7/14/05

Primer on Geometric Algebra

for introductory mathematics and physics
David Hestenes

Galileo’s Manifesto for Science

“To be placed on the title-page of my collected works:

“Here it will be perceived from innumerable examples what is the use of

mathematics for judgment in the natural sciences, and how impossible it is to
philosophize correctly without it . . .

“Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes –– I
mean the universe –– but we cannot understand it if we do not first learn the
language and characters in which it is written. This language is mathematics,
and the characters are triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without
whose help it is impossible to comprehend a single word of it; without which
one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth.”

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 Primer on Geometric Algebra

OUTLINE

I. Prolog: On optimizing the design of introductory mathematics.

II. Standard algebraic tools for linear geometry

PART I. Introduction to Geometric Algebra and Basic Applications

III. Defining and Interpreting the Geometric Product

IV. Rotors and rotations in the Euclidean plane.
V. Vector identities and plane trigonometry with GA
VI. Modeling real objects and motions with vectors.
VII. High school geometry with geometric algebra
VIII. Basic kinematic models of particle motion
IX. Planar rigid body motion and reference frames.
X. The Zeroth Law of physics

PART II. Special Relativity with Geometric Algebra

XI. Defining Spacetime

XII. Spacetime Maps
VIII. Spacetime Trig.
XIV. Lorentz transformations.
XV. Energy & momentum
XVI. Universal laws for spacetime physics

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I. Prolog: On optimizing the design of introductory mathematics.

Physics teachers are universally dismayed by the paltry understanding of mathematics that
students bring from their mathematics courses. Blame is usually laid on faulty teaching. But I
hold that the crux of the problem is deeply embedded in the curriculum. From the perspective of
a practicing scientist, the mathematics taught in high school and college is fragmented, out of
date and inefficient!

The central problem is found in high school geometry. Many schools are dropping the course as
irrelevant. But that would be a terrible mistake for reasons already clear to Galileo at the dawn of
science.

• Geometry is the starting place for physical science, the foundation for mathematical
modeling in physics and engineering and for the science of measurement in the real
world.

• Synthetic methods employed in the standard geometry course are centuries out of date;
they are computationally and conceptually inferior to modern methods of analytic
geometry, so they are only of marginal interest in real world applications.

• A reformulation of Euclidean geometry with modern vector methods centered on

kinematics of particle and rigid body motions will simplify theorems and proofs, and
vastly increase applicability to physics and engineering.

A basic pedagogical principle: The depth and extent of student learning is critically dependent
on the quality of the available mathematical tools.

Therefore, we can expect a well-designed curriculum based on vector methods to produce

significant improvements in the depth, breadth and usefulness of student learning. Further
enhancements can be expected from software that facilitates application of vector methods.

Whether or not the high school geometry course can be reformed in practice, the course content
deserves to be reformed to make it more useful in applications.

Objective of this workshop: To demonstrate with specific examples how geometric algebra
unifies high school geometry with algebra and trigonometry and thereby simplifies and facilitates
applications to physics and engineering.

References for further study:

D. Hestenes, “Oersted Medal Lecture 2002: Reforming the mathematical language of physics, “
Am. J. Phys. 71: 104-121 (2003).
D. Hestenes, New Foundations for Classical Physics (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1986, 2nd ed. 1999)
Website <modelingnts.la.asu.edu>

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II. Standard algebraic tools for linear geometry: Vector Addition and scalar multiplication.

The term scalar refers to a real number or variable, with properties taken for granted here.

The concept of vector is defined by algebraic rules for combining vectors.

In addition, geometric meaning is ascribed to vectors by depicting them as directed line

segments.
Thus vector a is depicted by
a
A. Rules for vector addition.
c
• Closure (The sum of vectors is also a vector)
b
a+b=c a
Exercise: As appropriate, sketch geometric depictions for the following algebraic rules:

• Commutative

a+b=b+a

• Associative

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

• Additive inverse and zero vector (depicted by a point)

a + (–a) = 0

a+0=a

• Subtraction

a – b = a + (–b)

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B. Rules for multiplication by scalars (denoted by Greek letters and/or italics)

• Additive and multiplicative identities

1a = a, (–1)a = –a, 0a = 0
• Distributive

α(a + b) = αa + αb

(α + β )a = αa + βa

Example: Repeated vector addition as scalar multiplication

a + a + a = (1 + 1 +1 )a = 3a

• Associative

α(βa) = (αβ)a

• Commutative

αa = aα

• Magnitude and direction: Every vector a has a unique scalar magnitude a = a and (if
a ≠ 0) a direction aˆ so that

a = aaˆ

• Collinearity. Nonzero vectors a and b are said to be collinear or linearly dependent if there
is a scalar β such that

b = βa

• Linear independence. Nonzero vectors a1,a 2 , ,a n are said to be linearly independent if

x(α1,α 2 , ,α n ) = α1a1 + α 2a 2 + + α na n

is not zero for any combination of scalars α1,α 2 , ,α n (not all zero). The scalars { α1,α 2 , ,α n }
are said to be coordinates for the vector x(α1,α 2 , ,α n ) with respect to the basis { a1,a 2 , ,a n }.
The set { x(α1,α 2 , ,α n )} for all values of the coordinates is an n-dimensional vector space.

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C. Parametric equations

Exercise: As appropriate, identify and sketch the indicated geometric figures below.
When is it necessary to designate a particular point by the zero vector?

• Line: x(α) = αa + b
Line segment for 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

• Plane: x(α, β) = αa + βb + c

Linear constraints: Sketch lines for α = 1, 2, 3 and then for β = 1, 2, 3.

Quadratic constraints: (Choose the most symmetrical parametric form)

1. α 2 + β 2 = 1
2. β = α 2
3. α 2 − β 2 = 1

Solutions
1. x(θ ) = a cosθ + bsin θ + c
2. x(α ) = aα + bα 2 + c
3. x(θ ) = a coshθ + bsinh θ + c

News Release: Physics Education Research in a large state university found that, after
completing a semester of introductory physics, most students were unable to carry out graphical
vector addition in two dimensions. The more complex skills of coordinating scalar multiplication
with vector addition were not investigated. [Nguyen & Meltzer, AJP 71: 630-638 (2003)]

Question: What are likely reasons for this unacceptable failure of mathematics instruction?
Answers:
• Failure of the math curriculum to provide timely instruction in vector methods.
• Over reliance on coordinate methods in most courses.
• Vectors are only sporadically employed and usually with orthogonal bases, so students
have little opportunity to develop fluency with the general features of vector algebra
listed above.
• Students are unclear about the geometric interpretation of vectors (see below)
• Vector algebra is incomplete without rules for multiplying vectors that encode
information about magnitudes and relative direction (see GA below).

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 PART I. Introduction to Geometric Algebra and Basic Applications

III. Defining and Interpreting the Geometric Product

The algebraic properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication are insufficient to
characterize the geometric concept of a vector as a directed line segment, because they fail to
encode the properties of magnitude and relative direction. That deficiency is corrected by
defining suitable algebraic rules for multiplying vectors.

Geometric product: The product ab for vectors a, b, c is defined by the rules

• Associative: (ab)c = a(bc)
• Left distributive: a(b + c) = ab + ac
• Right distributive: (b + c)a = ba + ca
• Euclidean metric: a 2 = a2 ,
where a = a is a positive scalar (= real number) called the magnitude of a.
In terms of the geometric product ab we can define two other products, a symmetric
inner product
(1) a ⋅ b = 12 (ab + ba) = b ⋅ a ,
and an antisymmetric outer product
(2) a ∧ b = 12 (ab − ba) = −b ∧ a
Adding (1) and (2) we obtain the fundamental formula
(3) ab = a ⋅b + a ∧ b
called the expanded form for the geometric product. Our next task c
is to provide geometric interpretations for these three products.
b
Problem: For a triangle defined by the vector equation a + b = c, a
derive the standard Law of Cosines:
a2 + b2 + 2a ⋅ b = c 2 ,
and so prove that the inner product a ⋅ b is always scalar-valued.
Therefore, the inner product can be given the usual geometric
interpretation as a perpendicular projection of one line segment
on the direction of another. ∧

The outer product a ∧ b = −b ∧ a generates a new kind of geometric quantity called a

bivector, that can be interpreted geometrically as directed area in the plane of a and b.

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We have shown that the geometric product interrelates three kinds of algebraic entities: scalars
(0-vectors), vectors (1-vectors), and bivectors (2-vectors) that can be interpreted as geometric
objects of different dimension. Geometrically, scalars represent 0-dimensional objects, because
they have magnitude and orientation (sign) but no direction. Vectors represent directed line
segments, which are1-dimensional objects. Bivectors represent directed plane segments, which
are 2-dimensional objects. It may be better to refer to a bivector B = BB̂ as a directed area,
because its magnitude B = B is the ordinary area of the plane segment and its direction B̂
represents the plane in which the segment lies, just as a unit vector represents the direction of a
line. The shape of the plane segment is not represented by any feature of B, as expressed in the
following equivalent geometric depictions (with clockwise orientation):

B = = B = B

Prove the following:

Given any non-zero vector a in the plane of bivector B, one can find a vector b such that

B = ba = –ab,

B2 = − B = − a 2 b 2 ,
2

aB = –Ba, that is, B anticommutes with every vector in the plane of B.

1 a
Every vector a has a multiplicative inverse: a −1 = = 2
a a
that is, geometric algebra makes it possible to divide by vectors.

Prove the following theorems about the geometric meaning of commutivity

and anticommutivity:
b
a ⋅ b = 0 ⇔ ab = −ba Orthogonal vectors anticommute!!
a
b
a = λ b ⇔ a ∧ b = 0 ⇔ ab = ba Collinear vectors commute!!
a
The problem remains to assign geometric meaning to the quantity ab without expanding it into
inner and outer products.

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IV. Rotors and rotations in the Euclidean plane
Let i denote the unit bivector for the plane. As proved above, i 2 = −1, so i has the properties of
the unit imaginary in the complex number system. However, by relating it multiplicatively to
verctors, GA endows i with two new geometric interpretations:

• Operator interpretation: We can assign an orientation to i so that left multiplication by i

rotates vectors in its plane through a right angle. Thus, any vector a is
rotated into a vector b given by the equation

ia = –ai = b,

with the action of i depicted by the directed arc in the diagram:

• Object interpretation: Bivector i represents a unit plane segment, as

expressed by the following equations and depictions (for a 2 = b2 = 1 ):

i = ba −1 (counterclockwise sense)

−i = a −1b (clockwise sense)

The operator interpretation of i generalizes to the concept of rotor Uθ , the entity produced by
the product ba of unit vectors with relative direction θ.

Rotor Uθ = ba is depicted as a directed arc on the unit circle. Reverse Uθ† = ab .

Defining sine and cosine functions from products of unit vectors.

a 2 = b2 = 1, i 2 = −1

b ⋅ a ≡ cosθ

b ∧ a ≡ isinθ

Rotor:

Uθ = ba = b ⋅a + b ∧ a = cosθ + i sinθ ≡ e iθ

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Rotor equivalence of directed arcs is like

vector equivalence of directed line segments:

Product of rotors is equivalent to addition of angles: Uθ Uϕ = Uθ +ϕ or e iθ e iϕ = e i(θ +ϕ ) .

Rotor-vector product = vector: Uθ v = e iθ v = u

Thus rotor algebra represents the algebra of 2d rotations !

The concept of rotor generalizes to the concept of

complex number interpreted as a directed arc.

z = λU = λ e iθ = ba

Reversion = complex conjugation

z † = λU † = λ e − iθ = ab

zz † = λ 2 = (ba)(ab) = a 2b 2 = z
2

Modulus: z = λ = a b

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Relation to standard complex number notation: z = Re z + i Im z = ba

with Re z = 12 ( z + z † ) = b ⋅ a i Im z = 12 ( z − z † ) = b ∧ a

(Note: this representation of complex numbers in a real GA is a special case of spinors for 3d).

Note the new GA

Roots of unity: Two roots of –1: −1 = ±i
Many roots of +1: +1 = aˆ , 1.

V. Vector identities and plane trigonometry with GA

Exercise: Prove the following vector identities and show that they are equivalent to trig
identities for unit vectors in a common plane.

(a) (a ⋅b)2 − (a ∧ b)2 = a 2b 2

(b) (a ∧ b)(b ∧ c) = b 2 a ⋅ c − (a ⋅ b)b ⋅ c

Hint: Expand abbc in two different ways

Exercise: Use rotor products to derive the trigonometric double angle formulas:

(c) cos(θ + ϕ ) = ??

(b) sin(θ + ϕ ) = ??

Plane (Euclidean) Trigonometry can be reduced to two basic problems:

(a) Solving a triangle

(b) Solving the circle (composition of rotations).

A triangle relates six scalars: 3 sides (S) & 3 angles (A).

Given 3 of these scalars

(SSS, SAS, SSA, ASA, AAS, AAA)

“solving the triangle” consists of determining the other 3 sides.

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Laws of the triangle follow directly from the geometric product:

(a) Law of cosines (scaled projection)

a 2 + b 2 − 2 ab cos γ = c 2

(b) Law of sines (areas)

sin α sin β sin γ

= =
a b c

(c) Angle laws:

• Complementary angles (interior/exterior)
• Sum of interior angles
• Sum of exterior angles

Exercise: Derive these laws with GA and interpret with

Diagrams, such as the one on the right:

VI. Modeling real objects and motions with vectors.

News Bulletin: The World Health Organization has announced a world-wide epidemic of the
Coordinate Virus in mathematics and physics courses at all grade levels. Students infected with
the virus exhibit compulsive vector avoidance behavior, unable to conceive of a vector except as
a list of numbers, and seizing every opportunity to replace vectors by coordinates. At least two
thirds of physics graduate students are severely infected by the virus, and half of those may be
permanently damaged so they will never recover. The most promising treatment is a strong dose
of Geometric Algebra.

It may be surprising that the concept of vector is so difficult for students, since intuitive notions
of direction and distance are essential for navigating the everyday world. Surely these intuitions
need to be engaged in learning the algebraic concept of vector, as they are essential for
applications. The necessary engagement occurs only haphazardly in conventional instruction,
and that is evidently insufficient for most students.

One barrier to developing the vector concept is the fact that the correspondence between vector
and directed line segment has many different interpretations in modeling properties of real
objects and their motions:

• Abstract depiction of vectors as manipulatable arrows has no physical interpretation,

though it can be intuitively helpful in developing an abstract geometric interpretation.

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 • Vectors as points designate places in a Euclidean space or with respect to a physical
reference frame. Requires designation of a distinguished point (the origin) by the zero
vector.
• Position vector x for a particle which can “move” along a particle trajectory x = x(t)
must be distinguished from places which remain fixed.
• Kinematic vectors, such as velocity v = v(t) and acceleration are “tied” to particle
position x(t). Actually, they are vector fields defined along the whole trajectory.
• Dynamic vectors such as momentum and force representing particle interactions.
• Rigid bodies. It is often convenient to use a vector a as a 1d geometric model for a rigid
body like a rod or a ruler. Its magnitude a = a is then equal to the length of the body, and
its direction aˆ represents the body’s orientation or, better, its attitude in space. The
endpoints of a correspond to ends of the rigid body, as expressed in the following
equation
x(α ) = x 0 + αa {0 ≤ α ≤ 1}
for the position vectors of a continuous distribution of particles in the body. Note the
crucial distinction between curves (and their parametric equations) that represent particle
paths and curves that represent geometric features of physical bodies.

Exercises with Barycentric coordinates:

(1) Discuss and sketch values of the parametric equation x = αa + βb with the
constraint α + β = 1.

(2) For the parametric equation x = αa + βb + γc with α + β + γ = 1, discuss values of the

parameters that give vertices, edges and interior points of a triangle.

(3) Discuss the relation of barycentric coordinates to center of mass

VII. High school geometry with geometric algebra

Nonparametric equation for a line {x} through point a with direction u:

( x − a) ∧ u = 0 .

Exercises:

(1) Sketch the line.

(2) Derive an equivalent parametric equation for the line with u 2 = 1.
(3) Find the directed distance d from the origin 0 to the line and sketch.
(4) Find the directed distance from an arbitrary point y to the line.

Hints:

(2) Write (x − a) ⋅ u = α and solve for x = α u + a

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 (3) x ∧ u = a ∧ u = du. Sketch the directed areas and solve for d.
Rigid displacements: Congruence and measurement

Equations for a rigid displacement of particles in a body or points in a reference frame.

x → x′ = Rx + a R = e iθ

y → y′ = Ry + a Ry = e −iθ

Rigid displacement of an interval

r = x − y → r ′ = x ′ − y′ = R(x − y′ ) or r ′ = Rr = r Ry

Invariants of rigid displacements: Euclidean distance: (x ′ − y′ )2 = (x − y) 2

VIII. Basic kinematic models of particle motion

Kinematics: The geometry of motion

A. Free particle. Sketch a motion map for the algebraic model:

x(t ) = x 0 + vt

[Note that including the origin or coordinates in the map introduces arbitrary and
unnecessary complications.]

Derive a nonparametric equation for this model, and relate it to angular momentum.

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B. Constant acceleration model.
(without coordinates!!)

dv
=g v = v 0 + gt
dt
(hodograph)

dx
=v x = x 0 + v 0 t + 12 gt 2
dt
(trajectory)

Vector algebraic model:

r
1
2 (v + v 0) = ≡v
t

v − v 0 = gt

Reduces all projectile problems to

“solving a parallelogram!!”

Problem: Determine
(a) the range r of a target sighted in a direction rˆ that has been hit by a projectile
launched with velocity v0 ;
(b) launching angle for maximum range;
(c) time of flight

Simplest case: rˆ is horizontal.

Hint: Consider (v - v0 )(v + v 0 )

General case: Elevated target.

Complicated solution with rectangular coordinates published in AJP.

Much simpler GA solution in NFCM.

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Solving a parallogram with GA:
v0 2r/t
2r
v − v 0 = gt v + v0 =
t
gt
We eliminate t by multiplication, to get:
v
(v − v 0 )(v + v 0 ) = 2rg
Expanding, we obtain

v 2 − v0 2 + vv 0 − v 0 v = 2 ( r ⋅ g + r ∧ g )
2 v ∧ v0

Separately equating scalar and bivector parts, we get:

v 2 − v0 2 = 2 r ⋅ g v ∧ v0 = r ∧ g

For r = r r̂ horizontal, we have

r ⋅g = 0 v02 = v 2 . v0

So v ∧ v0 = r ∧ g = rg θ 2r/t
θ
gives v02 sin 2θ = rg gt
v
v2
Hence the range formula: r = 0 sin 2θ
g

The general GA solution for an elevated target and time of flight is derived in NFCM.

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C. Circular motion. Motion on a circle of radius r = r centered at point c:

Trajectory: x = c + r(t ) [Sketch motion map including unit circle]

Radius vector: r = e iθ (t )r0

dr
Velocity: v= = Ωr = ωir
dt

dθ
Angle: θ > 0 for counterclockwise motion Angular speed: ω=
dt

Path length: s = rθ speed v = rω

Rotor: R = e iθ Angular velocity: Ω = iω

dR
Rotor eqn. of motion: = ΩR
dt

UCM θ = ωt r = e iω tr0

D. General kinematic theorem.

x = x(s) = parametric eqn. for particle path. [Sketch general motion map]

x = x(t) = parametric eqn. for particle trajectory.

Path length: s = s(t)

ds dx iθ
Speed: v = Tangent direction: ˆv = = e vˆ 0
dt ds

Thm: Velocity: v = vˆ v is tangent to the particle path (trajectory)

dv dv dθ dv v2
Acceleration: = vˆ + iv = ±i vˆ points inside the curving path
dt dt dt dt r
ds dθ
and the radius r of the osculating circle is defined by v = =r
dt dt

dv
Exercise: A particle slides on the frictionless track below subject to a force mg + N = m
dt
that keeps it on the track. Sketch its velocity v and acceleration a at the indicated points:

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D. General Keplerian motion (under an inverse square force). Full treatment in NFCM

dv k
(1) Dynamical model: m = − 2 rˆ
dt r

(2) Problem: Reduce to algebraic model by finding constants of motion

2 drˆ
(a) Angular momentum: L = mr ∧ v = mr rˆ
dt

(b) Eccentricity vector ε in: Lv = k(rˆ + ε )

dv d
Hints: (a) mr ∧ = ( mr ∧ v) = r ∧ f(r) = 0 (Central force)
dt dt

dv kL drˆ
(b) L = − 2 rˆ = k
dt mr dt

(3) Model analysis. Derive the following algebraic features of the model:
[Details are fully worked out in NFCM]

2 k
(a) Energy E = 12 m v − is constant and related to eccentricity by
r
2
2L E
ε 2 − 1=
mk 2

(b) Orbit r = r = r(rˆ ) for L ≠ 0.

± L2
r= where = and ± for attractive/repulsive force
1+ ε ⋅ rˆ mk

[Note: orbit is not a trajectory, which gives position as a function of time.]

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 k
(c) Hodograph v = v(rˆ ) = (rˆ + ε ) (orbit in velocity space)
L
k2
Show this is a circle by deriving the non-parametric eqn. (v − u)2 = .
L2

(d) Classification of orbits: (by energy, eccentricity & hodograph center u)

Elliptical orbit and hodograph

(e) Initial value problem: Determine L and ε given one value of v and rˆ .

(4) Scattering problem: Given asymptotic initial velocity and angular momentum, find v f = v final

(a) Asymptotic conditions:

1
2 k 2 2E 2
E= 1
2 mv − r→
 ∞
→ 1
2 mv0 vo = v 0 = v f =
r m
L
rˆ ∧ v = r→
 ∞
→ 0 rˆ0 = − vˆ 0 , rˆ f = vˆ f
mr

(b) Eccentricity conservation: Lv 2 − krˆ2 = Lv1 − krˆ1

(Lv 0 − k )vˆ f = (Lv 0 + k) vˆ 0

Lv 0 + k
vf = v This solves the scattering problem completely!!
Lv 0 − k 0

Remaining problem is to reformulate it in terms of observed quantities:

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 Scattering angle Θ and impact parameterb defined as follows:

v f = v 0e i Θ = e −i Θ v 0

2bE
L = bmv0 = Lˆ = i (k > 0) or Lˆ = −i ( k < 0)
v0

Lv 0 − k 2Ebi − k k
e iΘ = = b= cot 12 Θ
Lv0 + k 2Ebi + k 2E

Rutherford scattering formula for coulomb scattering!

IX. Planar rigid body motion and reference frames.

A reference system assigns each particle a definite position with respect to a given rigid body
(or reference frame). The set of all possible position vectors is a 3d Euclidean vector space
called the position space of the frame.

Time dependent rigid displacement of one reference frame with respect to another is
completely specified by a time dependent

rotor Rt = e iθ (t ) and translation vector a = a(t)

Accordingly, a particle path x = x(t ) in the “unprimed frame” is mapped into

a particle path x′(t) = Rt x(t) + a(t) in the “primed frame.”

dx dR
Problem: Suppressing the time argument and writing x= , R= = WR ,
dt dt
derive the following equations relating velocities and accelerations in the two frames aligned at
time t.:

x′ = x + Wx + a

x′ = x + 2Wx + (W + W 2 )x + a

Newton’s 1st Law (implicitly) defines an inertial frame as a rigid body with respect to which
every free particle has constant velocity.

Principle of Relativity requires that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial systems.
[First formulated by Galileo and incorporated by Newton as a corollary in his theory].

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Problem: Apply this to Newton’s 2nd law to prove that any two inertial frames are related by a
Galilean transformation

x → x′ = Rx + c + ut where R, c and u are constant.

Derive therefrom the Galilean velocity addition theorem: v′ = v + u .

Exercise: Inside a cable car climbing a slope with constant velocity v0 an object is dropped
from rest. Derive eqns. for the trajectory within the car and with respect to the earth outside.

Problem: Discuss invariance of Newton’s first and second laws with respect to Galilean time
translation and scaling: t → t′ = α t + β , where α and β are constants.

X. The Zeroth Law of physics defines the fundamental presumptions about space, time and
existence of real entities that underlie all of physics.

Different versions of the Zeroth Law define different physical theories.

Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity amounts to a modification of the Zeroth Law implicit in
Newtonian theory.

Tenets of the Newtonian Zeroth Law:

• Any material object can be modeled as a particle or body {system of particles}

• At any time, every particle has a definite position x in the 3d Euclidean position space of
a given reference system.
• Particle motion is represented by a continuous trajectory x(t) in position space. (Time is
measured by comparison with a standard moving object called a clock.)

Newton’s First Law defines an inertial system and a uniform time scale.

The remaining four Laws of Newtonian physics define particle interactions and dynamics.

[Ref. Modeling Games in the Newtonian World, AJP 60: 732 (1992)]

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 PART II. Special Relativity with Geometric Algebra
[Ref. NFCM, 2nd Ed. (1999), Chap. 9]
XI. Defining Spacetime

Einstein (1905) recognized that Newtonian mechanics is inconsistent with Electromagnetic

Theory, and he traced the difficulty to the Newtonian concept of time. He resolved this problem
by adopting two principles:

1. Principle of Relativity. Einstein adopted this principle from Newtonian theory, but
raised its status from a mere corollary to a basic principle.
2. Invariance of the speed of light. Einstein assumed that the speed of light c has the same
value in all inertial systems.

Minkowsky (1908) incorporated these principles into a new conceptual fusion of space and time
that can be defined with GA by the following assumptions:

1. In a given inertial system, the time t and place x is of an event is represented as a single
point X = ct + x in a 4-dimensional space called spacetime (see spacetime maps below).

2. The spacetime interval

∆X = X 2 − X1 = c(t2 − t1 ) + (x 2 − x 2 ) = c∆ t + ∆x

between events X 2 and X1 has an invariant magnitude ∆X called the proper distance
between the events and given by

∆X∆X˜ = ε ∆ X 2 = (c∆ t) 2 − (∆x)2 ,

where ∆X˜ = c ∆t − ∆x , and the signature ε of the interval has the value 1, 0 or –1, and,
respectively, the interval is said to be timelike, lightlike, or spacelike.

3. “Invariance of the interval” means that

∆X∆X˜ = ε ∆ X 2 = ε ∆ X ′ 2 = ∆ X ′∆ X˜ ′

wnere ∆X ′ = X ′2 − X1′ = c ∆t′ + ∆x ′ is the same interval represented in some other inertial
system.

Problem: Prove that spacetime interval invariance implies that the speed of light c has the same
constant value in all inertial systems.

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XII. Spacetime Maps

Spacetime maps are essential for physical interpretation of GA equations in relativity theory.

This is a spacetime map showing the lightcone for an event X 0 . Events X k (k = 1, 2, 3) lie on
straight lines passing through X 0 . Intervals ∆X k = X k − X 0 are said to be timelike, lightlike or
spacelike, respectively, as they lie inside, on, or outside the invariant lightcone.

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This is a spacetime map of events in a timelike plane showing the position vector x = X 2 − X1
for the event X = ct + x with respect to a given inertial system.

A differentiable curve in spacetime is said to be timelike, lightlike or spacelike, if its tangent is

proportional to, respectively, a timelike, lightlike or spacelike interval.

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A. Particle history and proper velocity.

The history of a material particle is a timelike curve

X = X (τ ) , as illustrated in the figure.

The path length ∆τ of an interval ∆X along the history dX

is the proper time interval registered by a clock t +∆ t
τ
traveling with the particle. Hence, ∆X d
t
∆X∆X˜ = ∆X 2 ≈ (c∆τ )2

and, in the limit, dX = cdτ

X(τ)
The proper velocity V = V (τ ) of a particle is defined by

1 dX dt 1 dx 0
.
V= = + ,
c dτ dτ c dτ

which must be distinguished from the relative velocity

dx
v= in a given inertial system.
dt
v dt v2
Exercise: Prove V =γ 1+ , γ= = 1− 2
c dτ c

The proper velocity V of a free time free particle

axis history
particle is constant, so its history is a
straight line given by the equation X( t )
ct
X (τ ) − X (0) = Vcτ ∆X c∆t

The time axis of an inertial system is c t0 v∆ t

the history of a free particle at rest at x0
X0
the origin so that proper time τ can be
identified with “observer time” t , and
the position vector x for an event
X = ct + x is the “directed distance” 0
from the particle history to the event.
Similarly,
the time axis of every inertial system can be identified with the history of a free particle.

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For a given observer (free particle) the position x
and time t of a given event X can (in principle) be
determined by radar ranging with light signals, as
illustrated in the figure. Note that the event X is
simultaneous with event X 2 = ct . This geometric
construction is Einstein’s operational procedure for
synchronizing clocks at distant events.

VIII. Spacetime Trig.

The most basic measurements in surveying spacetime

events can be reduced to solving triangles in a timelike
plane, as already shown in the operational procedure
for synchronizing clocks.

A. Time dilation and desynchronization.

The basic idea is illustrated by the parable of the twins.

As illustrated in the spacetime map for their histories,
the astronaut twin travels to a distant star with velocity
v
V =γ 1+ ,
c
and returns with velocity
v
V˜ = γ 1− .
c

The algebraic equation for the triangle is

2t = V τ + V˜τ

Exercises:
(1) Compare ages of the twins when the trip is over. Discuss implications of this result.
(2) Prove that the longest path between two points separated by a timelike interval is a
straight line. (See next figure)

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B. Lorentz contraction: A rod of rest length l0 moves with velocity v who measures its length
as l at time t, as shown in the spacetime map.

Exercise: Reasoning from similar triangles in the map,

derive the Lorentz contraction formula

l0 = γ l

and discuss its physical meaning.

C. Doppler shift.
v ω′ 1
A distant source with velocity V = γ 1 + emits light signals with frequency f ′ = =
c 2π ∆t ′
ω 1
that are received with frequency f = = , as shown in the figure.
2π ∆ t

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Exercise: From the figure derive the equation

λ (X 2 − X1 )= D − V ,

where λ is a scale factor and

D≡ f′ / f

is the Doppler factor.

Derive and discuss the result

f′ c ±v 1
D= = γ (1 ± v / c) = =
f c v γ (1 v / c)

XIV. Lorentz transformations.

Two different inertial systems (primed and unprimed) with a common origin X 0 = X 0′ = 0 assign
v
different labels X ′ = c t ′ + x ′ and X = ct + x to each spacetime event. If V = γ 1 + is the
c
proper velocity of the primed frame with respect to the unprimed frame, then, in the timelike
plane containing both time axes, the labels are related by the Lorentz transformation:

(1) X = V X′ or X ′ = V˜ X

Exercise: Derive therefrom the standard

Relations between times and positions:

v⋅ x
t′ = γ t −
c2
x′ = γ (x − vt)

Velocity composition:

Let X ′ = X ′(τ ) and X = X(τ ) represent the history of a particle with proper velocity
u′ u
U ′ = γu′ 1 + and U = γ u 1+ in the two inertial systems.
c c
Exercise: Derive and interpret the relativistic velocity composition law: U ′ = V˜U .
Therefrom, derive the corresponding composition laws for time dilations and relative velocities:

u⋅ v u−v
γ u ′ = γ uγ v 1− , u′ = u⋅ v
c2 1− 2
c

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Active Lorentz transformations.

The Lorentz transformation

X = V X ′ is interpreted passively as a
change of labels for a single event.
Alternatively, it can be interpreted
actively as a relation between two
different events that are the same
proper distance X ′ = X = c τ from
the origin.

Advanced Exercise: Interpret the

active Lorentz transformation in the
figure as a hyperbolic rotation of
proper velocity. The rotation angle
a = a is the arc length on a unit
hyperbola, as expressed by

v a
V =γ 1+ = e = cosh a + sinh a
c
t v x
cosh a = cosh a = γ = sinh a = vˆ sinha = γ =
τ c cτ

Construct a diagram to express velocity composition as a product of hyperbolic rotations:

e a e b = e a + b and compare with the product of Euclidean rotations: e iθ e iϕ = e i(θ +ϕ )

XV. Energy & momentum are unified by special relativity

v
A. The proper momentum P for a material particle with rest mass m and velocity V = γ 1 +
c
is defined by
E
P = mcV = +p
c

Exercise: Derive expressions for

Mass: m2c 4 = E 2 − p2c 2

mv dx dx
Momentum: p = mγ v = =m = mγ
2
1− v / c
2 dτ dt

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 mc 2
Energy: E = mc 2γ = = mc 2 + K
2 2
1− v / c

4
2 2 1 v
Kinetic energy: K = (γ − 1)mc ≈ 2 mv + 8 m 2 +
1 ...
c

E
B. The photon is a massless particle with proper momentum P = + p, where the energy is
c
given by Planck’s Law: E = ω = hf .

Exercise: Show that P = (ω + k) , where ω 2 = k 2 and p = k

C. Energy-momentum conservation

The total proper momentum P for an

isolated system of particles is
conserved:

P= Pk = Pk
before after

Examples:

(1) Compton effect:

γ + e− → γ + e−

Conservation: P1 + P2 = P3 + P4

E h
Photons: P1P˜1 = 0 = P3P˜3, p= p = = hf =
c λ

Electrons: P2P˜2 = m2c 2 = P4 P˜4

E2
Electron initially at rest: P2 = = mc
c

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 E E3
Photons: P1 = 1 (1 + pˆ 1) , P3 = (1 + pˆ 3)
c c

Problem: Determine the shift in photon frequency due to the scattering.

[
P4 P˜4 = [(P1 − P3) + P2 ] ( P˜1 − P˜3) + P˜2 ]
m2c 2 = −2 P1P˜3 + 2 ( P1 − P3) P˜2 + m 2c 2

(P1 − P3) P˜2 = (E1 − E 3 )mc

c 2 P1P˜3 = E1 E 3 − c 2p1 ⋅ p3 = E1E 3 (1 − pˆ1 ⋅ pˆ 3)

Scattering angle: pˆ 1 ⋅ pˆ 3 = cosθ

E1 E 3(1 − cosθ ) = ( E1 − E 3)mc 2

h 2c 2 hc hc
(1 − cosθ ) = − mc 2
λ1λ 2 λ1 λ2

h
λ 2 − λ1 = ∆λ = (1− cos θ) Compton’s formula
mc

(2) Pion decay: π − → µ − + ν

P = P1 + P2

XVI. Universal laws for spacetime physics

Zeroth Law: Make your own formulation to supercede the Newtonian version!

First Law: The history of a free particle is a straight line.

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