Ch.

2 INTRODUCTION TO DATA
COMMUNICATIONS
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 A Brief History of Communications
2.1.2 A Brief History of Information Systems
2.1.3 A Brief History of The Internet
2.2 Data Communication Networks
2.2.1 Components of a Network
2.2.2 Types of Networks
2.3 Network Models
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model
2.3.2 Internet Model
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers

1
Ch.2 INTRODUCTION TO DATA
COMMUNICATIONS
2.4 Network Standards
2.4.1 The Importance of Standards
2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
2.4.3 Common Standards
2.5 Future Trends
2.5.1 Pervasive Networking
2.5.2 The Integration of Voice, Video, and Data
2.5.3 New Information Services
2.6 Implications For Management

2
2.1 Introduction
The world has changed and we went through the Information
Age — The Second Industrial Revolution

revolutionizing the way people work through

networking and data communications. The value of a
high-speed data communication network is that it
brings people together in a way never before possible.

1800s: several weeks for a message to reach North America by

ship from England; 1900s: It could be transmitted within the
hour; today, it can be transmitted in seconds.
The people can communicate and access information anywhere
in the world regardless of their physical location.
Today's problem: We cannot handle the quantities of
information we receive.
3
2.1 Introduction
Data communications and networking is a truly global area
of study, both
- because the technology enables global communication
and
- because new technologies and applications often
emerge from a variety of countries and spread rapidly
around the world. The WWW, for example, was born in a
Swiss research lab, was first used primarily by European
universities, and later exploded into mainstream popular
culture because of a development at an American
research lab.

4
2.1 Introduction
 Concepts of networking
 How data moves from one computer to another over a network
 Theories of how networks operate
 Technologies in use today
 How theories are implemented, specific products
 How do they work, their use, applications
 Management of networking Technologies.
 Security
 Network Design
 Managing the network

5
2.1 Introduction
Data Communications:
The movement of computer information from one point
to another by means of electrical or optical transmission
systems. Systems providing this task are often called
data communications networks.
Data communications is the art of sending 1s and 0s
from one computer to the other using communication
media.
Telecommunications
Includes the transmission of voice and video as well as
data.

6
 2.1.1 A Brief History of Communications
1837 - Telegraph system (dots and dashes) by Samuel Morse
1843 - Printing telegraph (Fax machine) by Alexander Bain
1876 - Telephone by Alexander Graham Bell.
1880 – The first pay telephone
1885 - American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)
was registered.
1915 – The first transcontinental telephone service and the
first transatlantic voice connections.
1947 - Transistor invented -Bell Labs
1948 - The first commercial microwave link for telephone
transmission was established in Canada
1951 - First direct long distance dialing without an operator
1959 - Integrated circuit - Jack Kilby (TI)
1962 - International satellite telephone call
7
2.1.1 A Brief History of Communications
1962 - Fax services were introduced.
1963 - Touch-tone telephones
1968 - Non-Bell equipment to connect to Bell System
Network - Carterfone court decision
1969 - Picturefone service
1976 - The first commercial packet-switched network for
computer data was introduced.
1980s - Public service of digital networks
1984 - Deregulation of AT&T (divided in two parts: long-
distance telephone services and local telephone services
to homes/businesses)
1990s - cellular telephones commonplace

8
 2.1.1 A Brief History of Communications

Phases of Telecommunications Development

Telegraph & Telephone (19th century)
Satellite communications (1960s)
Digital communications (1980s)
Internet age (1990s)
Wireless communications (1990s)
21st century?
Trends: From wired to wireless,
From analog to digital,
From voice communication to data communication

9
2.1.2 A Brief History of Information Systems
Evolution of information systems widespread use of data
communication networks to interconnect various computer
systems.
1950s: Computer systems used batch processing (users carried
their punched cards to the computer for processing).
1960s: Users could type their own batches of data using online
terminals. Data communications involved the transmission of
messages from these terminals to a large central mainframe
computer and back to the user.
1970s: Online real-time systems were developed for single
transaction-oriented processing. Computers entered the
mainstream of business, and data communications networks
became a necessity.
1980s: Personal computer revolution. As more people began to
use personal computers, the need for networks to exchange data
among personal computers and between personal computers and
large mainframe computers became clear.
10
2.1.2 A Brief History of Information Systems
Today: PC has evolved from a small, low-power computer into
a very powerful, easy-to-use system with a large amount of
low-cost software. Today's PC is more powerful than a
mainframe of the 1990s.
The most important aspect of computers is networking. The
Internet is everywhere, and virtually all computers are
networked. Information system applications are divided
among a network of computers (client-server computing),
dramatically changes the way information systems
professionals and users interact with computers.
The office that interconnects PCs, mainframe computers, fax
machines, copiers, videoconferencing equipment, etc has put
tremendous demands on data communications networks.
These networks already have had a dramatic impact on the
way business is conducted.
11
2.1.3 A Brief History of the Internet
The Internet was started by the U.S. Department of Defense in
1969 as a network of four computers called ARPANET. Its goal
was to link a set of computers operated by several universities
doing military research. The original network grew as more
computers and more computer networks were linked to it.
By 1974, there were 62 computers. In 1983, the Internet split
into two parts, one dedicated solely to military installations
(Milnet) and one dedicated to university research centers
(Internet) that had just under 1,000 servers.
In 1985, the Canadian government completed BITNET to link
all Canadian universities from coast to coast and provided
connections into the American Internet.
In 1986, the NSF in US created NSFNET to connect leading
U.S. universities. By the end of 1987, there were 10,000
servers on the Internet and 1,000 on BITNET.
12
2.1.3 A Brief History of the Internet
The performance of the network began to slow down due to
increased network traffic. NSF decided to improve
performance by building a new high-speed backbone
network for NSFNET. By the end of 1989, there were almost
200,000 servers on the combined U.S. and Canadian
Internet.
Similar initiatives were undertaken by most other countries
around the world, so that by the early 1990s, most of the
individual country networks were linked together into one
worldwide network of networks. Each of these individual
country networks was distinct (each had its own name,
access rules, and fee structures), but all networks used the
same standards as the U.S. Internet network so they could
easily exchange messages with one another. By the end of
1992, there were more than 1,000,000 servers on the
Internet.
13
2.1.3 A Brief History of the Internet
New commercial online services began offering access to
anyone willing to pay, and a connection into the worldwide
Internet became an important marketing issue.
The Internet has continued to grow at a dramatic pace. It is
estimated that there are more than 900 million servers on
the Internet, which is still growing rapidly.
One issue now facing the Internet is net neutrality, which
means that for a given type of content (e.g., email, web,
video, music), all content providers are treated the same.
The Internet: A network of networks servicing the users
worldwide
Intranet: An organization's private network that uses
Internet technology
Extranet: The intranet that some of its functions are
accessible to the organization's business partners
14
2.1.3 A Brief History of the Internet
Internet address names are strictly controlled; in order to
prevent the same address for different computers. Each
address name has two parts, the computer name and its
domain.
computer.computer.computer.domain.country domain
Some common domain names are:
EDU for an educational institution
COM for a commercial business
GOV for a government department or agency
MIL for a military unit
ORG for a nonprofit organization
All countries, besides US, are assigned their own domain
names: TR (Turkey), UK (United Kingdom), DE (Germany).
For example, the main university Web server at Istanbul
Technical University is itu.edu.tr
15
2.2 Data Communications Networks
Data communications networks
 Collect data from personal computers and other devices
(IED),
 Transmit that data to a central server that is a more
powerful personal computer, minicomputer, or mainframe,
 or they perform the reverse process, or some combination
of the two.
Data communications networks facilitate more efficient use of
computers and improve the day-to-day control of a business
by providing faster information flow.
They also provide message transfer services to allow computer
users to talk to one another via email, chat, and video
streaming.

16
2.2 Data Communications Networks

17
2.2.1 Components of a Network
 Server or host computer (e.g., PC or mainframe):
Central computer in the network, storing data or software
that can be accessed by the clients.
 Client (e.g., PC, terminal or any IED):
The input/output hardware device at the other end of a
communications circuit. It typically provides users to
access to the network and the data and software on the
server. (Damb, smart and intelligent terminals)
 Circuit (e.g., cable, wireless transmission) :
The pathway through which the messages flow.
 Other devices to perform special functions:
Switches and routers.
 Network software
Both the server and the client need special-purpose
network software that enables them to communicate. 18
2.2.1 Components of a Network
The basic function of a terminal is to allow a user to
communicate with a host computer.
 Dumb terminal: Simply receives data from a host computer
and display it on it screen, and unable to modify the data it
receives.
 Smart terminal sends extra information to a host computer,
in addition to what the user types. This additional information
can include terminal’s address or location and special
information to prevent error occurring. After manufacturing,
smart terminal never changes its behavior and can never learn
to perform new function.
 Intelligent terminals are the smart terminals whose
behavior can be modified, and also programmed to perform
new functions. A computer can be used as an intelligent
terminal.
19
2.2.1 Components of a Network
In electrical power systems, we normally use intelligent
terminals. These terminals could be
 computer relays,
 network analyzers,
 fault and disturbance recorders,
 digital electricity meters,
 measurement and monitoring purposes devices.

All these devices are called Intelligent Electronic Devices

(IEDs).

20
2.2.1 Components of a Network

Network
software

21
2.2.1 Components of a Network
 Small network that has four clients (PCs) connected by a
switch and cables.
 All computers share the same circuit and must take turns
sending messages. Messages move through the switch to
and from the computers.
 The router is a special device that enables computers on
this network to communicate with computers on other
networks.

22
2.2.1 Components of a Network
 There are three servers.
o The file server stores data and software that can be
used by computers on the network.
o The print server manages all printing requests from
the clients on the network.
o The Web server stores documents and graphics that
can be accessed from any Web browser, such as
Internet Explorer.
 Servers are usually PCs (often more powerful than the
other PCs on the network) but may be minicomputers or
mainframes.

23
2.2.1 Components of a Network
 Some networks do not need a server.
 They are designed to connect a set of similar computers
that share their data and software with each other.
 Such networks are called peer-to-peer networks (P2P)
because the computers function as equals, rather than
relying on a central server to store the needed data and
software.

24
2.2.2 Types of Networks
One of the most common ways to categorize the networks is
to look at the geographic scope of the network.
 local area networks (LANs),
 backbone networks (BNs),
 metropolitan area networks (MANs), and
 wide area networks (WANs).
A LAN is a group of computers or other devices located in the
same general area and connected by a common circuit.
Covers a small area, such as one floor or work area, a single
building, or a group of buildings. LANs often use shared
circuits, where all computers must take turns using the same
circuit. LANs support high-speed data transmission,
commonly operating 100 Mbps.

25
2.2.2 Types of Networks
Backbone Network (BN) is a larger, central network
connecting several LANs, other BNs. Typically span up to
several kms. Support data rates from 64 Kbps to 45 Mbps.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) connects LANs and BNs
located in different areas to each other and to wide area
networks. Typically span from 5 - 50 kms. Supports data
rates of 100 to 1000 Mbps.
Wide area networks (WANs) connect BNs and MANs. Most
organizations do not build their own WANs unless they have
unusually heavy data transmission needs or highly
specialized requirements. Instead, most organizations lease
circuits from interexchange carriers (IXCs) and use those to
transmit their data. WAN circuits provided by IXCs provide
data transmission rates from 64 Kbps to 10 Gbps.

26
2.2.2 Types of Networks

27
2.2.2 Types of Networks
 An intranet is a LAN that uses the same technologies as
the Internet but is open to only those inside the
organization.
 An extranet is similar to an intranet but is provided to
invited users outside the organization who access it over
the Internet. Typically, users are given passwords to gain
access, but more sophisticated technologies such as smart
cards or special software may also be required.
 Many universities provide extranets for Web-based
courses so that only those students enrolled in the course
can access course materials and discussions.

28
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29
2.3 Network Models
 All data communications networks provide the same basic
functions: transfer a message from sender to receiver;
 Each network can use different network hardware and
software to provide these functions. However, all of these
hardware and software products have to work together to
successfully transfer a message. One way to accomplish
this is to break the entire set of communications functions
into a series of layers, each of which can be defined
separately.
 Vendors can develop software and hardware to provide the
functions of each layer separately.
 The software or hardware can work in any manner and can
be easily updated and improved, as long as the interface
between that layer and the ones around it remain unchanged.
 Each piece of hardware and software can then work together
in the overall network.
30
2.3 Network Models
There are many different ways in which the network layers
can be designed. The two most important network models
are
 Open Systems Interconnection Reference (OSI) model
and
 The Internet model.

The Internet model is the most commonly used of the two;

few people use the OSI model, although understand it is
commonly required for network certification exams.

31
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection
Reference Model-OSI Model
Before the OSI model, most commercial networks used by
businesses were built using non-standardized technologies
developed by one vendor. During the late 1970s, the
International Organization for Standardization (IOS) created
the Open System Interconnection Subcommittee, whose task
was to develop a framework of standards for computer-to-
computer communications. In 1984, this effort produced the
OSI model.
The OSI model never caught on commercially in North
America and most networks today use the Internet model.
However, because there are many similarities between the
OSI model and the Internet model, and because most
people in networking are expected to know the OSI model,
we discuss it here. The OSI model has seven layers

32
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection
Reference Model

33
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection
Reference Model
L1. Physical Layer is concerned primarily with transmitting
data bits over a communication circuit. This layer defines the
rules by which ones and zeros are transmitted, such as
voltages of electricity, number of bits sent per second, and
the physical format of the cables and connectors used.
L2. Data Link Layer is the protocol layer that manages the
physical transmission circuit in layer 1 and transforms it into
a circuit that is free of transmission errors. Because layer 1
accepts and transmits only a raw stream of bits without
understanding their meaning or structure, the data link layer
must mark where a message starts and where it ends.
Another major task of layer 2 is perform error detection
and correction. It also decides when a device can transmit
so that two computers do not try to transmit at the same
time
34
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection
Reference Model
L3. Network Layer is concerned primarily with transmitting
data bits. It performs routing. It determines the next
computer the message should be sent to so it can follow the
best route through the network and finds the full address for
that computer if needed.
L4. Transport Layer deals with the procedures for entering
and departing from the network. It establishes, maintains,
and terminates logical connections for the transfer of data
between the original sender and the final destination of the
message. It is responsible for breaking a large data
transmission into smaller packets (if needed), ensuring that
all the packets have been received, eliminating duplicate
packets, and performing flow control to ensure that no
computer is overwhelmed by the number of messages it
receives. Although error control is performed by the data link
layer, the transport layer can also perform error checking.
35
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection
Reference Model
L5. Session Layer is responsible for managing and
structuring all sessions between end-user application
processes: logging onto circuit equipment, transferring files,
and performing security checks. Session termination
provides an orderly way to end the session, as well as a
means to abort a session prematurely. It may have some
redundancy built in to recover from a broken transport
connection in case of failure. The session layer also handles
session accounting so the correct party receives the bill.
L6. Presentation Layer formats the data for presentation to
the user. Its job is to accommodate different interfaces on
different computers. It is concerned with displaying,
formatting, and editing user inputs and outputs. Any function
(except those in layers 1 through 5) that is requested
sufficiently often to warrant finding a general solution is
placed in the presentation layer, although some of these
functions can be performed by separate hardware and 36
2.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection
Reference Model
Layer 7: Application Layer is the end user's access to the
network. The primary purpose is to provide a set of utilities
for application programs. Each user program determines the
set of messages and any action it might take on receipt of a
message. Other network-specific applications at this layer
include network monitoring and network management.

37
2.3.2 Internet Model
 The network model that dominates current hardware and software is
a more simple five-layer Internet model.
 The OSI model is a formal standard that is documented in one
standard, but the Internet model has never been formally defined; it
has to be interpreted from a number of standards.
 The two models have very much in common; simply put, the Internet
model collapses the top three OSI layers into one layer. Because it is
clear that the Internet has won the “war,” we will built the future wrt
five-layer Internet model.

38
2.3.2 Internet Model

39
2.3.2 Internet Model
Layer 1: The Physical Layer in the Internet model, as in the OSI model,
is the physical connection between the sender and receiver. Its role is to
transfer a series of electrical, radio, or light signals through the circuit.
The physical layer includes all the hardware devices (e.g., computers,
modems, and switches) and physical media (e.g., cables and satellites).

Layer 2: The Data Link Layer is responsible for moving a message from
one computer to the next computer in the network path from the sender
to the receiver. The data link layer in the Internet model performs the
same three functions as the data link layer in the OSI model.
 controls the physical layer by deciding when to transmit messages
over the media.
 formats the messages by indicating where they start and end.
 detects and may correct any errors that have occurred during
transmission.

40
2.3.2 Internet Model
Layer 3: The Network Layer in the Internet model performs the same
functions as the network layer in the OSI model.
 performs routing (selects the next computer to which the message
should be sent)
 finds the address of that computer if it doesn't already know it.

Layer 4: The Transport Layer in the Internet model is very similar to the
transport layer in the OSI model. It performs two functions.
 responsible for linking the application layer software to the
network and establishing end-to-end connections between the
sender and receiver when such connections are needed.
 is responsible for breaking long messages into several smaller
messages to make them easier to transmit and then recombining
the smaller messages back into the original larger message at the
receiving end. The transport layer can also detect lost messages
and request that they be resent.

41
2.3.2 Internet Model
Layer 5: Application Layer is the application software used by the
network user and includes much of what the OSI model contains in the
application, presentation, and session layers.
• It is the user's access to the network.
• The user defines what messages are sent over the network.
• Because it is the layer that most people understand best and
because starting at the top sometimes helps people understand
better, the next chapter begins with the application layer. It
discusses the architecture of network applications and several
types of network application software and the types of messages
they generate.

42
2.3.2 Internet Model
Groups of Layers: The layers in the Internet are often so closely coupled
that decisions in one layer impose certain requirements on other layers.
The data link layer and the physical layer are closely tied together
because the data link layer controls the physical layer in terms of when
the physical layer can transmit. Because these two layers are so closely
tied together, decisions about the data link layer often drive the decisions
about the physical layer. For this reason, some people group the physical
and data link layers together and call them the hardware layers.
Likewise, the transport and network layers are so closely coupled that
sometimes these layers are called the internetwork layer. When you
design a network, you often think about the network design in terms of
three groups of layers: the hardware layers (physical and data link), the
internetwork layers (network and transport), and the application layer.

43
2.3.2 Internet Model

44
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
 Each computer in the network has software that operates at each of
the layers and performs the functions required by those layers (the
physical layer is hardware, not software).
 Each layer in the network uses a formal language, or protocol, that is
simply a set of rules that define what the layer will do and that
provides a clearly defined set of messages that software at the layer
needs to understand. For example, the protocol used for Web
applications is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol).
 In general, all messages sent in a network pass through all layers. All
layers except the Physical layer add a Protocol Data Unit (PDU) to the
message as it passes through them. The PDU contains information
that is needed to transmit the message through the network. Some
experts use the word packet to mean a PDU. The following figure
shows how a message requesting a Web page would be sent on the
Internet.

45
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
Message transmission using layers. IP = Internet Protocol;

Message
transmission using
layers.
IP = Internet
Protocol;
HTTP/Hypertext
Transfer Protocol;
TCP =
Transmission
Control Protocol

46
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
 At first, the user creates a message at the application layer using a Web
browser by clicking on a link (e.g., get the home page at
www.somebody.com).
 The browser translates the user's message (e.g. the click on the Web
link) into HTTP. The rules of HTTP define a specific PDU—called an
HTTP packet—that all Web browsers must use when they request a
Web page. HTTP packet is an envelope into which the user's message
(get the Web page) is placed. In the same way that an envelope placed
in the mail needs certain information written in certain places (e.g.,
return address, destination address), so too does the HTTP packet. The
Web browser fills in the necessary information in the HTTP packet,
drops the user's request inside the packet, then passes the HTTP packet
to the transport layer.

47
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
The transport layer uses a protocol called
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), and
it has its own PDUs. TCP is responsible
for breaking large files into smaller
packets and for opening a connection to
the server for the transfer of a large set
of packets. The transport layer places the
HTTP packet inside a TCP PDU (TCP
segment), fills in the information needed
by the TCP segment, and passes the TCP
segment to the network layer.
The Network Layer uses a protocol called
IP (Internet Protocol), which has its rules
and PDUs. IP selects the next stop on the
message's route through the network. It
places the TCP segment inside an IP PDU,
which is called an IP packet, and passes
the IP packet to the data link layer.

48
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
If you are connecting to the Internet using
a LAN, your data link layer may use a
protocol called Ethernet, which also has its
own rules and PDUs. The data link layer
formats the message with start and stop
markers, adds error checking information,
places the IP packet inside an Ethernet
PDU, which is called an Ethernet frame,
and instructs the physical hardware to
transmit the Ethernet frame.

The physical layer is network cable

connecting your computer to the rest of the
network. The computer will take the
Ethernet frame and send it as a series of
electrical pulses through your cable to the
server.

49
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
 When the server gets the message,
this process is performed in reverse
order.
 The physical hardware translates the
electrical pulses into computer data
and passes the message to the data
link layer.
 The data link layer uses the start and
stop markers in the Ethernet frame
to identify the message, checks for
errors and, if it discovers one,
requests that the message be resent.
If a message is received without
error, the data link layer will strip off
the Ethernet frame and pass the IP
packet to the network layer.

50
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
 The network layer checks the IP
address and, if it is destined for
this computer, strips off the IP
packet and passes the TCP
segment, which contains the
HTTP packet and the message to
the transport layer.
 The transport layer strips off the
TCP segment, and passes the
HTTP packet to the application
layer for processing.
 The application layer (i.e., the
Web server) reads the HTTP
packet and the message it
contains and processes it by
generating an HTTP packet
containing the Web page you
requested.
51
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers

Message
transmission using
layers.
OSI MODEL

52
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers

When you design a network, you often think about the

network design in terms of three groups of layers:

 the hardware layers (physical and data link),

 the internetwork layers (network and transport),
 and the application layer.

53
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
Enhanced Performance Architecture-EPA
Enhanced Performance Architecture-EPA focused on the three of 7 OSI
layers; Application, Data link and Physical layers. For example in a Sub-
station where all the devices share a common LAN and there has been an
agreement as the types of data to be exchanged, only 3 layers are
required to create an efficient network.

54
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
There are three important points in this example.
 First, there are many different software packages and many
different PDUs that operate at different layers to successfully
transfer a message. Networking is in some ways similar to the
Russian Matryoshka, nested dolls that fit neatly inside each
other. This is called encapsulation, because the PDU at a higher
level is placed inside the PDU at a lower level so that the lower
level PDU encapsulates the higher-level one.
The major advantage of using different software and protocols
is that it is easy to develop a new software, because all one has
to do is write software for one level at a time. The developers
of Web applications, for example, do not need to write software
to perform error checking or routing, because those are
performed by the data link and network layers. Likewise, it is
simple to change the software at any level, as long as the
interface between that layer and the ones around it remains
unchanged.
55
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
 Second, it is important to note that for a successful
communication, each layer in one computer must be able to
communicate with its matching layer in the other computer. For
example, the physical layer connecting the client and server
must use the same type of electrical signals to enable each to
understand the other (or there must be a device to translate
between them).
Ensuring that the software used at the different layers is the
same is accomplished by using standards. A standard defines a
set of rules, called protocols, that explain exactly how hardware
and software that conform to the standard are required to
operate. Any hardware and software that conform to a
standard can communicate with any other hardware and
software that conform to the same standard. Without
standards, it would be virtually impossible for computers to
communicate.

56
2.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers
 Third, the major disadvantage of using a layered network
model is that it is somewhat inefficient. Because there are
several layers, each with its own software and PDUs, sending a
message involves many software programs (one for each
protocol) and many PDUs.

The PDUs add to the total amount of data that must be sent
(thus increasing the time it takes to transmit), and the different
software packages increase the processing power needed in
computers.
Because the protocols are used at different layers and are
stacked on top of one another, the set of software used to
understand the different protocols is often called a protocol
stack.

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2.4 Network Standards
2.4.1 The Importance of Standards
 Standards are necessary in almost every business and public service
entity.
 The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and
software produced by different vendors can work together. Vendors
like standards because they make their products more marketable
 Standards also provide customers to buy hardware and software from
any vendor whose equipment meets the standard. In this way,
standards help to promote more competition and hold down prices.
Customers like standards because they enable products from different
vendors to interoperate
 The use of standards makes it much easier to develop software and
hardware that link different networks because software and hardware
can be developed one layer at a time.
 Two protocol standards are well-known:
TCP/IP: widely implemented
OSI: less used, still useful for modeling/conceptualizing
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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
There are two types of standards: de juro and de facto.
• A de juro standard is developed by an official industry or government
body and is often called a formal standard. For example, there are de
juro standards for applications such as Web browsers (e.g., HTTP,
HTML), for network layer software (e.g., IP), for data link layer
software (e.g., Ethernet IEEE 802.3), and for physical hardware (e.g.,
V.90 modems). De juro standards typically take several years to
develop, during which time technology changes, making them less
useful.
• De facto standards are those that emerge in the marketplace and are
supported by several vendors but have no official standing. For
example, Microsoft Windows is a product of one company and has not
been formally recognized by any standards organization, yet it is a de
facto standard. In the communications industry, de facto standards
often become de juro standards once they have been widely
accepted.

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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
The de juro standardization process has three stages:
 specification,
 identification of choices, and
 acceptance.
The specification stage consists of developing a nomenclature and
identifying the problems to be addressed.
In the identification of choices stage, those working on the standard
identify the various solutions and choose the optimum solution from
among the alternatives.
Acceptance, which is the most difficult stage, consists of defining the
solution and getting recognized industry leaders to agree on a single,
uniform solution.
As with many other organizational processes that have the potential to
influence the sales of hardware and software, standards-making
processes are not immune to corporate politics and the influence of
national governments.
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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
One of the most important standards-making bodies is the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which
makes technical recommendations about data communication interfaces.
ISO is based in Geneva, Switzerland. The membership is composed of
the national standards organizations of each ISO member country. (e.g.
TSE)
International Telecommunications Union—Telecommunications Group
(ITU-T) is the technical standards-setting organization of the United
Nations International Telecommunications Union. ITU is composed of
representatives from about 200 member countries.
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is the coordinating
organization for the U.S. ANSI has about 1,000 members from both
public and private organizations in the United States. ANSI is a
standardization organization, not a standards-making body, in that it
accepts standards developed by other organizations and publishes them
as American standards.

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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
The Turkish Standardization Institute (TSE) is the coordinating
organization for Turkey.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a
professional society in the United States whose Standards Association
(IEEE-SA) develops standards. The IEEE-SA is probably most known for
its standards for LANs.
Other countries have similar groups.; for example, the British counterpart
of IEEE is the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE).

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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
HOW NETWORK PROTOCOLS BECOME STANDARDS
Perhaps the best known standards organizations around the world is the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IETF tries to seek consensus
among those involved before issuing a standard.
• Usually, a standard begins as a protocol (i.e., a language or set of
rules for operating) developed by a vendor (e.g., HTML [Hypertext
Markup Language]).
• When a protocol is proposed for standardization, the IETF forms a
working group of technical experts to study it.
• The working group examines the protocol to identify potential
problems and possible extensions and improvements, then issues a
report to the IETF.
• If the report is favorable, the IETF issues a Request for Comment
(RFC) that describes the proposed standard and solicits comments
from the entire world.

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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process
• Most large software companies likely to be affected by the proposed
standard prepare detailed responses. Many “regular” Internet users
also send their comments to the IETF.
• The IETF reviews the comments and possibly issues an improved RFC,
which again is posted for more comments. Once no additional
changes have been identified, it becomes a proposed standard.
• Usually, several vendors adopt the proposed standard and develop
products based on it.
• Once at least two vendors have developed hardware or software
based on it and it has proven successful in operation, the proposed
standard is changed to a draft standard.
• This is usually the final specification, although some protocols have
been elevated to Internet standards, which usually signifies mature
standards not likely to change.

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2.4.2 The Standards-Making Process

A protocol proposed by a vendor

IETF working group study the proposal

IETF issues a request for comment (RFC)

IETF reviews the comments

IETF proposes an improved RFC

The RFC becomes a proposed standard

The proposed standard becomes a draft
standard if two or more vendors adopt it

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2.4.3 Common Standards
There are many different standards used in networking today. Each
standard usually covers one layer in a network. Some of the most
commonly used standards are shown below.

HTML = Hypertext Markup Language

HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol
IMAP = Internet Message Access Prot.
IP = Internet Protocol
IPX = internetwork package exchange
LAN = local area network
MPEG = Motion Picture Experts Group
POP = Post Office Protocol
SPX = sequenced packet exchange
TCP = Transmission Control Protocol

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2.4.3 Common Standards
Internet Standards

Email related standards

 IMAP, POP, X.400, SMTP, CMC, MIME, binhex, uuencode

Web related standards

 http, CGI, html/xml/vrml/sgml

Internet directory standards

 X.500, LDAP

Application standards
 http, FTP, telnet, gopher, wais

Videoconferencing standards
 H.320, H.323, Mpeg-1, Mpeg-2

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2.5 Future Trends
The field of data communications has grown faster and become more
important than computer processing itself. We have moved from the
computer era to the communication era.

Computer ERA Communucation ERA

There are three major trends driving the future of communications and
networking. All are interrelated, so it is difficult to consider one without
the others.
 Pervasive Networking
 The Integration of Voice, Video, and Data
 New Information Services

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2.5.1 Pervasive Networking
Pervasive networking means that communication networks will one day
be everywhere; virtually any device will be able to communicate with any
other device in the world. The problem is the rate of data transmission.
The following figure illustrates the dramatic changes over the years in
the amount of data we can transfer.
• In 1980, the capacity of a traditional telephone-based network (i.e.,
one that would allow you to dial up another computer from your
home) was about 300 bits per second (bps).
• By 1999, modems had increased to 56 Kbps,
• In 2009, cable modem technology moved to 10 Mbps and
• By 2011, FTTH (fiber to the home) was introduced. FTTH speeds are
expected to increase to 1 Gbps in the near future.

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 2.5.1 Pervasive Networking

Relative capacities of telephone, local area network (LAN), backbone network (BN),
wide area network (WAN), and Internet circuits.
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2.5.1 Pervasive Networking
The changes in WAN and Internet circuits has been even more dramatic
From a typical size of 56 Kbps in 1980 to the 45 Mbps in 2000, most
experts now predict a high-speed WAN or Internet circuit will be able to
carry 25 Tbps (terabits per second = 25*1012 bps) in a few years.
IBM Research suggest that future WAN circuits may reach a capacity of 1
Pbps (1015 bps). To put this in perspective in 2011, the total amount of
digital content stored on every computer in the world was estimated to
be 10 million petabits.
The term broadband communication has often been used to refer to
these new highspeed communication circuits. We will use it to refer to
circuits with data speeds of 1 Mbps or higher.
The initial costs of the technologies used for these very high speed
circuits will be high, but competition will gradually drive down the cost.
However, when we have the capacity to transmit virtually all the data
anywhere we want over a high-speed, low-cost circuit, it will eventually
change the way businesses operate. Economists have long talked about
the globalization of world economies. Data communications has made it a
reality.
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2.5.2 The Integration of Voice, Video, and Data
A second key trend is the integration of voice, video, and data
communication, sometimes called convergence.
In the past, the telecommunications systems used to transmit video
signals (e.g., cable TV), voice signals (e.g., telephone calls), and data
(e.g., computer data, email) were completely separate. One network was
used for data, one for voice, and one for cable TV.
This is rapidly changing. The integration of voice and data is largely
complete in WANs. Skype, for example, permit you to use your network
connection to make and receive telephone calls using Voice Over Internet
Protocol (VOIP).
The integration of voice and data has been much slower in LANs and local
telephone services. Some companies have successfully integrated both on
the same network, but some still lay two separate cable networks into
offices, one for voice and one for computer access.

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1.5.2 The Integration of Voice, Video, and Data
The integration of video into computer networks has been much slower,
partly because of past legal restrictions and partly because of the
immense communications needs of video.
However, this integration is now moving quickly, owing to inexpensive
video technologies. Many IXCs (interexchange carriers) are now offering a
“triple play” of phone, Internet, and TV video bundled together as one
service.

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2.5.3 New Information Services
A third key trend is the provision of new information services on these
rapidly expanding networks.
Construction of worldwide integrated communications networks spawned
new businesses.
The Web has changed the nature of computing so that now, anyone with
a computer can be a publisher.
You can find information on virtually anything on the Web.
The problem becomes one of assessing the accuracy and value of
information.
In the future, we can expect information services to appear that help
ensure the quality of the information they contain. Never before in the
history of the human race has so much knowledge and information been
available to ordinary citizens. The challenge we face as individuals and
organizations is assimilating this information and using it effectively.

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2.5.3 New Information Services
Today, many companies are beginning to use application service providers
(ASPs) rather than developing their own computer systems.
An ASP develops a specific system (e.g., an airline reservation system, a
payroll system), and companies purchase the service, without ever
installing the system on their own computers.
They simply use the service, the same way you might use a Web hosting
service to publish your own Web pages rather than attempting to
purchase and operate your own Web server.
An information utility is a company that provides a wide range of
standardized information services, the same way that electric utilities
today provide electricity or telephone utilities provide telephone service.
Companies would simply purchase most of their information services
(e.g., email, Web, accounting, payroll, and logistics) from these
information utilities rather than attempting to develop their systems and
operate their own servers.

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2.6 Implications For Management
The implications we draw focus on improving the management of
networks and information systems, as well as implications for the
management of the organization as a whole.
There are three key implications for management from this chapter.
 First, networks and the Internet change almost everything. The ability
to quickly and easily move information from distant locations and to
enable individuals inside and outside the firm to access information
and products from around the world changes
 the way organizations operate,
 the way businesses buy and sell products, and
 the way we as individuals work, live, play, and learn.
Companies and individuals actively seek to apply networks and the
Internet to better improve what they do, will thrive; companies and
individuals that do not, will gradually find themselves falling behind.

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2.6 Implications For Management
 Second, today's networking environment is driven by standards, which
can easily mix and match equipment from different vendors. The use
of standard technology also means that it is easier to migrate from
older technology to a newer one, because most vendors designed their
products to work with many different standards. The use of a few
standard technologies rather than a wide range of vendor-specific
proprietary technologies also lowers the cost of networking because
network managers have fewer technologies they need to learn about
and support. If your company is not using a narrow set of industry-
standard networking technologies (whether those are de facto
standards such as Windows, open standards such as Linux, or de juro
standards such as 802.11n wireless LANs), then it is probably spending
too much money on its networks.
 Third, as the demand for network services and network capacity
increases, so too will the need for storage and server space. Finding
efficient ways to store all the information we generate will open new
market opportunities. Today, Google has almost half a million Web
servers.
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SUMMARRY
 The information society, where information and intelligence are
the key drivers of personal, business, and national success, has
arrived.
 Data communications is simply the transfer of information and
will become more important than the use of computers
themselves in the future.
 A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers located in
the same general area. A backbone network (BN) is a large
central network that connects almost everything on a single
company site. A metropolitan area network (MAN) encompasses
a city or county area. A wide area network (WAN) spans city,
state, or national boundaries.

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SUMMARRY
 Communication networks are often broken into a series of layers, each
of which can be defined separately, to enable vendors to develop
software and hardware that can work together in the overall network.
Five layer Internet Model is the most applied one.
 The application layer is the application software used by the network
user.
 The transport layer takes the message generated by the application
layer and, if necessary, breaks it into several smaller messages.
 The network layer addresses the message and determines its route
through the network.
 The data link layer formats the message to indicate where it starts
and ends, decides when to transmit it over the physical media, and
detects and corrects any errors that occur in transmission.
 The physical layer is the physical connection between the sender and
receiver, including the hardware devices (e.g., computers, terminals,
and modems) and physical media (e.g., cables and satellites).
 Each layer, except the physical layer, adds a Protocol Data Unit (PDU)
to the message.
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SUMMARRY
 Standards ensure that hardware and software produced by different
vendors can work together. A de juro standard is developed by an
official industry or government body. De facto standards are those that
emerge in the marketplace and are supported by several vendors but
have no official standing. Many different standards and standards-
making organizations exist.
 Future Trends:
• Pervasive networking will change how and where we work and with
whom we do business. As the capacity of networks increases
dramatically, new ways of doing business will emerge.
• The integration of voice, video, and data onto the same networks
will greatly simplify networks and enable anyone to access any
media at any point.
• The number and the application of the new information services
such as application service providers (ASPs) and information utilities
will significant increase in the future.

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