Physical Layer in Iso/OSI Model
Physical Layer in Iso/OSI Model
NCE 501
Internet protocol stack
• Application: supporting network
applications
application
– ftp, smtp, http
• Transport: host-host data transfer transport
– tcp, udp
network
• Network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
– ip, routing protocols
• Data-link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
– ppp, ethernet
• Physical: bits “on the wire or air” 2
Physical Layer
• What is the role of physical layer?
– Communicate bits reliably from one Data-link layer
to the other.
• The bit transfer must take place with minimum
number of errors, to avoid retransmission (due to
packet error etc) in the higher layers.
• It should be able to match the rate at which bits are
arriving from higher layers.
• It should provide communication at high rate and
high reliability.
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Outline
• What is the Physical Layer?
• What are its functionalities?
– How fast can we send the bits?
– Channel Capacity: Bandwidth, SNR
• Improving Reliability and capacity of Channel
– Time, frequency and space diversity
• Case Study: LTE
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Physical Layer
• To transmit over a physical medium, the bits must be
encoded into signals; electrical or optical, depending
upon the medium used for transmission.
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Medium
• Medium is the thing over which the signal travels
through. It can be air, vacuum or wires. Each
medium has its own unique set of advantages and
associated distortions.
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Wired vs. Wireless
Specifications Wired network Wireless network
lower compare to wired networks,
But advanced wireless technologies
Speed of operation Higher
will make it possible to achieve
higher speed
Low, as Frequency Spectrum is very
System Bandwidth High
scarce resource
More as wireless subscriber
Less as cables are not stations, wireless routers, wireless
Cost
expensive access points and adapters are
expensive
Wired network installation is
Wireless network installation is easy
Installation cumbersome and it requires
and it requires less time
more time
Limited, as it operates in the
area covered by connected Not limited, as it operates in the
Mobility
systems with the wired entire wireless network coverage
network 7
Wired vs. Wireless
Transmission copper wires, optical fiber
EM waves or radiowaves or infrared
medium cables, ethernet
requires hubs and switches for More area is covered by wireless
Network coverage
network coverage limit base stations which are connected to
extension
extension one another.
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Channel Capacity
• Channel Capacity is defined as the maximum number of bits that
can be transmitted over a channel. It depends upon the channel
bandwidth and SNR condition.
• The channel capacity theorem gives an upper limit on the bits per
second. Formally, the channel capacity theorem, also known as
Shannon–Hartley theorem or noisy channel coding theorem is
defined as follows:
• C=B*log2(1+SNR) bits/s
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What is Bandwidth?
• Bandwidth is the width of the frequency band used for
communication.
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Bandwidth
• For 802.11 series (only referring to PHY
here).
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13
SNR
• Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a measure used in science and
engineering that compares the level of a desired signal to the level
of background noise.
• SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power, often
expressed in decibel. A ratio higher than 1:1 (greater than 0 dB)
indicates higher signal levels than noise.
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Decibel
• The term dB is an abbreviation of decibel, which is equal to 1/10th of
a Bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell). The unit Bel, used to
represent very small quantities, is a logarithmic measure of the ratio
between two quantities. The dB is used to represent a variety of
parameters in engineering fields varying from acoustics to
electronics.
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Decibel
• Sensitivity level of GSM receiver: 6.3x10-14W = -132
dBW or -102 dBm
• Bluetooth Transmitter: 10 mW= -20dBW or 10dBm
• GSM mobile Transmitter: 1 W = 0 dBW or 30 dBm
• GSM base station transmitter: 40 W = 16 dBW or 46
dBm
• Vacuum cleaner: 1600 W = 32 dBW or 62 dBm
• TV transmitter: 1000 kW ERP = 60 dBW or 90 dBm ERP
• Nuclear power plant: 1200 MW = 91 dBW or 121 dBm
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SNR
• The received signal strength is known to be 50 µW and the noise
levels are at 10 µW. Determine the noise and signal power in dBm
and the SNR in dB.
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SNR
• Signal power in dBm
æ 50e -6 ö
PS _ dBm = 10 log10 ç -3 ÷ = 10 log10 ( 0.05 ) = -13dBm
è 1e ø
æ 1e -6 ö
PN _ dBm = 10 log10 ç -3 ÷ = 10 log10 ( 0.001) = -30dBm
è 1e ø
æ 50e -6 ö
SNR = 10 log10 ç -6 ÷ = 10 log10 ( 50 ) = 17 dB
è 1e ø
SNR = PS _ dBm - PN _ dBm = -13 - (-30) = 17 dB
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Data Rate
• It is the bandwidth and the SNR that determines how
many bits can be transmitted through a particular
medium.
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Data Rate (bps)
• For a channel of bandwidth 20 Hz, highest bit rate that
can be achieved at 0 dB is 20 Mbps. Not possible to get
higher rate .
• What about SNR of -10 dB or 10 dB?
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Bandwidth vs. Data Rate
• For 802.11 series (only referring to PHY
here).
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Recap
• For a channel of BW 10 MHz and SNR of
13 dB, what is the channel capacity?
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Recap
• For a channel of BW 10 MHz and SNR of
13 dB, what is the channel capacity?
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Recap
• For the same SNR conditions, if the
capacity is to be doubled, what is new
required BW?
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Recap
• For same BW, how much improvement is
SNR is needed to double the channel
capacity?
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Recap
• For same BW, how much improvement is SNR is
needed to double the channel capacity?
• New capacity should be 87.85 Mbps, while BW remains
10 MHz,
• 𝑙𝑜𝑔& 1 + 𝑠𝑛𝑟 = 8.785
• 𝑠𝑛𝑟 = 2'.%') − 1 = 440
• 𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 26.4345 𝑑𝐵
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Typical Signal Strengths: WiFi
• Typical WiFi access point radiates 100 mW or 20 dBm. At the receiver,
different applications require different received signal strength.
Signal Required
Strength for
-30 dBm Max achievable signal strength. The client can only be a few feet
from the AP to achieve this. Not typical in the real world.
-67 dBm Minimum signal strength for applications that require very reliable, VoIP,
timely packet delivery. streaming
video
-70 dBm Minimum signal strength for reliable packet delivery. Email, web
-80 dBm Minimum signal strength for basic connectivity. Packet delivery may
be unreliable.
-90 dBm Approaching the noise floor. Any functionality is highly unlikely.
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Loss of Signal Strength
• Sensitivity level of GSM receiver: 6.3x10-14W = -132 dBW or -102
dBm
• GSM base station transmitter: 40 W = 16 dBW or 46 dBm
• Difference ~ 148 dB (1014.8)
• Signal strength decreases dramatically as it travels.
– Longer the distance travelled, higher are the losses.
– Higher the frequency of transmission (carrier), higher are the
losses.
– There are more complex factors in play as well.
– In addition to reduction in signal strength, interference and noise
affect the communication as well.
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Free-Space-Propagation
• The free space propagation model is the simplest scenario for the
propagation of radio signals. Here they are considered to travel
outwards from the point where they are radiated by the antenna.
Free Space Propagation
• The way in which they propagate can be likened to the
ripples of waves on a pond that travel outwards from the
point where a stone is dropped into a pond.
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Path Loss
• Suppose a signal s(t) of power Pt is transmitted through a given
channel, with corresponding received signal r(t) of power Pr. The
linear path loss of the channel is defined as the ratio of transmit
power to receive power.
Pt
PL =
Pr
æ Pt ö
PL = 10 log10 çç ÷÷dB
è Pr ø
æ G l2 ö
Path Loss = PL = -10 log10 ç l 2 ÷ dB
ç ( 4p d ) ÷
è ø
æ G l2 ö
• PL = -10 log10 ç l 2 ÷ dB
ç ( 4p d ) ÷
è ø
3 x108
l= 9
= .075m, Gl = 1
4 x10
PL = -20 log10 (0.075) + 20 log10 (4p *35.863 x106 )
PL = 22.5 + 173.08 = 195.58dB
Example
• Suppose that the antenna gain of both the satellite and ground-
based antennas are 44 dB and 48 dB, respectively
• PL=195.6-44-48=103.6 dB
Example
• Consider an indoor wireless LAN with fc = 2.4 GHz, cells of radius
100 m and non-directional antennas.
• Under the free-space path loss model, what transmit power is
needed at the transmit antenna such that all the terminals within the
cell receive a minimum power of -60dBm.
• How does this change if the system frequency is 5 GHz?
Solution
• Antenna gain= Gt =1, Pr = -60 dBm è10-6mW, l =
0.125 m, cell radius=d=100m
2
Pr æç Gl l ö÷
=
Pt çè 4pd ÷ø
2
æ 400p ö
÷ = 10 (1600p ) = 101mW
-6 2
Pt = Pr ç
è 0.125 ø
Wireless Channel
• Effects of propagation over a medium are far more
complicated that simple free space path loss.
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Multipath Propagation
Power
path-1
path-2
path-3
multi-path propagation path-2
Path Delay
path-1
path-3
Mobile Station (MS)
Base Station (BS)
Received Signals:
Line-of-sight:
Reflected:
Delays
The symbols add up
on the channel
à Distortion!
Attenuation, Dispersion Effects
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Source: Prof. Raj Jain, WUSTL
Wireless Channel
• Channel behavior changes often and sometimes dramatically
depending upon the mobility of the transmitter, receiver, both or the
surroundings.
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Wireless Channel
• Response changes depending upon:
– Frequency of operation
– Transmit Power
– Antenna height
– Bandwidth allocated
– Doppler effect (mobility of the transmitter and
receiver)
– Terrain: Indoor/outdoor, urban/rural etc.
– Channel response can have large memory depending
upon the terrain and bandwidth allocated, resulting in
large Inter Symbol Interference.
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How to Achieve the Channel
Capacity?
• The Shannon-Hartley theorem does not tell how to
achieve the capacity.
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How to Achieve the Capacity?
Diversity
• In telecommunications, a diversity scheme refers to a
method for improving the reliability of a message signal
by using two or more communication channels with
different characteristics.
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Time Diversity
• Transmission in which signals representing the same
information are sent over the same channel at different times
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Time Diversity
• Channel coding and interleaving is used in
conjunction to introduce time diversity.
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Frequency Diversity
• Frequency diversity is implemented by transmitting
information on more than one carrier frequency.
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OFDM & OFDMA
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Multiuser Diversity
• Opportunistic user scheduling at either the transmitter
or the receiver
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Multiuser Diversity
• Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
exploits multiuser diversity.
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Space Diversity
• In space diversity, the signal is transmitted over several different
propagation paths.
• If the antennas are far apart, for example at different cellular base
station sites or WLAN access points, this is called macro-diversity
or site diversity. If the antennas are at a distance in the order of
one wavelength, this is called micro-diversity. A special case is
phased antenna arrays, which also can be used for beam-
forming, MIMO channels and Space–time coding (STC).
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MIMO
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Space Diversity
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