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Physical Layer in Iso/OSI Model

The signal power is -13 dBm, the noise power is -30 dBm, and the SNR is 17 dB.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
63 views55 pages

Physical Layer in Iso/OSI Model

The signal power is -13 dBm, the noise power is -30 dBm, and the SNR is 17 dB.

Uploaded by

Mama Bana
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Physical Layer

NCE 501
Internet protocol stack
• Application: supporting network
applications
application
– ftp, smtp, http
• Transport: host-host data transfer transport
– tcp, udp
network
• Network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
– ip, routing protocols
• Data-link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
– ppp, ethernet
• Physical: bits “on the wire or air” 2
Physical Layer
• What is the role of physical layer?
– Communicate bits reliably from one Data-link layer
to the other.
• The bit transfer must take place with minimum
number of errors, to avoid retransmission (due to
packet error etc) in the higher layers.
• It should be able to match the rate at which bits are
arriving from higher layers.
• It should provide communication at high rate and
high reliability.

3
Outline
• What is the Physical Layer?
• What are its functionalities?
– How fast can we send the bits?
– Channel Capacity: Bandwidth, SNR
• Improving Reliability and capacity of Channel
– Time, frequency and space diversity
• Case Study: LTE

4
Physical Layer
• To transmit over a physical medium, the bits must be
encoded into signals; electrical or optical, depending
upon the medium used for transmission.

• Each medium has a certain capacity to carry a number


of bits per second. This capacity depends upon
bandwidth and Signal to Noise ratio (SNR).

• Capacity determines the number of bits that can be sent


per second (transmission rate).

5
Medium
• Medium is the thing over which the signal travels
through. It can be air, vacuum or wires. Each
medium has its own unique set of advantages and
associated distortions.

• These characteristics determine the range of


frequencies (carrier frequency) over which the data
should be transmitted and the modulation to be
used.

6
Wired vs. Wireless
Specifications Wired network Wireless network
lower compare to wired networks,
But advanced wireless technologies
Speed of operation Higher
will make it possible to achieve
higher speed
Low, as Frequency Spectrum is very
System Bandwidth High
scarce resource
More as wireless subscriber
Less as cables are not stations, wireless routers, wireless
Cost
expensive access points and adapters are
expensive
Wired network installation is
Wireless network installation is easy
Installation cumbersome and it requires
and it requires less time
more time
Limited, as it operates in the
area covered by connected Not limited, as it operates in the
Mobility
systems with the wired entire wireless network coverage
network 7
Wired vs. Wireless
Transmission copper wires, optical fiber
EM waves or radiowaves or infrared
medium cables, ethernet
requires hubs and switches for More area is covered by wireless
Network coverage
network coverage limit base stations which are connected to
extension
extension one another.

WLAN, WPAN(Zigbee, bluetooth),


Applications LAN (Ethernet), MAN
Cellular(GSM,CDMA, LTE)

Interference is higher due to


Channel Interference is less as one
obstacles between wireless
Interference and wired network will not affect the
transmitter and receiver e.g. weather
signal power loss other
conditions, reflection from walls, etc.

QoS (Quality of Poor due to high value of jitter and


Better
Service) delay in connection setup

High compare to wireless


Reliability Reasonably high
counterpart.
8
Physical Layer
• How many bits can be sent per second?

• Can we send as many bits as we want?

• What are the limitations?

• What is the carrier frequency?

9
Channel Capacity
• Channel Capacity is defined as the maximum number of bits that
can be transmitted over a channel. It depends upon the channel
bandwidth and SNR condition.

• The channel capacity theorem gives an upper limit on the bits per
second. Formally, the channel capacity theorem, also known as
Shannon–Hartley theorem or noisy channel coding theorem is
defined as follows:

• C=B*log2(1+SNR) bits/s

• C: Channel capacity (bits/second)


• B: bandwidth in Hz.
• SNR: Signal to Noise ratio

10
What is Bandwidth?
• Bandwidth is the width of the frequency band used for
communication.

• For example, The bandwidth allocated for LTE channel


varies from 1.4 MHz to 20 MHz (that’s not bandwidth
allocated to each user. More on that later)
• Bandwidth allocated to 802.11a and 802.11g is 20 MHz,
however they reside at different carriers!
• The carrier frequency makes significant difference in
terms of “reach” of the signal.

11
Bandwidth
• For 802.11 series (only referring to PHY
here).

Frequency Band Bandwidth


802.11a 5 GHz 20 MHz
802.11g 2.4 GHz 20 MHz
802.11n 2.4/5 GHz 20/40 MHz
802.11ac 5 GHz 80/160 MHz

12
13
SNR
• Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a measure used in science and
engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level
of background noise.

• SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often
expressed in decibel. A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB)
indicates higher signal levels than noise.

• In addition to SNR, a term SINR is defined as the power of a certain


signal of interest divided by the sum of the interference power (from
all the other interfering signals) and the power of some background
noise

14
Decibel
• The term dB is an abbreviation of decibel, which is equal to 1/10th of
a Bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell). The unit Bel, used to
represent very small quantities, is a logarithmic measure of the ratio
between two quantities. The dB is used to represent a variety of
parameters in engineering fields varying from acoustics to
electronics.

• The unit dB can also be used to represent an absolute power value,


by defining a reference and adding the corresponding suffix to dB.
For example, dBm stands for dB with reference to 1 milliwatt (mW).
1 mW of power is equal to 0 dBm. Similarly, the gain of an antenna
is specified in dBi.

15
Decibel
• Sensitivity level of GSM receiver: 6.3x10-14W = -132
dBW or -102 dBm
• Bluetooth Transmitter: 10 mW= -20dBW or 10dBm
• GSM mobile Transmitter: 1 W = 0 dBW or 30 dBm
• GSM base station transmitter: 40 W = 16 dBW or 46
dBm
• Vacuum cleaner: 1600 W = 32 dBW or 62 dBm
• TV transmitter: 1000 kW ERP = 60 dBW or 90 dBm ERP
• Nuclear power plant: 1200 MW = 91 dBW or 121 dBm

16
SNR
• The received signal strength is known to be 50 µW and the noise
levels are at 10 µW. Determine the noise and signal power in dBm
and the SNR in dB.

17
SNR
• Signal power in dBm
æ 50e -6 ö
PS _ dBm = 10 log10 ç -3 ÷ = 10 log10 ( 0.05 ) = -13dBm
è 1e ø
æ 1e -6 ö
PN _ dBm = 10 log10 ç -3 ÷ = 10 log10 ( 0.001) = -30dBm
è 1e ø
æ 50e -6 ö
SNR = 10 log10 ç -6 ÷ = 10 log10 ( 50 ) = 17 dB
è 1e ø
SNR = PS _ dBm - PN _ dBm = -13 - (-30) = 17 dB

18
Data Rate
• It is the bandwidth and the SNR that determines how
many bits can be transmitted through a particular
medium.

• Channel capacity theorem gives the upper bound, “best


we can do”.

• E.g. For a channel of bandwidth 20 Hz, highest bit rate


that can be achieved at 0 dB is 20 Mbps. Not possible to
get higher rate .
• What about SNR of -10 dB or 10 dB?

19
Data Rate (bps)
• For a channel of bandwidth 20 Hz, highest bit rate that
can be achieved at 0 dB is 20 Mbps. Not possible to get
higher rate .
• What about SNR of -10 dB or 10 dB?

• SNR = 0 dB, that means actual ratio = 1


• SNR = -10 dB, snr = 10!"#/%&=10'% = 0.1
• That means, noise is 10 times stronger than signal!

• 𝐶 = 20 ∗ 10( ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔) 1 + 1 = 20 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠


• 𝐶 = 20 ∗ 10( ∗ 𝑙𝑜𝑔) 1 + 0.1 = 20 ∗ 10( ∗ 0.1375 =
2.75 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

20
Bandwidth vs. Data Rate
• For 802.11 series (only referring to PHY
here).

Bandwidth Max Data Rate


802.11a 20 MHz 54 Mbps
802.11g 20 MHz 54 Mbps
802.11n 20/40 MHz 600 Mbps
802.11ac 80/160 MHz 1.1 Gbps

21
Recap
• For a channel of BW 10 MHz and SNR of
13 dB, what is the channel capacity?

22
Recap
• For a channel of BW 10 MHz and SNR of
13 dB, what is the channel capacity?

• 𝑠𝑛𝑟 = 10!"/!$ = 19.95


• 𝐶 = 10% 𝑙𝑜𝑔& 1 + 𝑠𝑛𝑟 = 43.92 𝑀𝑏𝑝𝑠

23
Recap
• For the same SNR conditions, if the
capacity is to be doubled, what is new
required BW?

24
Recap
• For same BW, how much improvement is
SNR is needed to double the channel
capacity?

25
Recap
• For same BW, how much improvement is SNR is
needed to double the channel capacity?
• New capacity should be 87.85 Mbps, while BW remains
10 MHz,
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔& 1 + 𝑠𝑛𝑟 = 8.785
• 𝑠𝑛𝑟 = 2'.%') − 1 = 440
• 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 26.4345 𝑑𝐵

26
Typical Signal Strengths: WiFi
• Typical WiFi access point radiates 100 mW or 20 dBm. At the receiver,
different applications require different received signal strength.

Signal Required
Strength for

-30 dBm Max achievable signal strength. The client can only be a few feet
from the AP to achieve this. Not typical in the real world.

-67 dBm Minimum signal strength for applications that require very reliable, VoIP,
timely packet delivery. streaming
video

-70 dBm Minimum signal strength for reliable packet delivery. Email, web

-80 dBm Minimum signal strength for basic connectivity. Packet delivery may
be unreliable.

-90 dBm Approaching the noise floor. Any functionality is highly unlikely.
27
Loss of Signal Strength
• Sensitivity level of GSM receiver: 6.3x10-14W = -132 dBW or -102
dBm
• GSM base station transmitter: 40 W = 16 dBW or 46 dBm
• Difference ~ 148 dB (1014.8)
• Signal strength decreases dramatically as it travels.
– Longer the distance travelled, higher are the losses.
– Higher the frequency of transmission (carrier), higher are the
losses.
– There are more complex factors in play as well.
– In addition to reduction in signal strength, interference and noise
affect the communication as well.

28
Free-Space-Propagation
• The free space propagation model is the simplest scenario for the
propagation of radio signals. Here they are considered to travel
outwards from the point where they are radiated by the antenna.
Free Space Propagation
• The way in which they propagate can be likened to the
ripples of waves on a pond that travel outwards from the
point where a stone is dropped into a pond.

• As the ripples move outwards their level reduces until


they finally disappear to the eye.

• In the case of radio signal propagation, the waves


spread out in three dimensions rather than the two
dimensions of the pond example.

30
Path Loss
• Suppose a signal s(t) of power Pt is transmitted through a given
channel, with corresponding received signal r(t) of power Pr. The
linear path loss of the channel is defined as the ratio of transmit
power to receive power.
Pt
PL =
Pr
æ Pt ö
PL = 10 log10 çç ÷÷dB
è Pr ø

• In general the dB path loss is a nonnegative number since the


channel does not contain active elements, and thus can only
attenuate the signal. The dB path gain is defined as the negative of
the dB path loss.
Line of Sight Channel
• Friis free space gain (and loss) equation is given as,
2
Pr æ Gl l ö
=ç ÷
Pt è 4p d ÷ø
ç

æ G l2 ö
Path Loss = PL = -10 log10 ç l 2 ÷ dB
ç ( 4p d ) ÷
è ø

• Thus, the received signal power falls off inversely proportional to


the square of the distance d between the transmit and receive
antennas. As the carrier frequency increases, the received power
decreases. This dependence of received power on the signal
wavelength λ is due to the effective area of the receive antenna.
Example
• Determine the isotropic free space loss at 4 GHz for the shortest
path to a geosynchronous satellite from earth (35,863 km). Assume
antenna gain to be 1.
Example
• Determine the isotropic free space loss at 4 GHz for the shortest
path to a geosynchronous satellite from earth (35,863 km). Assume
antenna gain to be 1.

æ G l2 ö
• PL = -10 log10 ç l 2 ÷ dB
ç ( 4p d ) ÷
è ø
3 x108
l= 9
= .075m, Gl = 1
4 x10
PL = -20 log10 (0.075) + 20 log10 (4p *35.863 x106 )
PL = 22.5 + 173.08 = 195.58dB
Example
• Suppose that the antenna gain of both the satellite and ground-
based antennas are 44 dB and 48 dB, respectively
• PL=195.6-44-48=103.6 dB
Example
• Consider an indoor wireless LAN with fc = 2.4 GHz, cells of radius
100 m and non-directional antennas.
• Under the free-space path loss model, what transmit power is
needed at the transmit antenna such that all the terminals within the
cell receive a minimum power of -60dBm.
• How does this change if the system frequency is 5 GHz?
Solution
• Antenna gain= Gt =1, Pr = -60 dBm è10-6mW, l =
0.125 m, cell radius=d=100m

2
Pr æç Gl l ö÷
=
Pt çè 4pd ÷ø
2
æ 400p ö
÷ = 10 (1600p ) = 101mW
-6 2
Pt = Pr ç
è 0.125 ø
Wireless Channel
• Effects of propagation over a medium are far more
complicated that simple free space path loss.

• Interference from other signals in the frequency band of


interest, additive noise must be taken account.

• In addition, channel effects results in significant Inter


symbol Interference.

38
Multipath Propagation

Power
path-1
path-2
path-3
multi-path propagation path-2
Path Delay

path-1

path-3
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS)

Channel Impulse Response:


Channel amplitude |h| correlated at delays t.
Each “tap” value @ kTs Rayleigh distributed
(actually the sum of several sub-paths)
Inter-Symbol-Interference (ISI) due
to Multi-Path Fading
Transmitted signal:

Received Signals:
Line-of-sight:

Reflected:

Delays
The symbols add up
on the channel
à Distortion!
Attenuation, Dispersion Effects

Inter-symbol interference (ISI)

41
Source: Prof. Raj Jain, WUSTL
Wireless Channel
• Channel behavior changes often and sometimes dramatically
depending upon the mobility of the transmitter, receiver, both or the
surroundings.

• The duration for which the channel response remains relatively


static is measured in terms of coherence time of the channel. It can
vary from few seconds to milliseconds depending upon the
environment.

• Measuring the channel response that often is not practical.

• Next best thing: Model the channel response based on known


parameters. A good model should behave close to actual response
in most cases (say 95% of the time).
42
Wireless Channel
• Various Channel models provided by ITU.
• For developing and studying algorithms, following
models are used with increasing complexity.
– Binary Symmetric Channel
– Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel
– Rayleigh fading/Rician Fading Channels
– ITU models
– SUI: Stanford University Interim Models

43
Wireless Channel
• Response changes depending upon:
– Frequency of operation
– Transmit Power
– Antenna height
– Bandwidth allocated
– Doppler effect (mobility of the transmitter and
receiver)
– Terrain: Indoor/outdoor, urban/rural etc.
– Channel response can have large memory depending
upon the terrain and bandwidth allocated, resulting in
large Inter Symbol Interference.
44
How to Achieve the Channel
Capacity?
• The Shannon-Hartley theorem does not tell how to
achieve the capacity.

• What kind of techniques are used to achieve the


capacity?

• Is noise the enemy? What about interference from other


users? Should that be treated as noise?

• How do we deal with the time varying nature of the


channel?

45
How to Achieve the Capacity?
Diversity
• In telecommunications, a diversity scheme refers to a
method for improving the reliability of a message signal
by using two or more communication channels with
different characteristics.

• Diversity plays an important role in combating fading and


avoiding error bursts. It is based on the assumption that
individual channels may experience different levels of
fading and interference.

46
Time Diversity
• Transmission in which signals representing the same
information are sent over the same channel at different times

• The delay between replicas > coherence time (uncorrelated


channels)

• Use coding and interleaving (it breaks the memory of the


channel, not all bits of the codeword are likely to fall into a
deep fade)

47
Time Diversity
• Channel coding and interleaving is used in
conjunction to introduce time diversity.

• Different types of channel codes are used in


practice.

• 802.11: Convolutional codes (2,1), (4,3), (3,2)


• GSM: Convolutional codes (2,1,3)
• LTE: Turbo codes
• 5G: LDPC codes, Polar codes.

48
Frequency Diversity
• Frequency diversity is implemented by transmitting
information on more than one carrier frequency.

• Frequency diversity is employed by frequency division


multiplexing, where extra bandwidth are receivers
required. In OFDM based systems, frequency diversity
along with error coding techniques across the large band
are used to achieve better performance.

49
OFDM & OFDMA

50
Multiuser Diversity
• Opportunistic user scheduling at either the transmitter
or the receiver

• In a large system with users fading independently, there


is likely to be a user with a very good channel at any time

• Transmitter selects the best user among candidate


receivers according to the qualities of each channel
between the transmitter and each receiver.

51
Multiuser Diversity
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
exploits multiuser diversity.

• Multiuser version of the popular Orthogonal Frequency


Division Multiplexing (OFDM) digital modulation scheme.

• Modulation and multiple access scheme used in latest


wireless systems such as 802.11ax and LTE.

52
Space Diversity
• In space diversity, the signal is transmitted over several different
propagation paths.

• In the case of wireless transmission, it can be achieved by


antenna diversity using multiple transmitter antennas (transmit
diversity) and/or multiple receiving antennas (reception diversity).

• If the antennas are far apart, for example at different cellular base
station sites or WLAN access points, this is called macro-diversity
or site diversity. If the antennas are at a distance in the order of
one wavelength, this is called micro-diversity. A special case is
phased antenna arrays, which also can be used for beam-
forming, MIMO channels and Space–time coding (STC).

53
MIMO

54
Space Diversity

55

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