceleration a = 2/3 m/s2 along a horizontal surface
t
circumscribing a circle of radius r = 40 m. The coefficient of sliding friction between the wheels of the car and
the surface is s = 0.20. What distance will the car ride without sliding if at the initial moment of time its
velocity is equal to zero ?(take g = 10m/s2)

SOLUTION :
mv 2
The car is moving with both radial and fr  ft = ma t
r
tangential acceleration. These accelerations are
parallel to the horizontal surface and hence they
are provided by the frictional force. The
frictional force f has radial (fr) and tangential
(ft) components.

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And for zero initial velocity,

To avoid sliding, f  f r2  ft2   s N
we have v2 = 2 atS
where N = mg (on a horizontal road).
 At sliding point, fr2 + ft2 = s2 m2g2
 S
 s2 g 2  at2  r 2  40 2 m
Substitutive for fr and ft, we get : 4at2

 
V 4  s2 g 2  at2 r 2

Example - 15 (CYCLIST ON A CURVE) A cyclist goes around a horizontal curve of radius r with a
speed v. Find the angle  with the vertical made by the cyclist while going around the curve.

SOLUTION :
As the cyclist turns along the curve, he has a cyclist about the centre of gravity becomes
tendency to skid away from the centre of the zero.
curve. Due this tendency, a static friction arises
and acts on the tyres towards the centre. This Hence taking moments (torque) about
force of friction provides the necessary CG,we get ;
centripetal force for circular motion.
N  sin = f  cos
Where  = distance between CG and the point
of contact with ground.
Combining the equations, we get :
f v2
  tan 
N rg
 v2 
   tan1  
 rg 
From force diagram : Note : If  is the coefficient of friction, the cyclist will
mv 2 skid if :
N = mg and f 
r mv 2
  mg  v  rg
To maintain balance, the cyclist leans by an r
angle  away from vertical towards centre.
Due to this inclination, the net torque on the
Example - 16 (CAR ON A LEVEL CURVE) The centre of gravity of a car is at height h and the distance
between its wheel is 2a. What is the maximum speed with which this car can go around a level curve of radius
r without overturning ?
SOLUTION :
When the car takes a turn around the curve, its tendency to skid away from centre creates a static friction f
towards centre providing the centripetal force.

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To maintain balance, the net torque on the car

mv 2
f  . . . . . . (i) about centre of gravity (G) must be zero.
r
Ni a + f h = N0 a . . . . . . .(iii)
Combining (i), (ii) and (iii), we get :

mg  v 2h 
Ni  1  
2  arg 
The car begins to overturn when inner wheels
leave the ground i.e. Ni becomes zero.

 v2h 
 1    0
 arg 
Let Ni and N0 be the normal reactions on the
inner and outer wheels of the car. The weight
ar g
acts from the centre of gravity G. Hence v  is the maximum speed to
h
Balancing vertical forces :
avoid overturning.
Ni + N0 = mg . . . . . . .(ii)

NOW ATTEMPT OBJECTIVE WORKSHEET TO COMPLETE THIS EBOOK

THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Analysis of a problem :
The following example illustrates the general approach for the problems involving the application of IInd law.
The main steps while analysing such problems are :
(i) Draw the force diagram of each body, showing all the forces acting on it.
(ii) Identify the direction of acceleration for each body and show it by an arrow (dotted or double-lined)
drawn slightly away from the force-diagram. We can call it ‘acceleration diagram’.
(iii) Taking one axis along the direction of acceleration and the other perpendicular to it, resolve the forces
into respective components.
(iv) Form two equations from each force diagram :
net force in the direction of acceleration = ma
forces which are perpendicular to the direction of acceleration must balance each other.
2. (a) The maximum speed of the car to prevent sliding on a horizontal curve :
v  s r g

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(b) The angle of a banked curve with horizontal so that no friction acts on the tyres is :

v2
  tan 1
rg

3. Pseudo Force arises as an effect of acceleration of the reference frame in which observer is standing. Its
direction is opposite to the direction of acceleration A. Its magnitude is the product of mass m and the
acceleration A.
4. The maximum with which a car can go around a level curve of radius r without overturning is :
arg
v
h

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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DCCircuits
Circuits

DC Circuits
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE Section - 1

Electric Current
If dq coulombs of charge flow across any cross-section of a conductor in time dt, then the magnitude of the
current I flowing through it is given by :
dq
I
dt
Thus an electric current may be defined as the rate of flow of electric charges across any cross-
section of a conductor.
The S.I. unit of current is ampere and is denoted as A.
One ampere current is said to flow through a conductor when a charge of 1 coulomb passes through
any crossection in 1 second.
1 A = 1 C/ 1 s
1 mA = 10–3 A, 1 µA = 10–6 A
 In metals, the carriers of electric current are negatively charged electrons.
 As a matter of convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction of flow of positive
charges.
 In electrolytes, the carriers of electric current are ions.
 The amount of charge flowing through a crossection of a conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by :
tf
q I dt
ti

Specific Resistance or Resistivity :

 R of a conductor is directly proportional to its length ().
 R of a conductor is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A).

R & R
A

 R  is called as specific resistance or resistivity.
A
 (resistivity) depends only upon the material of which the conductor is made. It is defined as the resistance
of the conductor made of a given material having length of 1 meter and area of cross-section 1 m2
OR

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It can be defined as the resistance of a cube of material of side 1 m when current flows
perpendicular to opposite faces.
The unit of resistivity in S.I. system is ohm-m.

Effect of temperature on Resistance and Resistivity:

The resistance and resistivity of all materials change with temperature.
In general :
 the resistance increases with the rise in temperature in case of metals (conductors) &
 the resistance decreases with temperature in case of insulators and semiconductors
(i.e. carbon, silicon & germanium).

Temperature coefficient of resistivity :

If 1 and 2 are resistivities of a material at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, then :

2 = 1 (1    )

where  = T2  T1 is the temperature difference and  is known as temperature coefficient of resistivity.

Temperature coefficient of resistance :

If R1 and R2 are resistances of a material at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, then :
R2 = R1 (1 + R )

where  = T2 – T1 is the temperature difference and R is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.

R =    ( : coefficient of linear expansion)
 R =  (as  <<  )
Notable exception to the above relation is the material manganin for which  <  and hence R is
negative. i.e., resistance decreases with temperature.

Ohm’s Law :
It states that the current passing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the
temperature and the other physical conditions remain unchanged.
If I is the current flowing across a conductor and V is the potential
V
difference across its ends, then 0

V I
or V = IR where R is constant

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The constant R is called as the resistance of the conductor and it can be defined as the opposition or
obstruction to the flow of electrons which results on account of their collisions with the stationary
ions of conductor. The S.I unit of resistance is ohm and is denoted by . 1 = 1 volt/1A. One ohm is
defined as the resistance of conductor which allows a passage of current of 1A through it, when a potential
difference of 1V is maintained across its ends.

Ohm’s Law in Microscopic Form :

We can express Ohm’s Law in microscopic form, that is, in terms of the driving electric field E and the
current density j (current per unit cross-sectional area) at any point within a conductor.
For uniform field in a conductor, we have V = E  and from Ohm’s Law, V = iR
 E  = iR  E  = i /A
Since j = i/A, we get : E=j
In terms of conductivity  = 1/, Ohm’s Law is j =  E.

Heating Effect of current :

We know that when current passes through a conductor, the electrons inside it move from one end to
another. These moving electrons are continuously obstructed by the fixed atoms (ions) inside the conductor.
The repeated collisions of moving electrons with fixed atoms result in dissipation of kinetic energy in form of
heat. Hence whenever current passes through a conductor, it gets heated up. This is known as heating effect
of current.
When current flows through a conductor, positive charges fall from high potential to low potential and hence
lose energy. This energy is dissipated in form of heat.
Heat dissipated = Energy lost by charge q in falling through a potential difference V in time t sec.
Heat dissipated = q V = (i t) V = V i t = i2 Rt
In case of heaters, electric irons, radiators etc, electrical energy is mostly converted into heat. In case of
electric lamps, about 5% of the total electric energy is converted into visible light. The amount of heat
generated is generally given in calories as :

V it i2 R t
H calories  calories
4.18 4.18

Electric Power :
The rate at which the energy is dissipated is called as Electric Power (P). It is given as :
heat disspated
P  I2 R
t
V2
Also P V I 
R

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Its S.I. units are Watts (W). 1 W = 1 J/s.

Another unit of power is kilo watt hour (KWH). It is defined as the energy dissipated by a current at the rate
of 1000 Watts for 1 hour.
1 KWH = 3.6 × 106 J
Heat exchange for a temperature rise of C is given by :
I2 Rt
 m s m : mass ; s : specific heat ;  = difference in temperature
4.18

Drift Velocity
Thermal Motion of Electrons :
In a metal in a solid state, atoms occupy places in a fixed and regular arrangement. In this state some
electrons are free to move. They possess thermal energy. They are in a state of continuous random motion
(like the gaseous molecules). They are constantly colliding with atoms. Their velocities are randomly distributed
in all directions. Hence the average velocity

u  u  u  . . . .  uN
u 1 2 3 0 . . . .(i)
N
u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . . are the velocities of individual electrons. Because there is no net flow of charge in any
direction, the current is zero.

Application of Potential difference :

When a potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, an electric field E is established
inside it. Due to electric field, each electron experiences an electric force F =  e E.
eE
Acceleration due to force F is  .
m
Between two successive collisions, electron gains some speed which is soon lost in next collision (causing
heating of conductor). If we observe all electrons at any arbitrary instant, they will have velocities equal to
the thermal velocity plus velocity gained after last collision.

  eE 
vi  ui    ti where ti is the time spent after last collision.
 m 

Taking the average of all such instantaneous velocities,

 vi  ui eE  ti
 
N N m N

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The average velocity is called the drift velocity vd, and the average time spent between successive collisions
is called relaxation time .

eE
vd  0  
m
Considering the magnitudes,

eE
vd  
m

Drift Velocity (Vd)

It is the average velocity of the free electrons with which they get drifted E
towards the positive terminal under the influence of external field.
Consider a conductor of length  and of uniform cross-section A. A
potential difference of V volts is applied across its ends. The electrons
start drifting towards the high potential terminal with drift velocity Vd. e

 Vd
Time taken by electrons to cover length (), t  V
d
Amount of charge that flows during this time q = no. of free electrons
per unit volume  volume  charge on 1 e
q = n (A ) e and I=q/t
 I = nAe(/t) = nAe vd and j = nevd
Combining E = j and j = nevd
m
and vd 
eE
 , we get :
 .
m ne2 

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Illustration - 1 A certain electric conductor has a square cross-section, 2.0 mm on a side, and is 12 m
long. The resistance between its ends is 0.072 .
(a) What is the resistivity of the material ?
(b) If the electric field magnitude in the conductor is 0.12 V/m, what is the total current ?
(c) If the material has 8 × 1028 free electrons per cubic meter, find the average drift velocity under the
conditions of part (b).
SOLUTION :
(a) A = (2 × 10–3)2 = 4 × 10–6 m2 (c) Let drift velocity = Vd
 = 12 m, R = 0.072 
n = 8 × 1028 electrons/m3
6
RA 0.072  4 10
   2.4 108  m. current = i = e n A Vd
 12
i 20
(b) Electric field in the conductor = V/ = 0.12 Vd  
enA 1.6 1019  8 1028  4  106
V = 0.12 × 12 = 1.44 Volts.
= 3.9  10–4 m/s.
i = V/R = 1.44 /0.072 = 20 A

Illustration - 2 The current in a wire varies with time according to the relation :
i = 4 A + (2t2) A/s2
(a) How many coulombs pass a cross-section of the wire in the time interval between t = 5 s and
t = 10 s ?
(b) What constant current could transport the same charge in same time interval ?
SOLUTION :
i (t) = 4 + 2t2
10 10
(a) q  
5
i dt  
5  4  2t 2  dt  603.33 C
q 603.33
(b) ic    120.67 A.
t 10  5

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Illustration - 3 The region between two concentric conducting spheres of radius ra and rb is filled with a
conducting material of resistivity  .
(a) Show that the resistance between the spheres is given by :

 1 1
R   
4  ra rb 
(b) Drive an expression for current density as a function of radius, if the p.d. between the spheres is Vab.
SOLUTION :

All the shells are in the series.

rb
r  total resistance = R =  d R
ra
rb
 dr  1 1
dr  R     
2 4
ra 4 r  ra rb 

(b) The current density = j = i / A

(a) Let us divide the region between the conducting
at a radius r , A = 4  r2
spheres into infinite concentric spherical shells.
Consider one such shell of inside radius r and Using Vab = I R
thickness dr. Vab 4  ra rb 
 j (r )   
 dr 4r 2   rb  ra 
Its resistance = dR =
4r 2

Illustration - 4 A toaster using a Nichrome heating element operates on 120 V . When it switched on at
0°C, it carries an initial current of 1.5 A. A few seconds later, the current reaches the steady value of 1.33
A. What is the final temperature of the element ? The average value of the temperature coefficient of the
Nichrome over the temperature range is 0.00045/°C.
SOLUTION :
Let R0 and Rt be the resistances at 0C and 120 120
final temperature tC.  
1.33 1.5

1 R t 
 Rt = R0 (1 + R t)
1  1.5  1.7
120 120  t    1.33 1  0.00045 1.33  284C
 1.5  & 1.33  R 
R0 Rt

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Illustration - 5 A conductor of length  has a resistance R. What will be the resistance if it is stretched so
that its length becomes n times ?
SOLUTION :
n
When length becomes n times, the area of cross-  R =  n2 R
section becomes 1/n times so that the volume A
(and mass) remains same. n
Hence the resistance becomes n2 times the
original value.

Illustration - 6 A bulb has voltage rating of 220 V and power rating of 40 W.

(a) Calculate the resistance of the bulb.
(b) What will happen if a voltage source of 200 V is connected across the bulb ?
(c) How can the bulb be made to glow with normal brightness if a voltage source of emf 330 V is
available ?
SOLUTION :
220 V / 40 W rating mean that the bulb will S
dissipate power equal to 40 W when the voltage
of 220 V is applied across it. The brightness of (c) 330 V R bulb
a bulb is proportional to the power dissipated
across it. A power dissipation of 40 W for this If a voltage greater than the voltage rating (=
bulb will make it glow with normal brightness. 220 V) is applied, the bulb will glow more
brightly, but it can be damaged. Hence for a
(voltage rating )2
(a) Resistance of bulb = R = voltage supply of 330V, we will have to divert
power rating
the voltage across a resistance S connected in
220  220 series with the bulb.
 R = 1210 
40 S should be selected so that p.d. across the bulb
(b) If the voltage across bulb is 200 V, is 220 V.

200  200  R 
Power dissipated =  33.05 W  220  330  
1210 R  S
As the power dissipated is less than 40 W, the
 1210 
bulb will glow less than the normal brightness.  220  330  
 1210  S 
 S = 605 

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Illustration - 7 Two bulbs A (40 W/ 220 V) and B (60 W /220 V) are connected in parallel across a supply
of 220 V. Which one of them will glow more brightly ? What will happen when they are connected in series ?
SOLUTION:
The brightness is proportional to the power The bulb having greater resistance will glow more
dissipation. brightly.
When the bulbs are connected in parallel with
each other, the voltage across them are equal. VA2 220  220
Here : RA   = 1210 .
PA 40
V2 1
P   Brightness 
R R VB 2 220  220
The bulb having lesser resistance will glow more RB   =806.67 .
PB 60
brightly.
RA > RB
When the bulbs are in series, the current through
each bulb is same. B will glow brighter when they are in parallel
and A will be brighter when they are in series.
P  I 2R  brightness  R

Illustration - 8 An electric tea kettle has two heating coils. When one of coils is switched on, the kettle
begins to boil in 6 minutes. When the other is switched on, the boiling begins in 8 minutes. In what time will
the boiling begin if both coils are switched simultaneously: (i) in series (ii) in parallel ?
Assume only one battery is used in all three cases.
SOLUTION :
Heat required to begin boiling is same for every V 2 t1 V 2 t2
 R1  and R2 
case. Let this be H. H H
Let R1 and R2 be resistances of the coils and V V 2t s V 2ts
be the supply voltage. Substituting in H   H
R1  R2 V 2 (t1  t2 )
t1 = 6 min, t2 = 8 min.
 ts = t1 + t2 = 14 min.
Let ts be the time when they are in series and tp
be the time when they are parallel.
V2
H = power × time Substituting in H  ( R1  R2 ) t p
R1R2
V2 V2 V2  H
H t1  t2  ts H 
R1 R2 R1  R2  H  V 2t p   
 V 2 t V 2t 
 1 2
V2 t1 t2 68 24
 ( R1  R2 ) t p  
R1R2  tp = minutes.
t1  t2 68 7

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Illustration - 9 A fuse made of lead wire has area of cross-section 0.2 mm2. On short circuiting, the current
in the fuse reaches 30 A. How long after the short circuiting will the fuse begin to melt? Density = 11.34 g/cc
; specific heat of lead = 0.032 cal/g/ C ; melting point = 327 C ;  = 22 × 10–6 –cm ; initial temperaturee
= 20C.
SOLUTION :
The fuse begins to melt when its temperature rises to 327 C from 20 C.
 heat required = m s  = (A  d) s 
where  = length of the wire
If t is the time, then heat dissipation in cal/s is :
  
i 2 Rt i2   t
2
H  (A  d) s  = i Rt   A 
4.18 4.18 4.18

4.18 A2 d s 
 t =
i2 
= 0.094 s

SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES Section - 2

The resistances of resistors can be grouped together in the following two manners :
(i) Series Combination (ii) Parallel Combination

Equivalent Resistance :
If a single resistor can replace the combination of resistances in such a manner that the current in the circuit
remains unaltered, then that single resistance is called as equivalent Resistance.

Series Combination :
Two or more than two resistances say R1 and R2 are said to be joined in series if they are connected end to
end so that the same current flows through each resistor.
i R1 i R2 i

V1 V2

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Let Req be the equivalent resistance of two resistors R1 and R2 joined in series. Let V be the total potential
difference across the combination and I be the current passing through each resistor. The equivalent resistance
Req is given as :
Req = R1 + R2
(i) The current through each resistance is same.
(ii) The total voltage V is divided into two parts :
R1 R2
across R1 : V1  V across R2 : V2  V
R1  R2 R1  R2

Parallel Combination :
Two or more than two resistors say R1, R2 are said to be joined in parallel if the ends of one resistor are
connected across the ends of the other as shown. Let Req be the equivalent resistor of two resistances
joined in parallel. Let I be the current flowing across the combination and V be the potential difference. Then
Req is given as :
1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2

(i) The voltage across each resistance is same. R1

I1
I I
(ii) The total current I is divided into two parts : R2
I2
R2
Current through R1 : I1  I
R1  R2
R1
Current through R2 : I2  I
R1  R2

Electromotive Force :
When a steady current is to be passed through a resistance, a constant Cell
+ + + +
potential difference must be maintained across its ends. heat
+ +
An electric cell is a device which can maintain a constant potential
Resistance
difference across its ends. The cell converts its chemical energy into + +
high low
electrical energy and transfer this energy to the resistance connected potential heat potential
across its terminals. This energy is dissipated as heat in the resistance.
The positive charge carriers in the circuit fall from high potential to low
potential across resistance. The cell lifts these charges from low potential Cell
and puts them again at higher potential. This influence of the cell that
makes the charge move from low potential to higher potential is known
as electromotive force (EMF).

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Quantitatively EMF is the potential difference across the terminals of a Cell

cell when the cell is in open circuit i.e., when it is not delivering any
current. R

When there is an external conducting path between the cell-terminals,

current flows through the closed circuit.

The potential difference across the cell-terminals in that case is the

combination of emf (E) of the cell and the potential drop across the
internal resistance (r) of the cell itself. The internal resistance (r) is
the resistance offered by its electrodes and electrolyte etc.

Single Loop Circuit :

If any circuit can be easily simplified to a combination of one cell and
one resistance across it, then we will call it a single loop circuit.

For a single loop circuit,

E
i
R
net emf
 current supplied by cell = net resis tan ce

We already know the rules for combining resistances in series or parallel. For combining cells connected in
series, note the following very carefully.

E1 E2 E1 + E2
(i)
cells in same direction combined cell

E1 E2 E1 – E2 E2 – E1
(ii)
(E1 > E2) (E 2 > E 1)
cell in opposite direction combined cell

(iii)

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1 1 1 1
  
r r1 r2 r3
(iv) E1 E2 E
  3
r1 r2 r3
E
1 1 1
 
r1 r2 r3

Illustration - 10 Calculate the current through the 5  resistance. The

cell has negligible internal resistance.

SOLUTION :

current through the cell will be

em f
= i = net resis tan ce

50 25
i=  A.
20  5 7
10 
Net resistance across the cell 20  5

20  5 For || combination of 5  and 20  ,

= 10 + 20  5
i R1 25 20 20
I2 =    A.
R1  R2 7 20  5 7

Illustration - 11 In the circuit shown, the EMF’S of the cell are : E = 10 V ;

1

E2 = 40 V ; R = 15  ; internal resistances are r1 = 1  ; r2 = 2 

Calculate the current through R and the potential difference across the terminals of each cell.
SOLUTION :

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The two cells are equivalent to a single cell of emf p.d. across cells :
E = E2  E1 = 40 V  10 V = 30 V p.d. across the terminals of cell E1 is
As E2 > E1, the net emf follows the direction of E2 = VA – VB = E1 + ir1 = 10 + 5/3 × 1
Current through each resistance (all are in series) is = 35/3 V.
i = 30/18 = 5/3 A. p.d. across the terminals of cell E2 is
= VC – VB = E2  ir2 = 40  5/3 × 2
= 110/3 V

Note : (i) Current is flowing out of the positive terminals of a cell E2. Hence this cell is supplying energy to the
circuit and p.d. across its terminals is V = E2  ir2
(ii) Current is flowing into the positive terminals of the cell E1. Hence this cell is receiving energy
from the circuit. We usually say that the cell is being charged. The p.d. across terminals of the cell
getting charged is V = E1 + ir1

Illustration - 12 ‘mn’ identical cells of emf E and internal resistance r each are connected in n parallel rows
where each row contains m cells in series. This combination of cells is connected across an external resistance
R. What is the current through R ? What should be the arrangement of cells for getting maximum current
through R if the total number of cells is fixed ?
SOLUTION :

If total number of cells is fixed then mn is fixed

and we have to calculate m and n so that current
is maximum. We can write i as :
mnE
i
2

The simplified circuit is shown :

 mr  nR   2 mnr R
As mn is fixed, I is maximum if denominator is
minimum.
2
 mr  nR   0

m R
 
mE n r
i mnE
mr  i No. of cells in a row external resistance
R mr  nR 
n No.of rows internal resistance of each cell

This is the current through R.

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This is the condition for getting maximum For maximum current :

current through R. RN
Number of cells in a row =
If N is the total number of cells, then : r
m R
On solving : mn = N and  we get : Nr
n r and Number of rows =
R

Illustration - 13 The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.5 V when there is a current of
3 A in the battery from the negative to the positive terminal. When the current is 2 A in the reverse direction,
the p.d. becomes 11 V.
(a) What is the internal resistance of the battery ? (b) What is the emf of the battery ?
SOLUTION :
VAB = E  i r
8.5 = E  3 r . . . . (i)
VAB = E + i r
11 = E + 2 r . . . . (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get :
10 V and r = 0.5 
Let A, B represent the terminals of the cell.

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS Section - 3

Kirchoff’s voltage law

The algebraic sum of the potentials in a closed path is zero.
In algebraic sum, we take a rise in potential as positive and a fall in potential as negative. This implies that :
(i) If we pass through a resistor in the direction of current, the change in potential is  i R. If we pass
through a resistor opposite to the current, the change in potential is + i R.
(ii) If we pass through a cell in the direction of emf (i.e., from negative terminal to positive terminal),
the change in potential is + E. The change in potential is E, if we go from the positive potential
to the negative potential (i.e., opposite to emf).

Kirchoff’s Current Law

The sum of currents arriving at a junction is equal to the sum of currents going away from the junction.

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Illustration - 14 Calculate the current through each resistance in the given circuit. Also calculate the potential
difference between the points a and b.
Given that :
E1 = 6 V, E2 = 8 V, E3 = 10 V
R1 = 5 R2 = 10 , R3 = 4 
Assume that all the cells have no internal resistance.
SOLUTION :
Usually, the process of solving a circuit involves (x  y) R2  E2 + y R3 + E3 = 0
three steps :
 5x  7y = 1 . . . . (ii)
(i) Assume unknowns (x, y, . . . . ) for currents in
(iii) Solve the equations formed in step (ii). Some
different branches of the circuit. Use the
currents may come out to be negative. This
Kirchoff ’s current law at the junctions so that
simply means that their direction was incorrectly
the number of unknowns introduced is minimum.
assumed. So the signs of the currents will give
Let x be the current through R1 and y be the us the correct direction of each current.
current through R3 as shown. Kirchoff’s current
Solving (i) and (ii), we get :
law at the junction a gives a current (x  y)
through R2. 24 5
 x A and y A
55 11
1
 xy= A
55
The signs indicate that the direction of x and y
was assumed incorrectly while the direction of
(x – y) was correct.
(ii) Select as many loops as the number of unknowns
24
introduced for currents. Apply Kirchoff’s voltage i (through R1) = A towards left
law through every loop. 55
1
i (thorugh R2) = A towards right
55
5
i (thorugh R3) = A towards right
11
The current directions are shown below :

Going anticlockwise through the loop containing

R1 and R3 (starting from junction a)
+ x R1  E1 + y R3 + E3 = 0
 5x + 4y =  4 . . . . (i)
Going clockwise through the loop containing R2
and R3 (starting from junction a)

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Potential difference between a and b : Here let us go from b to a through R3.

The p.d. between any two points in a circuit is  Va  Vb = + y R3 + E3
calculated by adding changes in potential while
going through any path from one point to the   5 90
=   4  10  volts.
other point.  11  11
Note carefully that we get (Va – Vb) if we
go from b to a.

Illustration - 15 Find the current in each branch of the given circuit. What is the energy supplied by the
battery to the circuit in one minute ?

SOLUTION :

Solving these equations, we get

x = 10 A ; y=4A; z=2A
 the currents in the resistances are :
i (in upper 1 ) = x  y = 6 A
i (in upper 2 ) = y = 4 A
Let x, y, z be the currents in the circuit as shown. i (in middle 1 ) = 2 A (from left to right)
In the left loop containing cell, i (in lower 2 ) = x  y + z = 4 A
+ 14  1 (x – y)  2 (x  y + z) = 0
i (in lower 1 ) = y  z = 6 A
In the top right loop (clockwise),
Current in the middle 1  resistance is 2 A from
 2y  1z + 1 (x  y) = 0 left to right.
In the bottom right loop (clockwise), All the other currents are from top to the bottom.
1z  1 (y  z) + 2 (x  y + z) = 0 Total current supplied by the battery = x = 10 A
Simplifying these equations we get : Energy supplied by the battery in one minute
3x  3y + 2z = 14 = (Emf) × (current) × (60 s)
x  3y  z = 0 Energy = 14 × 10 × 60 = 8400 J
2x  3y + 4z = 0

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Illustration - 16 In the given circuit, determine the value of current i and i

1 2
in the zero resistances branches.

SOLUTION :
Applying
KVL along APDA,
– 10x + 60 = 0  x = 6A
Similarly the junctions B and P can also be joined
KVL along ACQBDA, together.
– 30z + 60 = 0  z = 2A
KVL along ACQPDA
– 20y + 60 = 0  y = 3A
KCL at junction P gives : i2 = x + y = 9A
KCL at junction Q gives : i1 = y + z = 5A

Alternate method : As all the resistances are connected across the

As the junctions A and Q are at same potential groups (A, Q) and (B, P), they are effectively in
(VA – VQ = i1 (0) = 0) we can join A and Q parallel.
together. 60 60 60
x  6A ; y   3A ; z   2A
10 20 30
KCL at junction P gives : i2 = x + y = 9A
KCL at junction Q gives : i1 = y + z = 5A

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Section - 4

Ammeter and Voltmeter

Ammeter is an instrument which reads the current passing through it. It is used to measure the current in a
branch of a circuit. The ammeter must be inserted into the branch so that the current to be measured passes
through it. The resistance of an ammeter should be very small (ideally zero) so that it does not appreciably
change the current which is to be measured.
Voltmeter is an instrument which reads the potential difference across its terminals. To measure the potential
difference between any two points A and B in the circuit, the voltmeter terminals are connected to A and B
without breaking the circuit. The resistance of the voltmeter should be very large (ideally infinite) so that it
does not alter the currents in the circuit and the potential difference to be measured.

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Illustration - 17 A battery of emf 1.4 V and internal resistance 2  is connected to a resistor of 100 
resistance. In order to measure the current through the resistance and the potential difference across its ends,
an ammeter is connected in series with it and a voltmeter is connected across its ends. The resistance of the
ammeter is 4/3 and that of voltmeter is 200 . What are the readings of the two instruments ? What would
be their reading if they were ideal instrument ?
SOLUTION :
 The current through the ammeter is 0.02 A
 Reading of ammeter = 0.02 A
Reading of voltmeter = p.d. across its terminals
 R Rv   100  200  4
i   0.02    Volts
 R  Rv   100  200  3

The total resistance across the emf E is : If ammeter and voltmeter would have been ideal,
R Rv RA = 0 and Rv = 
 RA  r
R  Rv E 1. 4 1. 4
The reading of ammeter =   A
and the current (I) is : r  R 2  100 102
E 1.4 = 0.013 A

R Rv 100  200 4 1. 4
 RA  r  2 The reading of voltmeter = I R =  100  1.37 V
R  Rv 100  200 3 102
= 0.02 A These readings are exactly equal to the current and
voltage which was to be measured.

Galvanometer :
Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of small currents
in any branch of the circuit. If there is no current passing through the
galvanometer, its needle remains un-deflected i.e. it remains on the middle of
the scale. When a current passes through it, the needle deviates as shown.
The angular deflection of the needle is proportional to the magnitude of the
current through the galvanometer.
The maximum current that can be passed through the galvanometer and
causes maximum deflection of the needle is called the full scale deflection
current (If).
A current greater than this value can damage the instrument.
[If is small and is usually measured in milli-amperes (mA).]

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Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter :

We can use a galvanometer of resistance G and full scale current If to measure currents in amperes. Let I be
the maximum current that we want to measure i.e., the range of the ammeter.
As the current through the galvanometer can not exceed If , we divert the
current (I  If ) into a small resistance R connected in parallel across the
galvanometer.
The combination of galvanometer and the small resistance R is now an
ammeter whose range is zero to I. Let us now calculate the resistance R
required for the given range I.
If G = (I  If ) R
If G
R
IIf
As the current If is very small as compared to I, the resistance R is a small resistance. The resistance R is also
known as shunt.

Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter

A galvanometer can also be used as a voltmeter (of range 0 to V) if the
deflection of the needle is proportional to the voltage across it and the
current through the galvanometer does not exceed If. In other words, the
potential difference across the galvanometer should not exceed If G. To
divert the remaining potential difference (V  If G), a high resistance R is
connected in series with the galvanometer.
V = If (G + R )
V
 R G
If
As If is very small, a high resistance R is required in series to convert a galvanometer to voltmeter.

Illustration - 18 A galvanometer of 100  has a full-scale deflection current equal to 5 mA. What is the
resistance that must be connected to convert this galvanometer into:
(a) an ammeter of range 0 – 10 A. (b) a voltmeter of range 0 – 5 V.

SOLUTION :
(a) Let R1 be the resistance to be connected in
parallel across galvanometer for the conversion.
When I (=10 A) flows through the ammeter, If
should flow through G and I  If should be
bypassed.

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If G = (I  If) R1 (b) Let R2 be the resistance connected in series with

G to convert it into a voltmeter. When the
If 5  103 maximum voltage V (= 5 volts) occurs across
R1  G  100
IIf 10  5  103 the meter, the current through G must be If .

 0.050025 

If (G + R2) = V
V 5
R2 = G   100 = 900 .
If 5  10 3

Illustration - 19 The resistance of the galvanometer G in the circuit is

25 . The meter deflects full scale for a current of 10 mA. The meter
behaves as an ammeter of three different ranges. The range is 0 – 10 A,
if the terminals O and P are taken; range is 0  1 A between O and Q ;
range is 0  0.1 A between O and R. Calculate the resistance R1, R2, and
R3.

SOLUTION : Between O and Q :

Bet w een O and R :

Range = I = 1 A
Now (R1 + R2) is in parallel across (G + R3).
Range = I = 0.1 A
 current through G is 10 mA when  R1  R2 
 If I  
I = 0.1 A.  R1  R2  R3  G 

 R1  R2  R3   
 10  103
= 0.1  R  R  R  G   R  R 2
 1 2 3   10 103  1  1 
 25  25 
 R1 + R2 + R3 = 25/9  . . . . (i)  9 
 25  1 5
 R1  R2    25     . . . . (ii)
 9  100 18
From (i) and (ii), we have :
R3 = 25/9  5/18 = 2.5 

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Between O and P :
 
 R1 
Range = I = 10 A 10 103  10   

 25  25 
 9 
1  25  1
   25    . . . .(iii)
1000  9  36
Range = I = 10 A
From (ii) and (iii)
 R1 
 If I  
 R1  R2  R3  G  R1 = 0.0278  ; R2 = 0.25  ; R3 = 2.5 

Potentiometer :
We already know that when a voltmeter is used to measure potential
difference, its finite resistance causes it to draw a current from the circuit.
Hence the potential difference which was to be measured is changed
due to the presence of the instrument itself. Potentiometer is an instrument
which allows the measurement of potential difference without drawing
current from the circuit being measured. Hence it acts as an infinite
resistance voltmeter.
The resistance between A and B is a uniform wire of length  , with a sliding contact C at a distance x from
B. The potential difference V is measured by sliding contact until the galvanometer G reads zero. The no
deflection condition of galvanometer ensures that there is no current through the branch containing G and
the potential difference to be measured. The length x for no deflection is called as the balancing length.
VCB = V = p.d to be measured.
If  is the resistance per unit length of AB,
R V x
V  VCB  CB AB  V AB
R AB 
V 
V   AB  x
  
The potential difference across a unit length of wire AB is called potential gradient.
The potential to be measured
= (potential gradient in wire AB)  (balancing length)

Note : For proper working of potentiometer the emf of the cell used in the potentiometer should be greater than
the potential difference to be measured.

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Illustration - 20 A battery of emf 4 V is connected across a 10 m long potentiometer wire having a resistance
per unit length 1.6  m1. A cell of emf 2.4 V is connected so that its negative terminal is connected to the low
potential end of the potentiometer wire and the other end is connected through a galvanometer to a sliding
contact along the wire. It is found that the no-deflection point occurs against the balancing length of 8 m.
Calculate the internal resistance of the 4 V battery.
SOLUTION :
 VAB = 3 volts.
E
But V AB  R AB
r  R AB

 4 
 3   1.6  10 
 r  1.6  10 
 r = 16/3 .
The emf of the cell is the potential difference to Note that as there is no current through the
be measured. cell and galvanometer, Battery E, internal
emf of cell = (potential gradient) x resistance r and potentiometer wire AB are
in series.
V V
2.4  AB x  AB  8
 10
Measuring internal resistance of a cell using Potentiometer :

The potentiometer provides a way to measure the internal resistance of a cell by using the value of a given
external resistance R. The cell of emf E and internal resistance r is first connected in the potentiometer circuit
along with a galvanometer G. The balancing length 1 of of the potentiometer wire is measured by finding the
null point. As the current through the cell and galvanometer is zero at null point, the length 1, corresponds to
the emf E of the cell and its internal resistance does not play any role.
V 
E   AB  1 wher L = total length of wire AB . . . .(i)
 L 
The known external resistance R is now connected in parallel with the cell E and a new null point is obtained
at length 2. The potential difference across length 2 is now equal to the potential difference across the cell
which is not E but E – ir as a current i now circulates in the loop formed by the cell and external resistance R.

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The potential difference across the cell is :

 E 
 E  ir  E   r
 Rr
ER

Rr
This potential difference balances the length 2.

ER V 
   AB  2 . . . . (ii)
Rr  L 

Dividing (i) by (ii) we get :

R  r 1  
  r  R  1  1
R 2  2 

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE NETWORK Section - 5

The circuit shown in the figure is called as wheatstone bridge network.

It can be shown by solving the circuit that the current through the
resistance R0 becomes zero if the following condition is satisfied.
R1 R3

R2 R4

In that situation, A and B are at same potential and hence a galvanometer

connected in series with R0 will not show any deflection. The network
is called a balanced network if the above condition is satisfied.

Meter Bridge :
The Wheatstone network is used to determine unknown resistances.
The meter bridge is an instrument based on the balancing condition
of the Wheatstone network.
The resistances R1, R2 are two parts of a long wire (usually 1 m long) PQ.
The portion PA of the wire offers resistance R1 and the portion QA offers resistance R2. The sliding contact at
A is adjusted so that galvanometer reads zero. (no deflection)

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In the no deflection condition,

R1 X R 
  X R 1 
R2 R  R2 

X R 1
2
If R is a known resistance, then X can be measured by measuring the lengths 1 and 2.

Illustration - 21 Two unknown resistances X and Y are placed in the left and right gaps of a meter bridge.
The null-point in galvanometer is obtained at a distance of 80 cm from left. A resistance of 100  is now
connected in parallel across X. The null-point is then found by shifting the sliding contact towards left by 20
cm. Calculate X and Y.
SOLUTION :

From first null point : From (i) and (ii), we have

X 80
 . . . . (i) 500 125
Y 20 X  and Y 
3 3
From second null point :
 100 X 
 
 100  X   60 . . . . (ii)
Y 40

Illustration - 22 Find the equivalent resistance of the given circuit

between A and B .

SOLUTION :

The given circuit is a balanced Wheatstone

network. Hence there will be no current through
R0 and removing R0 does not affect the remaining
circuit in any way.

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Req 
 2 R   2R   R Note : If current through a branch is zero, we can

2R  2R remove it without affecting the remaining circuit.

Illustration - 23 A voltmeter has a resistance of 20000 . When connected in series with a large
resistance R across 110 V line, the meter reads 5 V. Find the resistance R.
SOLUTION :

p.d. across voltmeter is 5 V.

Rv 20000
 5 110   110
R  Rv R  20000
 R = 420000 = 420 k.

NOW ATTEMPT IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B BEFORE PROCEEDING AHEAD IN THIS EBOOK

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 A galvanometer having a coil of resistance 100  gives a full scale deflection when a
current of 1 mA is passed through it. What is the value of the resistance which can convert this galvanometer
into a meter giving full scale deflection for a current of 10 A ?
(a) A resistance of required value is available but it will get burnt, if the energy dissipated in it is greater
than 1 W. Can it be used for the above described conversion of the galvanometer?
(b) When this modified galvanometer is connected across the terminals of a battery, it reads a current of
4A.The current drops to 1.0A when a resistance of 1.5 is connected in series with the modified
galvanometer. Find the emf and the internal resistance of the battery.
SOLUTION :

As P = 0.9999 W is less than 1 W, the

(a) resistance will not get burnt.

Let R be the resistance connected in parallel. (b)

 If G = (I If) R
IfG 10  3  100
 R 
I  If 10  10  3

100
 R 
9999
Power dissipated across this resistance R is :
P = (I  If)2 R
E E
100 4 1
= (10  10 3)2  R G and RG
9999 r 1. 5  r 
RG RG
Substitute R = 100/9999  and G = 100 

 E = 2V and r = 0.49 

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Example - 2 A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 2 mA per division. A variable shunt is connected
across the galvanometer and the combination is connected to the terminals of the cell of internal resistance
5 through a resistance of 200 . The deflection of the meter is 20 divisions for a shunt of 10 and 50
division for a shunt of 30 . Find the resistance of the galvanometer and the emf of the cell.

SOLUTION :

10 E
40  10  3 = 205  G  10   10 G . . . . (i)

30 E
100  10  3 = . . . . (ii)
205(G  30)  30G
Current through galvanometer is : Dividing

S 2 1  205  G  30   30 G 
Ig = I   
GS 5 3  205  G  10   10 G 
E S 5 (205) 30  6 (205) 10
 Ig = G = 6 (205)  60  150  5 (205)
GS GS
200  r 
GS
205  90
G= = 160.43 
For S = 10  ; Ig = 20 × 2 = 40 mA 115
For S = 30  ; Ig = 50 × 2 = 100 mA E = 146.1 V

Example - 3 12 cells each having the same emf values are connected in series and are kept in a closed
box. Some of the cells are wrongly connected. This battery is connected in series with an ammeter and two
cells identical with the others. The current is 3 A when the cells and the battery aid each other and it is 2 A
when the cells and the battery oppose each other. How many cells are wrongly connected ?
SOLUTION :

Let x cells be wrongly connected and R be the

total resistance in the circuit. Let E be the emf of 3
12  x  E  2 E  xE

each cell. R
When the cells aid battery, i = 3 A When the cells oppose battery, i = 2 A

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2
12  x  E  xE  2 E 3 14  2 x


R 2 10  2 x  x=1

On dividing the two equations : i.e. only one cell is wrongly connected.

Example - 4 In the figure, the point at the top is at 36 volts and the bottom
point is at 0 V. In other words, there is a battery of 36 V emf and negligible
internal resistance between these points.
(a) What is the potential difference between a and b when switch S is open ?
(b) What is the current through the switch S when it is closed ?
SOLUTION :
(a) When the switch S is open :
36 36
i1   4A i2   4A
63 36
While going from point a to the point b and adding
potential changes, we get :
Vb  Va = + 6 i1  3 i2
 Vb  Va = 24  12 = 12 V
 b is at a potential 12 V higher than a.

(b) Switch S is closed : 36  0

Let is be the current through the switch.  total current i = = 9A
4
Vb – Va = is (0) = 0 3
 Vb = Va and hence we can join a and b  i1  6  3 i  3 A .
together. 6
The 6  and 3  resistances are now in parallel.  i2  3  6 i  6 A .

At junction a :
Using Kirchoff’s current law :
i2 = i1 + is

 is = i2  i1 = 6  3 = 3 A

Hence 3 A current passes through the switch S

from b to a.
The net resistance between top and bottom is
Note :If two or more junctions are at same potential,
63 3 6
=   4 they can be joined together to form a single
63 36 junction.

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Example - 5 In the circuit as shown in fig. Find :

(a) the current in resistor R
(b) the resistance R
(c) the unknown emf E.
(d) If the circuit is broken at point x what is the current in the 28 V battery ?
SOLUTION :

Let I be the current in R as shown. Adding, we get :

At junction A : R = 5 .
i+4=6  i = 2 A
From second equation :
Apply Kirchoff’s voltage laws in upper and
E = 42 V
lower loops.
 28 + i R  6 (4) + E = 0 If the circuit is broken at x, then the current in
and  E + 4 (6) + 3 (6) = 0 the outer loop and 28 V battery will be:
28
i  3.5 A (anti-clockwise)
R3

Example - 6 The given network is part of another larger circuit.

Calculate the potential of point D.

SOLUTION :
Let the potential of point O be x Volts.
going from D to O, we get :
VO – VD = 6 × 3 = 18  VD = x  18
Let us assume that the current goes away from
V V V V V V
point O to the points A, B, C and D through all  O C  O D  O D 0
5 6 1.2
branches.
x  33 x  42 x  53 18
 iOA + iOB + iOC + iOD = 0     3 0
3 4 5 1.2
VO  V A VO  VB  x = 18 V
 
3 4
 D is at a potential of 0 volts.

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Example - 7 Find the resistance of the infinite network between A and B in the figure.

SOLUTION :

Let R be the equivalent resistance of the network 3R

between A and B. The circuit starts repeating  R=2+
R3
again to the right of first 3 resistances. Hence R
is also the resistance to the right of C and D.  R2  2 R  6 = 0
3R  R = (1 + 7) .
 RAB = 2 + R  3

Example - 8 AB is a part of another largeR circuit. The p. d. across Q and B is VQ  VB = 12 V.

Calculate the p. d. between A and B.

Let i be the current entering through A and leaving through B. Let x be the current through 6 V cell.

Going from B to Q : In the loop containing 6 V cell :

VQ  VB = 1i + 3 + 2i = 12  6  2x + 1 (i  x) = 0
 i=3A   6  2x + 3  x = 0
 x=1A

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Now going from A to B :

 VB  VA = 1  27 + 2 =  24 V
VB – VA = 2i + 10  1i  3i  6  2x  2i  3  1i
or VA  VB = 24 V
 VB  VA = 1  9i  2x

Example - 9 An external resistance R is connected across a cell of emf E and internal resistance r.
(a) Calculate the value of R so that the heat dissipation in R is maximum.
(b) Also find the maximum heat dissipation in R.
SOLUTION :

r
(a) H is maximum if R 0
R
 R  r.

Heat dissipation in R = H = i2R E2

(b) Hmax. = .
4r
E2R E2
H= 
( R  r )2 r2 Note :You should memorise this result (R = r) for
R  2r  maximum thermal power generated in an
R
external resistance.
E2
H= 2
 r 
4r   R  
 R

Example - 10 Twelve wires, each having equal resistance r, are joined

to form a cube as shown in the figure. Find the equivalent resistance between
the diagonally opposite point a and f.

SOLUTION :

ab, ad, ah are symmetrical paths and hence they carry equal currents. Hence b, d, h are equipotential junctions.
Similarly c, e, g are equipotential junctions.
We redraw the circuit by making b, d, h and c, e, g as single junctions.
r r r 5r
 Raf =   
3 6 3 6

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Electric Current
If dq coulombs of charge flow across any cross-section of a conductor in time dt, then the magnitude of the
current I flowing through it is given by :
dq
I
dt
2. The amount of charge flowing through a crossection of a conductor from t = ti to t = tf is given by :
tf
q I dt
ti

3. Temperature coefficient of resistance :

If R1 and R2 are resistances of a material at temperatures t1 and t2 respectively, then :
R2 = R1 (1 + R )
where  = t2 – t1 is the temperature difference and R is known as temperature coefficient of resistance.

4. Ohm’s Law :
It states that the current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across
its ends provided the temperature and the other physical conditions remain unchanged.

If I is the current flowing across a conductor and V is the potential

difference across its ends, then

V I or V = IR where R is constant

5. Electric Power :
The rate at which the energy is dissipated is called as Electric Power (P). It is given as :
heat disspated
P  I2 R
t

6. Series Combination :
Two or more than two resistances say R1 and R2 are said to be joined in series if they are connected end to
end so that the same current flows through each resistor.

Req = R1 + R2

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(i) The current through each resistance is same.

(ii) The total voltage V is divided into two parts :
R1 R2
across R1 : V1  V across R2 : V2  R  R V
R1  R2 1 2

7. Parallel Combination :
Two or more than two resistors say R1, R2 are said to be joined in parallel if the ends of one resistor are
connected across the ends of the other as shown. Let Req be the equivalent resistor of two resistances joined
in parallel. Let I be the current flowing across the combination and V be the potential difference. Then Req is
given as :
1 1 1
 
Req R1 R2

(i) The voltage across each resistance is same.

(ii) The total current I is divided into two parts :

R2
Current through R1 : I1  I
R1  R2
R1
Current through R2 : I2  I
R1  R2

8. Single loop circuit,

E
i
R

net emf
 current supplied by cell = net resis tan ce

9. (a) If current is flowing out of the positive terminals of a cell E2 , this cell is supplying energy to the
circuit and p.d. across its terminals is V = E2  ir2
(b) If current is flowing into the positive terminals of the cell E1 , this cell is receiving energy from the
circuit. We usually say that the cell is being charged. The p.d. across terminals of the cell getting
charged is V = E1 + ir1

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10. Kirchoff’s laws

(a) Kirchoff’s voltage law :
The algebraic sum of the potentials in a closed path is zero.

(b) Kirchoff’s Current Law :

The sum of currents arriving at a junction is equal to the sum of currents going away from the junction.

11. Wheatstone Bridge Network :

The circuit shown in the figure is called as wheatstone bridge network. It can be shown by solving the circuit
that the current through the resistance R0 becomes zero if the following condition is satisfied.

R1 R3

R2 R4
In that situation, A and B are at same potential and hence a galvanometer connected in series with R0 will not
show any deflection. The network is called a balanced network if the above condition is satisfied.

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AC Circuits
ALTERNATING CURRENT Section - 1

Most of the electric power generated and used in the world in the form of a.c. i.e., alternation current. The
magnitude of alternating current changes continuously with time and its direction is reversed periodically. It
is represented by
I = I0 sin t or I = I0 cos t
Here, I is instantaneous value of current i.e., magnitude of current at any instant of time t and I0 is the peak
value of maximum value of a.c. It is also called amplitude of a.c.,  is called angular freqneucy of a.c.
2
Also,    2 v
T
where, T is the time period or period of a.c. It is equal to the time taken by the a.c. to go through one
complete cycle of variation.

The term used for a.c. holds equally for alternation voltage which may be represented by
V = V0 sin t or V = V0 cos  t

In general,
I  I 0 sin(t   )
V  V0 sin(t   )

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Average and RMS Value of Alternating Current :

Average Current (Mean Current)
As we know an alternating current is given by
i = i0 sin (t + ) . . . .(i)
The mean or average value of ac over any time t is given by
t
 i dt
0
iavg = t
 dt
0

Using equation (i)

t
 i 0 sin t   
0
iavg = t
 dt
0

In one complete cycle average current

T
i 0  cos  t    
iavg = –  
T    0

i 0  cos T     cos  

=–  
T   

i 0  cos  2     cos  
  0 (As T = 2)
T   
Since ac is positive during the first half cycle and negative during the other half cycle so iavg will be zero for
long time also. Hence the dc instrument will indicate zero deflection when connected to a branch carrying ac
current. So it is defined for either positive half cycle or negative half cycle. Now to find mean value of current
i = i0 sin t for positive half cycle. i.e. from t = 0 to t = T/2
T 2
 i 0 sin t
2i0
iavg  0 T 2   0.637 i 0
 . . . .(5)
 dt
0

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2v0
Similarly vavg =  0.637 v0 . . . .(6)

R.M.S. Value of Alternating Current
The notation rms refers to root mean square, which is given by square root of mean of square current.
2
i.e., irms = iavg

T
2
 i dt 1T 2 2 i20 T
0
i2 avg = T =  i0 sin (t  ) dt =
T0 2T 0
 [1  cos 2(t  )]dt
 dt
0

T
i20  sin 2(t  ) 
= t  
2T  2 0

i20  sin (4  2)  sin 2   i20

=  T   
2T  2  2

i0
irms =  0.707 i0 . . . .(7)
2
V0
Similarly the rms voltage is given by Vrms =  0.707 v0 . . . .(8)
2
The significance of rms current and rms voltage may be shown by considering a resistance R carrying a
current i = i0 sin (t + )
The voltage across the resistor will be
V = Ri = (i0 R) sin (t + )
The thermal energy developed in the resistor during the time t to t + dt is
i2 R dt = i02 R sin2 (t + ) dt

The thermal energy developed in one time period is

T T
U =  i Rdt = R  i02 sin 2 (t  )dt
2

0 0

1 T 
 2 2  = 2 RT
= RT  T  i 0 sin ( t  ) dt . . . .(9)
 0  i rms

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It means the root mean square value of ac is that value of steady current, which would generate the
same amount of heat in a given resistance in a given time.
So in ac circuits, current and ac voltage are measured in terms of their rms values. Like when we say that the
house hold supply is 220V ac it means the rms value is 220V and peak value is 220 2 = 311 1V.

Illustration - 1 If the voltage (in volts) in an ac circuit is represented by the equation, V = 220 2 sin
(314 t – ), (where t is in seconds). Calculate (a) peak and rms value of the voltage (b) frequency of ac.
SOLUTION :
(a) For ac voltage, The rms value of voltage
V = V0 sin (t – ) V0
Vrms = ; Vrms = 220 V
The peak value 2
(b) As  = 2f, 2f = 314
V0 = 220 2 = 311
1V,
314
i.e., f= = 50 Hz
2 

Illustration - 2 The electric current in a circuit is given by i = i0 (t/T) for some time. Calculate the rms
current for the period t = 0 to t = T for i0  20 3 A.
SOLUTION :
The mean square current is Thus, the rms current is
1T 2 i02 T 2 i02 2 i0
 avg
i2  
T 0
i0 (t / T )2 dt 
T3 0
 t dt 
3
irms = iavg .
3
= 20 A

RC Circuit
When an AC voltage V(t) is applied across an RC circuit, the current I (t) is also an alternating current.
Let I = Im cos t
then VR = Im R cos t
q 1  1 
VC    I dt   sin t  I m
C C  C 
1    1 
VC  I m cos   t    C  X C called reactance of capacitor 
C  2  

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Total voltage across combination

V  VR  VC (Instantaneous)
1  
 I m R cos  t  I m cos  t  
C  2

1
 V (t )  I m R 2  cos(t   )
2 2
 C
1
where   tan 1
 RC
V V V 1
The ratio  Z is called impedance  Z  m  rms  R 2 
I I m I rms  C2
2

Voltage across RC combination lags behind current by the phase angle

1
  tan 1
 RC

Note : All values drawn in the phasor diagram are rms values.

 Vm 
Vrms Vm Vrms  2 
 Z.  
I rms Im  Im 
 I rms  2 
 
(a) Voltage across R is in phase with I.

(b) Voltage across C lags behind I by
2
1 1
(c) V across RC combination lags behind I by tan
 RC
1 T 2
 In general, rms value of a periodic function f (t )  f (t ) dt
T 0

RL Circuit
I (t) = Im cos t ; VR = Im R cos t

dI  
VL  L   ( L ) I m sin t   L I m cos  t  
dt  2
V(t) = VR(t) + VL(t)
[  L  X L called reactance of inductor]

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V (t )  VR (t )  VL (t ) (Instantaneous)

 
 I m R cos t   L I m cos  t  
 2

V (t )  I m R 2   2 L2 cos (t   )
L
  tan1
R
L
Voltage across RL combination leads I by tan1
R
V V
Impedance Z  m  rms  R 2   2 L2
Im I rms
Phasor Diagram
(Using rms values of VR, VL, V and I)
(a) VR across R is in phase with I.
(b) VL across L leads I by /2
1 L
(c) V across RL combination leads I by tan
R

LCR Circuit
I (t) = Im cos t
V = VR + VC + VL

1    
 I m R cos t  I m cos  t    I m  L cos  t  
C  2  2

1
(a) L 
C

 1 2
V (t )  I m R 2    L   cos ( t   ) ;
 C 
 1 
 L 
  tan1  C 
 V leads I by .
 R 
 

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1
(b) L 
C
 1 
V (t )  I m R 2     L  cos (t   ) ;
 C 
 1 
  L 
  tan1  C 
R V lags behind I by .
 
 
1
(c) L 
C
V(t) = Im R cos t V and I are in same phase.
2
 1   1 
Z  R2    L  or Z  R2    L  Z=R
 C   C 

Average Power across R

1 T 1 T 2
Pav   V (t ) I (t ) dt   I m R cos 2 t dt
T 0 T 0

2
Im 2
Pav  R  I rms R
T
Average Power across L
1 T
Pav  V (t ) I (t ) dt
T 0

I2 T  
 m   L cos   L   cos t
T 0  2
 Pav = 0 acros L.
During one half cycle, L stores energy and during next half cycle it supplies this energy back to the circuit.
Average Power across C
1 T
Pav  V (t ) I (t ) dt
T 0

I2 T 1  
 m cos  t   cos t  0
2 0 C  2
C also stores and gives back this energy alternately during each half cycle.

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In general, average power in a circuit Pav = Vrms Irms cos 

If Vrms is the total supply voltage and  is the phase difference between current and voltage.
(cos  is also known as power factor).
Resonance in LCR circuit
1
When  L  and Z = R, it is called resonant condition.
C

Resonance frequency :
1 1
0   v0 
LC 2 LC

Voltage supplied across combination is in same phase with current

  = 0° and cos  = 1 i.e. power factor is unity.
(a) Resonance occurs when
1
XL – XC = 0 or 
LC
V
(b) Current reaches a maximum value of at resonance.
R
V2
(c) Power dissipated is maximum and is rms (current and power are maximum because Z is minimum).
R
V V2
Irms   rms , P  rms R
Z Z
(d) Current is in phase with voltage ( = 0).

Parallel AC Circuits
RC Circuit
Using phasor diagram
I 2  I C2  I R2 (rms values)

2 2 2
 Vrms   Vrms   Vrms 
  Z   R   X 
     C 

1 1 1  1 
    Xc 
Z R2 X c2   c 

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Let V  Vm sin  t
V
I  m sin(t   )
z
I V / xc R
tan   c    R c    tan 1 R c
IR V / R Xc
Current through source leads v by 

L – R Circuit
Using phasor diagram
I 2  I c2  I R2 (rms values)

2 2
 Vrms   Vrms   Vrms  2
  Z      
   XL   R 

1 1 1
   ( xL  L )
2
z R xL2

Let V  Vm sin  t
V
I  m sin( t   )
z
I R R R
tan   L      tan 1
IR XL L L
Current thorugh source lags voltage by  ,

LCR Circuit :
(A) IC  I L (rms)
 X L  XC
2
I 2  I R2   IC  I L  (rms values)

2 2 2
 Vrms   Vrms   Vrms Vrms 
 Z   R   X  X 

     C L 

2
1 1  1 1 
   
Z 2 X 
R  C XL 

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Let V  V0 sin t
V
I  0 sin(t   )
Z
1 1

I I X XL
tan   C L  C
IR 1
R
Current though source leads voltage by  .
(B) IC  I L (rms)
 X L  XC
2
I 2  I R2   I L  IC  (rms value)

2 2 2
 Vrms   Vrms   Vrms Vrms 
  Z   R   X  X 
     L C 

2
1 1  1 1 
    
Z R2  X L X C 
Let V  V0 sin t
V
I  0 sin(t   )
Z
1 1

I I X XC
tan   L C  L
IR 1
R
Current through source lags voltage by  .

(C)

 XC  X L
I  I R (rms)
Vrms Vrms

Z R

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 ZR
Let V  V0 sin t
V
I  0 sin  t ,  0
Z
Current though source and voltage are in same phase.

Illustration - 3 For the circuit shown in figure. Current in inductance is

0.8 A while in capacitance is 0.6 A. The current drawn from the source is
x  10–1. Find the value of x ?

SOLUTION :
In this ac circuit  = 0 sin t is applied across an inductance and
capacitance in parallel, current in inductance will lag the applied voltage

while across the capacitor will lead both by
2
I = IL – IC (rms)
= 0.8 – 0.6
2
 0.2   x2
10

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SUBJECTIVE SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example - 1 In the given circuit, calculate

(a) capacitive reactance and impedance
(b) maximum and rms current
(c) phase angle and voltages R across and C.
SOLUTION :
1 1
(a) X C    10  VR(rms) = Irms R = 11.6 × 7 = 81.2 V
C 2 vC
1
Z  R 2  X C2  12.2  VC ( rms )  I rms  11.6  10  11.6  10  116 V
C
V 200
(b) peak value of current Total Vrms  m   141.5V
2 2
V 200 V
Im  m   16.4 A (It can be seen that V2rsm = V2Rrms + V2Crms).
Z 12.2  Note that :
rms value of current V
I (t )  m sin (2 v t   )
V I Z
I rms  rms or m
Z 2 11
(c) phase angle I(t) = 16.4 sin (3.14t  )
36
1 10
  tan 1  tan1  55
 RC 7
(V lags or I bads by 55°)

Example - 2 Find the rms and instantaneous current and voltage across R and L.

SOLUTION :
2 2 2 Z  92  6.282 10.97 
Z  R  L
V 200 / 2
where XL = 100 × 20 × 10–3 = 6.28  is the (a) I rms  rms   12.89 A
inductive reactance. Z 10.97

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V 200 (b) VR(rms) = Irms R = 12.89 × 9 = 116 V

I peak  I m m 
Z 10.97 (c) VL(rms) = Irms L = 12.89 × 6.28 = 80.94 V
 18.23 A(or I m  I rms 2) 200
V(total )   141.4 V
2
L 6.28
  tan 1  tan 1  35 2 2
(check that Vrms  VR  L2L )
R 9 rms rms

V leads or I lags by 55°.

 I(t) = Im sin (100t – 35°)
= 18.23 sin (100t – 35°)

Example - 3 Find :
(a) Instantaneous current I(t)
(b) rms values of I and V across elements
(c) power factor
(d) power input
(e) resonant frequency
(f) impedance, current and power at resonance conditions.
Given that XC = 4, XL = 8.
SOLUTION :
1
(a) Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2 (b) I rms  m  40 A
2
XL = L = 8 V(rms) = Irms R = 120 V

Z  32  (8  4) 2  5  I
V( rms )C  rms  160V
C
1 V(rms) = Irms L = 320 V
XC   4
wC
R X  XC
  cos 1  tan1 L  53 Check that V(2rms ) R  V(2rms ) L  Vrms
2
C
Z R
As XL > XC , V leads or I lays by 53° = 200 V = Vrms

I (t )  I m sin(2 vt   ) (  53) (c) Power factor = cos  = cos 53°  0.6

(d) Power input = power dissipation
V
 m sin(314t   ) (  53) = Vrms Irms cos 
Z
 84.6sin(314t   ) (  53) = 200 × 40 × 0.6 = 4800 W (or I2rms R)

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1
(e) V0   35.4 Hz Power = Vrms Irms cos  = Vrms Irms
2 LC
200 40000
(f) Z0 = R = 3 at resonance  200   W
3 3
V V 200
I rms  rms  rms  A at resonance
Z R 3

Example - 4 A box P and a coil Q are connected in series with an

AC source. The emf of the source is 10 V. Box P contains a capacitance
of 1F in series with a resistance of 32. Coil Q has a self-inductance
4.9 mH and a resistance of 68 in series. The frequency is adjusted so
that the maximum current flows in P and Q. Find the impedance of P
and Q at this frequency. Also find the voltage across P and Q respec-
tively.
SOLUTION :
As this circuit is a series LCR circuit, current will be  5924  77
maximum at resonance,
12
1 and Z   R 2   L 2 
i.e,   Q  2 

LC
12
1 105   10 5 2 
    68    4.9  103   
2
 4.9  103 106   7 rad/s


 7  

V 10 1
with I   A  9524  97.6 
R  32  68 10
So the impedance, 1
and hence, VP  IZ P    77   7.7 N
2
12 10
  1  
2
Z P   R1     1
  C   and VQ  IZQ    97.6   9.76V
  10
12
 2
2  7  
  32     106  
 5
  10  

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Example - 5 A current of 4A flows in a coil when connected to a 12 V DC source. If the same coil is
connected to a 12 V, 50 rad/s AC source a current of 2.4 A flows in the circuit. Determine the inductance of
the coil. Also find the power developed in the circuit if a 2500 F capacitor is connected in series with the
coil.
SOLUTION :
XL 4
In case of a coil as Z  R 2   2 L2 But as X L   L, L    0.08 
 50
V V
i.e., I  Now when the capacitor is connected to the above
Z 2 2 2 circuit in series,
R  L
So when DC is applied 1 1
As X C  
V C 50  2500  106
I
R
103
12   8
i.e., R   3 125
4
and when AC is applied, So, Z  R 2   X L  X C  2
V
2
I  32   4  8   5
Z
 V   12  V 12
i.e., Z        5  and hence, I    2.4 A
 I   2.4  Z 5
So, Pav.  Vrms I rms cos 
or R 2  X L2  52 (As Z  R 2  X L2 )
R
So, X L2  52  R 2  52  32  42
  I rms  Z   I 
rms  
Z
2 2
i.e., XL = 4 i.e., Pav.  I rms R   2.4   3  17.28W

Example - 6 For a resistance R and capacitance C in series, the impedance is twice that of a parallel
combination of the same elements. What is the frequency of applied emf ?
SOLUTION :
As shown in figure, in case of series combina- 12
 2
tion, 2 2 2  1  
Zs  R  X C  R    
   C  

In case of parallel combination,
12
 1  1 2
1 
i.e.,    
Z P  R 2  X C  
 

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R
i.e., ZP   2 R 2C 2  1 R2
2 2 2   4
1  C R
 2C 2 1   2 R 2C 2
For ZS = 2ZP 1
 
Z S2  4 Z P2 RC

f 
2 RC

Example - 7 In the given circuit, AC source has   100 rad / s.

Considering the inductor and capacitor to be ideal, find :
(a) The current through the circuit, I
(b) The voltage across 100 resistor
(c) The voltage across 5 resistor
SOLUTION : (C)

V
I2   0.2 2
( L)2  R22
I 2 lags behind V by 45 as  L  R2 L  R2
So I1 leads I 2 by 45  45  90

 I  I12  I 22  (0.1 2)2  (0.2 2) 2

V
I1   0.1 2
2  0.1 10  0.316
 1  2
  R1 P.D. across R1  100  0.1 2  10 2 V
 c 
P.D. across R2  50  0.2 2  10 2 V
1
I1 Lead V by 45 as R
c

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THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Most of the electric power generated and used in the world is in the form of a.c. i.e., alternating current. The
magnitude of alternating current changes continuously with time and its direction is reversed periodically. It is
represented by
I  I 0 sin  t or I  I0 cos t
In general,
I  I 0 sin(t   )
V  V0 sin(t   )

2. Average Current (Mean Current)

As we know an alternating current is given by

i  i0 sin(t   ) …(i)

The mean or average value of ac over any time t is given by

t
 i dt
iavg  0t 0

 i dt
0

3. R.M.S. Value of Alternating Current

T
2
i dt
i 2avg  0T

 dt
0

i
irms  0
2

4. RC Circuit
VR  I m R cos t

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1  
VC  I m cos   t  
C  2

1
 V (t )  I m R 2  cos(t   )
2 2
 C

V V 1
Z  m  rms  R 2 
I m I rms  2C 2

1
  tan 1
 RC

5 RL Circuit

VR  I m R cos t

 
VL   L I m cos    
 2

V (t )  I m R 2   2 L2 cos(t   )

L
  tan 1
R

V V
Z  m  rms  R 2   2 L2
I m I rms

6. LCR Circuit
1
(a) L 
C
2
 1 
V (t )  I m R 2    L   cos(t   );
 C 

 1 
 L  
  tan 1  C
  V leads I by  .
 R 
 

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1
(b) L 
C
2
 1 
V (t )  I m R 2     L  cos(t   );
 C 

 1 
  L 
  tan 1  C 
R V lags behind I by  .
 
 

1
(c) L 
C
V (t )  I m R cos t V and I are in same phase.

2
 1   1 
Z  R2    L  or Z  R2   L
 C   C 
 ZR

7. Average Power across R

I2 2
Pav  m R  I rms R
2

Average Power across L

Pav  0

Average Power across C

Pav  0

8. Resonance in LCR Circuit

1
When  L  and Z = R, it is called resonance condition.
L
Resonance Frequency :
1 1
0   v0 
LC 2 LC

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(a) Resonance occurs when

X L  XC  0 or 1

LC
V
(b) Current reaches a maximum value of at resonance.
R

V2
(c) Power dissipated is maximum and is rms (current and power are maximum because Z is minimum).
R
2
Vrms Vrms
I rms   , P R
Z Z2
(d) Current is in phase with voltage (  0).

9. Parallel AC Circuits
RC Circuit
I 2  I C2  I R2 (rms values)
V
I  m sin(t   )
z

1 1 1
 
2
Z R X c2

  tan 1 R c

10. L-R Circuit

I 2  I c2  I R2 (rms values)
V
I  m sin( t   )
z
R
  tan 1
L
1 1 1
 
2
Z R X L2

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11. LCR Circuit

(A) IC  I L (rms)
V
I  0 sin(t   )
Z
1 1

I I X XL
tan   C L  C
IR 1
R

2
1 1  1 1 
   
Z R2  X C X L 

(B) IC  I L (rms)
V
I  0 sin(t   )
Z
1 1

I I X XC
tan   L C  L
IR 1
R

2
1 1  1 1 
   
Z R2  X L X C 

(C) IC  I L (rms)
V
I  0 sin t ,   0
Z
Z=R

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My Chapter Notes

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Illustration - 1

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