A Molecular Phylogeny of The Grass Subfamily Panicoideae Show Multiple Origins of C4 Photosynthesis

American Journal of Botany 88(11): 1993–2012. 2001.
A MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF THE GRASS SUBFAMILY

PANICOIDEAE (POACEAE) SHOWS MULTIPLE ORIGINS OF
C4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS1
LILIANA M. GIUSSANI,2,3 J. HUGO COTA-SÁNCHEZ,3,4
FERNANDO O. ZULOAGA,2 AND ELIZABETH A. KELLOGG3,5
2
Instituto de Botánica Darwinion, Labardén 200, Casilla de Correo 22, San Isidro B1642HYD, Buenos Aires, Argentina;
3
Department of Biology, University of Missouri-St. Louis, 8001 Natural Bridge Rd., St. Louis, Missouri 63121 USA; and
4
Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E2 Canada
DNA sequence data from the chloroplast gene ndhF were analyzed to estimate the phylogeny of the subfamily Panicoideae, with
emphasis on the tribe Paniceae. Our data suggest that the subfamily is divided into three strongly supported clades, corresponding to
groups with largely identical base chromosome numbers. Relationships among the three clades are unclear. In unweighted parsimony
analyses, the two major clades with x 5 10 (Andropogoneae and x 5 10 Paniceae) are weakly supported as sister taxa. The third
large clade corresponds to x 5 9 Paniceae. In analyses under implied weight, the two clades of Paniceae are sisters, making the tribe
monophyletic. Neither resolution is strongly supported.
Our molecular phylogenies are not congruent with previous classifications of tribes or subtribes. Based on this sample of species,
we infer that C4 photosynthesis has evolved independently several times, although a single origin with multiple reversals and several
reacquisitions is only slightly less parsimonious. The phosphoenol pyruvate carboxykinase (PCK) subtype of C4 photosynthesis has
evolved only once, as has the NAD-malic enzyme (ME) subtype; all other origins are NADP-ME. Inflorescence bristles are apparently
homologous in the genera Setaria and Pennisetum, contrary to opinions of most previous authors. Some genera, such as Digitaria,
Echinochloa, and Homolepis are supported as monophyletic. The large genus Paspalum is shown to be paraphyletic, with Thrasya
derived from within it. As expected, Panicum is polyphyletic, with lineages derived from multiple ancestors across the tree. Panicum
subg. Panicum is monophyletic. Panicum subg. Dichanthelium, subg. Agrostoides, and subg. Phanopyrum are unrelated to each other,
and none is monophyletic. Only Panicum subg. Dichanthelium sect. Dichanthelium, represented by P. sabulorum and P. koolauense,
is monophyletic. Panicum subg. Megathyrsus, a monotypic subgenus including only the species P. maximum, is better placed in
Urochloa, as suggested by other authors.
Key words: C4 photosynthesis; ndhF; Panicoideae; Poaceae.
The grass subfamily Panicoideae includes ;3300 species in out the subfamily and unique among the grasses. In staminate
206 genera (following the Grass Phylogeny Working Group flowers, gynoecial development ceases after a clear ridge
[GPWG], 2001) and is larger than most angiosperm families. forms around the nucellus (LeRoux and Kellogg, 1999). This
The subfamily is distributed on all continents except Antarc- correlates with loss of cytoplasm and nuclei in a small set of
tica, and its members are dominant in tropical and warm tem- subepidermal cells, apparently the result of controlled cell
perate regions. In addition, it includes some of the world’s death. This pattern matches that found in maize and Tripsa-
most important crop plants, such as maize (Zea mays), sor- cum, both panicoid grasses, in which the gynoecial cell death
ghum (Sorghum bicolor), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), is known to be under the control of the product of the gene
common millet (Panicum miliaceum), pearl millet (Pennisetum Tasselseed2 (TS2)(DeLong, Calderón-Urrea, and Dellaporta,
glaucum), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), and Shama millet 1993). The cell death pathway is not active in Zizania aqua-
(Echinochloa colona). tica, an oryzoid grass that has independently evolved male
Panicoideae form a monophyletic group, based on their flowers (Zaitchik, LeRoux, and Kellogg, 2000). Thus, TS2-
paired florets, the lower of which is staminate or sterile induced cell death is apparently restricted to Panicoideae and
(Brown, 1810, 1814), and on distinctive simple starch grains may be the genetic basis of the subfamilial synapomorphy.
(Tateoka, 1962; Kellogg and Campbell, 1987; GPWG, 2001). The monophyly of the subfamily (sensu GPWG, 2001) has
Staminate flower development is apparently uniform through- been supported by every molecular phylogenetic study to date,
1
Manuscript received 30 November 2000; revision accepted 24 April 2001. including phylogenies of both chloroplast and nuclear genes
The authors thank Cliff Morden, Osvaldo Morrone, Tarciso Filgueiras, (reviewed in Kellogg, 1998; Soreng and Davis, 1998; support
Lynn G. Clark, Rosalba Gómez-Martı ńez, the United States Department of was relatively weak in Cummings, King, and Kellogg, 1994).
Agriculture, and the Missouri Botanical Garden for providing selected plant In addition, maps of the nuclear genomes of maize, sugar cane,
material for study; Nancy Dengler and Osvaldo Morrone for their helpful
comments; and J. Barber, M. Beilstein, H. Davis, A. Doust, B. Gunn, L.
sorghum, pearl millet, and foxtail millet show that they share
Lohmann, Z. Magombo, S. Malcomber, S. Razafimandimbison, P. Sweeney, a common genome arrangement, with linkage group 10 (cor-
A. Vicentini, and two anonymous reviewers for providing valuable comments responding to rice chromosome 10) inserted into group 3 and
on the manuscript. Funding for this research was provided by NSF grant DEB- with linkage group 9 inserted into group 7 (Gale and Devos,
98302511 to E. A. Kellogg. Giussani and Zuloaga acknowledge the support 1998; Kellogg, 1998; Devos and Gale, 2000). Recent molec-
of Agencia Nacional de Promoción Cientı ´fica y Tecnológica, Argentina
through grants no. 1511 and no. 1963, and of the NGS through grant no. ular data place the Panicoideae as sister to Gynerium (Arun-
6698-00. dinoideae), with the panicoid/Gynerium clade sister to a clade
5
Author for reprint requests (e-mail: [email protected]). consisting of Chasmanthium, Zeugites (both Centothecoideae),
1993
1994 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY [Vol. 88
and Thysanolaena (Arundinoideae) (GPWG, 2000, 2001). The family, in which C3, C4, and C3/C4 intermediates occur. The
genera Eriachne (tribe Eriachneae, now incertae sedis) and C4 species differ anatomically and biochemically, but some
Danthoniopsis (formerly Arundinelleae, now Centothecoideae) combinations of anatomy and biochemistry recur frequently.
are formally excluded from the subfamily (GPWG, 2001; S. This led Hattersley and Watson (1992) to describe ten different
Aliscioni, Darwinion Institute, unpublished data). structural-biochemical types within grasses, with the three
Bentham (1881) divided the Panicoideae into six tribes, almost common combinations of characters being ‘‘classical
though more divisions were proposed during the 20th century NADP-ME,’’ ‘‘classical NAD-ME,’’ and ‘‘classical PCK’’
with the addition of new anatomical and cytological characters types. Although many panicoid species use the conventional
(Pilger, 1954; Hsu, 1965; Butzin, 1970). At least seven tribes C3 photosynthetic pathway, a large number exhibit the C4 pho-
are commonly recognized, of which by far the largest are Pan- tosynthetic pathway. The tribe Andropogoneae is entirely C4
iceae (101 genera; cf. Clayton and Renvoize, 1986) and An- ‘‘classical NADP-ME,’’ whereas Paniceae includes eight dif-
dropogoneae (85 genera). Other tribes include Arundinelleae ferent C4 types, as well as intermediate C3/C4 species (Hatter-
(12 genera), Hubbardieae (1), Neurachneae (3), Isachneae (5), sley and Watson, 1992).
and Steyermarkochloeae (1); the last tribe is placed in Arun- In C4 plants, enzymes associated with the C3 pathway are
dinoideae by Watson and Dallwitz (1992). produced only in the bundle sheath, whereas enzymes such as
The tribe Paniceae, with almost half the genera and 60% of phosophoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) are strongly up-
the species of panicoid grasses, is the central phylogenetic regulated in mesophyll cells (Kanai and Edwards, 1999; Lee-
problem of the subfamily. There is no evidence that the tribe good and Walker, 1999); all are produced by nuclear-encoded
is monophyletic. It is morphologically diverse and lacks an genes. PEPC catalyzes the production of a four-carbon com-
obvious unifying morphological character. The lemmas are pound, oxaloacetate, from phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) plus
generally, but not always, indurated, and the glumes are often carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate). The four carbon
membranous. The inflorescences are commonly described as compound is then modified to malate or aspartate and shunted
simple or compound, paniculate or racemose (Clayton and to the bundle sheath, where the CO2 is removed. The CO2 is
Renvoize, 1986), although preliminary developmental data then supplied directly to Rubisco, which accumulates only in
suggest that these standard descriptors are inaccurate and in- the bundle sheath. The remaining three-carbon compound is
sufficient to describe the morphological diversity indicated by transported back to the mesophyll, where it is phosphorylated
comparison of adult morphologies (L. G. LeRoux, A. N. to regenerate PEP. All C4 plants are alike in replacing Rubisco
Doust, and E. A. Kellogg, unpublished data). Chromosome with PEPC in the mesophyll. They also have closely spaced
number may be based on 9 or 10 or more rarely on 8 (Clayton leaf veins, with every bundle sheath cell in contact with a
and Renvoize, 1986). mesophyll cell. This is clearly necessary for the continual shut-
Over the years, the systematics of the Paniceae has involved tling of substrates between the two different cell types. Species
several criteria. For instance, Brown (1977) divided the Pan- that translocate malate and decarboxylate with malic enzyme
iceae into four subtribes based on the different photosynthetic using NADP as a cofactor (NADP-ME) have only a single
pathways among species (see below) and suggested that spe- sheath around the vascular bundles. The single sheath is of
cies with Kranz anatomy have evolved from non-Kranz taxa. procambial origin, has a suberized outer wall, and is position-
Likewise, with the use of morphological features, Clayton and ally and structurally similar to the mestome sheath of C3 grass-
Renvoize (1986) distinguished seven subtribes primarily dif- es. This combination of anatomy and biochemistry has been
ferentiated by spikelet characters, such as presence of bristles called ‘‘classical NADP-ME’’ by Hattersley and Watson
and texture of the upper lemma. (1992), in their typology of C4 variation. Conversely, species
Panicum, as circumscribed by Zuloaga (1987), is the largest that translocate aspartate decarboxylate with either a malic en-
genus in the Paniceae; it is highly variable and almost certainly zyme or PEP carboxykinase (PCK) using NAD as a co-factor
polyphyletic. Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani (2000) subdi- (NAD-ME) have a double bundle sheath, the inner part of
vided Panicum into groups with apparent synapomorphies and which is a conventional mestome sheath, while the outer part
used these groups as terminal taxa in a morphological phylo- is parenchymatous and thin walled. Rubisco is expressed in
genetic analysis of the tribe Paniceae; they concluded that the outer sheath. In NAD-ME species, the outer walls of the
Panicum is polyphyletic. In fact, the diversity of this genus bundle sheath cells generally form a regular outline, whereas
encompasses almost all the variation in the tribe. Were it to in PCK species, the outer sheath cells are much less regular
be treated as a single terminal taxon for a morphological phy- in size and shape. These constitute the ‘‘classical NAD-ME’’
logenetic analysis, virtually all phylogenetically informative and ‘‘classical PCK’’ types of Hattersley and Watson (1992).
characters would be polymorphic. Clayton and Renvoize In a few members of Panicoideae, intermediate veins are re-
(1986) depicted Panicum as a large amorphous blob, out of duced to lines of isolated bundle sheath cells, called ‘‘distinc-
which most other genera in the tribe have arisen. It appears tive cells’’ by mystified earlier researchers. These were thought
that for any phylogenetic study, the genus must be divided to characterize the Arundinelleae and were interpreted by some
into putatively monophyletic subgenera or sections. as intermediates on the way to full C4 anatomy (‘‘Arundinel-
Based on available molecular sequence data, Andropogo- leae’’ type sensu Hattersley and Watson, 1992). It is possible,
neae, the other large tribe within subfamily Panicoideae, forms however, that distinctive cells are actually a loss of interme-
a monophyletic assemblage (Mason-Gamer, Weil, and Kel- diate veins, rather than a gain.
logg, 1998; Spangler et al., 1999; S. Mathews and E. A. Kel- Diversity of photosynthetic pathways is as great within the
logg, unpublished data). However, its position within the subgenus Panicum (sensu Zuloaga, 1987) as within the entire
family is not resolved. These same investigations showed that tribe. Some subgenera are photosynthetically homogeneous.
the tribe Arundinelleae is polyphyletic (Spangler et al., 1999; For example, both subgen. Dichanthelium and subgen. Phan-
Kellogg, 2000). opyrum are entirely C3. Panicum subgen. Panicum is, anatom-
Diversification of photosynthesis is evident across the grass ically and biochemically, a C4 ‘‘classical NAD-ME’’ type. Al-
November 2001] GIUSSANI ET AL.—A PHYLOGENY OF THE TRIBE PANICEAE 1995
though some species within subgen. Panicum are anatomically is incomplete between nucleotide positions 102 643 and 102 318; Chaetium bro-
similar to PCK type, biochemically they use the enzyme NAD- moides between 102 294 and 102 203; and the following taxa were sequenced
ME. Consequently, these species are included in the NAD-ME only between nucleotide position 103 580 and the position shown in parentheses:
‘‘classical PCK’’ type (Hattersley and Watson, 1992). Subge- Tatianyx arnacites (102 295), Panicum pedersenii (102 197), Panicum piauiense
nus Megathyrsus is a C4 ‘‘classical PCK’’ type (Zuloaga, (101 793), Panicum ovuliferum (101 704), Pennisetum alopecuroides (101 674),
1987), while Panicum subg. Agrostoides is C4 ‘‘classical and Chasmanthium latifolium (101 643). The aligned data matrix has been sub-
NADP-ME’’ type. This photosynthetic type is found not only mitted to TreeBASE (http://www.herbaria.harvard.edu/treebase) and has also
been submitted as supplemental data to the American Journal of Botany website
in all Andropogoneae but also in many genera of Paniceae,
(http://ajbsupp.botany.org/).
including Setaria, Pennisetum, and Echinochloa, to name only
a few. Also, P. prionitis and P. petersonii, both in section
Taxonomic sampling—In this study, subfamily Panicoideae was considered
Prionitia, are biochemically NADP-ME although the outer
the ingroup, including sequences of the tribes Paniceae, Andropogoneae, and
sheath is still present, which places them in the ‘‘Neurachneae Arundinelleae. Delimitation of the subfamily follows GPWG (2001), and out-
type’’ (Hattersley and Watson, 1992). group selection was based on the GPWG (2001) phylogeny as well as the
In this study, we have used sequences from the chloroplast grass phylogeny proposed by Clark, Zhang, and Wendel (1995). Outgroups
gene ndhF to address whether the tribe Paniceae forms a included members of the tribes Thysanolaeneae and Centotheceae (Centothe-
monophyletic assemblage within the panicoid grasses. We also coideae) plus the formerly panicoid genus Danthoniopsis. Tribal classification
investigated the monophyly and phylogenetic relationships of follows the treatments proposed by Clayton and Renvoize (1986), Watson and
major genera such as Panicum and Paspalum. We selected Dallwitz (1992), and Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani (2000).
ndhF because of its relatively high rate of molecular evolution In all, 78 sequences of the chloroplast gene ndhF were generated, 76 of 78
in the grasses (Clark, Zhang, and Wendel, 1995). Virtually all within the tribe Paniceae. The remaining two sequences, for Danthoniopsis
the proteins involved in C4 photosynthesis are encoded by nu- dinteri (Arundinelleae) and Chasmanthium latifolium (Centotheceae), were
clear genes (Kanai and Edwards, 1999; Leegood and Walker, generated to verify sequences available in GenBank because we were con-
1999); a chloroplast gene should thus provide an independent cerned about possible misplacement of the species in preliminary trees. We
history from the genes selected for C4 photosynthesis. Our used our own sequences in the analyses presented here (supplemental mate-
study provides new insight into the evolution of photosynthetic rial, http://ajbsupp.botany.org/). Additional sequences from the ingroups, Pan-
pathways and relationships of the major phylogenetic lineages iceae (Panicum virgatum and Setaria viridis), Andropogoneae (22 species),
of Panicoideae. and Arundinelleae (two species), and from the outgroup Centothecoideae
(three species) were obtained from GenBank; accession numbers are also
MATERIALS AND METHODS specified in the supplemental material (http://ajbsupp.botany.org)/.
Effort was made to encompass most of the morphological diversity of the
Plant material, DNA extraction, and sequencing—Plants were either Paniceae (represented by 35 genera), the tribe Andropogoneae (22 genera),
grown in the greenhouses of the University of Missouri-St. Louis and Harvard and the tribe Arundinelleae (2 genera). Our sample included 19 species of
University or were field collected and dried in silica gel. Voucher information Panicum, representing 14 sections in 5 subgenera; throughout this paper we
is provided as supplementary information at http://ajbsupp.botany.org/. DNA follow the classification of Zuloaga (1987) in discussing Panicum. We also
extractions were conducted using modifications of the protocols in Doyle and included 9 species of Paspalum, representing 7 informal taxonomic groups;
Doyle (1987), Murray and Thompson (1980), and Saghai-Maroof et al. and 7 species of the large genus Setaria. One of the Panicum species, listed
(1984). Plant tissue was ground in liquid nitrogen and the protocols were by Zuloaga (1987) as P. maxima in subgenus Megathyrsus, is listed in Table
scaled down for use with small amounts of either fresh and/or silica gel-dried 1 as Urochloa maxima, following Webster (1987).
plant material. In some cases, total DNA was purified with Geneclean III kit
(BIO 101, Vista, California, USA). The ndhF gene was amplified via the Phylogenetic analysis—A maximum parsimony analysis was performed
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a Taq-mediated protocol (Promega, using NONA version 2.0 (Goloboff, 1997a) with all characters equally
Madison, Wisconsin, USA) in several overlapping fragments: 5F/972R, 5F/ weighted and gaps scored as missing data. Overall, 3.5% of the data matrix
1318R, and 972F/2110R. For difficult taxa the gene was amplified in smaller cells were scored as gaps. Separate analyses using implied weights (Goloboff,
fragments, i.e., using primer pairs 5F/536R, 536F/1318R, 972F/1821R, and 1993) were run in Pee-Wee version 3.0 (Goloboff, 1997b) using the same
1318F/2110R. In total, we used a battery of 10–14 sequencing primers de- search strategies as in NONA. This reduces the number of trees by reducing
scribed by Olmstead and Sweere (1994) with the exception of primer 1821, the influence of homoplastic characters, which are downweighted in propor-
which was designed by Clark, Zhang, and Wendel (1995). The PCR products tion to their number of extra steps (homoplasy). The weighting is based on a
were cleaned with the QIAquick PCR purification kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, concave function, with six different concavities available in the program; 6
California, USA), quantified by comparison to a low mass DNA ladder is the mildest and 1 the strongest weighting function (Goloboff, 1997b).
(pGEM 25 and 50 ng; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, California, USA) and Searches were done using K 5 1, K 5 3, and K 5 6. In weighted and
then labelled with fluorescent dye terminators (Applied Biosystems) during unweighted analyses, uninformative characters were discarded using the
cycle sequencing (10 mL reactions). Both forward and reverse strands were ‘‘pack’’ command. All informative characters were considered unordered, and
sequenced with a minimum overlap of 90% for every taxon on an ABI 377 both the ‘‘amb-’’ (resolve clades only if they have unambiguous support)
automated sequencer using Long Ranger acrylamide gels (FMC Bioproducts, command, and ‘‘poly5’’ (polytomies allowed) command were used. Searches
Rockland, Maine, USA). Assembly and editing of sequences used the soft- were performed using ‘‘mult*3000,’’ which randomizes the order of taxa,
ware program Sequencher, version 3.1 (Gene Codes, Ann Arbor, Michigan, creates a Wagner tree, and submits it to branch-swapping by tree-bisection
USA). We used the ndhF sequence of Oryza sativa (rice) as a reference for reconnection (TBR). It stores up to 20 most-parsimonious trees in memory
aligning our data. The rice gene is 2205 bp long, occupying coordinate num- and repeats the process 3000 times. The shortest trees retained from the sub-
bers 103 637 (59 end) to 101 433 (39 end), (Hiratsuka et al., 1989, corrected searches were then TBR swapped to completion with the ‘‘max*’’ command.
by Clark, Zhang, and Wendel, 1995). Sequences were translated to check for To estimate the relative stability of individual clades and overall topology of
stop codons and then manually aligned, preserving the reading frame. Gaps the cladograms, strict consensus trees were generated from the most-parsi-
corresponding to indels were mapped onto the final trees to determine whether monious trees obtained from the NONA and Pee-Wee analyses. Data with
they were synapomorphies or homoplasies. Other gaps were added when con- equally weighted characters were also analyzed in PAUP*4.01b (Swofford,
tiguous blocks of sequence (contigs) could not be assembled after several 1998) with 1000 random addition sequences and no branch swapping; these
attempts at amplification; these were treated as missing data. Panicum euprepes found 208 islands of equally parsimonious trees. These trees were then used
TABLE 1. Base chromosome number (x), anatomical and physiological characters, as mapped on to the cladograms in Fig. 2. Missing or ambiguous
data are coded as—; unknown 5 ?. Primary carboxylating compound produced in the mesophyll may be either a C3 compound (3-phospho-
glycerate) or C4 compound (oxalacetate). This character is correlated with the number of mesophyll cells between adjacent vascular bundles:
more than 4 cells, all C3 species; 2–4 cells, all C4 species. Principal enzyme acting on decarboxylation processes within bundle sheaths: na 5
not applicable, C3 species; NADP-me 5 NADP-malic enzyme; NAD-ME 5 NAD-malic enzyme; PCK 5 PEP carboxykinase. Position of
chloroplasts in the bundle sheaths: abs 5 absent or peripheral to slightly centrifugal; -fugal 5 centrifugal; -petal 5 centripetal. Chloroplast
structure: granal or agranal. Number of bundle sheaths may be one or two.
18 car-
boxy- Num-
lating Chloro- Chloro- ber of
com- Decarboxylating plast plast bundle
Taxon (x) pound enzyme position structure sheaths Referencea
Tribe Paniceae (Panicoideae)

Acroceras zizanioides 9 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) HQV; WV; WD
(b) B; E; HW, 1992
(c) B; ZMS
Altoparadisium chapadense ? C4 — -fugal agranal one (b) FDZM
Arundinella anatomy
Anthaenantiopsis rojasiana 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) MFZD; WD
Neurachne type (b) B; HW, 1992
Arthropogon lanceolatus ? C3 — abs granal two (b) FDZM; F, 1982
Arthropogon villosus ? C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (b) FDZM
Axonopus anceps 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD
(a) MHZE
(b) GEB; B; PHS; HW, 1992
Axonopus fissifolius 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD
(a) NQK
(b) GEB; B; PHS; HW, 1992
Cenchrus ciliaris 9, 12 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD
(a) BS, 1985; SBS
(b) GGE; B; E; PHS; HW, 1992
Chaetium bromoides 13 C4 PCK -fugal granal two (b) B; HW, 1992; MZAPA
Digitaria 9, 15, (a and b) WD
17 (a) HZME
(b) HK, 1974b; B; E; EKB; UKE;
PHS; HW, 1992
(c) He
Digitaria ciliaris 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA; SB
Digitaria radicosa 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
Digitaria setigera 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) BS, 1986; AVA
Echinochloa 9 (a and b) WD
(b) GGE; GEB; GE; E; PHS;
HW, 1992
(c) Y
Echinochloa colona 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA; BS 1986
Echinochloa frumentacea 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA; Hilu 1994
Echinolaena inflexa 10 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD; WV
(a) GS
(b) B; HW, 1992
(c) F, 1994.
Eriochloa punctata 9 C4 PCK -fugal granal two (a and b) WD
(a) HZME; Q
(b) GEB; B; E; PHS; HW, 1992
Homolepis glutinosa 10 C3 na abs granal two (a) DP; Sh
(a and b) WD; ZSo; WV
(b) B; HW, 1992
Homolepis isocalycina 10 C3 na abs granal two (a) GS
(a and b) WD; ZSo; WV
(b) B; HW, 1992
Hymenachne donacifolia 10 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) HQV; WD; CR
(b) B; HW, 1992
Ichnanthus pallens 10 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD; WV
(a) HQV; HZME
(b) B; HW, 1992
(c) St
Lasiacis sorghoidea 9 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD; D
(a) NQK
(b) B; HW, 1992
Leptocoryphium lanatum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) WD
(b) B
Melinis repens 9 C4 PS-PCK (a and b) WD; MZ, 1995
(b) E; PHS; PHS; HW, 1992
TABLE 1. Continued.
18 car-
boxy- Num-
Mesosetum chaseae Luces 8 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD; F, 1990
(b) B; HW, 1992
(c) F, 1990
Ophiochloa hydrolithica ? C4 — -fugal agranal one (b) WD; FDZ, 1993
Oplismenus hirtellus 9, 10, C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD; Scholz, 1981
11 (a) HQV; HZME
(b) B; E; HW, 1992
Otachyrium versicolor 10 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD

(a) DP, 1978
(b) B; HW, 1992
(c) SS
Panicum bulbosum 9 C4 — -fugal agranal one (a and b) Z, 1987; ZDM
(a) HHMR
(b) Do; B; HS; DDH; PHS
Panicum obtusum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) Z, 1987; GEB; B
Panicum prionitis 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal two (a and b) Z, 1987, 1989
Neurachne type (a) BBBC 1981
(b) B
Panicum ovuliferum 9 C3 na abs granal two (a, b and c) ZSM; Z, 1987
(b) B
Panicum koolauense 9 C3 na abs granal two (a, b and c) WD; Z, 1987; ZEM,
1993
(a) HZME
(b) B; HW, 1992
Panicum sabulorum 9 C3 na abs granal two
Panicum aquaticum 9 C4 — -petal granal two (a, b and c) Z, 1987; 1989
(b) Do; GGE; B; OM; OMC; HB;
ZM 1996
Panicum elephantipes 9 C4 PCK-like -fugal granal two (a, b and c) Z, 1987; 1989
NAD-ME anatomy (b) Do; GGE; B; OM; OMC: HB;
ZM 1996
Panicum fauriei 9 C4 NAD-ME -petal granal two (a and b) Z, 1987
(b) B; ZM, 1996
Panicum nephelophilum 9 C4 NAD-ME -petal granal two (a and b) Z, 1987
(b) B; ZM, 1996
Panicum rudgei 9 C4 — -petal granal two (a, b and c) Z, 1987; ZDM
(b) B
Panicum pedersenii 9 C4 — -petal granal two (a and b) Z, 1987; ZDM
Panicum repens 9 C4 - (PCK-like NAD- -fugal granal two (a) AVA; BS 1986; SBS
ME) (b) M; HW, 1976; B
(c) ZDM
Panicum virgatum 9 C4 - (PCK-like NAD- -fugal granal two (a) HHMR

ME) (b) B; SK; HB; H; PHS; E, 1988;
HW, 1992
Panicum laxum 10 C3 na abs granal two (a, b and c) Z, 1987; ZEM, 1992
(a) BBBC; NQK
(b) B
Panicum euprepes 10 C3 na abs granal two (a, b and c) RZ; Z, 1987
(a) MHZE
Panicum millegrana 9 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) Z, 1987; 1989
(b) B
Panicum piauiense 10 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) Z, 1987; ZS
(b) B
Paspalidium geminatum 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD; MZ, 1995
(a) AVA
(b) B; E, 1977; PHS; HW, 1992
Paspalum 10 C4 (a and b) WD
(a) MHZE; HZME
(b) M; HW, 1976, 1992; GGE,
1976; B; E, 1977; UKE; PHS
(c) C; MZC
Paspalum malacophyllum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) HHQV; HZME; K; NQK
Paspalum conjugatum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) DC, 1977; 1983; 1988; HQV;
MC; SCSD
TABLE 1. Continued.
18 car-
boxy- Num-
Paspalum vaginatum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one

(a) L; O; QB; RM
Paspalum remotum C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
(a) HZME
Paspalum paniculatum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
(a) DC, 1977; 1983; DP, 1972; Q
Paspalum arundinellum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
(a) HQV
Paspalum haumanii C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
(a) Burs, 1975; NQB; Sau
Paspalum conspersum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
(a) Burs, 1978; DC, 1983;
MFBBSS; Q
Paspalum wettsteinii Hack. 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) DC, 1983, 1988
Pennisetum Rich. 9 C4 (a and b) WD; MZ, 1995
(b) BG; GGE; HKC; B; E, 1977;
LBC; UKE; PHS; HW, 1992
Pennisetum alopecuroides 11 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) SBS; XWZ
Pennisetum setaceum 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) PT; SMRM
Plagiantha tenella 10 C3 na abs granal two (a) MHZE
(b) WD; ZMVG; HW, 1992
(c) ZMVG
Pseudechinolaena polystachya 9 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD
(b) B; E, 1977; HW, 1992
Sacciolepis indica 9 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD; WV
(b) B; E, 1977; J; HW, 1992
Setaria 9, 10 (a, b and c) WD; P
(b) HKE; GGE; E, 1977; UKE;
PHS; HW, 1992
Setaria geniculata 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA; BS, 1985; 1986
(b) GGE; HW, 1976
Setaria lachnea 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) CM
Setaria macrostachya 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) B, 1950; Em; GuS
Setaria palmifolia 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) MS; T
Setaria parviflora 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) NQK
Setaria sphacelata 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) S
Setaria viridis 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) KG; XWZ
(b) M, GGE; HW, 1976, B
Steinchisma hians 10 C3 Intermediate C3/C4 -petal granal two (b, c) WD; ZMVG
(b) B; HW, 1992
Stenotaphrum secundatum 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD; MZ, 1995
(b) B; E, 1977; PHS; HW, 1992
Streptostachys (b) WD; B
(c) MZ, 1991
Streptostachys asperifolia 10 C3 na abs granal two (a) MHZE
Streptostachys ramosa 9 C4 — -fugal agranal one (a) DP, 1978; MZ, 1991
Tatianyx arnacites 10 C4 — -fugal agranal one (a) MHZE
(b) WD
(c) ZSo.
Thrasya glaziovii 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WV
(b) B; WD; HW, 1992
(c) Burm
Thrasya petrosa 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WV
(a) NQK
(b) B; WD; HW, 1992
(c) Burm
Urochloa 7, 9 (a, b and c) WD; MZ, 1992,
1993, 1995, W; Z, 1987; 1989
(a) HZME; MHZE
(b) M; GGE; GEB; HW, 1976; B;
E, 1977; PHS; MZ, 1992, 1993
Urochloa acuminata 13 1 II C4 PCK -fugal granal two (a) MHZE
Urochloa plantaginea 9 C4 PCK -fugal granal two (a) PD, 971; R
Urochloa maxima 8, 9 C4 PCK -fugal granal two
Urochloa mutica 9 C4 PCK -fugal granal two
Tribe Andropogoneae (a and b) WD
(Panicoideae) (b) E, 1977; HW, 1992
Andropogon gerardii 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (b) GGE

Apluda mutica 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) SB
Bothriochloa bladhii 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
Capillipedium parviflorum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA
Chionachne koenigii 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
TABLE 1. Continued.
18 car-
boxy- Num-
Chrysopogon fulvus 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) SB; SBS

Cleistachne sorghoides 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
Coelorachis selloana 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) HQV
Coix aquatica 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) CMP; RN
Cymbopogon flexuosus 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) La
Dichanthium aristatum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) SBS
Elionurus muticus 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) NQK
Heteropogon contortus 10, 11 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) BS, 1985
Hyparrhenia hirta 10, 15 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) HD
Ischaemum afrum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) HD; SMPS
Microstegium nudum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (b) GEB; UKE
Miscanthus japonicus 19 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) A
Phacelurus digitatus 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one
Schizachyrium scoparium 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (b) EKB; GGE
Sorghum bicolor 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA; MO
(b) GGE
Tripsacum dactyloides 9, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) DBWH
Zea mays 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) AVA; AP
(b) Do; GGE; HK, 1974a; HKE;
PHS; SK; UKE
Tribe Arundinelleae (Panicoideae)
Danthoniopsis petiolata 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD

(b) HW, 1992
Danthoniopsis dinteri 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD
(a) LLP
(b) HW, 1992
Arundinella hirta 7, 10, C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD
12, 14 Arundinella type (b) SK
Tribe Centotheceae (Centothecoideae)

Chasmanthium laxum subsp. sessiliflorum 6 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD
Chasmanthium latifolium 6 C3 na abs granal two (a) De; Yat
(b) SK
Zeugites pittieri 2n 5 46 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD
Tribe Thysanolaeneae (Arundinoideae)
Thysanolaena maxima 11 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD
a References for tabulated information: (a) references documenting chromosome number; (b) references documenting photosynthetic pathway; (c)
general references. Abbreviations: A 5 Adati, 1958; AP 5 De Aguiar Perecin, 1985; AVA 5 Ahsan, Vahidy, and Ali, 1994; B 5 Brown, 1950,
1977; BBBC 5 Bouton et al., 1981; BG 5 Brown and Gracen, 1972; BS 5 Bir and Sahni, 1985, 1986; Burm 5 Burman, 1987; Burs 5 Burson,
1975, 1978; C 5 Chase, 1929; CM 5 Cáceres and Mazzucato, 1995; CMP 5 Christopher, Mini, and Pillai, 1989; CR 5 Clayton and Renvoize,
1986; D 5 Davidse, 1978; DBWH 5 Dewald et al., 1987; DC 5 Dandin and Chennaveeraiah, 1977, 1983, 1988; DDH 5 Dengler, Dengler, and
Hattersley, 1986; De 5 Delay, 1974; Do 5 Downton, 1970; DP 5 Davidse and Pohl, 1972, 1978; E 5 Ellis, 1977, 1978; EKB 5 Edwards, Kanai,
and Black, 1971; Em 5 Emery, 1957; F 5 Filgueiras, 1982, 1990, 1999; FDZ 5 Filgueiras, Davidse, and Zuloaga, 1993; FDZM 5 Filgueiras et
al., in press; GE 5 Gutiérrez and Edwards, unpublished in Brown, 1977; GEB 5 Gutiérrez, Edwards, and Brown, 1976; GGE 5 Gutiérrez, Gracen,
and Edwards, 1974; GS 5 Gould and Soderstrom, 1967; GuS 5 Gupta and Singh, 1977; H 5 Hattersley 1984; HB 5 Hattersley and Browning,
1981; HD 5 Hoshino and Davidse, 1988; He 5 Henrard, 1950; HHMR 5 Hamoud et al., 1994; HK 5 Hatch and Kagawa, 1974a, b, 1976; HKC
5 Hatch, Kagawa, and Craig, 1975; HKE 5 Huber, Kanai, and Edwards, 1973; HQV 5 Hofni, Quarı ń, and Valls 1991[1990]; HS 5 Hattersley
and Stone, 1986; HW 5 Hattersley and Watson, 1976, 1992; HZME 5 Hunziker et al., 1998; J 5 Judziewicz, 1990; K 5 Killeen, 1990; KG 5
Koul and Gohil, 1988; L 5 Llauradó, 1984; La 5 Lavania, 1987; LBC 5 Lavergne, Bismuth, and Champigny, 1979; LLP 5 Li, Lubke, and
Phipps, 1966; M 5 Metcalfe, 1960; MC 5 Mehra and Chaudhary, 1981; MFBBSS 5 De Moraes Fernandes et al., 1974; MFZD 5 Morrone et al.,
1993; MHZE 5 Morrone et al., 1995; MO 5 Morakinyo and Olorode 1988; MS 5 Mehra and Shana, 1975; MZ 5 Morrone and Zuloaga, 1991,
1992, 1993, 1995; MZAPA 5 Morrone et al., 1998; MZC 5 Morrone, Zuloaga, and Carbonó, 1995; NQB 5 Norrmann, Quarı ń, and Burson, 1989;
NQK 5 Norrmann, Quarı ń, and Killeen, 1994; O 5 Okoli, 1982; OM 5 Ohsugi and Murata 1980; OMC 5 Ohsugi, Murata, and Chonan, 1982;
P 5 Pensiero, 1999; PD 5 Pohl and Davidse, 1971, 1974; PHS 5 Prendergast, Hattersley, and Stone, 1987; PT 5 Parihar and Tripathi, 1989; Q
5 Quarı ń, 1977; QB 5 Quarı ń and Burson, 1983; R 5 Reeder, 1967, 1971; RM 5 Rao and Mwasumbi, 1981; RN 5 Rao and Nirmala, 1990; RZ
5 Renvoize and Zuloaga, 1984; S 5 Sahni, 1989; Sau 5 Saura, 1941; SB 5 Sahni and Bir, 1985; SBS 5 Sinha, Bhardwaj, and Singh, 1990;
SCSD 5 Sarkar et al., 1976; Sh 5 Shibata, 1962; SK 5 Sinha and Kellogg, 1996; SMPS 5 Spies et al., 1991; SMRM 5 Sujatha et al., 1989; SS
5 Sendulsky and Soderstrom, 1984; St 5 Stieber, 1987; T 5 Takeoka, 1962; UKE 5 Usuda, Ku, and Edwards, 1984; W 5 Webster, 1987; WD
5 Watson and Dallwitz, 1992; WV 5 Webster and Valdés-Reyna, 1988; XWZ 5 Xu, Weng, and Zhang 1992; Y 5 Yabuno, 1966; Yat 5 Yates,
1966; Z 5 Zuloaga, 1987, 1989; ZDM 5 Zuloaga, Dubcovsky, and Morrone, 1993; ZEM 5 Zuloaga, Ellis, and Morrone, 1992, 1993; ZM 5
Zuloaga and Morrone, 1996; ZMS 5 Zuloaga, Morrone, and Saenz, 1987; ZMVG 5 Zuloaga et al., 1998; ZS 5 Zuloaga and Sendulsky, 1988;
ZSM 5 Zuloaga, Saenz, and Morrone, 1986; ZSo 5 Zuloaga and Soderstrom, 1985.
TABLE 2. Insertions and deletions in ndhF for the panicoid grasses. Position of indels refers to coordinates of the ndhF of Oryza sativa (Hiratsuka
et al., 1989). Indels are mapped on the phylogeny in Fig. 1.
Insertion/ Coordinate Code

deletion number lettera Size (bp) Indel identity Taxa
Insertion 102 703 a 6 Autapomorphy Setaria sphacelata

Insertion 102 114 b 6 Homoplasy Chaetium bromoides, Danthoniopsis petiolata, D. dinteri
Deletion 102 114 c 18 Autapomorphy Digitaria ciliaris, D. radicosa, D. setigera
Deletion 102 092 d 9 Homoplasy Chaetium bromoides, Danthoniopsis petiolata,b D. dinteri
Insertion 102 065 e 6 Synapomorphy Axonopus anceps, A. fissifolius, Ophiochloa hydrolithica
Deletion 101 951 f 15 Homoplasy Oryza sativa. Acroceras zizanioides, Panicum sabulorum, P. euprepes
Deletion 101 739 g 9 Synapomorphy Hymenachne donacifolia, Otachyrium versicolor, Panicum laxum, Plagiantha tenella,
and Steinchisma hians
Insertion 101 735 h 6 Synapomorphy x 5 10 Paniceae clade (aaaaat / aaaaag / aaaact)
h9 Autapomorphy Thysanolaena (actttt)
Insertion 101 704 i 6 Autapomorphy Cleistachne
a Code refers to designations on Fig. 1.
b Position differs from that shown by Clark, Zhang, and Wendel (1995).
as starting trees for a heuristic search with TBR branch swapping; the memory (NONA) found 27 128 equally parsimonious trees of length
limit was reached at 19 500 trees. The strict consensus of these 19 500 trees (L) 5 1472, consistency index (CI) 5 0.43, and retention in-
was then used as a negative constraint tree. dex (RI) 5 0.77, excluding uninformative sites; the analysis
To assess the relative support for clades found in each analysis, bootstrap reached completion after 35 h when running max*, mult*3000.
analyses (Felsenstein, 1985) were performed with PAUP* version 4.01b for One most parsimonious tree from the equally weighted
UNIX or for Macintosh Power PC (Swofford, 1998) with 1000 replicates in (NONA) analysis, with branch lengths and bootstrap values,
a heuristic search using random taxon entry followed by TBR branch swap-
is shown in Fig. 1.
ping (MULTREES). Constrained analyses were performed with NONA to
calculate the number of additional steps it would take to make a monophyletic
For analyses under implied weights (Pee-Wee), we tried dif-
group. To perform these analyses we used a tree with a fixed monophyletic ferent concavities and chose among different topologies and
group as starting point (using the ‘‘force’’ command) and carried out a branch- highest fit. Trees from K 5 6 are very close to the Nona
swapping search on the initial tree (‘‘max/’’ command) to look for trees with results, particularly at the deepest branches, and result in high-
highest fit. To test for significant differences between constrained and uncon- er fit (3517.7). Trees from K 5 1 had the worst fit (2363.4)
strained trees, we did Templeton tests (Templeton, 1983), as implemented in and topology is similar to trees from K 5 3, although with
PAUP*4.01b. less resolution in minor clades. Here we report only the results
Haploid chromosome numbers, leaf structure, and physiological characters from the medium concave function K 5 3 to show the results
related to photosynthetic pathways were obtained from the literature (Table most dissimilar to the unweighted analyses. The K 5 3 anal-
1) at the generic and specific levels. Although these characters were not in- ysis ran to completion and found 3600 equally parsimonious
cluded in the analyses, they were added to the matrix and were unambiguously trees of length 5 1468, consistency index 5 0.42, retention
optimized on one of the most-parsimonious trees using Winclada Beta, version index 5 0.77, fit 5 3111.3, and rescaled index 5 0.48. Figure
0.9.9 (Nixon, 1999) after the analyses. Optimization of these characters al- 2 shows a comparison between consensus trees from un-
lowed us to look for evolutionary patterns and degree of relationships among
weighted and weighted analyses.
the different lineages.
The subfamily Panicoideae is strongly supported as mono-
phyletic in all our analyses (99% bootstrap value and eight
RESULTS informative molecular synapomorphies; Fig. 1), with the ex-
The 107 sequences were visually aligned; of these, 103 spe- ception of Danthoniopsis, which consistently falls among the
cies represented subfamily Panicoideae, and four sequences outgroups. We included data from two species of Danthoniop-
represented outgroups. After excluding amplification primer sis, resequenced D. dinteri for verification of the published
regions, the data set had a total of 2028 nucleotides between sequence, and conclude that this result is not artifactual.
coordinate numbers 103 579 and 101 553 of the rice ndhF Panicoideae is divided into three well-resolved and strongly
gene. The alignment required the addition of five indels 6 base supported clades, corresponding largely to groups having the
pairs (bp) long, one indel 15 bp long, and one indel 18 bp same basic chromosome number (Andropogoneae [x 5 10],
long that lengthened the data set by a total of 45 nucleotide Paniceae [x 5 10], and Paniceae [x 5 9]). The relationship
positions, resulting in 2073 columns or characters. Table 2 among these clades is uncertain. Trees with equally weighted
shows the indels identified in the data matrix after the align- characters place Andropogoneae sister to x 5 10 Paniceae
ment. (Fig. 1), although there is no bootstrap support for this rela-
In the aligned data matrix, 770 (38%) characters were var- tionship. Constraining the trees from equally weighted char-
iable and 435 (21.4%) of those were phylogenetically infor- acters to make Paniceae monophyletic added only one step; a
mative. There are 269 characters out of 435 that vary between Templeton test indicated that the difference was not significant
two bases (i.e., two-state characters), 134 between three bases, (P , 0.706). Trees with characters under implied weight in-
and 32 with the four nucleotides represented. The sequences dicate that the Paniceae is monophyletic, with the x 5 10 clade
were A-T rich: adenine: 26.8%, thymine: 37.3%, guanine: sister to the x 5 9 clade (Fig. 2B). Thus, we cannot be certain
16.6%, and cytosine: 15.8% (3.5% of the data matrix is shown whether the Paniceae is monophyletic or not.
as gaps). The tribe Andropogoneae is strongly supported in all analyses
The phylogenetic analysis with equally weighted characters with 17 nucleotide substitutions and 100% bootstrap value (Fig.
1). Analyses with equally weighted characters place Arundinella form a monophyletic subclade (95% bootstrap; Fig. 1), but the
hirta (x 5 7, 10, 12) (formerly Arundinelleae) as sister to the remainder are placed together with Paspalidium, Stenota-
tribe, as found by previous authors (Mason-Gamer, Weil, and phrum, and Panicum bulbosum, or are basal to the Setaria
Kellogg, 1998; Spangler et al., 1999; Kellogg, 2000), although clade. Pennisetum is paraphyletic but forms a monophyletic
not well supported by bootstrap analysis (57%). Analyses with assemblage with Cenchrus ciliaris. The latter species is treated
implied weights, however, place A. hirta in the Andropogoneae as Pennisetum ciliare by Pohl (1980) and Hitchcock (1951)
and the clade Tripsacum-Elionurus-Zea appears as sister group among others.
to the tribe (Fig. 2B). Most members of Andropogoneae are x The x 5 9 Clade includes members of five subgenera of
5 10, but some species, i.e., Coix and Sorghum are x 5 5; Panicum (subg. Panicum [C4], Dichanthelium [C3], Agrosto-
Cleistachne and Coelorachis are x 5 9. ides [C4], Phanopyrum [C3], and subg. Megathyrsus [C4], sen-
The x 5 9 Paniceae are clearly monophyletic (98% boot- su Zuloaga [1987]). Our results show that these subgenera are
strap, seven nucleotide substitutions; Fig. 1). Although most unrelated to each other. Subgenus Panicum is strongly sup-
members of this clade have a chromosome number of x 5 9, ported as monophyletic, but subgenus Dichanthelium is poly-
there are a few exceptions, such as Chaetium (x 5 13), a few phyletic. Subgenus Dichanthelium sect. Dichanthelium (rep-
species of Setaria (x 5 10), and a few species of Urochloa (x resented by P. sabulorum and P. koolauense) is monophyletic
5 8) (Table 1). Within the x 5 9 Clade, Digitaria is repre- and is unrelated to subgenus Dichanthelium sect. Cordovensia
sented by three species and forms a robust group (100% boot- (represented by P. ovuliferum). Section Dichanthelium is sister
strap, branch length 29) (Fig. 1). The species investigated also to the large clade of C4 species, the Setaria/Urochloa/Panicum
have a unique 18 bp deletion (coordinate number 102 114, clade, or basal to the x 5 9 Clade, depending on whether the
Fig. 1; Table 2). The position of the Digitaria clade is not data are unweighted or weighted, respectively. Panicum ovu-
stable; it is basal within the x 5 9 clade in unweighted anal- liferum, on the other hand, appears more closely related to
yses, but results from implied weight analysis place Digitaria Echinochloa (Fig. 1). Subgenus Megathyrsus includes only
as sister taxa of the ‘‘Setaria/Urochloa/Panicum clade’’ (see Panicum (5 Urochloa) maximum; this species falls in the
below for description of this clade). This affects inferences Urochloa clade and is unrelated to other species of Panicum.
about character evolution (see below). Subgenus Agrostoides is represented by P. bulbosum, which
Acroceras, Echinochloa, Lasiacis, Oplismenus, Panicum falls in the Setaria clade, and subgenus Phanopyrum (repre-
ovuliferum (subg. Dichanthelium, sect. Cordovensia), and sented by P. millegrana) is sister to Sacciolepis.
Pseudechinolaena form a moderately well-supported clade The x 5 10 Paniceae form a robust clade (100% bootstrap,
(82% bootstrap, four nucleotide substitutions). Because all the 12 nucleotide substitutions) that includes taxa with a base
taxa normally have lanceolate leaf blades and are associated chromosome number of ten (Fig. 1). The only known excep-
with forest shade environment (Davidse, 1978; Clayton and tion is Streptostachys ramosa with x 5 9. The x 5 10 Paniceae
Renvoize, 1986; Zuloaga, Morrone, and Saenz, 1987), we call share a 6-bp insertion (coordinate 101 735) that represents a
this the ‘‘Forest Shade Clade.’’ Within this clade, Echinochloa, synapomorphy of the clade. Thysanolaena contains a 6-bp in-
represented here by E. colona and E. frumentacea, forms a sertion at the same position but the inserted nucleotides are
robust monophyletic unit (100% bootstrap, 25 mutations; Fig.
completely different (Table 2).
1). Pseudechinolaena, Lasiacis, and Oplismenus form a well-
Phylogenetic relationships among the terminal taxa within
supported and constant group within the Forest Shade Clade
(93%). The first two species are also linked in all trees, with the x 5 10 Paniceae are not fully resolved, but many small
94% bootstrap value. groups are well supported. A modest 72% bootstrap value and
Panicum millegrana (subg. Phanopyrum, sect. Monticola) three base substitutions support the inclusion of Altoparadi-
and Sacciolepis indica are sister taxa (84% bootstrap, four mo- sium, Arthropogon, Homolepis, Mesosetum, Panicum eupre-
lecular synapomorphies; Fig. 1). Panicum koolauense and P. pes (subg. Phanopyrum, sect. Lorea), P. prionitis (subg.
sabulorum (subg. Dichanthelium, sect. Dichanthelium) are Agrostoides, sect. Prionitia), Streptostachys ramosa, and Ta-
also strongly supported as sisters (100% bootstrap, 18 molec- tianyx in a single clade. Members of the clade have little in
ular synapomorphies). common in terms of morphology or ecology, so we refer to
The remaining species of the x 5 9 Clade fall into a single them as the ‘‘Ambiguous Clade.’’ Several species pairs are
well-supported group (88% bootstrap, with 6 bp substitutions), strongly supported as sisters, but relationships among the pairs
here called the Setaria/Urochloa/Panicum clade. All species are unclear. In all cases, Homolepis (C3) is monophyletic, with
in this clade exhibit C4 photosynthesis. The clade is divided two species represented (H. glutinosa and H. isocalycia) (99%
into three strongly supported subgroups, each of which rep- bootstrap and nine common mutations). Arthropogon is para-
resents a single C4 subtype (Fig. 2). All members of the clade phyletic; A. villosus and Altoparadisium are in a highly sup-
containing Chaetium, Eriochloa, Panicum maximum (5 ported monophyletic clade (100% bootstrap, 18 nucleotide
Urochloa maxima), Melinis, and Urochloa (98% bootstrap, substitutions), while Arthropogon lanceolatus is together with
eight mutations) use PEP carboxykinase as a decarboxylating Panicum euprepes and P. prionitis in a well-supported clade
enzyme, whereas all members of Panicum subgenus Panicum (87% bootstrap, 4 bp substitutions). Mesosetum and Tatianyx
(98% bootstrap, nine mutations) use NAD-malic enzyme. The are sister taxa with ten mutations and 99% bootstrap support.
clade, including species of Cenchrus, Panicum bulbosum Panicum laxum (subg. Phanopyrum, sect. Laxa), Steinchis-
(subg. Agrostoides, sect. Bulbosa), Paspalidium, Pennisetum, ma hians, Plagiantha, Hymenachne, Otachyrium (all C3), and
Setaria, and Stenotaphrum (100% bootstrap, and nine chang- Leptocoryphium (C4), form a second well-supported clade
es) uses the NADP-malic enzyme. (89% bootstrap, five mutations; Fig. 1) within the x 5 10
Several major genera (Urochloa, Setaria, and Pennisetum) Paniceae. Internal branches in this clade are strongly supported
are paraphyletic. Five species of Setaria (S. macrostachya, S. in bootstrap analyses, and Leptocoryphium is basal. Species of
parviflora, S. palmifolia, S. sphacelata, and S. geniculata) the Hymenachne to Steinchisma clade share a 9-bp deletion
(coordinate 101 739), which removes 4 bp of the x 5 10 in- When all C4 species of the subfamily Panicoideae were
serted sequence plus an additional 5 bp. forced to be monophyletic, the shortest trees were 85 steps
The third clade within the x 5 10 Paniceae clade includes longer than the unconstrained trees with C3 species basal on
Axonopus (C4) and Paspalum (C4), in addition to Anthaenan- the tree; if Danthoniopsis was excluded from the subfamily,
tiopsis (C4), Echinolaena (C3), Ichnanthus (C3), Ophiochloa and the remaining C4 species were constrained to form a clade,
(C4), Panicum obtusum (C4) (subgenus Agrostoides, section the trees were 73 steps longer. In both cases, the Templeton
Obtusa), P. piauiense (C3) (subg. Phanopyrum, sect. Stoloni- test (1983) indicated that the difference was highly significant
fera), Thrasya (C4), and Streptostachys asperifolia (C3) (80% (P , 0.0001). Within the C4 constraint clade, species were
bootstrap, four substitutions; Fig. 1). Ichnanthus is the sister grouped principally by basic chromosome number and several
of this clade in one of the two possible topologies. There are minor clades were still recognized. When the tree was con-
three major lineages common to all topologies: (1) Echinolae- strained to match the photosynthetic classification of the Pan-
na and Panicum piauiense (89% bootstrap, four mutations, iceae proposed by Brown (1977) (i.e., C3, C4 NADP-me, C4
C3); (2) Axonopus, Ophiochloa, and Streptostachys (95% boot- NAD-ME, and C4 PCK species in four different clades), 75
strap, seven synapomorphies, C3 and C4). Within this clade, extra steps were necessary to keep this hypothesis, and 72
the two representatives of Axonopus, A. anceps and A. fissi- steps if Andropogoneae and Arundinella hirta were included
folius, are placed with the monotypic genus Ophiochloa in a within the C4 NADP-ME group, Subtribe 1. The molecular
very strong clade (100% bootstrap, 18 mutations, C4); these evidence thus argues strongly that the C4 pathway is highly
three taxa share a 6-bp insertion (coordinate number 102 065, homoplasious.
Fig. 1, Table 2). (3) Panicum obtusum, Anthaenantiopsis, plus Assuming that the Panicoideae are ancestrally C3, C4 pho-
all species of Paspalum and Thrasya (100% bootstrap, 12 mu- tosynthesis has originated once at the base of the Andropo-
tations, C4). Paspalum forms a large paraphyletic group in goneae. There are at least four origins in the x 510 Paniceae
which Thrasya is embedded (93% bootstrap, four mutations); clade (Fig. 2): (1) the clade including Anthaenantiopsis, Pan-
however, Thrasya, represented by T. petrosa and T. glaziovii, icum obtusum, Paspalum, and Thrasya; (2) the Axonopus-
is monophyletic (85% bootstrap, three mutations). Ophiochloa clade; (3) Leptocoryphium; and (4) the Ambigu-
The Panicum species investigated fall in both the x 5 9 ous Clade. Optimization of C3/C4 characters on the basal
(Panicum subg. Panicum, Panicum sect. Dichanthelium, P. branch is ambiguous. In the consensus tree from the equally
millegrana, P. bulbosum, and P. ovuliferum) and x 5 10 weighted analysis, well-supported groups in the Ambiguous
clades (P. euprepes, P. laxum, P. obtusum, P. prionitis, and Clade collapse on the ancestral branch (Fig. 2A). Optimization
P. piauiense). Forcing Panicum to be monophyletic in the tra- over the two possible resolutions for this clade shows three
ditional sense, including all the species under study, costs 116 independent origins for the C4 pathway. In analyses under im-
extra steps relative to the most-parsimonious trees and 101 plied weights, the ancestral state of this clade is also ambig-
steps excluding Panicum (5 Urochloa) maximum; both con- uous, and two or three origins are possible (Fig. 2B). In ad-
straints are significantly different from the most-parsimonious dition, Steinchisma hians is a C3/C4 intermediate (Brown and
topology (P , 0.0001). Brown, 1975; Morgan and Brown, 1979; Morgan, Brown, and
Reger, 1980; Brown et al., 1985) and here is clearly derived
Correlation with photosynthetic types—Optimization of from C3 ancestors; there is no evidence that it represents a
photosynthetic pathway differs between the trees with equal transition from C3 to C4.
weights and those with implied weights (Fig. 2A, B); the dif- Optimization of C4 in the x 5 9 Paniceae depends on the
ferences between the trees indicate our uncertainty about some position of the Digitaria clade, which is basal in the equally
aspects of photosynthetic evolution. Using the implied weights weighted analyses (Fig. 2A), and embedded in the clade in
topology, the common ancestor of the panicoid clade appears analyses under implied weights (Fig. 2B). In the former anal-
as C3 (Fig. 2B); in this case there are eight or nine origins of yses, there are three independent C4 origins: (1) Digitaria; (2)
the C4 pathway, with the exact number depending on the res- Echinochloa; and (3) the large Setaria/Urochloa/Panicum
olution within the Ambiguous Clade. Using the topology re- clade. In analyses with implied weights, C4 originates only
trieved from the equally weighted analysis, the ancestral state twice in the x 5 9 species—once in Echinochloa and once in
is ambiguous (Fig. 2A). Multiple independent origins of the the large clade of Digitaria plus the Setaria/Urochloa/Pani-
C4 pathway are possible, but it is equally parsimonious to pos- cum clade.
tulate a single origin of the C4 pathway in the common an- Most C4 Panicoideae use NADP-malic enzyme as a decar-
cestor of the subfamily. In the latter case, the single origin boxylating enzyme. Most NADP species have lost their outer
would be followed by multiple losses (reversals to C3) and bundle sheath and form agranal chloroplasts in the mestome
then several reversals of the reversals to arrive at the current sheath, located over the outer wall in centrifugal position;
C4 condition. We prefer the hypothesis of multiple independent these characters thus appear in each origin of NADP-ME C4
origins because it seems simpler than a hypothesis involving (Fig. 2). Two exceptions are Panicum prionitis, which has re-
gain-loss-gain of C4. tained an outer bundle sheath similar to that in C3 species
←
Fig. 1. One of the 27 128 most parsimonious trees (L 5 1472) obtained with equally weighted characters by NONA, for panicoid grasses based on ndhF
sequence data. Branch length refers to the number of nucleotide substitutions, shown above branches. Bootstrap values are given below each branch. When no
number is provided, bootstrap support is less than ,53%. Asterisks show branches that collapse on the consensus tree. Length mutations (indels) characterizing
particular clades or taxa are shown according to code letters in Table 2. Squares represent synapomorphies or autapomorphies and circles represent homoplasies.
First number following species names indicates base chromosome number (x) and the second number indicates photosynthetic pathway, based on data in Table
1. 3 5 C3, 4 5 C4.
Fig. 2. Comparison of strict consensus trees. (A) Unweighted (NONA) analysis; (B) implied weight (Pee-Wee) analysis. Leaf structural and biochemical
characters (Table 1) are optimized on trees. Key to line shadings and groups of taxa: thin black lines 5 C3, two bundle sheaths, no predominant decarboxylating
enzyme, bundle sheath chloroplasts absent, peripheral or slightly centrifugal, granal; heavy black lines 5 C4, one bundle sheath, predominant enzyme NADP-
ME, bundle sheath chloroplasts centrifugal, agranal (‘‘classical NADP-ME type:’’ * 5 isolated bundle sheath cells present; ** 5 one outer bundle sheath; ***
5 one or two remnant cells of the outer sheath present); diagonally hatched lines 5 ambiguous, C3 or C4 NADP-ME; cross hatching (Urochloa clade) 5 C4,
two bundle sheaths, predominant enzyme PCK, bundle sheath chloroplasts centrifugal, granal (‘‘classical PCK type’’); horizontal lines (subgenus Panicum) 5
C4, two bundle sheaths, predominant enzyme NAD-ME, chloroplast centrifugal or centripetal, granal (‘‘classical NAD-ME type’’); black boxes 5 C4, two bundle
sheaths, predominant decarboxylating enzyme ambiguous, bundle sheath chloroplasts centrifugal, granal; white boxes 5 C4, two bundle sheaths, predominant
enzyme NADP-ME, chloroplasts centrifugal, granal.
(Zuloaga, Morrone, and Dubcovsky, 1989), and Anthaenan- sheath cells in the mesophyll instead of minor veins; this anat-
tiopsis rojasiana, with remnants of the outer sheath repre- omy has thus originated multiple times independently.
sented by one or two globose cells (Morrone et al., 1993). A The only panicoids in this analysis that use NAD malic
few NADP-ME panicoids, including Arundinella hirta and Al- enzyme are species of Panicum subg. Panicum, which is
toparadisium chapadense sampled here, have isolated bundle strongly supported as monophyletic. Similarly, all species us-
ing PEP carboxykinase (PCK-type) are in a single well-sup- (2000) have several clades in common. All studies find that
ported clade. Each of these C4 types thus originated only once. Panicum subg. Panicum is monophyletic, as is the group of
Both NAD-ME species and PCK species retain their outer genera grouped into the Setaria clade (Setaria, Cenchrus, Pen-
bundle sheaths, a plesiomorphic character shared with their C3 nisetum, Panicum bulbosum, Paspalidium, and Stenotaphrum,
ancestors. Centripetal chloroplasts in the outer bundle sheath the latter two genera not included in the trnL analysis). In the
is a derived character that appears three times on internal ndhF and the morphological phylogenies Acroceras and Las-
branches of subgenus Panicum. The order of evolution of the iacis are part of the same clade, but are linked with Cyrtococ-
three C4 subtypes is uncertain and depends on the type of cum and Microcalamus in the morphological study; these taxa
analysis done. However, if Digitaria is basal in the x 5 9 were not included in the molecular data set. The clade con-
Clade, then the ancestral decarboxylating enzyme is ambigu- sisting of Eriochloa, Urochloa (Brachiaria in Gómez-Martı́-
ous (Fig. 2A). If Digitaria is sister to the Setaria/Urochloa/ nez and Culham, 2000), and Panicum (5 Urochloa) maximum
Panicum clade, a clade that includes the three C4 subtypes, appears in the three phylogenies, although the molecular phy-
NADP-ME is optimized as ancestral (Fig. 2B). In this case, logenies also place Melinis and Chaetium (in the ndhF trees)
NAD-ME and PCK are derived from ancestors with the within the group. Echinolaena and Panicum piauiense (subg.
NADP-ME subtype. Phanopyrum sect. Stolonifera) are closely related in the stud-
ies, although the genera with which they are associated differ.
DISCUSSION Both Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani (2000) and the mo-
lecular data identify Panicum as a polyphyletic genus; within
DNA sequence data from the gene ndhF have allowed us Panicum, subg. Agrostoides is also polyphyletic. Other genera,
to verify the monophyly of the subfamily Panicoideae and to such as Streptostachys and Arthropogon, also appeared as
demonstrate its division into three strongly supported clades. polyphyletic in both studies (Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani,
Our results thus expand on the work of Gómez-Martı ńez 2000).
(1998) and Gómez-Martı ńez and Culham (2000), based on the Our analyses confirm the polyphyly of the tribe Arundinel-
chloroplast gene trnL. Gómez-Martı ńez was the first to estab- leae. The taxa included for study (Arundinella hirta, Dan-
lish that Paniceae are divided into two clades corresponding thoniopsis dinteri, and D. petiolata) appear in different and
to chromosome number; these she correlated with biogeogra- distantly related clades (Fig. 1), with Danthoniopsis clearly
phy and called ‘‘the American Paniceae’’ (x 5 10) and ‘‘the placed in a basal polytomy with the outgroups. Previous stud-
Pantropical Paniceae’’ (most of the x 5 9 species). Because ies (Mason-Gamer, Weil, and Kellogg, 1998; Spangler et al.,
the taxonomic sample presented here is biased toward the New 1999) have also indicated a polyphyletic origin of the Arun-
World, additional samples from Africa, Asia, and Australia dinelleae and the need of further studies to recircumscribe this
will be necessary to determine whether the distributional hy- tribe. Likewise, relationships between the subfamilies Pani-
pothesis is supported. coideae and Centothecoideae (the latter including Thysanola-
The sample of species presented here is considerably larger eneae) are not resolved by our analyses and need further in-
than any molecular study to date, but is still lacking several vestigation.
small tribes. We did not have material of tribes Isachneae,
Steyermarkochloeae, Hubbardieae (a total of ;112 species, all
C3), nor of Paniceae subtribes Neurachninae (10 species, C3 Morphological correlates of molecularly defined clades—
and C4) or Spinificinae (8 species, C4). Our sample of 59 gen- Members of the Forest Shade Clade—Acroceras, Echinochloa,
era represents slightly more than one-fourth of the total and Lasiacis, Oplismenus, Panicum ovuliferum, and Pseudechin-
our sample of species represents ;3% of the total. The results olaena—all have lanceolate leaf blades and are associated with
presented here thus reflect whatever limitations are imposed the forest shade environment (Davidse, 1978; Clayton and
by the set of sequences; data collected since these analyses, Renvoize, 1986; Zuloaga, Morrone, and Saenz, 1987). In ad-
however, continue to support the results outlined here (J. Bar- dition, all taxa in this clade except Echinochloa use the C3
ber, A. Doust, L. Giussani, K. Hiser, and E. Kellogg, Univer- photosynthetic pathway. The ligules of these species are mem-
sity of Missouri-St. Louis, unpublished data). branaceous, their glumes are herbaceous, and their upper pa-
Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani (2000) produced a mor- leas and lemmas are crustaceous, with the margins of the upper
phological phylogeny of the Paniceae including .100 genera lemma tucked into the palea; their primary inflorescence
of the tribe. Their analysis could not test the monophyly of branches are more or less racemose, with the spikelets borne
Paniceae because Andropogoneae were not included. The two close together on short pedicels. Acroceras and Echinochloa
basic chromosome numbers (x 5 9 and x 5 10) have several both have a protuberance on the apex of the palea (perhaps an
independent origins on the morphological tree rather than cor- homologous character for both genera); they are not sisters in
relating with major clades, as in the molecular tree. (Note that our analyses, but the placement of Acroceras in the clade is
chromosome number was not used in the phylogenetic analysis ambiguous. Echinochloa is C4 NADP-ME subtype, with a sin-
of Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani [2000] due to the lack of gle bundle sheath.
information in many genera.) The morphological phylogeny The Setaria clade includes species of Cenchrus, Paspali-
also did not clearly correlate with biogeography. The morpho- dium, Pennisetum, Setaria, and Stenotaphrum, all of which
logical phylogeny places C3 species at the base of the tree and have setae or bristles in the inflorescences, the sole exception
the C4 NADP-ME genera in a derived monophyletic clade (Zu- being Panicum bulbosum. These bristles vary in position and
loaga, Morrone, and Giussani, 2000). This contrasts with the development, with some terminating branches, and others ap-
ndhF phylogeny, in which C4 NADP-ME appears in multiple parently representing modified pedicellate spikelets (Webster,
independent clades. 1988, 1992). Previous authors (e.g., Clayton and Renvoize,
Both molecular phylogenies (ndhF and trnL) and the mor- 1986) had thought that bristles were not homologous among
phological phylogeny of Zuloaga, Morrone, and Giussani members of this group, but our molecular data and that of
Gómez-Martinez and Culham (2000) suggest that bristles had share the C4 NADP-ME subtype and have only one bundle
a single evolutionary origin. sheath. Digitaria is also characterized by dorsiventrally com-
Setaria is one of the genera with the largest taxonomic sam- pressed spikelets with the lower glume reduced, the lower
pling, in part because it includes .100 species distributed flower absent, the upper lemma and palea cartilaginous.
worldwide. Although the genus is easily recognized because The clade that includes Altoparadisium, Arthropogon, Hom-
of its bristles that persist on the rachis when the spikelet falls, olepis, Mesosetum, Panicum euprepes, P. prionitis, Streptos-
our study indicates that this genus is paraphyletic. Of the spe- tachys ramosa, and Tatianyx (the Ambiguous Clade), includes
cies investigated, five of them (S. macrostachya, S. parviflora, considerable morphological, anatomical, and physiological di-
S. palmifolia, S. sphacelata, and S. geniculata) form a mono- versity. These taxa have not been placed together in previous
phyletic subclade. Setaria viridis and S. lachnea are sisters and classifications and few obvious morphological features unite
together form a clade with Panicum bulbosum. The relation- them. Some are C3 with standard C3 vein spacing and double
ship between Pennisetum and Cenchrus is not surprising in bundle sheaths, whereas others are C4 NADP-ME with close
that both have smooth cartilaginaceous to membranous paleas vein spacing and variously reduced outer bundle sheaths.
and lemmas, and the dispersal unit is the spikelet-bristle com- Homolepis is monophyletic, with the two species investigated
bination (i.e., bristles fall from the rachis along with the spike- having glumes that are equal in length, cartilaginous upper
lets). lemmas and paleas covered by silica bodies, and linear hila
All taxa in the Urochloa clade (Chaetium, Eriochloa, Pan- that extend half the length of the caryopsis (Zuloaga and Sod-
icum (5 Urochloa) maximum, Melinis and Urochloa) use the erstrom, 1985). Two of the three species of the recently recir-
PCK subtype of the C4 photosynthetic pathway, and have the cumscribed Arthropogon (Filguieras et al., 2001) are repre-
classical morphological correlates of the pathway (Brown, sented here and appear in different clades. Arthropogon lan-
1977; Watson and Dallwitz, 1992), although there are no other ceolatus is grouped with Panicum euprepes and P. prionitis,
morphological characters that distinguish the clade. Although while A. villosus, a C4 NADP-ME species, is related to the
most species have a base chromosome number of x 5 9, Chae- recently established genus Altoparadisium (Filgueiras et al.,
tium bromoides has x 5 13, an unusual chromosome number 2001). Arthropogon lanceolatus is a C3 species with fusoid
within the Paniceae. The paraphyletic Urochloa also appears cells, aristate lower glume, and cartilaginous upper lemma and
to have undergone an active process of chromosome evolution, palea; P. euprepes is also C3 but with stiff and sharp-pointed
with the chromosome number of Panicum (5 Urochloa) max- leaf blades, and open, lax panicles, while P. prionitis is C4
imum varying from x 5 9 to x 5 8 or 7. Urochloa acuminata, with flat leaves, keeled blades and open panicles.
which appears basal in the clade, also has x 5 13 (Morrone Species in the clade including Anthaenantiopsis, Axonopus,
et al., 1995). Echinolaena, Ichnanthus, Ophiochloa, Panicum piauiense, P.
Panicum subg. Panicum is a robust monophyletic unit. obtusum, Paspalum, Streptostachys asperifolia, and Thrasya
(Here and elsewhere in this discussion, the classification of share an inflorescence pattern in which the spikelets are ar-
Panicum follows Zuloaga, 1987). Physiologically, the group ranged in unilateral branches. Most genera included in this
is characterized by the principal activity of NAD-ME enzyme large clade are native to America. Streptostachys asperifolia,
during photosynthesis (see above under Correlation with pho- a C3 non-Kranz species, is sister to the Axonopus-Ophiochloa
tosynthetic pathways), and several species have centripetal clade. Axonopus and the monotypic genus Ophiochloa are C4
chloroplasts in the outer part of the parenchymatous sheath. ‘‘classical NADP-ME’’ type species. In some trees, Axonopus
Morphologically, this subgenus includes caespitose plants with appears to be paraphyletic with Ophiochloa derived from with-
membranous-ciliate ligules, linear to linear-lanceolate blades, in it. However, their relationships are not resolved in the con-
open and lax inflorescences, spikelets with crustaceous upper sensus trees and Ophiochloa differs by nine mutations.
lemmas and paleas, and the apex of the palea with simple or Ophiochloa differs from Axonopus by its hyaline upper floret
compound papillae. with the upper palea free at the apex, lower lemma free from
Panicum subg. Dichanthelium section Dichanthelium, rep- the upper glume, and one raceme per inflorescence (Filgueiras,
resented by two species (P. sabulorum and P. koolauense), is Davidse, and Zuloaga, 1993).
sister to the large Setaria/Urochloa/Panicum clade in the Paspalum is, after Panicum, the second largest genus of the
equally weighted trees or basal to the x 5 9 Paniceae clade in Paniceae, with ;320 species. In our study, this genus is rep-
the implied weighted trees. The two species are C3, with foliar resented by nine species belonging to seven informal groups,
dimorphism usually present, and have upper lemmas and pa- which include a wide range of morphological features and geo-
leas covered with simple papillae. graphic distribution. These species form a well-supported
The sister taxon relationship of Panicum millegrana (P. clade with representatives of Thrasya (Fig. 1). Paspalum is a
subg. Phanopyrum sect. Monticola) and Sacciolepis indica is paraphyletic assemblage, with two species of Thrasya embed-
one of several surprises in this study. Both species are C3, but ded within it. Both genera have unilateral racemes with the
this is the ancestral condition and does not indicate relation- lower glume absent or reduced. Additionally, several species
ship; they differ by the presence of a spiciform panicle in of the Paspalum group Decumbentes are morphologically in-
Sacciolepis, with a gibbous upper glume and a smooth upper termediate between the two genera, with the lower glume al-
floret. Panicum millegrana bears open and lax panicles, non- ways or variably present and varying in length within the same
swollen upper glumes, and upper florets that are transversely inflorescence, the pedicels partly adnate to the rachis, and the
rugose. We have been unable to find any morphological char- lower lemma coriaceous and sulcate in the middle portion.
acters shared by the two species. From the major clade composed by Hymenachne, Lepto-
Digitaria is clearly monophyletic in these analyses, but its coryphium, Otachyrium, Panicum laxum, Plagiantha, and
position is uncertain, whether sister to all x 5 9 Paniceae (in Steinchisma hians, the last four genera form a well-supported
equally weighted trees) or sister to the Setaria/Urochloa/Pan- subclade characterized by an expanded lower palea. Addition-
icum clade (in implied weighted analysis). Digitaria species ally, Panicum laxum, Plagiantha, and Steinchisma are linked
in another subclade with all three entities having verrucose Laxa have been crossed with those of Steinchisma (Brown et
papillae all over the upper lemma and palea, although this al., 1985), suggesting a close relationship between the two
character is not constant in all specimens of Panicum laxum. groups. It is also remarkable that Hymenachne and Sacciole-
pis, two genera usually cited as closely related in the tribe
Implications for classification—Brown (1977) classified (Pohl and Lersten, 1975), appeared in this analysis in two
the Paniceae based on photosynthetic pathway, dividing it into clearly distinguished clades.
four major groups. His subtribe 1 included all NADP-ME spe- Zuloaga and Soderstrom (1985) removed two species from
cies, here shown to be polyphyletic. Brown’s subtribe 2 in- Panicum and included them in the genus Homolepis, a con-
cluded all C3 species, which he interpreted as basal, and the clusion not followed by Clayton and Renvoize (1986) and
group from which all other members of the tribe originated. Renvoize (1998). In this study, one of these two species was
We agree with Brown’s point of view, as it is the ancestral included (H. glutinosa 5 Panicum glutinosum), and its posi-
condition in the implied weighted trees, and we consider it the tion as sister with H. isocalycia supports its segregation as
most probable state for the ancestor of the panicoid grasses Homolepis.
(see below under Evolution of C4 photosynthetic pathways Brown (1977) placed Brachiaria, Urochloa, and Eriochloa
within panicoid grasses), although the ancestral state is am- in a natural group, supported by their PCK physiology. Many
biguous in the equally weighted trees. Brown’s subtribes 3 and of the species of Brachiaria included by Brown were later
4 corresponded to the Urochloa group (all with the PCK sub- transferred to Urochloa. Brown suggested that Panicum max-
type of C4) and Panicum subg. Panicum (all with NAD-ME imum, the only species of Panicum with PCK physiology,
subtype); we have confirmed that these are monophyletic. should be included within the Brachiaria group. Most genera
Clayton and Renvoize (1986) recognized seven subtribes in of this C4 PCK-type group have rough, transversely rugose
Paniceae, based on several exomorphological and anatomical lemmas and primary inflorescence branches with spikelets on
characters. Of the seven, only subtribe Cenchrinae is mono- short pedicels, although U. maxima and the Fasciculata group
phyletic on the molecular tree, although Cenchrus and Pen- of Urochloa do not fit this general description. Morrone and
nisetum were the only genera of the subtribe included. Their Zuloaga (1992, 1993), following Webster (1987, 1988) trans-
intuitive diagram of relationships among genera of the subtribe ferred American species of Panicum with the PCK syndrome
Setariinae showed the genera organized according to photo- to Urochloa, a conclusion strongly supported by the molecular
synthetic pathway; taxa are grouped largely without regard to data.
chromosome numbers. Nonetheless, their groups of Otachyr- Most genera currently accepted within Paniceae, such as
ium-Plagiantha-Steinchisma, Setaria-Paspalidium-Stenota- Acroceras, Brachiaria, Digitaria, Homolepis, Ichnanthus,
phrum, Paspalum-Thrasya, and Urochloa-Eriochloa corre- Otachyrium, and Urochloa, among others, have been gradually
spond to clades in the molecular analyses. The latter group segregated from Panicum, starting with the pioneering papers
also includes Brachiaria s.s.; although we did not include any of Chase (1906, 1908a, b, 1911), and the relationships of this
species of Brachiaria s.s. in this analysis, Urochloa mutica genus with many other taxa are highlighted in the intuitive
was treated as Brachiaria mutica by Clayton and Renvoize evolutionary diagrams of Clayton and Renvoize (1986). In
(1986). Clayton and Renvoize (1986) suggested Panicum as a spite of the continuous segregation of genera, Panicum is still
possible ancestor from which all Setariinae emerged. Our re- polyphyletic. Panicum subg. Panicum and sect. Dichanthelium
sults, in contrast, show Panicum in many places over the tree, are the only taxa that are monophyletic. Panicum maximum,
with many of these species associated with other genera of previously classified by Zuloaga (1987) as P. subg. Mega-
Paniceae (see discussion of Panicum). thyrsus, is found within the Urochloa clade, and therefore in
Streptostachys ramosa appears in the x 5 10 Paniceae this paper it is treated as U. maxima, as suggested by Webster
clade, although the chromosome count (Davidse and Pohl, (1987); this species is characterized by a transversely rugose
1978) shows that this species is x 5 9. Streptostachys ramosa upper lemma and palea. Species of Panicum subg. Dichan-
is separated from the type species of the genus, S. asperifolia, thelium are distributed in two different clades, with sect. Di-
a species with a basic chromosome number of x 5 10 (Mor- chanthelium (represented here by P. sabulorum and P. koo-
rone et al., 1995), the latter in a well-supported clade together lauense) forming an isolated but well-supported clade, unre-
with Ophiochloa and Axonopus. Morrone and Zuloaga (1991) lated to P. ovuliferum (sect. Cordovensia), which is close to
have pointed out the differences between S. asperifolia and Acroceras and Echinochloa. Panicum bulbosum, which be-
the other species of the genus, S. ramosa and S. macrantha, longs to P. subg. Agrostoides sect. Bulbosa (Zuloaga, 1987),
but they did not make any decision about the taxonomic po- is within the Setaria clade. The other species of subgenus
sition of these taxa. Our data suggest that the genus should be Agrostoides, P. prionitis of sect. Prionitia, appears in the x 5
split into two, with S. ramosa placed in another genus. 10 Paniceae clade, related to P. euprepes (sect. Lorea, subg.
Our data show that Paspalum is paraphyletic and includes Phanopyrum) and Arthropogon lanceolatus. In turn, Panicum
the genus Thrasya. To maintain a monophyletic Paspalum, piauiense (subg. Phanopyrum sect. Stolonifera) forms a clade
therefore, the clade must either be divided into smaller units with the genus Echinolaena. Panicum obtusum is distantly re-
or Thrasya must be merged with Paspalum. The latter possi- lated to other NADP-ME taxa, such as Thrasya, Paspalum,
bility has already been suggested by morphological studies and Anthaenantiopsis. Also, Panicum laxum, of subg. Phan-
(Trillo and Rúa, 1999; S. S. Aliscioni, unpublished data). opyrum section Laxa, is grouped with Steinchisma hians in a
The ndhF data support segregation of Steinchisma from strongly supported clade related to Plagiantha, Hymenachne,
Panicum (Renvoize, 1988, 1998; Zuloaga et al., 1998) and its and Otachyrium.
close relationship with Plagiantha (already established by Zu- These results suggest that the name Panicum should be re-
loaga et al., 1998). The similarity between Panicum laxum and stricted to subgenus Panicum. Panicum maximum should be
Steinchisma needs to be tested with addition of more species placed in Urochloa, Dichanthelium can be raised from the sub-
of subg. Phanopyrum sect. Laxa of Panicum. Species of sect. generic to generic level (although the position of section Cor-
dovensia is still doubtful), and subgenera Agrostoides and mization is forced by the position of Digitaria sister to the
Phanopyrum split into several small subunits. More species of Setaria/Urochloa/Panicum clade. This hypothetical C4 ances-
the latter three subgenera will need to be sampled to reach tor would have also had centrifugal chloroplasts with well-
firm conclusions about the taxonomic position of taxa of this developed grana and two bundle sheaths (Fig. 2). Although C3
difficult and complex genus. species generally have few nonspecialized chloroplasts in the
parenchymatous bundle sheath or no chloroplasts at all (Ellis,
Evolution of C4 photosynthetic pathways within panicoid 1977), the chloroplasts, when present, are slightly disposed
grasses—The number of C4 origins in Panicoideae is remark- towards the outside walls of the cells and the intercellular
able given the apparent complexity of the pathway. C4 pho- space (N. Dengler, University of Toronto, personal commu-
tosynthesis requires numerous biochemical and anatomical nication). This attribute could represent an homologous state
modifications of the plant, apparently involving multiple ge- with that of the inferred C4 ancestor.
netic changes, although, as far as is known, no ‘‘new’’ genes The inferred C4 ancestral combination of biochemical and
or proteins are involved in C4. The enzymes used are all house- structural features has never been found in extant Panicoideae.
keeping enzymes whose regulation is altered in a tissue-spe- In the grasses, the characters occur together only in the non-
cific manner (Gutiérrez, Gracen, and Edwards, 1974; Prender- panicoid tribe Eriachneae, in just five species of Eriachne and
gast, Hattersley, and Stone, 1987; Sinha and Kellogg, 1996). Pheidochloa gracilis S. T. Blake (Eriachneae) (Prendergast,
Available data on photosynthetic pathway are remarkably Hattersley, and Stone, 1987). Either our findings suggest novel
good for this group of species. All of the species have been character combinations for the panicoids, or the simple parsi-
assigned to photosynthetic type based on anatomical criteria. mony optimization methods produce results that are not bio-
In addition, all outgroup taxa and 63 of the 103 ingroup taxa logically realistic.
(61%) have been identified as C3 or C4 using either the ratio The distinctions among NAD-ME, PCK, and NADP-ME
of 13C to 12C (]13C), biochemical assays for decarboxylating biochemistry are not as marked as might appear. The enyzme
enzymes, estimates of CO2 compensation point, immunolocal- PCK is only active in species classified as PCK-type, and has
ization of photosynthetic enzymes (see references in Table 1), almost no detectable activity in ‘‘classical NAD-ME’’ and
or some combination of these. These taxa are among those ‘‘classical NADP-ME’’ species, and NADP-ME activity is
used to establish the strong correlations of photosynthetic very low in PCK species (Gutiérrez, Gracen, and Edwards,
pathway with leaf anatomy. Although Brown and Hattersley 1974; Prendergast, Hattersley, and Stone, 1987). However,
(1989) postulated that C4 anatomy might have appeared before NAD-ME is active not only in species classed as NAD-ME,
C4 photosynthesis, we see no evidence for this. The one C3/ but also in PCK (Watson and Dallwitz, 1992; Sinha and Kel-
C4 intermediate species in our analysis, Steinchisma hians, is logg, 1996) and in NADP-ME species (Gutiérrez, Gracen, and
not sister to a C4 clade, as we would expect if it were a step Edwards, 1974; Prendergast, Hattersley, and Stone, 1987). In
along the evolutionary pathway of C4. other words, the C4 subtypes do not actually reflect absolute
Our data suggest that C3 photosynthesis is the ancestral con- distinctions in decarboxylating enzyme activity.
dition among panicoid grasses and that C4 arose at least eight Malate is the major C4 acid formed in the mesophyll of C4
times. The alternative, however, that C4 arose once, was lost NADP-ME species, and aspartate is mostly present in PCK
multiple times, and then was regained, is as parsimonious or and NAD-ME. However, both products are detected in C3 and
nearly so. (Note that the exact number of origins could also all C4 species, although activity of aspartate and alanine ami-
change slightly if the C4 subtribes Neurachninae and Spinfi- notransferases differ significantly among pathways, cells, and
cinae were included.) In either case, the pathway is highly organelles (Leegood, 1997).
labile in the subfamily and apparently easy to modify in evo- The ‘‘classical PCK’’ species seem to derive, biochemically,
lutionary time. The precise number of origins depends on from a C4 NADP-ME ancestor, which corresponds to the op-
some branches that are poorly supported in this analysis and timization in the weighted tree topology (Fig. 2). Such an evo-
on the resolution of some polytomies. Despite these caveats, lutionary pathway requires a ‘‘switch on’’ for the activity of
and no matter how ambiguities in our tree are resolved, the PCK and a simultaneous ‘‘switch off’’ for the activity of
character is homoplasious. NADP-ME. Alloteropsis semialata, an x 5 9 species (Watson
Most C4 panicoids use NADP-ME as a decarboxylating en- and Dallwitz, 1992), is the only known panicoid with predom-
zyme. These species are similar in having specialized, centrif- inant activity of PCK along with a single mestome sheath
ugally placed chloroplasts in the bundle sheath, without well- (similar to the ‘‘classical NADP-ME’’ type; Prendergast, Hat-
developed grana, and having lost the parenchymatous outer tersley, and Stone, 1987). The species might thus represent a
sheath around the vascular bundles (‘‘classical NADP-ME transition between NADP-ME and PCK physiology. Similarly,
type’’). However, some NADP-ME species present deviations the genus Chaetium contains three species, one PCK and the
from this pattern, i.e., Panicum prionitis preserves the outer other two NADP-ME. Chaetium bromoides, the PCK species,
bundle sheath, while Altoparadisium, Anthaenantiopsis, and is placed in the PCK clade (the Urochloa clade) by our data.
Arundinella, among others, have one or two cells that are rem- The NADP-ME species, C. cubanum (Wright) Hitchc. and C.
nants of the outer sheath. The C4 ‘‘classical PCK’’ and ‘‘clas- festucoides Nees, have distinctive cells similar to Neurachne
sical NAD-ME’’ types, and other variants like the ‘‘PCK-like (Brown, 1977; Renvoize, 1987; Morrone et al., 1998) and
NAD-ME’’ type, only appear in the x 5 9 Paniceae, along could represent a link with the supposed NADP-ME ancestor.
with ‘‘classical NADP-ME’’ species. Our analyses do not re- However, until the positions of Alloteropsis semialata and the
solve the order of evolution of the three types. In the trees NADP-ME species of Chaetium are determined, these hypoth-
from equally weighted characters, it is not clear which type eses remain uncertain.
was first derived from C3 ancestors. In the trees constructed As shown by Monson (1999), C4 genes are related to and
using implied weights (Fig. 2, right side), PCK and NAD-ME likely derived from C3 housekeeping genes. Duplication may
species are derived from an NADP-ME ancestor; this opti- be one common mechanism that could generate a new meta-
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A Molecular Phylogeny of The Grass Subfamily Panicoideae Show Multiple Origins of C4 Photosynthesis

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A Molecular Phylogeny of The Grass Subfamily Panicoideae Show Multiple Origins of C4 Photosynthesis

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American Journal of Botany 88(11): 1993–2012. 2001.

A MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF THE GRASS SUBFAMILY

Key words: C4 photosynthesis; ndhF; Panicoideae; Poaceae.

Tribe Paniceae (Panicoideae)

Otachyrium versicolor 10 C3 na abs granal two (a and b) WD

Panicum virgatum 9 C4 - (PCK-like NAD- -fugal granal two (a) HHMR

Paspalum vaginatum 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one

Andropogon gerardii 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (b) GGE

Chrysopogon fulvus 5, 10 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a) SB; SBS

Danthoniopsis petiolata 9 C4 NADP-ME -fugal agranal one (a and b) WD

Tribe Centotheceae (Centothecoideae)

Insertion/ Coordinate Code

Insertion 102 703 a 6 Autapomorphy Setaria sphacelata

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